AGRI 104- HANDOUTS

CHAPTER 1- INTRODUCTION

A. Historical and Ecological Context of Agriculture

Around the time of the American Revolution, 90% of the population were farmers.
Today, only 3% of the U.S. population is employed on a farm, and 2% of U.S. farms produce
70% of all domestic vegetables. So how did we get here?
The first significant inflection point for the agrarian economy came with the Industrial
Revolution in the 1850’s, which brought with it the use of machinery to increase productivity
and reduce labor. Farmers began to use fertilizers, often in the form of natural organic material
like animal waste and manure and learned to rotate crops to achieve better soil productivity. The
first use of chemical pesticides also coincided with this period.

Between the 1930’s and the late 1960’s, The Green Revolution accelerated new methods and
technologies that increased agricultural production worldwide, including the transition from
animal to mechanical power, the increased the use of chemical fertilizers, agro-chemicals and
synthetic pesticides, and single cropping practices. The rapid industrialization of agriculture
during this time period required farmers to become more efficient to remain competitive. It
resulted in small farms, which had historically grown a wide variety of crops, being pushed out
by large, corporate farms specializing in large-scale monocultures of single high-yielding crop
varieties, like corn, soy, or wheat. These corporate farms were able to produce large quantities of
food more
efficiently to feed a growing population. Yet, this progress occurred at an environmental cost: the
proliferation of synthetic pesticides, widespread soil depletion, and a heavy carbon footprint. As
a result, many researchers and companies sought more efficient and environmentally friendly
ways to feed a growing and increasingly urban population

Modern farming

The idea of growing plants year-round by controlling environmental factors dates back as
far as the Roman Empire. Emperor Tiberius Caesar had moveable plant beds built that could
grow cucumbers year-round by being brought inside during cold or unfavorable weather. Over
time, this evolved into the concept of greenhouses, which were used throughout Europe and Asia
as early as the 13th century and worked by trapping heat from the sun within an enclosed
structure that insulated plants from cooler, ambient temperatures. These greenhouses, while
innovative at the time, were all relatively low-tech compared to controlled-environment
agriculture (CEA) today.
Today, CEA can be defined as “an advanced and intensive form of hydroponically-based
agriculture,” which uses technology to create and maintain optimal conditions for plant growth
and minimize the use of resources including water, energy, and space. CEA works within an
enclosed structure to provide a greater level of control over environmental factors which affect
plant growth and quality like light, humidity, temperature, CO2, and nutrient levels.
In the 1970’s, greenhouses in the Netherlands were the first to use computer-assisted
environmental control systems, but rising commodity prices quickly made the cost of heating and
cooling prohibitive, and many of these were forced to shutter their operations.
 In the 1980’s and 1990’s, NASA used CEA to grow crops on a Martian Base prototype
research facility at the Kennedy Space Center in Florida, providing evidence that the nutritive
value of indoor-grown food crops could be as good or better than field grown crops. And in
1999, Cornell University built an advanced, commercial-scale CEA greenhouse facility in Ithaca,
NY, which grew over 1,000 heads of lettuce per day. Since then, and increasingly over the last 5
years, CEA has been adopted as a commercially-viable solution to urban food production, and
companies like Bowery have used CEA to build farms closer to the point of consumption that
can produce food efficiently for urban populations.

Modern farming techniques

While CEA is a broad term, there are actually a number of different approaches that can be used
to grow indoors. These techniques differ in how they deliver a plant’s three primary needs:
water, nutrients, and light

Water: Hydroponics vs. aeroponics

For water, CEA relies on either hydroponics or aeroponics. Hydroponics is defined as the
science of growing plants without soil, and has been used throughout history by the Babylonians,
the Aztecs, and even the ancient Egyptians, among others. The commercial use of hydroponics
spread after WWII (when it was used by the U.S. Air Force to provide fresh food to troops
stationed on small, rocky islands in the Pacific), and continues to accelerate with the
development of better accompanying technology and automation. Traditional hydroponic
methods, which we use at Bowery, grow plants directly in nutrient-rich water.

Aeroponics is technically a subset of hydroponics and works by suspending plant roots in

air and misting them with nutrient water. This method can provide a greater level to control over
the amount of water that is used throughout the growing process, but may leave plant roots
vulnerable to pathogens, if not carefully controlled.

Nutrients: Hydroponics vs. aquaponics

The second main difference in technique concerns the way nutrients are supplied to the
plants. Hydroponics use mineral salts that mirror those naturally-occurring in soil, including
minerals like calcium, magnesium, and iron. These mineral salts are combined in precise
proportions and dissolved in water to provide nutrients directly to a plant’s roots, allowing for a
balanced nutrient environment to achieve optimal plant growth.
Aquaponics, on the other hand, is a closed-loop system that relies on the symbiotic
relationship between aquaculture (fish) and agriculture (plants) for fertilization. While fish waste
accumulates in the water and provides the nutrients necessary for plant growth, the plants
naturally clean the water. It provides a balanced, yet less regimented, environment.

Light: Greenhouses vs. Indoor vertical farms

 Any growing environment requires energy to power photosynthesis. The biggest
distinction in Controlled Environment Agriculture is in where this energy comes from, since it
doesn’t come (entirely) from the sun, as it does in field farming.
Greenhouses often use a combination of natural and artificial lighting. Greenhouses grow
crops indoors in a structure with walls and a roof made primarily of transparent material, like
glass or polyethylene, in order to make use of naturally occurring sunlight. They use glass to
filter out the UV rays, reducing the heat build-up inside the growing environment. Often, they
supplement this sunlight with artificial light to counteract the times when the sun’s energy is
either less intense or hidden by clouds.
Indoor vertical farms rely solely on artificial lighting. These farms grow crops entirely
indoors inside of a warehouse or shipping container. In some of these farms, crops grow along
vertical columns, and in others, they grow horizontally in stacked rows like the stories of a
skyscraper (as they do at Bowery). One advantage to relying on LED lights, as we do at Bowery,
is that they allow us to grow consistently and reliably 365 days of the year, regardless of weather
or seasonality. Another advantage is that we can precisely control their spectrum, intensity, and
duration, which allows us to adjust many variables including flavor profiles, and make our
mustard greens spicier or our arugula more peppery, for example. We do this using Bowery OS,
the software-based brains of our farm.
Until about 5–10 years ago, greenhouse production dominated, but in the last few years
more indoor vertical farms have emerged, due in large part to falling LED prices. Both
greenhouses and indoor vertical farms can be built in and around cities allowing modern farmers
to cut thousands of miles out of the supply chain and deliver fresh produce within days rather
than weeks of harvest.

The future looks ripe

While urban farming is on the rise, it still comprises less than 20 percent of agricultural
production worldwide today according to the U.N. Food and Agriculture Organization. Yet, this
next frontier of farming boasts some important advantages: it allows farmers to produce more
output, use fewer resources, and reduce transportation by locating operations closer to the point
of consumption. As the global population continues to rise, people continue to move to and
around cities, and resources continue to dwindle, indoor vertical farming is going to continue to
grow rapidly in both scale and importance. At Bowery, we’re excited to be at the forefront of this
growth and are passionate about realizing the potential of indoor agriculture to grow food for a
better future by revolutionizing agriculture.

B. Modern Agriculture: Its Features and Impacts

Modern agriculture is an evolving approach to agricultural innovations and farming

practices that help farmers increase efficiency and reduce the number of natural resources like
water, land, and energy necessary to meet the world’s food, fuel, and fiber needs. The
agribusiness, intensive farming, organic farming, and sustainable agriculture are other names of
modern agriculture.

Basic Features of Modern Agriculture

 The new technology adopted in the Indian agriculture during mid-1960s is consisted of
several ingredients like HYV seeds, chemical fertilizers, pesticides, irrigation and improved
machines and tools like tractors, pump sets etc. All these together are termed as ‘package
programme. If any one of these elements is missing, there will be no significant remarkable
impact on productivity per hectare of land.

1. HYV seeds. Under the new agricultural strategy special emphasis has been placed on the
development and widespread adoption of high yielding varieties of seeds. Production of
improved seeds (HYV seeds) was encouraged by both the Central and State
Governments. As a result the use of HYV seeds had increased from 25 lakhs quintals in
1980-81 to 105 lakhs quintals in 2003-04. The use of these seeds lead to multiple
cropping.
2. Chemical Fertilizers. Indian soil is deficient in nitrogen and phosphorous and this
deficiency can be reduced by increasing the use of chemical fertilizers. Thus, traditional
fertilizers are replaced by chemical fertilizers. Multiple cropping is possible only by
using the chemical fertilizers in a large extent.
3. Irrigation. Increase in agricultural production and productivity depends on the availability
of water. Moreover, the use of HYV seeds and chemical fertilizers required adequate
supply of water. Hence, irrigation (i.e., artificial ways of supplying water in the
cultivatable lands) is the basic requirement for the successful implementation of Green
Revolution. In India, still today 60 percent of grass cropped area are depended on the
gambling of monsoon.
4. Pesticides. Pesticides are defined as any substance or mixture of several substances which
prevented the HYV seeds and plants from the diseases and unwanted pest-attacks. Thus,
the use of various types of chemical pesticides (compounds) for controlling pest-attacks
is an essential element of modern agricultural techniques,
5. Multiple Cropping. In India, the country enjoys tropical and sub-tropical climatic
conditions. Therefore, it has huge potentialities to grow crops on a year round
basis.However, 80 percent of the annual rainfall is received in less than four months,
hence multiple cropping is generally not possible. However, the successful
implementation of ‘package programme’ through intensive cultivation can make
environment to grow crops more than one time (twice or thrice) during a year in several
parts of India.

Impact of Modern Agriculture on the Environment

As we know that modern agriculture improved our affordability of food, increases the
food supply, ensured the food safety, increases the sustainability and also produces more
biofuels. But with the same time, it also leads to environmental problems because it is based on
high input–high output technique using hybrid seeds of high-yielding variety and abundant
irrigation water, fertilizers and pesticides. The impacts of modern agriculture on Environment are
discussed below:

1. Soil Erosion. The top fertile soil of the farmland is removed due to the excessive water supply.
This leads to the loss of nutrient rich soil that hampered the productivity. It also causes the global
warming because the silt of water bodies induces the release of soil carbon from the particulate
organic material.
2. Contamination of ground water. The ground water is one of the important sources of water for
irrigation. From agricultural fields nitrogenous fertilizers leach into the soil and finally
contaminate groundwater. When the nitrate level of groundwater exceeds 25mg/l, they can cause
a serious health hazard known as “Blue Baby Syndrome”, which affects mostly infants even
leading to their death.

3. Water-logging and salinity. The salinity of the soil is one of the reasons of low productivity
just because of the improper management of farm drainage. In this situation, the roots of plants
do not get enough air to respiration then it leads to low crop yield as well as low mechanical
strength.
4. Eutrophication. It refers to the addition of artificial or non-artificial substances such as nitrates
and phosphate, through fertilizers or sewage, to a fresh water system. It leads to increase in the
primary productivity of the water body or 'bloom' of phytoplankton. Excessive use of fertilizers
that consists of nitrogen and phosphorus leads to over nourishment of the lakes/waterbodies and
gives rise to the phenomenon of eutrophication (eu = more, trophication= nutrition).
5. Excessive use of Pesticide. There are many pesticides are used for destroying pests and
boosting crop production. Earlier arsenic, sulphur, lead and mercury was used to kill pests. For
Example- Dichloro Diphenyl Trichloroethane (DDT) content pesticides were used, but
unfortunately, it also targeted the beneficial pests. Most importantly, many pesticides are non-
biodegradable, which also linked to the food chains which are harmful to human being.

C. Issues and Concerns in Agriculture

1. Loss of Agricultural Land

One of the major problems facing agriculture is the loss of agricultural land, because as more
land is lost, it will become more difficult to produce the amount of food needed to feed the
growing human population.
Worldwide, around three million hectares of agricultural land are lost each year because the soil
degrades and becomes unusable due to erosion, which is when soil components move from one
location to another by wind or water. An additional four million hectares are lost each year when
agricultural land is converted and used for highways, housing, factories, and other urban needs.
In the United States, around 140 million hectares of agricultural land has been lost in the last 30
years as a result of soil degradation and conversion for urban use.

2. Decreased Varieties. Another major problem in agriculture is the overall decrease in the
varieties of crops and livestock produced. In the early years of agriculture, farmers grew a wide
variety of crops and raised many different types of livestock. Since the development of
industrialized agriculture the number of different types of crops and livestock has decreased.
This decline in variety is due to the fact that it is cheaper to produce large quantities of the same
type of crop or livestock than to produce smaller batches of multiple types. For livestock
production, it is cheaper and easier to buy or produce only one type of feed for animals and
invest in only one type of slaughter and processing. For crops, if farmers plant monocultures,
which are when a single crop is planted on a large scale, the production is cheaper because the
entire process of planting, growing, and harvesting is more streamlined.
3. Lack of Government Support
We are supposed to be an agricultural country but the largest contribution of GDP is the industry
sector, which has the lowest number of employed among Agriculture, Services, and others. If the
Government would support the farmers by giving them land, fertilizers, equipment, and
salary/profit then there would be no problems at all.
4. Technology
Filipino farmers are wary when there is a mechanized planter or new tech being introduced. It is
seen as a threat to their minimum wage jobs. A professor one’s experience was that during a
demo run, a farmer left a metal wrench/wire in the rice paddy, destroying the mechanized
transplanter. It would displace some farmers’ job and it's not that practical as you would only use
it for up to 2 planting seasons every year. Plus the maintenance involved.

5. Farmers themselves. They refuse to change their cultivation practices. Always preferring the
old method. Rice researches would always tell them that only fertilize during this certain day and
it is okay for the rice to not be flooded every time until harvest. It is proven by research that rice
would only need this nutrient at a certain life stage and that alternating water and dry method is
proven to have high yields compared to continuous flooding. They always say yes that they will
follow it but no, they would only repeat their old practices.

D. Relevance of Ecological Agricultural Practices to Food Security

Organic agriculture practices build soil, thereby increasing productive land availability while
halting and reversing land degradation and erosion. Importantly, organic agriculture practices are
also accessible to small-scale and poor farmers who depend on biodiversity, soil health, and
locally available resources for agricultural production. With these, debts are reduced, increasing
returns for labor invested thereby combating poverty and ensuring food security.

E. Basic Ecological Concepts

Concept 1: Levels of biological organization (genes, populations, species, communities,

ecosystems, landscapes, regions). Life is dynamic and involves multi-scale ecological patterns
and processes. Although each scale is important, the interdependence of scales needs to be
understood and assessed in order to conserve biodiversity.

The concept of levels of biological organization refers to the different levels of complexity within
the living world, ranging from individual organisms to entire ecosystems. Here are the different
levels, along with examples:

1. Individual organism: This is the most basic level of biological organization, referring to
a single living organism, such as a plant or an animal. Examples include a single oak
tree or a single elephant.
2. Population: A population refers to a group of individuals of the same species living in
the same geographic area. For example, a population of honeybees living in a hive or a
population of wolves in a forest.
 3. Community: A community refers to all of the populations of different species living in the
same geographic area and interacting with each other. For example, a community of
plants, animals, and microorganisms living in a prairie ecosystem.
4. Ecosystem: An ecosystem refers to a community of living organisms and the nonliving
components of their environment, such as water, air, and soil. For example, a coral reef
ecosystem or a temperate forest ecosystem.
5. Biome: A biome refers to a large geographic area with a particular climate and a
distinct set of plant and animal communities. Examples include tropical rainforests,
deserts, and tundra.
6. Biosphere: The biosphere refers to the sum total of all living things on Earth, and the
environments in which they live. It encompasses all of the different biomes and
ecosystems on the planet.

Understanding the different levels of biological organization is important for understanding how
living things interact with each other and their environment at different scales, and how changes
at one level can have cascading effects throughout the system.

Concept 2: Native species are those that naturally exist at a given location or in a particular
ecosystem – i.e., they have not been moved there by humans.

The concept of native species refers to organisms that occur naturally in a given geographic
area, having evolved there over time without human intervention. Native species have adapted to
the local environmental conditions and are typically better suited to the local ecosystem than
non-native or invasive species. Here's an example to illustrate this concept:

Let's say you are studying the plant species in a particular forest ecosystem. Some of the plant
species you find, such as maple trees and ferns, are native to the area. They have evolved over
time to thrive in the local climate, soil conditions, and the presence of other plant and animal
species in the ecosystem. Native species often play important roles in ecosystem functioning,
such as providing food and habitat for local wildlife, controlling erosion, and contributing to
nutrient cycling.

On the other hand, you might also find some non-native species, such as Japanese knotweed,
which was introduced to the area by humans. Non-native species can sometimes become
invasive, meaning they outcompete native species and disrupt ecosystem functioning. For
example, Japanese knotweed can grow aggressively and crowd out native plant species, leading
to a loss of habitat for native animals.

Protecting and conserving native species is important for maintaining healthy and resilient
ecosystems, as well as preserving the biodiversity of the planet.

Concept 3: A keystone species, ecosystem or process has a disproportionate influence on an

ecosystem or landscape such as the role beavers play in altering the hydrological characteristics
of streams and wetlands.
Keystone species have effects on biological communities that are disproportionate to
their abundance and biomass. The loss of keystone species results in broader community
or ecosystem-level effects. A keystone species interacts with other species through
predation, symbiotic dependencies such as plant-pollinator relationships, or ecosystem
modification (e.g., cavity nesters, beaver impoundments).

The concept of keystone species refers to a species that has a disproportionately large
impact on the structure and function of an ecosystem relative to its abundance. The term
"keystone" comes from the analogy to a keystone in an arch, which is a central stone that
helps to hold the other stones in place and maintain the stability of the structure. Without
the keystone, the arch would collapse. Similarly, keystone species play critical roles in
maintaining the stability and functioning of their ecosystems. Here's an example:

One classic example of a keystone species is the sea otter in coastal ecosystems in the
Pacific Northwest. Sea otters are a relatively small and uncommon species, but they have
a huge impact on their ecosystem because they are top predators that feed on sea
urchins. Sea urchins are herbivores that graze on kelp, a type of seaweed that forms
extensive underwater forests. If left unchecked, sea urchins can overgraze the kelp
forests, leading to a decline in biodiversity and ecological stability. However, when sea
otters are present, they prey on the sea urchins and keep their populations in check,
allowing the kelp forests to thrive and providing habitat for a wide range of other marine
species.

In the absence of sea otters, the entire ecosystem can be transformed, leading to a
cascade of ecological effects. For example, declining kelp forests can lead to the loss of
habitat for fish, which can in turn affect the populations of birds and mammals that rely
on the fish for food. By playing a critical role in controlling sea urchin populations, sea
otters help to maintain the health and stability of the entire ecosystem.

This example illustrates how a single species, even if relatively small in number, can
have a huge impact on the functioning of an ecosystem. Without keystone species,
ecosystems can become unstable and vulnerable to collapse.

keystone ecosystem is particularly important because it provides habitat for a large

portion or critical elements of an area’s biodiversity. Riparian ecosystems near streams,
lakes and wetlands are considered keystone since they cover a relatively small area yet
support a disproportionately large number of species. Estuaries are also a keystone
ecosystem because of their disproportionately large influence relative to their size and
abundance.
A keystone ecosystem is one that provides unique and irreplaceable benefits to both
human societies and other species, and its loss or degradation can have significant
impacts on the environment and human well-being.

For example, coral reefs are often considered to be keystone ecosystems because they
provide a wide range of benefits, such as providing habitat and food for marine species,
protecting coastlines from erosion and storm surges, and supporting recreational and
tourism industries. Coral reefs also play an important role in regulating the global
climate by sequestering carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.

However, coral reefs are under threat from a range of human activities, including
overfishing, pollution, and climate change. If coral reefs were to disappear, it would
have significant impacts on the entire marine ecosystem, as well as on human societies
that depend on them for food, livelihoods, and recreation.

Other examples of keystone ecosystems include rainforests, wetlands, and grasslands.

These ecosystems play critical roles in regulating the Earth's climate, filtering water,
supporting biodiversity, and providing resources and services to human societies.
Protecting and conserving keystone ecosystems is important for maintaining the health
and well-being of the planet and its inhabitants.

 A keystone process is fundamental to the maintenance of an ecosystem. For example,

fire plays a vital role in maintaining open ponderosa pine forests and grasslands.
Pollination is another keystone process.

In these ecosystems, fire plays an important role in clearing out dead vegetation and
promoting the growth of new plants. Without periodic fires, the forest or grassland can
become overgrown and susceptible to insect outbreaks, disease, and other disturbances
that can disrupt the ecological balance. However, when fires occur at regular intervals,
they help to maintain the health and diversity of the ecosystem by promoting the growth
of fire-adapted plants and reducing competition from other species.

Pollination is another important keystone process that is essential for the reproduction
and survival of many plant species, as well as for the functioning of ecosystems as a
whole. Pollinators, such as bees, butterflies, birds, and bats, play a critical role in
transferring pollen between flowers, which allows for fertilization and the production of
seeds and fruits. Without pollination, many plant species would not be able to reproduce
and the biodiversity of ecosystems would be greatly reduced. In addition, pollinators are
important for the production of many crops that are essential for human societies, such
as fruits, vegetables, and nuts.

These examples illustrate how keystone processes are critical for the functioning and
maintenance of ecosystems, and how their disruption or loss can have significant
ecological and societal impacts.
Concept 4: Population viability/thresholds. “Viability” in this context refers to the probability
of survival of a population/species in the face of ecological processes such as disturbance. When
the amount of habitat available declines below the “extinction threshold”, a population/species
will decline and eventually disappear; in addition to habitat for particular populations, a species’
survival depends on maintaining healthy genetic variability. Species-level details about
movement, behaviour and life history traits demonstrate that threshold responses vary by species
and can be difficult to detect.

Population viability/thresholds refer to the minimum population size and genetic diversity
needed for a species to maintain a sustainable and stable population over time. This concept is
important in ecology and conservation biology, as it helps to determine whether a population is
at risk of extinction and what measures are needed to protect and conserve it.

For example, let's consider a population of tigers in a forest. If the population size of tigers
becomes too small, their genetic diversity will be reduced, making them more susceptible to
genetic diseases and reducing their ability to adapt to environmental changes. Additionally, a
small population size can make the population more vulnerable to stochastic events such as
natural disasters, disease outbreaks, or hunting, which can cause a rapid decline in population
numbers.

In order to maintain a viable tiger population, conservationists need to ensure that the
population size remains above a certain threshold. The exact threshold will vary depending on
the species and the specific ecological context, but generally, a population needs to be large
enough to maintain genetic diversity and to withstand stochastic events.

Conservationists use a variety of methods to monitor and manage population viability. These
can include habitat conservation, anti-poaching efforts, captive breeding programs, and
translocation of individuals to new populations. By maintaining viable populations, we can
ensure the long-term survival and ecological role of species, as well as the important services
they provide to human societies.

Concept 5: Ecological resilience is the capacity of an ecosystem to cope with disturbance or

stress and return to a stable state. The concept of ecological resilience is consistent with the
notion that ecosystems are complex, dynamic and adaptive systems that are rarely at equilibrium;
most systems can potentially exist in various states.

Ecological resilience is the capacity of an ecosystem to resist, recover, and adapt to

disturbances or changes in environmental conditions. This concept is important because
ecosystems are constantly subjected to disturbances, such as natural disasters, climate change,
and human activities, and their ability to cope with these disturbances is critical for their long-
term survival and functioning.
For example, let's consider a coral reef ecosystem that has been affected by bleaching due to
warmer sea temperatures. An ecologically resilient reef would be able to resist the initial effects
of the disturbance, such as the loss of coral cover, and then recover through natural processes
such as recruitment of new corals and restoration of the reef's structural complexity. In contrast,
a less resilient reef may not be able to recover and may shift to an alternate state, such as a
degraded coral-dominated or algae-dominated state.

Ecological resilience can be enhanced through various management strategies, such as reducing
pollution and overfishing, promoting biodiversity, and restoring degraded habitats. These
measures help to increase the resilience of ecosystems by reducing stressors and enhancing the
capacity of ecosystems to recover from disturbances.

In summary, ecological resilience is critical for the functioning and survival of ecosystems, as it
allows them to resist, recover, and adapt to disturbances and changes in environmental
conditions. By enhancing resilience through effective management, we can help to ensure the
long-term health and sustainability of ecosystems and the services they provide to human
societies.

Concept 6: Disturbances are individually distinct events, either natural or human-induced, that
cause a change in the existing condition of an ecological systm. Disturbances can be described in
terms of their type, intensity, spatial extent, frequency and other factors.

Disturbances refer to any event or process that disrupts or alters the structure, composition, or
functioning of an ecosystem. These disturbances can be natural, such as wildfires, hurricanes,
and floods, or human-caused, such as deforestation, pollution, and climate change.

Disturbances play a critical role in shaping ecosystems by creating opportunities for new
species to colonize, promoting biodiversity, and maintaining ecosystem functions. For example,
periodic wildfires in some ecosystems can promote the growth of fire-adapted species and
maintain open habitats that are necessary for the survival of certain plant and animal species.

However, disturbances can also have negative impacts on ecosystems, such as by reducing
biodiversity, altering nutrient cycles, and degrading ecosystem services. For example,
deforestation can lead to soil erosion, loss of biodiversity, and changes in local climate patterns,
with negative consequences for local communities and wildlife.

Ecologists study disturbances and their impacts on ecosystems to better understand the complex
relationships between biotic and abiotic factors in ecosystem dynamics. They also work to
develop strategies for managing disturbances, such as controlled burns to prevent larger
wildfires, and restoration projects to promote ecosystem recovery and enhance resilience to
future disturbances.

In summary, disturbances are a fundamental concept in ecology, as they play a critical role in
shaping ecosystem structure and functioning. Understanding the impacts of disturbances and
developing effective management strategies is essential for maintaining the health and
sustainability of ecosystems and the important services they provide to human societies.

Concept 7: Connectivity/fragmentation is the degree to which ecosystem structure facilitates

or impedes the movement of organisms between resource patches.29 What constitutes
connectivity is scale-dependent and varies for each species depending on its habitat
requirements, sensitivity to disturbance and vulnerability to human-caused mortality.30
Connectivity allows individual organisms to move in response to changing conditions, such as
seasonal cycles, a forest fire or climate change. Loss of connectivity results in fragmentation.

Connectivity and fragmentation are two interrelated concepts in ecology that refer to the degree
to which habitats and landscapes are connected or divided by barriers. Connectivity refers to the
degree to which habitats are connected, while fragmentation refers to the degree to which
habitats are divided into smaller, isolated patches.

Connectivity is important because it allows for the movement of organisms, nutrients, and
energy between habitats, promoting genetic diversity, and maintaining ecosystem functions. For
example, a network of interconnected forest patches can allow for the movement of forest-
dwelling species, such as birds and mammals, between different patches, which can help to
maintain genetic diversity and reduce the risk of local extinctions.

In contrast, fragmentation can have negative impacts on biodiversity and ecosystem functioning.
When habitats are fragmented, species can become isolated and unable to move between
patches, which can lead to reduced genetic diversity, increased risk of local extinctions, and
changes in ecosystem processes. For example, fragmentation of wetlands can lead to declines in
wetland-dependent species, such as amphibians, that require connected habitat to complete their
life cycles.

Human activities, such as urbanization, agriculture, and transportation infrastructure, can

cause fragmentation and reduce connectivity of habitats. Ecologists study the impacts of
fragmentation on ecosystems and work to develop strategies for promoting connectivity, such as
creating wildlife corridors, restoring degraded habitats, and reducing fragmentation through
landscape planning.

In summary, connectivity and fragmentation are important concepts in ecology that refer to the
degree to which habitats are connected or divided by barriers. Maintaining connectivity is
critical for promoting biodiversity and maintaining ecosystem functions, while fragmentation
can have negative impacts on biodiversity and ecosystem processes. Understanding these
concepts and their implications can help to guide conservation and management efforts to
promote the long-term health and sustainability of ecosystems.

Concept 8: Coarse and fine filter approach. “Coarse filter” is a metaphor to express the idea
that by conserving the ecological communities of a given region, the majority of species will be
conserved. The coarse filter approach refers to the management of landscapes through a network
of protected areas, and management practices in the surrounding matrix that attempt to emulate
and conserve natural ecological processes within the NRV. “Fine filter” is a metaphor to express
the idea that some species, ecosystems and features need to be conserved through individual,
often localized efforts (this is called the fine filter approach) because they fall through the mesh
of the coarse filter.

The coarse and fine filter approach is a conceptual framework used in conservation biology to
guide the design and implementation of strategies for conserving biodiversity.

The coarse filter approach focuses on the protection of large-scale ecosystems, such as
landscapes or bioregions, as a means of maintaining biodiversity. This approach aims to
conserve a representative sample of ecosystems and their associated species, rather than
focusing on individual species or populations. The coarse filter approach typically involves the
establishment of protected areas, such as national parks or nature reserves, which serve as
refuges for biodiversity.

The fine filter approach, on the other hand, focuses on the conservation of individual species or
populations. This approach recognizes that some species may be particularly vulnerable to
extinction and require targeted conservation efforts. The fine filter approach typically involves
measures such as habitat restoration, captive breeding programs, and conservation genetics.

The coarse and fine filter approach can be used together to provide a comprehensive approach
to biodiversity conservation. By protecting large-scale ecosystems through the coarse filter
approach, we can help to maintain the ecological processes that support biodiversity. At the
same time, targeted conservation efforts through the fine filter approach can help to protect
individual species and populations that may be at risk of extinction.

In summary, the coarse and fine filter approach is a framework used in conservation biology
that recognizes the importance of protecting both ecosystems and individual species. This
approach helps to ensure the long-term health and sustainability of biodiversity by promoting
conservation at both large and small scales.

Concept 9: Risk is an inherent aspect of decision-making. Risk assessment takes into

consideration two elements: (1) the likelihood of an event occurring; and (2) the magnitude of
the consequences should that event occur. Risk assessment is a formal appraisal of these two
elements. Risk management is the process of weighing the assessed risks against the expected
benefits to make the “best” decision. Uncertainty is directly related to risk, for example, because
an increase in uncertainty can result in a higher perception of risk.

In ecology, risk refers to the potential for harm or negative impacts to occur as a result of
natural or human-induced disturbances or actions. Risk is an inherent aspect of decision-making
in ecology, as ecologists and conservationists must consider the potential risks and benefits of
different management or conservation strategies.

For example, when deciding whether to introduce a new species to an ecosystem, ecologists
must weigh the potential benefits of the new species against the potential risks, such as
competition with native species or the introduction of new diseases. Similarly, when designing a
restoration project, ecologists must consider the potential risks of disturbing existing ecosystems
and the potential benefits of restoring degraded habitats.

The concept of risk is also closely related to the idea of uncertainty, as ecologists often have
limited knowledge or understanding of complex ecological systems and the potential outcomes of
different management or conservation strategies. Therefore, it is important for ecologists and
conservationists to employ strategies that are adaptive and flexible, allowing for adjustments to
be made as new information becomes available.

In summary, risk is an inherent aspect of decision-making in ecology, as ecologists and

conservationists must consider the potential risks and benefits of different management or
conservation strategies. The concept of risk is closely related to uncertainty, and therefore, it is
important for ecologists and conservationists to employ adaptive and flexible strategies that
allow for adjustments to be made as new information becomes available.

Concept 10: Adaptive management. As a formal response to the presence of uncertainty and
risk, adaptive management is a systematic learning process that formally plans and monitors the
outcomes of decisions to improve our ability to better manage natural resources given
ncertainty. The options to improve decision making with incomplete knowledge include: (1)
“trial and error”, in which initial choices are a‘best guess’ with later choices chosen from a
subset that gives better results; (2)“passive adaptive” where one model is assumed to be correct;
and (3) “active adaptive”where multiple alternate models are linked to policy choices. Passive
adaptive management can provide an effective means of identifying the best (or at least better)
practices among existing practices. Active adaptive management can play a particularly
important role by incorporating uncertainty in a dynamic system and thus providing greater
learning opportunities for stakeholders, scientists, managers and citizens. The concepts of risk
and uncertainty are inextricably linked to adaptive management, where learning is a key output
in support of continuous improvement in decision-making.

Adaptive management is a systematic approach to managing natural resources and ecosystems

that emphasizes learning and continuous improvement over time. It involves an iterative process
of monitoring, assessment, planning, implementation, and evaluation, with the goal of improving
management decisions and outcomes over time.

Adaptive management is particularly useful in situations where there is high uncertainty or

complexity, where there are multiple competing objectives or values, or where there is the
potential for unforeseen or unintended consequences. The approach recognizes that ecological
systems are complex and dynamic, and that management decisions must be responsive to
changing conditions and new information.

The adaptive management process typically involves the following steps:

1. Define the problem or issue to be addressed

2. Identify management objectives and potential actions
3. Develop a monitoring and evaluation plan to assess the effectiveness of management
actions
4. Implement management actions
5. Monitor and evaluate the outcomes of management actions
6. Use the results of monitoring and evaluation to refine management objectives and
actions

Adaptive management has been used in a wide range of contexts, including the management of
fisheries, wildlife, forests, and rangelands. For example, adaptive management has been used to
manage the recovery of endangered species, to control invasive species, and to restore degraded
habitats.

In summary, adaptive management is a systematic approach to managing natural resources and

ecosystems that emphasizes learning and continuous improvement over time. The approach
recognizes the complexity and uncertainty of ecological systems and involves an iterative
process of monitoring, assessment, planning, implementation, and evaluation. Adaptive
management is particularly useful in situations where there is high uncertainty or complexity,
and where there are multiple competing objectives or values.

Concept 11: Ecosystem-based management (EBM). EBM can be defined as “an adaptive
approach to managing human activities that seeks to ensure the coexistence of healthy, fully
functioning ecosystems and human communities. The intent is to maintain those spatial and
temporal characteristics of ecosystems such that component species and ecological processes can
be sustained, and human wellbeing supported and improved.

Ecosystem-based management is an approach to managing natural resources and ecosystems

that takes into account the interactions among all living organisms and their environment, and
seeks to maintain or restore ecological integrity while meeting human needs. It is based on the
recognition that natural systems are interconnected and that the health and productivity of
ecosystems are essential to sustaining human well-being.

Ecosystem-based management involves a holistic approach to resource management that

considers the entire ecosystem, rather than just individual species or resources. This approach
recognizes the importance of preserving the integrity of ecosystems, and seeks to manage human
activities in ways that minimize negative impacts on the environment while maximizing the
benefits that can be obtained from natural resources.
Ecosystem-based management is often used in the management of marine and coastal
ecosystems, where the health and productivity of the ecosystem is critical to the sustainability of
fisheries, tourism, and other economic activities. For example, in the management of marine
fisheries, ecosystem-based management seeks to maintain the health of the entire ecosystem,
rather than just focusing on individual fish stocks. This may involve measures to protect habitat,
reduce bycatch, and control fishing effort in ways that support the long-term sustainability of the
ecosystem as a whole.

In summary, ecosystem-based management is an approach to managing natural resources and

ecosystems that takes into account the interactions among all living organisms and their
environment, and seeks to maintain or restore ecological integrity while meeting human needs. It
involves a holistic approach to resource management that considers the entire ecosystem, and is
often used in the management of marine and coastal ecosystems.

Concept 12: Protected area. Protected area in this context refers to any area that has some form
of protection and typically has a minimal human footprint. Protected areas are often the core of a
coarse filter approach to conservation. However, they also can serve other conservation roles.
Protected areas are used for fine filter purposes (e.g., to protect a population of a rare species or a
significant landform); to provide connectivity; to serve as benchmarks; and/or to provide for
research and education opportunities.

A protected area is a defined geographical space that is managed and conserved to achieve
specific conservation objectives. Protected areas are designed to protect biodiversity, ecosystem
services, cultural values, and other natural and cultural resources. They can be found in
terrestrial, freshwater, and marine environments and may be designated by governments,
communities, or private organizations.

Protected areas can take many different forms, including national parks, wildlife reserves,
marine protected areas, and community-managed conservation areas. They may be established
for a variety of reasons, such as to protect rare or endangered species, preserve important
habitats, maintain ecosystem services, or provide opportunities for scientific research and
education.

The main goal of protected areas is to ensure the long-term conservation of biodiversity and
ecosystem services. This can be achieved through a range of management strategies, such as
habitat restoration, invasive species control, and regulation of human activities within the
protected area. Protected areas can also provide economic benefits through ecotourism and
other sustainable uses of natural resources.

Examples of protected areas include Yellowstone National Park in the United States, the Great
Barrier Reef Marine Park in Australia, and the Serengeti National Park in Tanzania. These
areas are managed to protect important ecosystems, preserve biodiversity, and provide
recreational opportunities for visitors.
In summary, a protected area is a defined geographical space that is managed and conserved to
achieve specific conservation objectives. They are designed to protect biodiversity, ecosystem
services, cultural values, and other natural and cultural resources, and can take many different
forms. The main goal of protected areas is to ensure the long-term conservation of biodiversity
and ecosystem services through a range of management strategies.