3. FARM STRUCTURES.
1
 A farm structure is any physical
construction on the farm.
Construction of farm structure.
 Construction of farm structures
involve planning, site preparation,
siting and selection of construction
materials.
A. Planning for farm structures-
when planning for a farm structure
the following factors should be
considered:
1. The various activities to be carried
out.
2. The size of the enterprise.
3. The potential for expansion.
4. Accessibility.
© Sam obare
C. Site preparation- involve bush /grass/
vegetation clearing and leveling.
Factors to consider when siting farm
structures.
1. Location of the homestead/
panoramic view of the farm- A farm
structure should be sited where it possible to
have a good view from the homestead/ the
homestead should be sited at a point where
it is possible to have a good view of the farm.
2. Accessibility- A structure should be sited
where it is easy to reach from most parts of
the farm.
3. Security- The structure should be safe
from thieves, trespassers and predators.
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4. Drainage/Topography of the
area- The area/site should be well
drained (gently sloppy) to avoid
destruction by water and infections
due to dampness.
5. Direction of the prevailing
wind- Structures with foul smell
should be sited/constructed on the
leeward side.
 Also some structures require good
ventilation but free from draught.
6. Farmer’s tastes and
preferences- Siting should be
based on the liking/ preference of
the farmer.
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7. Relationship between
structures- Structures with
related uses e.g. milking shed and
calf pen should be sited close to
each other to save time and
labour.
8. Nearness/Proximity to
physical amenities- The
structures should be constructed
near water/electricity .g. roads,
water supply, electricity e.t.c.
9. Future expansion- There
should be an area for future
expansion incase a need arises.
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Factors to consider when selecting 7. Workability/applicability of the
construction materials. materials- the materials easy to work
1. Availability of materials- readily with should be selected.
available materials are selected. TYPES OF CONSTRUCTION
2. Cost of materials- cheap materials MATERIALS.
should be selected. 1. Stones.
3. Suitability of the materials- they  They are used to make strong
should be suitable to the structure. foundations, walls and foundations.
4. Suitability to the prevailing Advantages of using stones.
weather conditions- they should i. They are durable.
withstand the effect of environmental
conditions. ii. They are resistant to fire and weather
elements.
5. Durability- long lasting materials
should be selected. iii. They are resistant to insect attack
and rotting.
6. Strength of materials- Strong
materials should be selected.

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Disadvantages of using stones. Parts of a building reinforced by
i. They are bulky hence difficult to concrete.
transport. i. Foundation.
ii. They require a lot of labour to shape ii. Floor/floor slap.
them. iii. Lintel.
iii. They require skill when laying and iv. Pillars.
applying. v. Walls.
2. Concrete and concrete blocks.
Advantages of concrete/ concrete
 Concrete is made of cement, sand and block.
ballast (aggregate) in the volume ratio i. They are resistant to fire and
of 1:2:3 respectively. weather elements.
 The amount of water is controlled to
ii. They are resistant to insect damage
ensure that the mixture is not very wet and rotting.
or dry.
iii. They are durable.
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Factors that lower the quality of
concrete.
i. Impurities/foreign particles.
ii. Inappropriate mixing/wrong ratio.
iii. Quick drying/premature drying.
iv. Presence of large sized individual
aggregates.
Properties of concrete that make it
suitable for construction.
i. It is easy to clean.
ii. It is easy to mold into different
shapes.
iii. It is resistant to pest attack and
rotting.
© Sam obare
3. Mud blocks.
 They are made up of a mixture of clay
and sand thoroughly mixed with water
and then molded into blocks.
 The blocks are dried in the open sun
and are used to make walls.
 Chopped grass is incorporated to
strengthen the blocks.
 They are durable as long as they are
not exposed to rain or if the wall is
plastered with cement-sand mortar.
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4. Bricks. 5. Timber/wood
 They are made from clay mixed  It is used for rails, poles, trusses, purlins,
with water then molded into struts, beams in construction.
blocks by special boxes.  Sawn timber is used in construction of
 They are then baked in a kiln then walls, floors, ceilings, furnishes and fascia
used to make foundations and board.
walls. Advantages of using timber/wood.
Advantages. i. It is cheap.
i. They are durable. ii. It is attractive.
ii. They are resistant to fire and iii. It is easily available.
weather elements. iv. It is easy to work with.
iii. They are resistant to insect
attack and rotting.

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Disadvantages of using timber. Methods of treating timber- Treatment of
i. It is not resistant to fire and timber is done to make it resistant to
weather elements. pest/insect damage, weather elements and
fungal attack/ rotting.
ii. It is not resistant to insect/pest
 The methods include:
damage.
A. Drying/seasoning- done in shaded
iii. It is susceptible to rotting/fungal places to keep off open sun and rain.
attack.
Reasons for drying/seasoning.
Examples of timber pests. i. To prevent pest/insect damage.
i. Termites. ii. To prevent rotting due to fungal attack.
ii. Beetles. iii. To prevent cracking.
iii. Bacteria. iv. To prevent warping/ bending/ twisting.
iv. Weevils. v. Improve strength/ durability.
v. Wood pecker birds

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B. Chemical treatment- done by use
of chemicals to prevent fungal attack,
insect damage and effect by weather
conditions. For example:
1. Against fungal attack- Sodium
dichromate, Copper sulphate ,
Arsenic pentoxide.
2. Against insect damage-Old engine oil,
Pentachlorophenol,.Tributyl tin
oxide.
3. Against weather elements-Tar,
Creosote, tanex.
Methods of chemical treatment.
1. Sap displacement/ end
diffusion- Posts are placed and left
in containers with wood preservatives
for 10 days.
 The preservative is drawn up by the
posts.
2. Pressure/vacuum treatment-
peeled wood is arranged in steel
containers where the preservative is
forced through them with very high
pressure.
3. Hot and cold soaking- wood is
immersed into a tank containing
preservatives then the tank is heated.
 The wood draws the preservative deep
into the wood fibres.

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6. Metals.
Advantages of using metals as
Examples of metals used for
construction. construction materials.
a) Corrugated iron sheets- for i. They are durable and strong.
roofing, making walls, water tanks, ii. They are resistant to fire and weather
storage bins and silos. conditions.
b) Bars and rods e.g. posts, iron iii. They are resistant to insect/pest attack
rods, frames- they are used for and rotting/ fungal attack.
fencing, making pillars, making trusses,
windows, door, gates and iron rods are iv. They are leak-proof.
used to reinforce concrete. Disadvantages.
c) Aluminum sheets- for making gates, i. They are expensive.
doors, windows, feed troughs and ii. They require a lot of skills to work with.
waterers.
c) Construction accessories e.g.
iii. They are not easily available.
hinges, screws, nuts and bolts and iv. They rust easily/ prone to rusting.
latches. v. Some are not easy to work with.
 They are used for assembling structures.
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7. Thatch- Obtained from tall grass, water 9. Plastics- they are used as water pipes,
weeds, dry banana leaves, coconut leaves and wiring and construction of green houses.
used for roofing. 10. Tiles- They are made from clay or mixture
Advantages- of clay and sand.
i. It provides good thermoregulatory capacity.  They used for roofing, decorating walls and
ii. It is sound proof floors.
iii. Materials are locally available. Advantages.
iv. It is cheap. i. They are durable.
Disadvantages- ii. They are resistant to insect/pest damage.
i. Prone to insect damage hence require iii. They are resistant to rotting/fungal attack.
regular replacement. iv. They are resistant to weather elements.
ii. Prone to fire. v. Are good insulators.
8. Bamboo and sisal poles- They are used Disadvantage.
as rails, rafters, droppers in fences, ceilings, i. If poorly made they absorb a lot of water
grain store structures and internal and become eroded leading to leaking.
decorations.
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TYPES OF FARM STRUCTURES.
 They include farm buildings and Livestock
buildings and structures.
A. Farm buildings.
 A farm building is a structure which
consists of the foundation, walls and the
roof.
Uses/functions of the farm buildings.
1. They protect the farmer and livestock
from predators.
2. They provide shelter against adverse/
extreme weather conditions.
3. They provide storage for farm produce
and inputs.
4. They help to control livestock diseases
and parasites.
5. They increase efficiency in production
and management in the farm.
PARTS OF FARM BUILDINGS.
 They include the foundation, walls and
roof.
A. The foundation- This is the part of
the building that is constructed below
the ground. The depth and size of the
foundation depends on type and
depth of soil, drainage of the area
and functional aspects of the
building.
Features of a good foundation.
i. Ability to support the whole
building.
ii. It should keep the whole building
level.
iii. It should not allow water to leak.
iv. It should be made of materials that
do not break/crumble

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ESTABLISHMENT OF THE 5. A damp proof course of PVC (polyvinyl
FOUNDATION. chloride) is placed on top of the
1. Vegetation is cleared and the site foundation. PVC is used to prevent
levelled. termite from ascending up the walls
2. The foundation is measured, pegged and moisture from rising up the wall.
and then dug to remove all the loose FOUNDATION FLOOR.
and disturbed soil.  It is laid immediately after the foundation
3. Concrete (of 1:2:4 or 1:3:6) which wall.
may be reinforced with steel rods is Procedure of laying the foundation
placed in the trench. floor.
4. Concrete is then compacted and the  Place the stones/hard core and compact to
foundation stone is laid up to about act as the first layer.
15 cm above the ground.  Apply the concrete slab of 1:2:4 ratio.
 The mortar used for joining the  Spread mortar as the finishing layer using
foundation stones should be at a ratio of metal float.
1:6 (Cement : Sand) using a float and  The final and finishing layer of the floor is
Mason’ trowel. called screed.

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2. WALLS. Factors that determine the
 They are vertical constructions type of wall to construct.
that enclose the building. 1. Availability of materials.
 They are made of stones, bricks, 2. The use of the building.
blocks, timber or iron sheets. 3. Weather conditions of the
 Blocks, stones or bricks are laid area.
from the foundation wall in direct 4. Strength of the soil in the area.
contact with the PVC material in 5. Cost of materials.
overlapping manner.
 A lintel is constructed above the
6. Level of technology to be
windows and doors to reinforce used.
the wall.
 4 brick/block/stone courses are
laid above the lintel before the
wall plate is constructed.

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Tools used for laying concrete 5. Mason’s square/tape
blocks/ bricks/ stones when measure/meter rule- used to
constructing wall. check the evenness of the
1. Spirit level- to check the bricks/blocks/stones, mark marks,
straightness/horizontalness of the measure lengths.
wall. 6. String/Line- for measuring the
2. Mason’s trowel- used for laying length.
mortar between the bricks and for 7. Mason’s hammer/brick
plastering. hammer- used to shape the
3. Wood/metal float- for leveling bricks/stones.
and holding mortar. 8. Mason’s chisel –used to shape
4. Plumb line/plumb bob- for bricks/stones.
checking the
straightness/verticalness of the wall.

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 Screed

PVC sheet
Concrete base
Foundation stone

Hard core

Foundation floor
Foundation wall
Fig. Foundation floor and wall.
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 Wall plate

Lintel

Window

Fig. Wall

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3. THE ROOF. Factors that influence the type of
 This is the top part of the building roof constructed.
consisting of trusses and purlins on i. Size of the building.
which roofing material is placed. ii. Cost of roofing.
 Roofs are made up of different iii. Function of the building.
materials e.g. wood, iron sheets and iv. Availability of materials.
tiles.
v. Availability of skill.
Features of a good roof.
i. Should provide good protection
against heat, cold, rain and wind.
ii. Should be able to withstand the
weight imposed by the wind.
iii. Should be leak and dust proof.
iv. Should be durable.

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PARTS OF A ROOF. 6. Cross tie/tie beam- it acts as a base
 A roof consists of trusses joined and holds and supports other parts of
together by Purlins. the roof.
 Purlins support roofing materials. 7. Rafter battern- it joins the rafters.
Parts of a truss. 8. King post- it supports other parts of
1. Rafter- used to support the roofing the roof.
materials. 9. Tie- it joins the strut and the king
2. Eave- prevents the destruction of the post.
wall by rain drops. 10. Rafter bracket – supports the eave.
3. Wall plate- supports the roof. 11. Fascie board- supports the gutter
4. Strut- supports the rafter.
5. Gutter- collects rain water.

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Maintenance practices carried Advantages of maintenance
out on farm buildings. practices on farm structures and
1. Paint wooden surfaces. buildings.
2. Clean to remove the dirt. 1. Ensures efficient use of the
structure.
3. Repair broken parts.
2. Increase durability.
4. Replace worn out parts.
3. Reduces incidences of accidents
5. Repair cracks on walls. when using them.
6. Repair leaks on the roof. 4. Ensure a high resale value.
7. Control vermin, pests e.t.c.

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 B. LIVESTOCK BUILDINGS AND STRUCTURES.
21
1. Crush. Features of housing that help to
2. Dip. control livestock diseases.
3. Spray race. 1. Well ventilated.
4. Dairy shed. 2. Well lit.
5. Zero grazing unit. 3. Easy to clean/concrete floor.
6. Calf pen. 4. Free from draughts.
7. Poultry house. 5. Spacious.
8. Piggery unit/pigsty. 6. Leak proof.
9. Rabbit house/rabbitry. 7. Proper drainage.
10. Fish pond. Functions of ventilation in an animal
11. Bee hive. house.
12. Silo. i. Allow air circulation in the house.
13. Farm store. ii. Controls temperature in the house.
iii. Prevent humid conditions inside the
house.

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1. CRUSH g) Pregnancy test/diagnosis.

 It is a narrow fenced passage that restrains
h) Artificial insemination.
the movement of animals. i) Taking body temperature.
Uses of a crush-used to restrain the animal j) Hoof trimming.
when carrying out the following management k) Milking.
practices: l) Collection of semen.
a) Hand-spraying.
b) Identification practices e.g. ear tagging,
branding, ear notching.
c) Vaccination.
d) Administration of prophylactic drugs to
animals.
e) Drenching/dosing/deworming.
f) Dehorning.
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Construction materials for a crush. Maintenance practices on a crush.
i. Posts/timber i. Repair/replace broken parts.
ii. Rails. ii. Refirm the posts.
iii. Nails. iii. Renail the exposed nails.
iv. Concrete- for the floor. iv. Paint the wooden parts to prevent
Advantages/reasons for concrete floor. destruction by pests.
i. Easy to clean. v. Clean the dung.
ii. It is long lasting. Management of animals in a crush.
iii. It is easy to control parasites. i. Arrange the animals in a single row.
iv. It prevents dampness because urine ii. Animals of the same age to follow each
drains easily. other.
Factors to consider when siting a crush. iii. Animals should move towards one
1. Topography- relatively flat and well direction only.
drained area. iv. Horned cattle should be horned.
2. Accessibility- should be easily v. Avoid crowding animals together.
accessed.

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2. DIP.
 It is used to control ticks.
 Animals are fully immersed in a dip
wash (a mixture of acaricide).
 There are two types of dips:
i. Machakos dip- which is smaller in
size and suitable in areas with scarcity
of water.
ii. Plunge dip- which is larger in size
and suitable in areas with plenty of
water.
© Sam obare
PARTS OF A PLUNGE DIP.
1. Collecting yard (race)/ assembly
yard/ holding yard/waiting
area- Used to hold animals before
dipping.
 It should have concrete floor and stones
to ensure that mud from hooves is
removed before getting into the dip
wash.
2. Foot bath- Used to wash the feet of
the animals to remove mud before
they get into the dip wash.
 It also contains copper II sulphate
solution (blue vitriol) or formalin
to control foot rot disease.
3. The jump- this is a narrow entrance
with steps. It allows animals to jump
singly into the dip tank.
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4. Dip tank/plunge tank-this is a
deep tank constructed below the
ground level containing the dip
wash.
 It is here that the animals are
immersed in a dip wash containing
acaricide.
 It should have exit steps on the farthest
end from the jump to allow animals to
come out of the dip wash slowly.
5. Draining race (yard)- allows the dip
wash to drip from the animal body and
flow back into the dip tank.
 It should have a smooth sloppy floor
without potholes.
© Sam obare
6. Drying race(yard)- allows the animals
to dry before released to the pasture to
avoid contamination of pasture with
acaricide and allow the animals to be
released at the same time.
7. Silt trap outlet- It traps mud and dung
to avoid siltation of dip tank /(prevents
siltation of the dip tank by mud/dung).
8. Dip tank roof/shelter- prevents
evaporation of the dip wash, prevents
dilution of dip wash by rain water and
traps rain water used for dipping and
washing the dip tank.
9. Water tank- Used to store water used
for dipping ( collected from the roof or
any other source).
10. Waste pit- Used as a damping site for
wastes/sediments from the dip.
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CATTLE MANAGEMENT AT DIPPING. Precautions taken to ensure
 Dip once/twice a week. effective dipping.
 Dip when the weather is cool to prevent 1. Mix the dip wash properly.
the animals from drinking the dip wash. 2. Check the dip wash concentration.
 Water the animals before dipping to
3. Top up the dip wash level.
prevent the animals from drinking the
Ways of reducing dip wash
dip wash.
concentration.
 First run 10-15 animals through the dip
i. Evaporation by the sun.
to mix the dip wash and dip then again.
ii. Dilution by rain water.
 Check the dip wash before dipping to
ensure that it is at correct concentration. iii. Seepage through the cracks on the
wall of the dip tank.
 Arrange the animals in a single line.
iv. Dirt/impurities.
 Dip all the animals the same day.
 Keep proper records of dipping and
acaricide used.
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Construction materials for the dip. Maintenance practices of the dip.
i. Cement, sand, ballast and hardcore. i. Replace broken timber rails.
ii. Stone blocks. ii. Clean regularly to remove
iii. Corrugated iron sheets and sediments.
galvanized gutters. iii. Lock the exit and entrance to
iv. Posts and rails. prevent the entrance of intruders.
v. Nails, screws and hinges. iv. Repair the cracks in collecting
vi. Wood preservatives. yard, foot bath e.t.c.
vii. Bolts and nuts.
v. Repair leaking roofs.
Factors to consider when siting a vi. Top up the level of dip wash with
plunge dip/structural requirements. acaricide and water where
necessary.
i. Availability of water.
vii. Check the dip wash concentration
ii. Well drained and firm ground. regularly.
iii. Near grazing areas.
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Advantages of using a plunge dip
over a spray race.
i. Animals are completely immersed in
the dip wash hence more effective in
tick control.
ii. It is suitable for large herds of cattle,
iii. Its operational cost is low.
Disadvantages of using a plunge
dip.
i. It is dangerous for young, sick and
pregnant animals.
ii. Animals may swallow the dip wash
leading to death/ poisoning.
iii. It requires a lot of water.
iv. It is expensive to
construct/requires high initial
capital.

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3. SPRAY RACE.
 In this structure the animal is
showered with the acaricide from
nozzles as they pass through a narrow
passage/ race.
Parts of a spray race
i. Side walls- they support the
piping system and ensure that the
spray wash is directed back to the
pump through the drainage system.
ii. Spray pipe system- they consist
of pipes fitted with nozzles at
regular and strategic points. They
atomise the chemicals into spray
form.
© Sam obare
iii. Reservoir tank and pump- it is
a mixing tank containing a pump
driven by the engine or PTO shaft.
iv. Drainage pipe- it drains used
chemical back into the tank for
recycling.
 It is fitted with sieves which filter
sediments and other particles to
prevent blockage of the nozzles.
v. Pressure gauge- used to measure
the recommended working pressure
of the pump.
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Advantages of using a spray race
over a plunge dip.
i. It is suitable for sick and pregnant
animals and small animals.
ii. It requires small amount of
acaricide as it can be recycled/
the acaricide is not wasted..
iii. Animals cannot swallow the
acaricide wash.
iv. It is faster and can spray more
animals.
v. It requires less labour.
vi. It is cheaper to construct than
plunge dip.
Disadvantages of using a spray
race.
i. It h as high operational cost.
ii. Requires highly skilled labour to
operate and maintain it.
iii. It is only economical with a large
herd,
iv. In wet weather, nozzles tend to
clog with dirt in the wash.

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Maintenance practices of a spray
race.
i. Broken rails should be replaced/
repaired.
ii. Worn out floors should be repaired.
iii. The sump should be cleaned
regularly to remove all sediments.
iv. Blocked nozzles should be cleaned.
v. Worn out nuts and bolts should be
tightened.
vi. Water should be replaced in the
tank.
Management of animals when using
a spray race.
i. Arrange the animals in a single line.
ii. Ensure that the animals lift up their
tails as they pass through the race.
iii. Clip the hair in the inner parts of
the ear and tail switch for better
wetting.
iv. Lower the pressure to encourage
new animals and calves.

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4. MILKING PARLOR/DAIRY
SHED.
 It is used for milking.
 Milking parlor is used in large scale
while a dairy shed is used in small
scale.
Parts of a milking parlor/dairy
shed.
a) Milking section/milking stall-
it is the place where animals stand
are restrained for milking.
 In this place other management
practices (e.g. dehorning, ear tagging
and drenching) can be carried out.
© Sam obare
b) Feed store- used to keep feed and
feed records.
c) Drug store- used to keep drugs
and health records.
d) Equipment store- used for
storage of dairy equipment.
e) Calf pen- it is used to house the
calf. It should be constructed near
the shed for the calf to be given
milk immediately after milking at
the right body temperature.
f) Milk recording room- it has a
weighing balance for weighing and
recording milk. It has records for
individual cows.
g) Milk store- used to hold/store
milk before use.
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Factors to consider when selecting materials Construction materials for the dairy shed.
for construction of the dairy shed. i. Corrugated iron sheets for roofing.
i. The type of dairy shed constructed/
ii. Posts.
permanent/ temporary.
ii. Availability of materials. iii. Rails.
iii. The cost of materials. iv. Cement, sand, ballast and hardcore/
iv. Availability of capital. concrete.
v. Environmental conditions of the area. v. Nails, bolts and nuts.
vi. Durability/ quality/ strength of materials. Maintenance practices on dairy
vii. Availability of skilled labour for construction. shed/milking parlor.
viii. Environmental conditions e.g. parasites, soil i. It should be thoroughly cleaned after milking.
type. ii. Potholes in the concrete floors should be
ix. Toxicity of the materials to the work. filled.
x. Toxicity of materials to the animals e.g. use of iii. Broken rails and posts should be replaced.
non-toxic painting materials/ white wash.
iv. Machine milking system should be kept in
xi. Workability/ applicability of the material. good working condition.
xii. Farmer’s tastes and preferences.
v. The cooling system should be kept in a good
working condition.
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Factors to consider when constructing
a dairy shed/structural requirements.
i. It should be spacious for exercise.
ii. There should be a resting area.
iii. There should be adequate feeding and
watering space.
iv. Separate the milking area from feeding,
watering and resting area.
v. It should have feed store, drug store and
equipment store.
vi. There should be a waste pit.
vii. The calf pen should be near the shed.
viii. The floor should be made of concrete
for easy cleaning.
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39
5. ZERO GRAZING UNIT.
Parts of zero grazing unit.
a) Milking stall/milking area- it is used
for restraining cows during milking.
b) Calf pen- used for rearing calves up to
weaning.
c) Sleeping cubicles- used to provide
shelter and warmth.
 The floor should be bare ground to avoid
chilly conditions.
 The floor can be provided with beddings to
keep it warm.
 The bare soil provides micro-organisms to
break down the beddings to form manure.
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Construction materials
d) Walking are/ dunging/loafing
area- it is a non-roofed area used for i. Corrugated iron sheets for roofing.
exercise, dunging and sunning. ii. Posts.
e) Feed and water troughs- used for iii. Rails.
feeding and watering the animals.
f) Feed preparation room- used to iv. Cement, sand, ballast and hardcore/
prepare ratios. It has a chaff cutter to concrete.
chop fodder. v. Nails, bolts and nuts.
g) Milk recording room- used for Maintenance practices
weighing milk and keeping milking
records for individual cows. i. It should be thoroughly after milking.
h) Store- used to keep feeds and dairy ii. Potholes in the concrete floors should be
equipment e.g. milking bucket, milking filled.
churns, strip cup, weighing balance.
iii. Broken rails should be replaced.
i) Manure storage area- storage of
manure. iv. Milking system should be kept in good
working condition.
v. The cooling system should be kept in a
good working condition.
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 42
6. CALF PEN.
 Used to shelter the calves.
Structural requirements of a calf pen.
1. Easy to clean- they should have
concrete floor to facilitate cleaning.
2. Dry and warm- dry litter should be
placed on the floor to avoid
dampness/ wetness.
3. Adequate space- it should be
spacious for exercise, feeding and
watering calves.
4. Proper lighting- it should be well
lit because light is necessary for
synthesis of vitamin D.
5. Proper drainage- should be
constructed on a well drained place to
avoid dampness.
© Sam obare
6. Proper ventilation- to allow
free air circulation.
7. Draught free- to prevent entry
of cold winds and discourage
infections e.g. pneumonia.
8. Single housing-to prevent
disease and parasite spread and to
prevent the formation of hair balls
in the stomach.
9. Leak proof- the roof should not
leak or avoid spilling water on the
floor to discourage dampness and
wetness of litter.
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 43

Slatted floor

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 44
Factors to consider when siting a calf Construction materials for the calf pen.
pen. i. Timber, posts and frame.
ii. Nails.
i. Accessibility/ Nearness to the milking
iii. Iron sheets.
shed to save time and labour when Factors to consider when selecting
transporting milk. materials for construction of a calf pen.
ii. Topography/-Well drained soil. i. Strength/ durability of the materials.
ii. Cost of the materials.
iii. Wind direction-on the leeward side
iii. Availability of materials.
iv. Direction of sun. iv. Availability of capital.
v. Security of the calf- near the v. Workability/ skill required in using the
homestead. material.
vi. Type of pens (permanent/ temporary).
vi. Location of the existing structures/
vii. Climate of the area.
amenities. viii. Safety of the calf.
vii. Space for future expansion.

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 45
Maintenance practices on a calf pen.
i. It should be kept clean
ii. Leaking roofs should be repaired.
iii. Walls should be white-washed but
not painted to prevent licking of the
paint which can lead to lead poisoning
and to keep off flies.
iv. It should be kept dry and warm by
placing litter (straw or dry grass) on
the floor. Litter should be changed
regularly/ once a week.
v. Broken parts should be replaced.
vi. Ensuring that the drainage system is
working.
© Sam obare
7. POULTRY STRUCTURES.
 They are used to house poultry.
Factors to consider when
constructing poultry houses.
i. The number of birds to keep.
ii. The age of birds to be kept.
iii. Capital available.
iv. Availability of construction
materials.
v. Design of the house in relation
to the climatic conditions.
vi. The system of poultry keeping
to be practiced.
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 46
Types of poultry
structures.
A. Folds/fold unit/arks.
 Are used in fold rearing
system.
 A fold/ark is a small
structure used to rear 10-15
birds.
 One third of the structure is
roofed using metal,
timber/ wood, plastic,
grass/ thatch to provide
shelter.
© Sam obare
 The unroofed part is covered with
a wire mesh for sunning, exercise
and for feeding on grass.
 Folds are moved daily to fresh
grounds for even distribution of
manure and reduce the build up of
parasites and diseases.
 It is fitted with wheels for easy
movement.
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B. RUNS AND NIGHT SHELTERS.
 A run is a fenced enclosure where birds
are allowed to move freely.
 They are used in free range rearing
system.
 Laying nests are placed in these
structures.
 The houses are raised off the ground on
stands or hung on a tree to discourage
predators
 The houses should be movable to
prevent build up of parasites and
diseases.
C. COOPS
 A coop is a special movable structure
used for rearing birds while brooding/
rearing of chicks.
© Sam obare
D. BATTERY CAGE HOUSE.
 It has cages fixed in the house for
rearing individual birds.
 They are used in battery cage
system.
 The cages are arranged in layers
called tiers at a height of 60-90 cm
above the ground such that
droppings can easily drop off and
disposed.
 Feed troughs are permanently fixed
at the front part of the cage and
water is supplied through the piping
system.
 The floor of the cages slants forward
for easy collection of eggs.
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E. DEEP LITTER HOUSES
 This is a house where birds are totally
confined.
 It has a lot of litter on the floor hence the
name.
 A foot bath with a disinfectant is paced at
the entrance of the house to disinfect the
foot before entering into the house to
prevent infections/ spread of diseases.
Structural requirements of deep litter
house.
1. It should be properly ventilated to
allow free air circulation- by making
the leeward side wall solid up, 60-90cm
from the ground while the rest of the wall
is made of wire mesh
© Sam obare
2. It should have leak-proof roof- to
avoid dampness in the house which
encourages infections.
3. It should have litter in the floor
(15-30 cm deep)- it may be sawdust,
wood shavings, crushed maize cobs,
coffee and rice husks. Litter helps to
keep the house warm and dry by
absorbing moisture.
4. It should be draught-free-it is
achieved by making the windward side
wall solid.
5. It should have enough space-it
should allow enough space for the birds
to avoid overcrowding (2-3 birds per 1m
square)
6. Area should be well drained- to
avoid dampness which can predispose
birds to infections.
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Maintenance practices on Construction materials for the
deep litter house. poultry structures.
i. Clean regularly. i. Timber, posts, rails and off-
ii. Replace/repair any broken cuts.
parts. ii. Sand, cement and aggregate.
iii. Paint/apply old engine oil to iii. Stones, bricks, blocks.
prevent pest attack. iv. Nails, hinges and latches.
iv. Improve drainage around the v. Wire netting.
house. vi. Pre-fabricated battery cages.
v. Fumigate/dust against vii. Roofing materials.
parasites and diseases.
vi. Maintain the level of
disinfectant in the footbath.

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8. PIGGERY UNIT/PIGSTY.
 It is used to house pigs.
PARTS OF A PIGSTY.
a) Feed store- used to store the pig
feeds.
b) Records room- used to keep feed
and weight records.
c) Running yard- they are extensions
of the pigsty used for dunging, basking
and exercise.
d) Water troughs/drinking
nipples- are used as watering points
for the pig.
e) Feed troughs- feeding the pigs.
f) Pig pens- they keep pigs of different
ages and sex.
Types of pig pens
i) Farrowing pen- used for farrowing
and rearing piglets.
 They are provided with farrowing crates
which prevent the sow from lying on the
piglets and from eating creep feed meant
for piglets.
ii) Gilt’s pen- used to rear the young gilt
(female pig) up to service age(12
months).
iii) Boar’s pen- it is used to keep the
breeding male pig. It should be
spacious to allow room for exercise and
mating.
iv) In-pig pen- it is used to rear pregnant
pigs awaiting farrowing.
v) Weaner’s/fattener’s pen -used to
house piglets after weaning up to 6
months.

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Structural requirements of a pig sty. Materials used for construction
1. It should have concrete floor for for pigsty.
easy cleaning. 1. Iron sheets.
2. It should be well ventilated but 2. Cement, sand and ballast.
draught free. 3. Posts and rails.
3. It should have adequate space for 4. Nails and hinges.
exercise. Maintenance practices of a pig
4. It should be sited on a well drained house.
area. 1. It should be kept clean.
5. It should be safe from invasion by 2. It should be kept dry and warm.
wild animals.
6. It should have white painted walls. 3. The potholes on the floor should
be filled.
7. Should be easily accessible. 4. Broken parts should be replaced.
8. Should be located at some safe 5. Leaking roofs should be repaired.
distance from the living houses to
avoid bad odours.

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 59
9. RABBIT STRUCTURES. Structural requirement of a rabbit hutch
 They are used to rear rabbits. i. The floor of should be made of wire mesh or
Types of rabbit structures. slatted and be raised above the ground to:
A. THE HUTCH.  Facilitate the drying of the beddings and allow
• It is a house used for rearing rabbits. droppings to fall to the ground.
Factors to consider when siting the rabbit hutch  To prevent the rabbits against predators and rats
i. Security- Should be near the homestead for from getting into the hutch to contaminate the
security. feed.
ii. Accessibility- Should be in accessible place. ii) it should be spacious/ large enough to allow for
feeding , exercise and sleeping.
iii. Drainage- area should be well drained.
iii) It should be well ventilated but draught-free/
iv. Direction of prevailing wind-should be constructed on leeward side of the farm.
constructed on leeward side.
 The windward side should be made of solid timber
v. Future expansion- there should be room for and the front side made of wire mesh to allow light
future expansion. and air into the house.
iv) The floor should allow drainage.
v) It should be leak-free.
vi) The floor should be made of concrete for easy
cleaning.

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 60
Factors to consider when selecting
building materials.
i) Easily available materials are chosen.
ii) Durable materials are selected.
iii) Cost- cheap materials are chosen.
iv) Skills needed to work with materials.
B. MORANT CAGE/FOLD.
• Cages are built of wire netting
on the floor, sides and the top
except one side which should be
roofed for shelter and sleeping.
• The cages should be moved daily
to prevent wastes/ parasites and
diseases accumulation and to
provide rabbits with fresh grass.
© Sam obare
Maintenance practices of a rabbit
house
i. It should be kept clean and dry.
ii. Leaking roofs should be repaired.
iii. Any broken part should be repaired/
replaced.
Construction materials for the rabbit
houses
i. Corrugated iron sheets/ thatch.
ii. Wire netting.
iii. Posts, rails, timber, and off cuts.
iv. Nails, screws, hinges and latches.
v. Cement, sand and ballast (concrete)
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 61
Hand tools used in the 9. Clamp- to hold pieces of wood
construction of a wooden rabbit together.
hutch. 10. Screw driver- to drive screws into
1. Claw hammer- to drive in and wood.
remove nails. 11. Try square- to measure the right
2. Tin snip- to cut the iron sheets. angles.
3. Pliers- to cut wires. 12. Spirit level- to determine
4. Mallet- to hit the chisel. horizontal/vertical straightness.
5. Wood chisel- to cut grooves in 13. Scriber- to draw lines on metal
wood. sheets.
6. Jack plane- to smoothen wood. 14. Marking gauge- to draw lines on
7. Tape measure/rule- to measure wood surfaces.
the length.
8. Hand saw- to cut wood.

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10. FISH POND.
 It is used for rearing fish.
Factors to consider when siting a fish
pond.
a) Topography- gentle sloping area to
allow free flow of water to and from
the pond.
b) Source of water- should be sited
near a reliable source of water.
c) Soil type- the area should have clay
soil because it allows little seepage/
has high water holding capacity.
d) Nature of the land- the area/
ground should not have cracks.
© Sam obare
Requirements for fish farming.
i. Continuous water supply.
ii. Gentle slope.
iii. Clay soil.
Characteristics of a good site for a fish
pond/ construction features of a fish
pond.
i. Gentle sloping topography.
ii. Reliable water source/continuous
water flow.
iii. Areas without cracks/anthills.
iv. Clay soil.
v. Security from predators/ far away
from natural sources of fish.
vi. Area should be accessible/ close to the
homestead.
vii. Close to the market/ consumers.
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Maintenance practices of a fish pond. e) Damaged/ broken posts and wires
a) Clearing bush/ undesirable vegetation should be replaced/ repaired.
around the pond. f) Application of manure/ fertilizer into
b) Planting grass on the dykes/ wall tops the pond twice a week to allow growth
to control soil erosion and to provide of planktons.
food to fish. g) Maintaining the level of water in the
c) Cleaning the pond to remove foreign pond.
materials.
d) Removing silt.

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 Inlet pipe
Spillway/overflow
pipe

Outlet/ drain
pipe

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 68
11. BEE HIVES. Tools used to construct Kenya Top Bar Hive.
 The common beehive is Kenta Top Bar Hive 1. Claw hammer- for driving in and out nails
(KTBH). from wood.
Construction materials. 2. Tape measure- to measure the required sizes
i. Timber. of timber.
ii. Corrugated iron sheets. 3. Tin snip- for cutting iron sheets for roofing.
iii. Nails. 4. Clamp/ sash camp- for holding tightly
iv. Wire loops/plain wire. together pieces of wood when cutting/ joining.
v. Posts. 5. Handsaw- for putting timber to the required
Maintenance practices of bee hives. size.
i. All broken parts should be repaired/ 6. Wood chisel/ Brace/ hand drill- for boring
replaced. holes in wood.
ii. All cracks should be sealed. 7. Mallet- for hitting the chisel when boring
holes.
iii. Smear with wood preservatives to
prevent attack by pests. 8. Pliers- for cutting wires.
iv. Grease on the posts should be replaced 9. Jack plane -For smoothing timber surface.
if melted.

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 69
8. Marking/ mortise gauge- for marking 5. It is easy to construct and repair.
points for cutting / planning on timber. 6. It utilizes the queen excluder to separate
9. Ball pen hammer- for straightening/ honey combs from the brood combs.
shaping metal sheet. 7. It is cheap to construct the hive.
10. Try square/ combination square- for 8. It is cheap to extract honey.
determining right angles on cutting points
11. SILOS
of timber.
 They are used for preparation and storage
Advantages of using Kenya Top Bar Hive. of silage.
1. Top bars can be removed and replaced to  The common types include:
inspect the combs.
i. Trench silo.
2. Honey combs are harvested without
disturbing the brood. ii. Tower silo.
3. Good quality honey is harvested without iii. Clamp/bunker silo.
brood combs.
4. More wax is harvested because combs are
not returned to the hive.

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 71
12. FARM STORES. A. Produce stores- they are structures used to hold a
 They are structures used to store seeds, feeds, farm produce after harvesting awaiting use or sale.
farm tools, agro-chemicals and products.  They include traditional granaries, modern stores, silos
Factors to consider when siting a farm and Cyprus bins.
store.
a) Accessibility- it should easily be reached
Structural requirements of produce/ grain store.
from most parts of the farm. 1. Vermin-proof-rat guards/ deflectors should be
b) Drainage- the place should be well drained installed on all the posts 50 cm above the ground to
to avoid dampness/ effects of water. keep off rodents/ vermins.
c) Security- the place should be secure from 2. Well ventilated- to avoid dampness.
predators and thieves.
3. Water/ leak proof- to avoid dampness.
d) Relationship with other structures-
should be close to others with related uses to 4. Easy to clean-they should not have cracks or
save on time and labour. crevices where pests hide.
e) Proximity of amenities- should be near 5. Raised above the ground- constructed 50 cm
water/ electricity supply. above the ground to prevent dampness which may
f) Topography- the place should be gentle cause rotting of the grains.
sloping to save costs on levelling/ facilitate
drainage. 6. Easy to load and off load.
7. Strong enough and spacious.

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 TRADITIONAL GRANARY MODERN STORE
72

Rat guard/ Rat guard/

deflector deflector

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 73
Construction materials for produce
Maintenance practices carried
stores
out on produce store before
i. Posts.
storage of grains.
ii. Iron sheets/thatch materials.
1. Clearing the vegetation around
iii. Timber.
the store to keep off vermins.
iv. Rails.
2. Cleaning to remove old crop
v. Hinges.
residues.
vi. Sisal poles.
3. Dusting/disinfecting regularly.
vii. Strings and wires.
4. Repairing leaking roofs.
5. Replace broken/ worn out
parts.

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 74
Construction materials for grain c) They should be completely sealed
silo and cyprus bins. to avoid entry of rodents.
d) All inlets and outlets should be
i. Bricks, blocks. made of tight covers and should
ii. Cement, sand and ballast. be easy to lock.
iii. Timber. Maintenance practices of grain
silo and cyprus bins
iv. Metal frames.
i. All broken parts should be
v. Fibre glass. repaired to avoid leaking.
Structural requirements of grain ii. All cracks in the surface of walls
silo and cyprus bins should be sealed.
a) Properly constructed roof to protect iii. Clear the vegetation around the
the crop from sun and rain.
area to keep off rodents.
iv. Clean and disinfect regularly.
b) Walls should be plastered to make
them smooth and airtight.

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 C. FENCES.
75
 They are structures that enclose designated
areas and form physical barriers for
animals.
Uses/importance of fences.
1. They facilitate rotational grazing (by
dividing crop fields and paddocks)
2. They control the movements of people
and animals in the farm preventing
formation of unnecessary paths in the
farm.
3. They enable the farmer to practice
mixed farming (by dividing the fields)
4. They mark boundaries hence avoid
boundary disputes.
5. They are used for security/ keep off
wild animals and other intruders from
outside the farm.
© Sam obare
6. They help to control the spread of
parasites and diseases by keeping off
wild and stray animals from the farm.
7. They help to isolate / confine the
animals that require special attention.
8. They help the farmers to control
breeding by rearing different animals
in different paddocks.
9. Hedges act as wind breakers/ control
erosion/ source of firewood.
10. They provide privacy to the
homestead.
11. They add beauty/ aesthetic value to
the farm.
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TYPES OF FENCES. 3. Thorny species are effective in
 They include: controlling intruders.
A. Live fences (hedges) 4. Some species e.g. Lantana camara
B. Dead fences. are used as livestock feed.
5. Some species have medicinal
value.
A. Live fences- They are made of
growing plants e.g. kei apple, 6. When trimmed, they act as a
lantana etc. source of fuel and organic matter
e.g. Tithonia spp.
Advantages /uses of live
fences/hedges. 7. They have aesthetic value/add
beauty to the farm.
1. Their roots hold soil firmly thus
controlling soil erosion. 8. Tall varieties (e.g. Kei apple) act
as wind breakers.
2. They are cheap and easy to
establish since seedlings can 9. They provide shade to livestock
easily be raised in the nursery.

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 77
Disadvantages of live fences. Maintenance practices carried
1. They take a long time to grow out on live fences/ hedges.
and make effective fences. i. Fill the gaps in hedges/live
2. They occupy large space hence fences.
cannot be used for paddocking. ii. Trim overgrown branches on
3. They act as hiding places for hedges.
pests/rodents/vermin, wild
animals and thieves.
4. Thorny species cause injury to the
humans and livestock.
5. They require regular trimming
and infilling of gaps making which
are laborious and expensive.
6. Their growth may be irregular
thus allowing gaps for animals and
thieves to pass.

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 79
B. DEAD FENCES. Construction materials for fences
 They are made from dead materials i. Wire (barbed, plain, chicken, chain
e.g. wires, posts, stones e.t.c. link).
 Types of dead fences include: ii. Posts and rails.
i. Barbed wire fence. iii. Nails and staples.
ii. Plain wire fence. iv. Off cuts.
iii. Woven/wire netting wire. v. Concrete (cement, sand and
iv. Wall fences. ballast).
v. Electric fences. vi. Sticks- for droppers.
vi. Wooden fences.

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 i. Barbed and plain wire fences
80
Advantage of barbed wire over plain
wire.
i. It is effective in controlling the
movement of livestock.
Disadvantages of barbed wire over
the plain wire.
i. It can cause injury to livestock.
ii. It is difficult to handle.
iii. It destroys/ tears off wool/fleece.
Advantages of plain wire over barbed
wire.
i. It doesn’t cause injury to livestock.
ii. It is easy to handle during fences.
iii. It is cheap to maintain.
Disadvantage of plain wire fence.
i. Animals can go through it easily.

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 ii. Woven wire and wooden fences
81
Advantages of woven wire
fence.
i. It is effective to control small
animals.
ii. It does not cause injury to the
animals.
iii. It is stronger.
iv. It has high aesthetic value.
Disadvantages of wooden
fences.
i. They are easily destroyed by
termites and moulds.

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 iii. Wall and electric fences.
82
Advantage of wall fence.
i. It is durable.
Disadvantage of wall fence.
i. It is expensive to construct.
Advantages of electric fence.
i. It can easily be relocated.
ii. It is effective against big animals.
Disadvantages of electric fence.
i. It requires constant recharging of
the battery.
ii. Unapproved electric controller
units can be dangerous.
iii. It is expensive to install and
maintain.

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 83
Procedure of constructing a
post and wire fence.
1. Clear the fence line. It should be
2m wide.
2. Measure and mark points on the
fence line where the holes are to
be dug determining the position
of the gates.
3. Dig holes at a depth of 60 cm
for the main fence and 75 to 90
cm for corner and gate posts.
4. Place treated posts in the holes
in upright position.
© Sam obare
5. Mix concrete of 1:3:5 ratio and
use it to fix posts in the holes or
put soil or stones in the holes to
form the base.
6. Nail the barbed wire onto the
posts with fencing staples while
stretching using a wire strainer.
7. Fix the lower strand of wire first
and use it as a guide the fix the
next up to the required number
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 87
Procedure of establishing a wooden viii. Put concrete at the bottom of the hole.
rail fence. ix. Place the treated posts in the hole.
i. Locate the area to be fenced. x. Ensure the posts are vertical/ right angles.

ii. Clear the site to be fenced. xi. Fill up the hole with soil/ concrete.
xii. Firm the soil/ concrete in the hole using a
iii. Determine the position of posts using a
ramming rod.
tape measure.
xiii. Heap the soil/ concrete at the base of the
iv. Dig the holes using a hole digger/ claw post.
bar.
v. Use a ruler to determine the right hole
depth.
vi. Obtain the right length of the posts
using a tape measure.
vii. Obtain the posts to the required depth
using hand saw.

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 88
Maintenance practices of Methods of fence
fences. reinforcements
i) Loose/ sagging wire should i. Fill the holes with concrete.
be strained/ strengthened ii. Fixing the braces to support
using a wire strainer. the fencing posts.
ii) Broken wires should be spliced. iii. Placing the droppers to
iii) Worn out posts/ droppers should support the sagging wire.
be replaced.
iv) The top of posts should be covered iv. Support the corner posts
with metals/ plastic to prevent using struts and strainers.
accumulation of water.
v) Application of oil/ painting to
prevent insect attack.
vi) Cutting the top part of posts in a
slanting manner to drain water
away.

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 89
GATES AND CORNER POSTS Methods of treating posts during fencing.
 A gate is a barrier used to close the fence, i. Cutting the top of posts in a slanting
wall or hedge. It allows movement in and manner for rain water to drain away.
out of the enclosed area. ii. Covering the top of posts with
 The corner posts should be larger and metal/plastic material.
stronger than other posts. The holes should iii. Applying wood preservatives e.g. old
be 75cm-90 cm deep. engine oil, copper sulphate, creosote
 After placing the treated posts in the e.t.c.
holes, concrete should be added and iv. Burning slightly (charring) the parts
rammed to reinforce them or soil and to be covered with soil.
stones may be used.
 Braces should be fixed to provide support
to the posts and prevent sagging of wire.
 The types of gates include:
i. Barbed wire strands on droppers.
ii. Wooden rails fence.

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 92
Hand tools used for construction of 6. Pliers- to cut wires.
fences. 7. Soil auger- to dig holes.
1. Claw hammer- to drive in 8. Wire strainer- to strain the wire.
nails/staples. 9. Tape measure- to measure the
2. Claw bar- to remove the staples. distance.
3. Bow saw- to cut branches on 10. Ramming rods- for
posts. firming/ramming the soil/concrete.
4. Hand saw- to cut posts to the 11. Axe/Panga- cutting posts.
right length.
5. Wood chisel- to make holes on
posts.

© Sam obare 28-Jul-21

 Study question
93
 The diagram below shows a type of farm a) Identify the type of gate shown.
gate. Study the diagram and answer the Barbed wire gate.
questions that follow. b) Name the parts labeled C, D and E.
C- Gate post/king post/strainer.
D- Wire loop.
E- Dropper.
c) State the function of the part labeled F.
Supports the gate post.
Ensures that the barbed wire remains
tout/strong.
d) State two functions of the gate
illustrated above.
Prevents movement of farm animals
outside.
Keeps away livestock from outside.
Used as entrance and exit from the farm.

© Sam obare 28-Jul-21

 94
D. GREEN HOUSES/GLASS HOUSE. Uses of green house
 This is a structure for growing crops 1. Allows for growing of out-of –
under controlled conditions. season crops.
 The walls and roofs are made of 2. It protects crops against adverse
translucent materials. weather conditions.
 The green house creates a microclimate 3. It is used for research purposes.
different from the surrounding areas. 4. It facilitates easy control of pests
 The conditions which are controlled in and diseases.
the green houses include humidity, Maintenance practices on green
temperature, light and carbon (IV) oxide. houses.
Materials for construction of green i. Replacing and repairing worn out
houses. parts.
i. Metal/wooden frames. ii. Cleaning dirty covers.
ii. Translucent materials. iii. Tightening loose nuts and bolts.
iii. Pipes.
© Sam obare 28-Jul-21
© Sam obare 95 28-Jul-21
 96
D. CROP PRODUCTION 4. Poles.
STRUCTURES. 5. Thatch materials.
 They are used for crop 6. Translucent materials.
production. 7. Nails, latches and hinges.
 They include:
Maintenance practices for
1. Nursery structures i.e. nursery nursery structures.
beds, seed boxes or vegetative 1. Replace/repair broken parts.
propagation units.
2. Replace worn out polythene
2. Compost pits/heaps.
sheets and thatch.
Construction materials for
nursery structures.
1. Timber, rails and off cuts.
2. Forked sticks.
3. Hoops/fittos.

© Sam obare 28-Jul-21