Electric Vehicle Battery

Electric vehicle battery - Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.
org/wiki/Electric_vehicle_battery
Electric vehicle battery

An electric vehicle battery (EVB, also known
as a traction battery) is a rechargeable battery
used to power the electric motors of a battery
electric vehicle (BEV) or hybrid electric vehicle
(HEV).
Electric vehicle batteries differ from starting,

lighting, and ignition (SLI) batteries, as they are
typically lithium-ion batteries that are designed for
high power-to-weight ratio and energy density. Nissan Leaf cutaway showing part of the battery in
Smaller, lighter batteries are desirable because 2009
they reduce the weight of the vehicle and therefore
improve its performance. Compared to liquid fuels,
most current battery technologies have much lower specific energy, and this often impacts the
maximum range of all-electric vehicles. Unlike earlier battery chemistries, notably nickel-
cadmium, lithium-ion batteries can be discharged and recharged daily and at any state of charge.
Other types of rechargeable batteries used in electric vehicles include lead–acid, nickel-cadmium,
nickel–metal hydride, and others.[1]
The battery makes up a significant portion of the cost and environmental impact of an electric
vehicle. Growth in the industry has generated interest in securing ethical battery supply chains,
which presents many challenges and has become an important geopolitical issue. As of
December 2019, the cost of electric vehicle batteries has fallen 87% since 2010 on a per kilowatt-
hour basis.[2] As of 2018, vehicles with over 250 mi (400 km) of all-electric range, such as the Tesla
Model S, are available.[3]
The price of electricity to run an electric vehicle is a small fraction of the cost of fuel for equivalent
internal combustion engines, reflecting higher energy efficiency.
Electric vehicle battery types
Lead-acid
Flooded lead-acid batteries are the oldest, cheapest, and, in the past, most common vehicle
batteries available. There are two main types of lead-acid batteries: automobile engine starter
batteries, and deep cycle batteries. Automobile engine starter batteries are designed to use a small
percentage of their capacity to provide high charge rates to start the engine, while deep cycle
batteries are used to provide continuous electricity to run electric vehicles like forklifts or golf
carts. Deep cycle batteries are also used as the auxiliary batteries in recreational vehicles, but they
require different, multi-stage charging.[4] No lead acid battery should be discharged below 50% of
its capacity, as it shortens the battery's life.[4] Flooded batteries require inspection of electrolyte
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Electric vehicle battery - Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_vehicle_battery
levels and occasional replacement of water, which gases away

during the normal charging cycle.
Previously, most electric vehicles used lead-acid batteries due to

their mature technology, high availability, and low cost, with
the notable exception of some early BEVs, such as the Detroit
Electric which used a nickel–iron battery. Deep-cycle lead
batteries are expensive and have a shorter life than the vehicle
itself, typically needing replacement every 3 years.
Lead-acid batteries in EV applications end up being a

significant (25–50%) portion of the final vehicle mass. Like all
batteries, they have significantly lower specific energy than Old: Banks of conventional lead-
petroleum fuels—in this case, 30–50 W⋅h/kg. While the acid car batteries are still used for
difference isn't as extreme as it first appears due to the lighter propulsion of some BEVs.
drive-train in an EV, even the best batteries tend to lead to
higher masses when applied to vehicles with a normal range.
The efficiency (70–75%) and storage capacity of the current
generation of common deep cycle lead acid batteries decreases
with lower temperatures, and diverting power to run a heating
coil reduces efficiency and range by up to 40%.
Charging and operation of batteries typically results in the

emission of hydrogen, oxygen and sulfur, which are naturally
occurring and normally harmless if properly vented. Early
Citicar owners discovered that, if not vented properly,
unpleasant sulfur smells would leak into the cabin immediately
after charging.
Cylindrical cell (18650) prior to
Lead-acid batteries powered such early modern EVs as the assembly
original versions of the EV1.
Nickel-metal hydride
Nickel-metal hydride batteries are now considered a relatively

mature technology.[5] While less efficient (60–70%) in charging
and discharging than even lead-acid, they have a specific energy
of 30–80 W⋅h/kg, far higher than lead-acid. When used
properly, nickel-metal hydride batteries can have exceptionally
long lives, as has been demonstrated in their use in hybrid cars
and in the surviving first-generation NiMH Toyota RAV4 EVs Lithium ion battery monitoring
that still operate well after 100,000 miles (160,000 km) and electronics (over- and discharge
over a decade of service. Downsides include the poor efficiency, protection)
high self-discharge, very finicky charge cycles, and poor
performance in cold weather.
GM Ovonic produced the NiMH battery used in the second generation EV-1, and Cobasys makes a
nearly identical battery (ten 1.2 V 85 A⋅h NiMH cells in series in contrast with eleven cells for
Ovonic battery). This worked very well in the EV-1.[6] Patent encumbrance has limited the use of
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these batteries in recent years.
Zebra
The sodium nickel chloride or "Zebra" battery uses a molten

sodium chloroaluminate (NaAlCl4) salt as the electrolyte. A
relatively mature technology, the Zebra battery has a specific
energy of 120 W⋅h/kg. Since the battery must be heated for use,
cold weather does not strongly affect its operation except for GM Ovonic NiMH battery module
increasing heating costs. They have been used in several EVs
such as the Modec commercial vehicle.[7] Zebra batteries can
last for a few thousand charge cycles and are nontoxic. The downsides to the Zebra battery include
poor specific power (<300 W/kg) and the requirement of having to heat the electrolyte to about
270 °C (518 °F), which wastes some energy, presents difficulties in long-term storage of charge,
and is potentially a hazard.
Lithium-ion
Lithium-ion (and the mechanistically similar lithium polymer)

batteries, were initially developed and commercialized for use
in laptops and consumer electronics. With their high energy
density and long cycle life they have become the leading battery
type for use in EVs. The first commercialized lithium-ion
chemistry was a lithium cobalt oxide cathode and a graphite
anode first demonstrated by N. Godshall in 1979, and by John A man cutting open a lithium-ion
Goodenough, and Akira Yoshino shortly thereafter.[8][9][10][11] battery for use in an electric vehicle
The downside of traditional lithium-ion batteries include
sensitivity to temperature, low temperature power
performance, and performance degradation with age.[12] Due to the volatility of organic
electrolytes, the presence of highly oxidized metal oxides, and the thermal instability of the anode
SEI layer, traditional lithium-ion batteries pose a fire safety risk if punctured or charged
improperly.[13] These early cells did not accept or supply charge when extremely cold, and so
heaters can be necessary in some climates to warm them. The maturity of this technology is
moderate. The Tesla Roadster (2008) and other cars produced by the company used a modified
form of traditional lithium-ion "laptop battery" cells.
Recent EVs are using new variations on lithium-ion chemistry that sacrifice specific energy and
specific power to provide fire resistance, environmental friendliness, rapid charging (as quickly as
a few minutes), and longer lifespans. These variants (phosphates, titanates, spinels, etc.) have been
shown to have a much longer lifetime, with A123 types using lithium iron phosphate lasting at least
more than 10 years and more than 7000 charge/discharge cycles,[14] and LG Chem expecting their
lithium-manganese spinel batteries to last up to 40 years.
Much work is being done on lithium-ion batteries in the lab.[15] Lithium vanadium oxide has
already made its way into the Subaru prototype G4e, doubling energy density. Silicon nanowires,
[16][17] silicon nanoparticles,[18] and tin nanoparticles[19][20] promise several times the energy
density in the anode, while composite[21][22] and superlattice[23] cathodes also promise significant
density improvements.
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New data has shown that exposure to heat and the use of fast charging promote the degradation of
Li-ion batteries more than age and actual use, and that the average electric vehicle battery will
retain 90% of its initial capacity after six years and six months of service. For example, the battery
in a Nissan Leaf will degrade twice as fast as the battery in a Tesla, because the Leaf does not have
an active cooling system for its battery.[24]
Battery capacity
Non–plug-in hybrid cars have battery capacities between 0.65 kW⋅h (2012 Honda Civic Hybrid)
and 1.8 kW⋅h (2001 Toyota Prius).
Plug-in hybrid cars have battery capacities between 4.4 kW⋅h (2012 Toyota Prius Plug-in Hybrid)
and 40.6 kW⋅h (Li Auto One).
All-electric cars have battery capacities between 6.0 kW⋅h (2012 Renault Twizy) and 212.7 kW⋅h
(2022 GMC Hummer EV[25]).
Supply chain
The electric vehicle supply chain comprises the mining and refining of raw materials and the
manufacturing processes that produce lithium ion batteries and other components for electric
vehicles. The lithium-ion battery supply chain is a major component of the overall EV supply chain,
and the battery accounts for 30%-40% of the value of the vehicle.[26] Lithium, cobalt, graphite,
nickel, and manganese are all critical minerals that are necessary for electric vehicle batteries.[27]
There is rapidly growing demand for these materials because of growth in the electric vehicle
market, which is driven largely by the proposed transition to renewable energy. Securing the
supply chain for these materials is a major world economic issue.[28] Recycling and advancement
in battery technology are proposed strategies to reduce demand for raw materials. Supply chain
issues could create bottlenecks, increase costs of EVs and slow their uptake.[26][29]
The battery supply chain faces many challenges. Battery minerals typically travel 50,000 miles
from where they are extracted to downstream manufacturing facilities. Deposits of critical minerals
are concentrated in a small number of countries, mostly in the Global South. Mining these deposits
presents dangers to nearby communities because of weak regulation, corruption, and
environmental degradation. These communities face human rights violations, environmental
justice issues, problems with child labour, and potentially generational legacies of contamination
from mining activities.
Manufacture of battery technology is largely dominated by China.
Lifecycle of lithium-based EV batteries
There are mainly four stages during the lifecycle of lithium-based EV batteries: the raw materials
phase, the battery manufacturing, operation phase and the end-of-life management phase. As
shown in the schematic of life cycle of EV batteries, during the first stage, the rare earth materials
are extracted in different parts of the world. After they are refined by pre-processing factories, the
battery manufacturing companies take over these materials and start to produce batteries and
assemble them into packs. These battery packs are then sent to car manufacturing companies for
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EV integration. In the last stage, if no management

is in place, valuable materials in the batteries could
be potentially wasted. A good end-of-life
management phase will try to close the loop. The
used battery packs will either be reused as
stationary storage or recycled depending on the
battery state of health (SOH).[30]
The battery lifecycle is rather long and requires close

cooperation between companies and countries.
Currently, the raw materials phase and the battery
manufacturing and operation phase are well
established. The end-of-life management phase is
struggled to grow, especially the recycling process
mainly because of economics. For example, only 6%
of lithium-ion batteries were collected for recycling
in 2017–2018 in Australia.[31] However, closing the
loop is extremely important. Not only because of a
predicted tightened supply of nickel, cobalt and Schematic of life cycle of EV batteries. Adapted
lithium in the future, also recycling EV batteries has from Engel et al.[30]
the potential to maximize the environmental
benefit. Xu et al. predicted that in the sustainable
development scenario, lithium, cobalt and nickel will reach or surpass the amount of known
reserves in the future if no recycling is in place.[32] Ciez and Whitacre found that by deploying
battery recycling some green house gas (GHG) emission from mining could be avoided.[33]
To develop a deeper understanding of the lifecycle of EV batteries, it is important to analyze the

emission associated with different phases. Using NMC cylindrical cells as an example, Ciez and
Whitacre found that around 9 kg CO2e kg battery−1 is emitted during raw materials pre-processing
and battery manufacturing under the US average electricity grid. The biggest part of the emission
came from materials preparation accounting for more than 50% of the emissions. If NMC pouch
cell is used, the total emission increases to almost 10 kg CO2e kg battery−1 while materials
manufacturing still contributes to more than 50% of the emission.[33] During the end-of-life
management phase, the refurbishing process adds little emission to the lifecycle emission. The
recycling process, on the other hand, as suggested by Ciez and Whitacre emits a significant amount
of GHG. As shown in the battery recycling emission plot a and c, the emission of the recycling
process varies with the different recycling processes, different chemistry and different form factor.
Thus, the net emission avoided compared to not recycling also varies with these factors. At a
glance, as shown in the plot b and d, the direct recycling process is the most ideal process for
recycling pouch cell batteries, while the hydrometallurgical process is most suitable for cylindrical
type battery. However, with the error bars shown, the best approach cannot be picked with
confidence. It is worth noting that for the lithium iron phosphates (LFP) chemistry, the net benefit
is negative. Because LFP cells lacks cobalt and nickel which are expensive and energy intensive to
produce, it is more energetically efficient to mine. In general, in addition to promoting the growth
of a single sector, a more integrated effort should be in place to reduce the lifecycle emission of EV
batteries. A finite total supply of rare earth material can apparently justify the need for recycling.
But the environmental benefit of recycling needs closer scrutiny. Based on current recycling
technology, the net benefit of recycling depends on the form factors, the chemistry and the
recycling process chosen.
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Manufacturing
There are mainly three stages

during the manufacturing
process of EV batteries:
materials manufacturing, cell
manufacturing and
integration, as shown in
Manufacturing process of EV
batteries graph in grey, green
and orange color
respectively. This shown
process does not include
manufacturing of cell
hardware, i.e. casings and
current collectors. During the
materials manufacturing
process, the active material,
conductivity additives,
polymer binder and solvent
are mixed first. After this,
they are coated on the
current collectors ready for
the drying process. During Battery recycling emissions under US average electricity grid. (a,b) for
this stage, the methods of cylindrical cell and (c,d) for pouch cell. Adapted from Ciez and Whitacre.[33]
making active materials
depend on the
electrode and the
chemistry. For
the cathode, two
of the most
popular
chemistry are
transition metal
oxides, i.e.
Lithium nickel
manganese
cobalt oxides (Li-
NMC) and
Lithium metal Manufacturing process of EV batteries
phosphates, i.e.
Lithium iron
phosphates (LFP). For the anode, the most popular chemistry now is graphite. However, recently
there have been a lot of companies started to make Si mixed anode (Sila Nanotech (https://silanan
o.com/), ProLogium) and Li metal anode(Cuberg (https://cuberg.net/), Solid Power (https://solid
powerbattery.com/)). In general, for active materials production, there are three steps: materials
preparation, materials processing and refinement. Schmuch et al. discussed materials
manufacturing in greater details.[34]
In the cell manufacturing stage, the prepared electrode will be processed to the desired shape for
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packaging in a cylindrical, rectangular or pouch format. Then after filling the electrolytes and
sealing the cells, the battery cells are cycled carefully to form SEI protecting the anode. Then, these
batteries are assembled into packs ready for vehicle integration. Kwade et al. discuss the overall
battery manufacturing process in greater detail.
Reusing and repurposing
When an EV battery pack degrades to 70% to 80% of its original capacity, it is defined to reach the
end-of-life. One of the waste management methods is to reuse the pack. By repurposing the pack
for stationary storage, more value can be extracted from the battery pack while reducing the per
kWh lifecycle impact. However, enabling battery second-life is not easy. Several challenges are
hindering the development of the battery refurbishing industry.
First, uneven and undesired battery degradation happens during EV operation. Each battery cell
could degrade differently during operation. Currently, the state of health (SOH) information from a
battery management system (BMS) can be extracted on a pack level. Getting the cell state of health
information requires next-generation BMS. In addition, because a lot of factors could contribute to
the low SOH at the end of life, such as temperature during operation, charging/discharging pattern
and calendar degradation, the degradation mechanism could be different. Thus, just knowing the
SOH is not enough to ensure the quality of the refurbished pack. To solve this challenge, engineers
can mitigate the degradation by engineering the next-generation thermal management system. To
fully understand the degradation inside the battery, computational methods including the first-
principle method, physics-based model and machine learning based method should work together
to identify the different degradation modes and quantify the level of degradation after severe
operations. Lastly, more efficient battery characteristics tools, for instance, electrochemical
impedance spectroscopy (EIS) should be used to ensure the quality of the battery pack.[35][36]
Second, it is costly and time-intensive to disassemble modules and cells. Following the last point,
the first step is testing to determine the remaining SOH of the battery modules. This operation
could vary for each retired system. Next, the module must be fully discharged. Then, the pack must
be disassembled and reconfigured to meet the power and energy requirement of the second life
application. It is important to note that qualified workers and specialized tools are required to
dismantle the high weight and high voltage EV batteries. Besides the solutions discussed in the
previous section, a refurbishing company can sell or reuse the discharged energy from the module
to reduce the cost of this process. To accelerate the disassembly process, there have been several
attempts to incorporate robots in this process. In this case, robots can handle more dangerous task
increasing the safety of the dismantling process.[35][37]
Third, battery technology is non-transparent and lacks standards. Because battery development is
the core part of EV, it is difficult for the manufacturer to label the exact chemistry of cathode,
anode and electrolytes on the pack. In addition, the capacity and the design of the cells and packs
changes on a yearly basis. The refurbishing company needs to closely work with the manufacture to
have a timely update on this information. On the other hand, government can set up labeling
standard.[35]
Lastly, the refurbishing process adds cost to the used batteries. Since 2010, the battery costs have
decreased by over 85% which is significantly faster than the prediction. Because of the added cost
of refurbishing, the refurbished unit may be less attractive than the new batteries to the market.[35]
Nonetheless, there have been several successes on the second-life application as shown in the
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examples of storage
projects using second-
life EV batteries. They
are used in less
demanding stationary
storage application as
peak shaving or
additional storage for
renewable-based
generating sources.[35]
Recycling
Although battery life

span can be extended
by enabling a second-
life application,
ultimately EV batteries
need to be recycled.
Recyclability is not
currently an important
Examples of storage projects using second-life EV batteries. Adapted from Awan[35]
design consideration
for battery
manufacturers, and in
2019 only 5% of electric
vehicle batteries were
recycled.[38] BEV
technologies lack an
established recycling
framework in many
countries, making the
usage of BEV and other
battery-operated
electrical equipment a
large energy
expenditure, ultimately
increasing CO2
emissions - especially
in countries lacking
renewable energy
resources. [39]
Currently, there are five
types of recycling
processes:
Pyrometallurgical
recovery, Physical
Examples of current lithium-ion battery recycling facilities. Adapted from Awan[35]
materials separation,
Hydrometallurgical
metal reclamation, Direct recycling method and Biological metals reclamation. The most widely
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used processes are the first three processes listed, as shown in the examples of current lithium-ion
battery recycling facilities. The last two methods are still on lab or pilot scale, however, they can
potentially avoid the largest amount of emission from mining.
The pyrometallurgical process involves burning the battery materials with slag, limestone, sand
and coke to produce a metal alloy using a high-temperature furnace. The resulted materials are a
metallic alloy, slag and gases. The gases comprise molecules that are evaporated from the
electrolyte and binder components. The metal alloy can be separated through hydrometallurgical
processes into constituent materials. The slag which is a mixture of metals aluminum, manganese
and lithium can either be reclaimed by hydrometallurgical processes or used in the cement
industry. This process is very versatile and relatively safe. Because there is no pre-sorting needed,
it can work with a wide variety of batteries. In addition, because the whole cell is burnt, the metal
from the current collectors could help the smelting process and because of the exothermic reaction
of burning electrolyte sand plastics the energy consumption can also be reduced. However, this
process still requires relatively higher energy consumption and only a limited number of materials
can be reclaimed. Physical materials separation recovered materials by mechanical crushing and
exploiting physical properties of different components such as particle size, density,
ferromagnetism and hydrophobicity. Copper, aluminum and steel casing can be recovered by
sorting. The remaining materials, called "black mass", which is composed of nickel, cobalt, lithium
and manganese, need a secondary treatment to recover. For the hydrometallurgical process, the
cathode materials need to be crushed to remove the current collector. Then, the cathode materials
are leached by aqueous solutions to extract the desired metals from cathode materials. Direct
cathode recycling as the name suggested extracts the materials directly, yielding a cathode power
that is ready to be used as new cathode pristine material. This process involves extracting the
electrolyte using liquid or supercritical CO2. After the size of the recovered components is reduced,
the cathode materials can be separated out. For the biological metals reclamation or bio-leaching,
the process uses microorganisms to digest metal oxides selectively. Then, recyclers can reduce
these oxides to produce metal nanoparticles. Although bio-leaching has been used successfully in
the mining industry, this process is still nascent to the recycling industry and plenty of
opportunities exists for further investigation.[33][35][37]
There have been many efforts around the world to promote recycling technologies development
and deployment. In the US, the Department of Energy Vehicle Technologies Offices (VTO) set up
two efforts targeting at innovation and practicability of recycling processes. ReCell Lithium
Recycling RD center brings in three universities and three national labs together to develop
innovative, efficient recycling technologies. Most notably, the direct cathode recycling method was
developed by the ReCell center. On the other hand, VTO also set up the battery recycling prize to
incentivize American entrepreneurs to find innovative solutions to solve current challenges.[40]
Environmental impact
Transition to electric vehicles is estimated to require an 87,000% increase in supply of specific

metals by 2060 that need to be mined initially, with recycling (see above) covering part of the
demand in future.[41] In the UK alone, it is estimated that switching 31.5 million petrol vehicles to
electric would require "207,900 tonnes of cobalt, 264,600 tonnes of lithium carbonate, 7,200
tonnes of neodymium and dysprosium, and 2,362,500 tonnes of copper", and a worldwide switch
would require 40 times these amounts.[42] In 2022 the US government planned to give US states
$5 billion over five years for electric vehicle chargers.[43] According to IEA 2021 study, mineral
supplies need to increase from 400 kilotonnes in 2020 to 11,800 kilotonnes in 2040 in order to
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cover the demand by EV. This increase creates a number of key challenges, from supply chain (as
60% of production is concentrated in China) to significant impact on climate and environment as
result of such a large increase in mining operations.[44]
Battery cost
In 2010, scientists at the Technical University of Denmark paid
US$10,000 for a certified EV battery with 25 kWh capacity (i.e.
US$400/kWh), with no rebates or surcharges.[47] Two out of 15
battery producers could supply the necessary technical
documents about quality and fire safety.[48] In 2010 it was
estimated that at most 10 years would pass before the battery
price would come down to one-third.[47]
According to a 2010 study, by the United States National

Research Council, the cost of a lithium-ion battery pack was
about US$1,700/kWh of usable energy, and considering that a
PHEV-10 requires about 2.0 kWh and a PHEV-40 about
8 kWh, the manufacturer cost of the battery pack for a
PHEV-10 is around US$3,000 and it goes up to US$14,000 for
Learning curve of lithium-ion
a PHEV-40.[49][50] The MIT Technology Review estimated the
batteries: the price of batteries
cost of automotive battery packs to be between US$225 to
declined by 97% in three decades.
US$500 per kilowatt hour by 2020.[51] A 2013 study by the [45][46]
American Council for an Energy-Efficient Economy reported
that battery costs came down from US$1,300/kWh in 2007 to
US$500/kWh in 2012. The U.S. Department of Energy has set
cost targets for its sponsored battery research of US$300/kWh
in 2015 and US$125/kWh by 2022. Cost reductions through
advances in battery technology and higher production volumes
will allow plug-in electric vehicles to be more competitive with
conventional internal combustion engine vehicles.[52] In 2016,
the world had a Li-ion production capacity of 41.57 GW⋅h.[53]
The actual costs for cells are subject to much debate and
speculation as most EV manufacturers refuse to discuss this
topic in detail. However, in October 2015, car maker GM
revealed at their annual Global Business Conference that they Prototypes of 50 W⋅h/kg lithium-ion-
expected a price of US$145/kWh for Li-ion cells entering 2016, polymer battery. Newer Li-ion cells
substantially lower than other analysts' cost estimates. GM also can provide up to 265 W⋅h/kg and
last through thousands of charging
expects a cost of US$100/kWh by the end of 2021.[54]
cycles.
According to a study published in February 2016 by Bloomberg
New Energy Finance (BNEF), battery prices fell 65% since
2010, and 35% just in 2015, reaching US$350/kWh. The study concludes that battery costs are on
a trajectory to make electric vehicles without government subsidies as affordable as internal
combustion engine cars in most countries by 2022. BNEF projects that by 2040, long-range
electric cars will cost less than US$22,000 expressed in 2016 dollars. BNEF expects electric car
battery costs to be well below US$120/kWh by 2030, and to fall further thereafter as new
chemistries become available.[55][56]
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Battery cost estimate comparison
Battery type Year Cost (US$/kWh)
Li-ion 2021 132[57]
Li-ion 2016 130[58]-145[54]
Li-ion 2014 200–300[59]
Li-ion 2012 500–600[60]
Li-ion 2012 400[61]
Li-ion 2012 520–650[62]
Li-ion 2012 752[62]
Li-ion 2012 689[62]
Li-ion 2013 800–1000[63]
Li-ion 2010 750[64]
Nickel–metal hydride 2004 750[65]
Nickel–metal hydride 2013 500–550[63]
Nickel–metal hydride 350[66]
Lead–acid 256.68
EV parity
In 2010, battery professor Poul Norby stated that he believed that lithium batteries will need to
double their specific energy and bring down the price from US$500 (2010) to US$100 per kWh
capacity in order to make an impact on petrol cars.[67] Citigroup indicates US$230/kWh.
Toyota Prius 2012 plug-in's official page declare 21 kilometres (13 mi) of range and a battery
capacity of 5.2 kWh with a ratio of 4 kilometres (2.5 mi)/kWh, while the Addax (2015 model) utility
vehicle already reaches 110 kilometres (68.5 mi) or a ratio of 7.5 kilometers (4.6 mi)/kWh.[68]
Battery electric cars have an energy consumption between 2.5 miles (4.0 km)/kWh (85 MPGe) and
5.0 miles (8.0 km)/kWh (135 MPGe).
United States Secretary of Energy Steven Chu predicted costs for a 40-mile range battery will drop
from a price in 2008 of US$12,000 to US$3,600 in 2015 and further to US$1,500 by 2020.[69][70]
lithium-ion, Li-poly, Aluminium-air batteries and zinc-air batteries have demonstrated specific
energies high enough to deliver range and recharge times comparable to conventional fossil fueled
vehicles.
Cost parity
Different costs are important. One issue is purchase price, the other issue is total cost of ownership.
As of 2015, electric cars are more expensive to initially purchase, but cheaper to run, and in at least
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some cases, total cost of ownership may be lower.
According to Kammen et al., 2008, new PEVs would become cost efficient to consumers if battery
prices would decrease from US$1300/kWh to about US$500/kWh (so that the battery may pay for
itself).[71]
In 2010, the Nissan Leaf battery pack was reportedly produced at a cost of US$18,000.[72] Nissan's
initial production costs at the launch of the Leaf were therefore about US$750 per kilowatt hour
(for the 24 kWh battery).[72]
In 2012, McKinsey Quarterly linked battery prices to gasoline prices on a basis of 5-year total cost
of ownership for a car, estimating that US$3.50/gallon equates to US$250/kWh.[73] In 2017
McKinsey estimated that electric cars will be competitive at a battery pack cost of US$100/kWh
(expected around 2030), and expects pack costs to be US$190/kWh by 2020.[74]
In October 2015, car maker GM revealed at their annual Global Business Conference that they
expected a price of US$145 per kilowatt hour for Li-ion cells entering 2016.[54]
Range parity
Driving range parity means that the electric vehicle has the same range as an average all-
combustion vehicle (500 kilometres or 310 miles), with batteries of specific energy greater than
1 kWh/kg.[75] Higher range means that the electric vehicles would run more kilometers without
recharge. Currently, electric vehicle sales are lower than expected due range anxiety - even with the
same range as an average all-combustion vehicle, buyers must be assured that there are widely
available and compatible charging stations for their vehicles, which are currently not as common as
gas stations.[76]
Japanese and European Union officials are in talks to jointly develop advanced rechargeable
batteries for electric cars to help nations reduce greenhouse-gas emissions. Developing a battery
that can power an electric vehicle 500 kilometres (310 mi) on a single charging is feasible, said
Japanese battery maker GS Yuasa Corp. Sharp Corp and GS Yuasa are among Japanese solar-
power cell and battery makers that may benefit from cooperation.[77]
The lithium-ion battery in the AC Propulsion tzero provides 400 to 500 km (200 to 300 mi) of
range per charge (single charge range).[78] The list price of this vehicle when it was released in
2003 was US$220,000.[79]
Driving in a Daihatsu Mira equipped with 74 kWh lithium ion batteries, the Japan EV Club has
achieved a world record for an electric car: 1,003 kilometres (623 mi) without recharging.
Zonda Bus, in Jiangsu, China offers the Zonda Bus New Energy with a 500-kilometre (310 mi)
only-electric range.[80]
The supercar Rimac Concept One with 82 kWh battery has a range of 500 km. The car has
been in production since 2013.
The pure electric car BYD e6 with 60 kWh battery has a range of 300 km.[81]
Specifics
12 of 30 09-08-2023, 19:51
Internal components
Battery pack designs for electric vehicles (EVs) are complex and
vary widely by manufacturer and specific application. However,
they all incorporate a combination of several simple mechanical
and electrical component systems which perform the basic
required functions of the pack.
The actual battery cells can have different chemistry, physical

Battery pack on the roof of a battery
shapes, and sizes as preferred by various pack manufacturers.
electric bus
Battery packs will always incorporate many discrete cells
connected in series and parallel to achieve the total voltage and
current requirements of the pack. Battery packs for all electric
drive EVs can contain several hundred individual cells. Each
cell has a nominal voltage of 3-4 volts, depending on its
chemical composition.
To assist in manufacturing and assembly, the large stack of cells

is typically grouped into smaller stacks called modules. Several
of these modules are placed into a single pack. Within each
module the cells are welded together to complete the electrical Electric truck e-Force One. Battery
path for current flow. Modules can also incorporate cooling pack between the axles.
mechanisms, temperature monitors, and other devices.
Modules must remain within a specific temperature range for
optimal performance.[82] In most cases, modules also allow for monitoring the voltage produced by
each battery cell in the stack by using a battery management system (BMS).[83]
The battery cell stack has a main fuse which limits the current of the pack under a short circuit. A
"service plug" or "service disconnect" can be removed to split the battery stack into two electrically
isolated halves. With the service plug removed, the exposed main terminals of the battery present
no high potential electrical danger to service technicians.[83][84]
The battery pack also contains relays, or contactors, which control the distribution of the battery
pack's electrical power to the output terminals. In most cases there will be a minimum of two main
relays which connect the battery cell stack to the main positive and negative output terminals of
the pack, which then supply high current to the electrical drive motor. Some pack designs include
alternate current paths for pre-charging the drive system through a pre-charge resistor or for
powering an auxiliary bus which will also have their own associated control relays. For safety
reasons these relays are all normally open.[83][84]
The battery pack also contains a variety of temperature, voltage, and current sensors. Collection of
data from the pack sensors and activation of the pack relays are accomplished by the pack's battery
monitoring unit (BMU) or BMS. The BMS is also responsible for communications with the vehicle
outside the battery pack.[83]
Recharging
Batteries in BEVs must be periodically recharged. BEVs most commonly charge from the power
grid (at home or using a street or shop recharging point), which is in turn generated from a variety
13 of 30 09-08-2023, 19:51
of domestic resources, such as coal, hydroelectricity, nuclear, natural gas, and others. Home or grid
power, such as photovoltaic solar cell panels, wind, or microhydro may also be used and are
promoted because of concerns regarding global warming.
With suitable power supplies, good battery lifespan is usually achieved at charging rates not
exceeding half of the capacity of the battery per hour ("0.5C" (http://www.batteriesinaflash.com/bl
og/battery-c-rating-explained-and-demystified/)),[85] thereby taking two or more hours for a full
charge, but faster charging is available even for large capacity batteries.[86]
Charging time at home is limited by the capacity of the household electrical outlet, unless
specialized electrical wiring work is done. In the US, Canada, Japan, and other countries with
120 V electricity, a normal household outlet delivers 1.5 kilowatts. In other countries with 230 V
electricity between 7 and 14 kilowatts can be delivered (230 V single phase and 400 V three-phase,
respectively). In Europe, a 400 V (three-phase 230 V) grid connection is increasingly popular since
newer houses don't have natural gas connection due to the European Union's safety regulations.
Recharging time
Electric cars like Tesla Model S, Renault Zoe, BMW i3, etc., can recharge their batteries to 80
percent at quick charging stations within 30 minutes.[87][88][89][90] For example, a Tesla Model 3
Long Range charging on a 250 kW Tesla Version 3 Supercharger went from 2% state of charge with
6 miles (9.7 km) of range to 80% state of charge with 240 miles (390 km) of range in 27 minutes,
which equates to 520 miles (840 km) per hour.[91]
Connectors
The charging power can be connected to the car in two ways. The first is a direct electrical
connection known as conductive coupling. This might be as simple as a mains lead into a
weatherproof socket through special high capacity cables with connectors to protect the user from
high voltages. The modern standard for plug-in vehicle charging is the SAE 1772 conductive
connector (IEC 62196 Type 1) in the US. The ACEA has chosen the VDE-AR-E 2623-2-2
(IEC 62196 Type 2) for deployment in Europe, which, without a latch, means unnecessary extra
power requirements for the locking mechanism.
The second approach is known as inductive charging. A special 'paddle' is inserted into a slot on
the car. The paddle is one winding of a transformer, while the other is built into the car. When the
paddle is inserted it completes a magnetic circuit which provides power to the battery pack. In one
inductive charging system,[92] one winding is attached to the underside of the car, and the other
stays on the floor of the garage. The advantage of the inductive approach is that there is no
possibility of electrocution as there are no exposed conductors, although interlocks, special
connectors and ground fault detectors can make conductive coupling nearly as safe. Inductive
charging can also reduce vehicle weight, by moving more charging componentry offboard.[93] An
inductive charging advocate from Toyota contended in 1998, that overall cost differences were
minimal, while a conductive charging advocate from Ford contended that conductive charging was
more cost efficient.[93]
Recharging spots
14 of 30 09-08-2023, 19:51
As of April 2020, there are 93,439 locations and 178,381 EV charging stations worldwide.[94]
Though there are a lot of charging stations worldwide, and the number is only growing, an issue
with this is that an EV driver may find themselves at a remote charging station with another
vehicle plugged in to the only charger or they may find another vehicle parked in the only EV spot.
Currently, no laws prohibit unplugging another person's vehicle, it is simply ruled by etiquette.[76]
Travel range before recharging
The range of a BEV depends on the number and type of batteries used. The weight and type of
vehicle as well as terrain, weather, and the performance of the driver also have an impact, just as
they do on the mileage of traditional vehicles. Electric vehicle conversion performance depends on
a number of factors including the battery chemistry:
Lead-acid batteries are the most available and inexpensive. Such conversions generally have a
range of 30–80 km (19–50 mi). Production EVs with lead-acid batteries are capable of up to
130 km (81 mi) per charge.
NiMH batteries have higher specific energy than lead-acid; prototype EVs deliver up to 200 km
(120 mi) of range.
New lithium-ion battery-equipped EVs provide 320–480 km (200–300 mi) of range per
charge.[95] Lithium is also less expensive than nickel.[96]
Nickel-zinc battery are cheaper and lighter than Nickel-cadmium batteries. They are also
cheaper than (but not as light as) lithium-ion batteries.[97]
The internal resistance of some batteries may be significantly increased at low temperature[98]
which can cause noticeable reduction in the range of the vehicle and on the lifetime of the battery.
Finding the economic balance of range versus performance, battery capacity versus weight, and
battery type versus cost challenges every EV manufacturer.
With an AC system or advanced DC system, regenerative braking can extend range by up to 50%
under extreme traffic conditions without complete stopping. Otherwise, the range is extended by
about 10 to 15% in city driving, and only negligibly in highway driving, depending upon terrain.
BEVs (including buses and trucks) can also use genset trailers and pusher trailers in order to
extend their range when desired without the additional weight during normal short range use.
Discharged basket trailers can be replaced by recharged ones en route. If rented then maintenance
costs can be deferred to the agency.
Some BEVs can become Hybrid vehicles depending on the trailer and car types of energy and
powertrain.
Trailers
Auxiliary battery capacity carried in trailers can increase the overall vehicle range, but also
increases the loss of power arising from aerodynamic drag, increases weight transfer effects and
reduces traction capacity.
15 of 30 09-08-2023, 19:51
Swapping and removing
An alternative to recharging is to exchange drained or nearly drained batteries (or battery range
extender modules) with fully charged batteries. This is called battery swapping and is done in
exchange stations.[99]
Features of swap stations include:[100]
1. The consumer is no longer concerned with battery capital cost, life cycle, technology,
maintenance, or warranty issues;
2. Swapping is far faster than charging: battery swap equipment built by the firm Better Place has
demonstrated automated swaps in less than 60 seconds;[101]
3. Swap stations increase the feasibility of distributed energy storage via the electric grid;
Concerns about swap stations include:
1. Potential for fraud (battery quality can only be measured over a full discharge cycle; battery
lifetime can only be measured over repeated discharge cycles; those in the swap transaction
cannot know if they are getting a worn or reduced effectiveness battery; battery quality
degrades slowly over time, so worn batteries will be gradually forced into the system)
2. Manufacturers' unwillingness to standardize battery access / implementation details[102]
3. Safety concerns[102]
Re-filling
Zinc-bromine flow batteries can be re-filled using a liquid, instead of recharged by connectors,
saving time.
Vehicle-to-grid
Smart grid allows BEVs to provide power to the grid at any time, especially:
During peak load periods (When the selling price of electricity can be very high. Vehicles can
then be recharged during off-peak hours at cheaper rates which helps absorb excess night
time generation. The vehicles serve as a distributed battery storage system to buffer power.)
During blackouts, as backup power sources.
Safety
The safety issues of battery electric vehicles are largely dealt with by the international standard ISO
6469 (https://www.iso.org/standard/68665.html). This standard is divided into three parts:
On-board electrical energy storage, i.e. the battery

Functional safety means and protection against failures
Protection of persons against electrical hazards.
16 of 30 09-08-2023, 19:51
Firefighters and rescue personnel receive special training to deal with the higher voltages and
chemicals encountered in electric and hybrid electric vehicle accidents. While BEV accidents may
present unusual problems, such as fires and fumes resulting from rapid battery discharge, many
experts agree that BEV batteries are safe in commercially available vehicles and in rear-end
collisions, and are safer than gasoline-propelled cars with rear gasoline tanks.[103]
Usually, battery performance testing includes the determination of:
State Of Charge (SOC)

State of Health (SOH)
Energy Efficiency
Performance testing simulates the drive cycles for the drive trains of Battery Electric Vehicles
(BEV), Hybrid Electric Vehicles (HEV) and Plug in Hybrid Electric Vehicles (PHEV) as per the
required specifications of car manufacturers (OEMs). During these drive cycles, controlled cooling
of the battery can be performed, simulating the thermal conditions in the car.
In addition, climatic chambers control environmental conditions during testing and allow
simulation of the full automotive temperature range and climatic conditions.
Patents
Patents may be used to suppress development or deployment of battery technology. For example,
patents relevant to the use of Nickel metal hydride cells in cars were held by an offshoot of Chevron
Corporation, a petroleum company, who maintained veto power over any sale or licensing of NiMH
technology.[104][105]
Research, development and innovation

As of December 2019, billions of euro in research are planned to be invested around the world for
improving batteries.[106][107]
Researchers have come up with some design considerations for contactless BEV chargers.
Inductively coupled power transfer (ICPT) systems are made to transfer power efficiently from a
primary source (charging station) to one or more secondary sources (BEVs) in a contactless way via
magnetic coupling.[108]
Europe has plans for heavy investment in electric vehicle battery development and production, and
Indonesia also aims to produce electric vehicle batteries in 2023, inviting Chinese battery firm
GEM and Contemporary Amperex Technology Ltd to invest in Indonesia.[109][110][111][112][113][114]
[115][116]
Ultracapacitors
Electric double-layer capacitors (or "ultracapacitors") are used in some electric vehicles, such as
AFS Trinity's concept prototype, to store rapidly available energy with their high specific power, in
order to keep batteries within safe resistive heating limits and extend battery life.[117][118]
17 of 30 09-08-2023, 19:51
Since commercially available ultracapacitors have a low specific energy, no production electric cars
use ultracapacitors exclusively.
In January 2020, Elon Musk, CEO of Tesla, stated that the advancements in Li-ion battery
technology have made ultra-capacitors unnecessary for electric vehicles.[119]
Promotion in the United States
There are several kinds of policy measures to make BEVs more desirable. Purchase-based
incentives include a tax rebate or a subsidy when buying or registering a modern BEV. Use based
policy measures include providing an exemption for congestion charging for BEV users, allowing
BEV users to use bus lanes, or giving free parking to BEVs. These can be classified into local and
global policy incentives. Local incentives including congestion charge exemptions or free BEV
parking in a city only influence those located in this specific area. Global policy incentives including
subsidies or national tax rebates apply to anyone in a country.[120]
In 2009, President Barack Obama announced 48 new advanced battery and electric drive projects
that would receive US$2.4 billion in funding under the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act.
The government claimed that these projects would accelerate the development of U.S.
manufacturing capacity for batteries and electric drive components as well as the deployment of
electric drive vehicles, helping to establish American leadership in creating the next generation of
advanced vehicles.[121] The announcement marked the single largest investment in advanced
battery technology for hybrid and electric-drive vehicles ever made. Industry officials expected that
this US$2.4 billion investment, coupled with another US$2.4 billion in cost share from the award
winners, would result directly in the creation tens of thousands of manufacturing jobs in the U.S.
battery and auto industries. The awards cover US$1.5 billion in grants to United States-based
manufacturers to produce batteries and their components and to expand battery recycling capacity.
U.S. Vice President Joe Biden announced in Detroit over US$1 billion in grants to companies
and universities based in Michigan. Reflecting the state's leadership in clean energy
manufacturing, Michigan companies and institutions received the largest share of grant funding
of any state. Two companies, A123 Systems and Johnson Controls, would receive a total of
approximately US$550 million to establish a manufacturing base in the state for advanced
batteries, and two others, Compact Power and Dow Kokam,[122] would receive a total of over
US$300 million for manufacturing battery cells and materials. Large automakers based in
Michigan, including GM, Chrysler, and Ford, would receive a total of more than US$400 million
to manufacture batteries and electric drive components. Three educational institutions in
Michigan — the University of Michigan, Wayne State University in Detroit, and Michigan
Technological University in Houghton, in the Upper Peninsula — would receive a total of more
than US$10 million for education and workforce training programs to train researchers,
technicians, and service providers, and to conduct consumer research to accelerate the
transition towards advanced vehicles and batteries.
U.S. Energy Secretary Steven Chu visited Celgard,[123] in Charlotte, North Carolina, to
announce a US$49 million grant for the company to expand its separator production capacity to
serve the expected increased demand for lithium-ion batteries from manufacturing facilities in
the United States. Celgard was planning to expand its manufacturing capacity in Charlotte,
North Carolina, and nearby Concord, North Carolina,[124] and the company expected the new
separator production to come online in 2010. Celgard expected that approximately hundreds of
jobs could be created, with the first of those jobs beginning as early as fall 2009.
18 of 30 09-08-2023, 19:51
EPA Administrator Lisa Jackson was in St. Petersburg, Florida, to announce a US$95.5 million
grant for Saft America, Inc.[125][126] to construct a new plant in Jacksonville on the site of the
former Cecil Field military base, to manufacture lithium-ion cells, modules and battery packs for
military, industrial, and agricultural vehicles.
Deputy Secretary of the Department of Transportation John Porcari visited East Penn
Manufacturing Co,[127] in Lyon Station, Pennsylvania, to award the company a US$32.5 million
grant to increase production capacity for their valve regulated lead-acid batteries and the
UltraBattery, a lead-acid battery combined with a carbon supercapacitor, for micro and mild
hybrid applications.[128]
On 2 May 2022, President Biden announced the administration will begin a $3.16 billion plan to
boost domestic manufacturing and recycling of batteries, in a larger effort to shift the country away
from gas-powered cars to electric vehicles. The goal of the Biden administration is to have half of
U.S. automobile production electric by 2030.[129]
The Inflation Reduction Act, passed on 16 August 2022, aimed to incentivize clean energy
manufacturing with a $7,500 consumer tax credit for EVs with US-built batteries, and subsidies for
EV plants. By October 2022, billions of dollars of investment had been announced for over two
dozen US battery plants, leading some commentators to nickname the Midwest as the "Battery
Belt."[130][131]
Promotion in Norway
Norway has become a leading example of BEV promotion. The BEV market share is highest in the
world in Norway, the main reason being the strong incentives for promoting purchase and
ownership of BEVs. Norway has an incentive package for BEVs that often equate or even make a
BEV cheaper to purchase than an Internal Combustion Engine Vehicle (ICEV). In addition to the
purchase price incentives, there are also incentives that make BEVs more cost-efficient and
convenient in daily use. Incentive policies have a clear success for increasing BEV sales in Norway,
making it a great case to learn from for other countries wanting to head in the same direction.[132]
See also
Examples
List of hybrid vehicles
List of production battery electric vehicles
List of electric vehicle battery manufacturers
Related
Battery charging Dual-mode vehicle
Battery electric multiple unit Electric car energy efficiency
Battery locomotive Flywheel energy storage
Charging station List of battery types
19 of 30 09-08-2023, 19:51
Rechargeable battery Traction motor

Salt water battery Vehicle-to-grid (V2G)
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Electric vehicle battery - Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.

Electric vehicle battery

Electric vehicle batteries differ from starting,

Electric vehicle battery types

levels and occasional replacement of water, which gases away

Previously, most electric vehicles used lead-acid batteries due to

Lead-acid batteries in EV applications end up being a

Charging and operation of batteries typically results in the

Nickel-metal hydride batteries are now considered a relatively

these batteries in recent years.

The sodium nickel chloride or "Zebra" battery uses a molten

Lithium-ion (and the mechanistically similar lithium polymer)

Manufacture of battery technology is largely dominated by China.

Lifecycle of lithium-based EV batteries

EV integration. In the last stage, if no management

The battery lifecycle is rather long and requires close

To develop a deeper understanding of the lifecycle of EV batteries, it is important to analyze the

There are mainly three stages

Reusing and repurposing

Although battery life

Transition to electric vehicles is estimated to require an 87,000% increase in supply of specific

According to a 2010 study, by the United States National

Battery cost estimate comparison

Battery type Year Cost (US$/kWh)

Li-ion 2021 132[57]

Li-ion 2016 130[58]-145[54]

Li-ion 2014 200–300[59]

Li-ion 2012 500–600[60]

Li-ion 2012 400[61]

Li-ion 2012 520–650[62]

Li-ion 2012 752[62]

Li-ion 2012 689[62]

Li-ion 2013 800–1000[63]

Li-ion 2010 750[64]

Nickel–metal hydride 2004 750[65]

Nickel–metal hydride 2013 500–550[63]

Nickel–metal hydride 350[66]

some cases, total cost of ownership may be lower.

The actual battery cells can have different chemistry, physical

To assist in manufacturing and assembly, the large stack of cells

Travel range before recharging

Swapping and removing

Features of swap stations include:[100]

Concerns about swap stations include:

On-board electrical energy storage, i.e. the battery

Usually, battery performance testing includes the determination of:

State Of Charge (SOC)

Research, development and innovation

Promotion in the United States

Rechargeable battery Traction motor

60. "Battery technology charges ahead | McKinsey & Company" (https://web.archive.org/web/2014

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