3.

1 - Thermal concepts 
The three states of matter 
Solid  
- Fixed shape and volume so, therefore, molecules have fixed positions 
- Strong IM forces 
- Molecules cannot move, but free to vibrate 

Liquid 
- No fixed shape, but a fixed volume, so molecules can slide past each other 
- Weak IM forces 
- Pressure  increases  with  depth  in  liquids  -  molecules  below  are  forced  together  by  weight 
above 

Gas 
- No fixed shape or volume, so molecules are free to move at high speeds 
- Virtually negligible IM forces 
- Collisions with the wall of its container create gas pressure 
 
Temperature and energy transfer 
Temperature  is  a  property  that  determines  the  direction  of  thermal  energy  transfer (heat) between two 
bodies  in  contact. ​Temperature ​is a measurement of the average kinetic energy of a body. It is measured 
in  °C  or  °K.  Energy  tends  to  pass  from  the  hotter  to  the  colder  object  until  they  are  both  at  the  same 
temperature  (​thermal  equilibrium​).  ​Thermal  energy  (heat)  is  energy  transferred  between  two 
substances by non-mechanical means (conduction, convection, or radiation). 
 
Thermometers 
A  thermometer  can  be  constructed  from  any  object  that  has  a  property  that  varies  with  temperature  (a 
thermometric  property​).  Liquid-in-glass  thermometers  need to be calibrated in °C, a scale based on two 
fixed  points​,  the  ice  point,  and  the  steam  point.  The  assumption  with  thermometers  is  that  the 
expansion  of  the  liquid  is  linear.  The  different  rate  of  expansion  between  0°C  and  100°C  is  not  too 
significant. 
 
Absolute temperature 
The  ​absolute  temperature  scale  is  the  standard  SI  temperature  scale,  measured  in  °K.  ​Absolute 
temperature i​ s defined to be zero kelvin at absolute zero. The difference of 1°C = 1°K   
T (°K) = θ (°C) + 273 
 
Internal energy 
The  ​internal  energy ​of a substance is the total of all the potential energy and random kinetic energy of all 
the particles in a substance: I​ nternal energy (U) = E​k​ (molecules) + E​p ​(bonds) 
● Potential energy is associated with IM forces 
● Kinetic energy is associated with translational, rotational, and vibrational motion 
 
 
Heat capacity 
Heat capacity i​ s the energy required to raise the temperature of a substance by 1°K 
Heat capacity (J°K​-1​) = Energy (J)/ Change in temperature (°K)  ​ C = Q/Δt     
 
Specific heat capacity 
Specific heat capacity​ is the energy required to raise the temperature of 1kg of a substance by 1°K 
Specific heat capacity (JK​-1​kg​-1)​ = Energy (J) / Change in temperature (°K) x Mass (kg) 
c = Q/mΔt 
The specific heat capacities of different substances vary because: 
● Different number of molecules 
● Different mass of molecules 
● The average charge of molecules is different 
● Temperature changes different  
 
Finding SHC experimentally 
● Electric method (placing an electric heater into a beaker of water (calorimeter)) 
Energy supplied = Energy to the water + Energy to the calorimeter 
VIt = m​w​c​w​(t​f​-t​i​) + m​c​c​c​(t​f​-t​i​) 
If it’s just a solid block 
VIt = m​b​c​material of block​(t​f​-t​i​) 
● Method of mixtures 
Drop a hot block of metal into the water at room temperature [Heat lost​ block​ = heat gained​water​) 
m​b​c​b​(t​i​-t​f​) = m​w​c​w​(t​f​-t​i​) 
 
Specific latent heat 
Specific  latent  heat  ​is  the  thermal  energy  required  to  change  the  phase  of  1kg  of  a  substance  without  a 
temperature change. Its equation is given by Energy = mass x specific latent heat (Q = mL). 
SLH of fusion = solid to liquid 
SLH of vaporization = liquid to gas 
 
Finding SLH (ice cube case) 
Heat lost by water = heat gained by the ice 
m​w​c​w​(t​i​-t​f​) = m​i​L + m​i​c​w​(t​f​ - t​i) 
 
Heating curves 
The  ​heating  curve  shows  how  the  temperature  of a substance 
changes  with  time.  The  flat  regions  indicate  that  there  is  no 
temp.  change,  and  so  phase  change  occurs.  The  gradient  of 
the  sections  where  the  temperature  changes  can  be  used  to 
determine  the ​heat capacity ​of the substance in that state. The 
time  for which the graph is flat can be used to find the ​specific 
latent heat​ of the substance in its solid and liquid state. 
 
Molecular explanation of phase change 
The  transfer  of  energy  to  a  solid  increases  its  internal  energy  (KE  increases  as  vibrations  and  speeds 
increase  +  IM  PE  increases  as  molecules  move  further  apart).  When  IM  bonds  are  being  broken,  the 
energy  supplied  does  not  increase  the  mean random KE of the molecules but instead increases the PE of 
the  molecules.  Eventually,  molecules  are  sufficiently  free  so that the solid has melted. The mean KE and 
speed  of  molecules  increases,  so  the  temperature  rises  once  more.  The  PE  does  not  change  on average. 
As  the  liquid  approaches  its  boiling  point,  individual  molecules  break  away  and  the  PE increases rather 
than  the  KE  as  energy  is  supplied.  As  there  is  no  rise  in  KE,  there  is  no rise in temperature again. Once 
all the liquid has vaporized, energy is re-applied to raising KE, and therefore, temperature. 
 
Boiling vs evaporation 
Boiling   Evaporation  
● Only at boiling point  ● All temperatures up to the boiling point 
● Throughout the liquid   ● Only at the surface 
 
Factors affecting evaporation 
● Temperature - higher temperature, higher evaporation (more particles have sufficient KE) 
● Surface area - larger SA, higher evaporation (more particles on the upper surface) 
● Airflow - higher airflow, higher evaporation (wind takes away particles 
 
3.2 Modelling a gas 
Boyle’s  law  states  that  for  a  fixed  mass  of  gas  at  a  constant  temperature,  ​the  pressure  ​is  inversely 
proportional t​ o the​ volume. p 𝝰 1/V​ OR P ​ V = constant​. From this, we can deduce that P​1​V​1​ = P​2​V​2 
 
 
 
 
  We can change the axes to linearize this curve: 

Charles’  law  ​states  that  for  a  fixed  mass  of  gas at  The  ​Pressure  law  states  that  for  a  fixed  mass  of 
constant  pressure​,  the  ​volume  is  ​directly  gas  at  a  ​constant  volume​, the ​pressure is ​directly 
proportional  ​to  the  ​absolute  ​temperature​.  ​V​𝝰​T  proportional  ​to  the  ​absolute  temperature​.  ​p​𝝰​T 
OR​ V/T = constant. T ​ herefore, V​1​/T​1​ = V​2​/T​2​.   OR P​ /T = constant​. Therefore, P​1​/T​1​ = P​2​/T​2​.  

   

The n
​ o. of particles​ in a gas at c​ onstant T and P​ is ​directly proportional​ to V
​ ​. n
​ 𝝰
​ V
​ ​OR n
​ /V = constant​. 
The  four  equations  can  be  combined  to  give  a  single  constant,  ​R​,  which  is  known  as  the  ​ideal  gas 
constant​. Combining the equations also gives us the ​ideal gas equation​: 
PV/nT = R ⇒ PV = nRT {When p is in Pa, V in m​3​, and T in °K, the value for R is 8​ .31 JK​-1​mol​-1​} 
 
The mole and Avogadro’s constant 
One  ​mole  ​is  the  amount  of  substance  having  the  same  number of particles as there are neutral atoms in 
12 grams of Carbon-12. One mole contains 6.02 x 10​23​ particles. This is A ​ vogadro’s constant (N​A​)​.  
 
The microscopic interpretation of gases 
Diffusion 
Diffusion  is  the  movement  of  particles  from  a  region  of  their  higher  concentration  to  a  region  of  their 
lower  concentration  as  a result of Brownian motion. ​The random movement of particles in zigzag paths, 
as  a  result  of  random  collisions  with  air  molecules,  with  no  given  pattern,  is  known  as  ​Brownian 
motion​.  The  pressure  exerted  by  a  gas  in  a  container  is  caused  by  the  change  of  momentum  of  the 
particles striking the walls creating a force 
 
Postulates of an ideal gas 
● No force of attraction between atoms 
● Atoms are perfect spheres 
● Collisions between particles are elastic 
● The duration of a collision is negligible in comparison to the time between collisions 
● Each molecule produces a force on the walls of the container 
 
The kinetic energy of an ideal gas 
 
Imagine  one  ball  of  mass  ‘m’  moving  with  speed  ‘v’  in  this  cube.  One  length  of  the  cube  is 
equal  to  ‘L’  .  The  average  kinetic  energy  of  all  the  particles  in  this  cube  is  given  by  the 
equations below:  
 
KE =(3/2) x k​B​ x T = (3/2) x (R/N​A​) x T 
 
Difference between real and ideal gases 
Real  Ideal 

● Imperfect spheres  ● Perfect spheres 

● Inelastic collisions  ● Elastic collisions 
● IM forces present  ● No IM forces 
 
Real gases behave ideally at ​low pressure, large volume, and moderate temperatures​.