Fundamentals of Hydrogeology-Akhauri

Fundamentals
of
Hydrogeology
SANJAY AKHAURI
H. M. AKHAURI
ZORBA BOOKS
Dur
ct. Contents
vill
Dedication
Preface
Symbols
Chapter 1 Ground Water Resources

1.1 Introduction
2
1.2 Scope of Hydrogeologyy
1.3 The Hydrological Cycle
Ground Water Resources of India 3
1.4
Status of Ground Water Development in India 4
1.5
Ground Water Regions of India
4
1.6
8
1.7 Age of Ground Water 9
1.8 Hydrogeology of States of India
Chapter2 Precipitation, Evaporation, Baseflow 19

2.1 Precipitation 19
2.2 Infiltration
20
2.3 Evaporation 21
2.4 Transpiration
21
2.5 Runoff, Stream Flow, Base Flow
22
2.6 Gaining and Loosing Stream 23
2.7 Recession of Base Flow
Chapter 3 Hydrological Properties of Rocks

26
3.1 Aquifer
26
3.2 Aquitard
26
3.3 Aquiclude
27
3.4 Aquifuge Unconfined etc. 27
3.5 Types of Aquifer Confined,
-
Classification of Subsurface Water 29

3.6
Water Table
31
3.7
Potentiometric Surface 32
3.8
Porosity in Rocks 33
3.9
35
3.10 Void Space
35
3.11 Effective Porosity
35
3.12 Grain Size Analysis of Sediments
3.13 Origin of Porosity in Rocks 37
3.14 Specific Yield 37
3.15 Specific Retention 39
Coefficient
(Storativity)
Coefticient
39
3.16 Storage
(Elastic Storage) 39 5
3.17 Specific or Storage in Relation to Porosity 40
Ground Water Storage
3.18 41
3.19 Hydraulic Conductivity
3.20 Intrinsic Permeability 41
Permeability
Relation between Specific Yield and Texture Rcoks
42
3.21 and
Relation between Porosity, Permeability 43
3.22
Transmissivity
44
3.23
Ground Water Flow

Chapter 4 45
6
Water
4.1 Energy in Ground
Darcy's Law 46
4.2 6
Flow Net 48
4.3 6
4.4 Tidal Efficiency 52 6.
Barometric Fluctuation and Efficiency 53
4.5 6
4.6 Fluctuation of Water Level 55 6.
4.7 Ghyben Herzberg Principle 55
6
4.8 One Dimensional Steady Flow 57 6
6
Chapter 5 Radial Flow 6.
5.1 Flow of Water in Confined Aquifer 59 6.
5.2 Flow of Water in Unconfined Aquifer 59 6.
5.3 Ground Water Flow Equations 60 6.
5.3.1 Flow in Confined Aquifer 60
5.3.2 Flow in Unconfined Aquifer 61
5.4 Steady State Radial Flow 61
5.4.1 Confined Aquifer 61
5.4.2 Unconfined Aquifer 61
5.5 Unsteady State Radial Flow (Theis Equation) 62
5.6 Jacob Straight Line Method 65
5.7 Theis Recovery Method 66
5.8 Semi-confined or Leaky Aquifer without Storage in 8
5.9
Confining Layer 69 7.
Leaky Confined Aquifer with Storage in Confining Layer
5.10 Radial Flow in Well in Unconfined 69
5.11 Slug Test Aquifer 11
5.12 Bailers Method 71
5.13 Stallman and Jenkins Method 72
5.14 Variable Discharge Method 72
5.15
5.16
Interpretations of Pumping Test Data 74
Partial Penetration of Wells 14
5.17 Cone of Depression 75
5.18 Intersecting Pumping Cone 76
5.19 Flow Near Boundaries 77
5.20 Location of Unknown Acquifer Boundary 79
5.21 Tracer Techniques 81
5.22 Intrusion of Sea Water
81
Chapter 6 Ground Water Chemistry

6.1 Introduction 85
6.2 Units of Measurement 85
6.3 Physical Character 86
6.4 Classification of Water 86
6.5 Drinking Water Specifications 86
6.6 Important Properties of Water 87
6.7 Quality of Water for Industrial Use 93
6.8 Quality of Water for Agricultural Use 94
6.9 Purification of Water 94
6.10 Presentation of Chemical Analysis Data 95
6.11 Ground Water Contamination 100
6.12 Restoration of Ground Water Quality 102
6.13 Properties of Contaminants 103
6.14 Solute Transport 103
6.15 Incrustation and Corrosion 103
6.16 Environmental Isotopes 104
Chapter 7 Ground Water Exploration

7.1 Groundwater Exploration 107
7.2 Exploratory Drilling 109
7.3 Preparation of Lithological Log 110
7.4 Drill Stem Test 111
7.5 Design of Well Assembly 112
7.6 Well Development 114
7.7 Well Field 114
7.8 Conducting Pumping Test 114
7.9 Well Loss 116
7.10 Cavity Well 117
7.11 Driven Well 117
7.12 Exploration in Hard Rock Area 118
7.13 Specific Capacity 119
7.14 Preparation of Report 119
ptut
Basin Management
Ground Water
Chapter8
Ground Water Basin
8.1
8.2 Geomorphic Basin 122
122
8.3 Watershed
Water Balance
122
8.4
8.5
Ground Water Resources 123
124
Basin Management
8.6
Water Resources 125
Sustainability of Ground
Ground Water Mining and Cyclic Storage 125
Perennial or Safe Yield 126
8.9
8.10 Effects of Overexploitation of Ground
Water 127
8.11 Conjunctive of Ground
Use Water and Surface Water 127
8.12 Environmental study
127
128
Chapter 9 Recharge of Aquifer
9.1 Dynamic Equilibrium 131
9.2 Recharge to Unconfined Aquifer
131
9.3 Recharge to Confined Aquifer
9.4 Effects of Pumping
132
132
9.5 Artificial Recharge 133
9.6 Criteria for Selection of Ground Water Recharge Sites
133
9.7 Artificial Recharge to Unconfined Aquifer
9.8 Artificial Recharge to Confined Aquifer
133
9.9
136
Roof Top Rain Water
Harvesting 137
9.10 Induced Recharge 138
Chapter 10 Geophysical Methods in Ground Water Exploration

10.1 Introduction
10.2 140
Electrical Resistivity Survey 140
10.3 Seismic Survey
10.4 Magnetic Survey 152
10.5 Gravity Survey 161
10.6 163
10.7
Electromagnetic Survey 168
Ground Probing Radar
10.8 170
Geophysical Well Logging 171
hapter 11 Remote
Remote SensingSensing & Aerial
11.1
11.2 Aerial Photography
Photography 185
189
Chapter 12
Ground Water Modelling
2 193
12.1 Introduction
193
12.2 Different Types of Model
195
3
12.3 Mathematical Modelling
12.4 Parameters for Mathematical Modelling 196
197
12.5 Finite Difference Method
Finite Element Method
198
12.6 198
12.7 Modelling Process
Chapter 13
200
13.1
13.2
Springs
Effects of Geological Structure in Ground Water Movement 202
Ground Water in Desert Areas 202
13.3
13.4 Ground Water in Igneous and Metamorphic Rocks Terrain 203
13.5 Ground Water in Permafrost Region 204
13.6 Ground Water in Sedimentary Terrain 204
Importance of Lithological Mapping 204
13.7
13.8 Coastal Aquifers 205
13.9 Steady State Flow 205
13.10 Unsteady State Flow 206
13.11 Base Flow and Gaining Stream 206
13.12 Loosing Stream 206
13.13 Ground Water Problem in Underground Mine and Tunnelling 206
13.14 Baseline Data for Mining Projects 207
13.15 Ground Water Legislation 207
13.16 SP Log 208
13.17 Resistivity Log 208

13.18 Natural Gamma Log 208
13.19 Neutron Neutron Log or Neutron Log 209
13.20 Acoustic or Sonic Log 209
13.21 Seismic Refraction Survey (SRS) 209
13.22 Surface Resistivity Survey 210
210
13.23 Wetted Tape and Airline Method
13.24 Drinking Water Specification 210
13.25 Theis Equation 213
13.26 Jacob Straight Line Method 214
13.27 Theis Recovery Method 214
13.28 Hantush Jacob Formula 214
13.29 Cooper-Bredehoeft-Papadopulos Method 214
13.30 Theim's Method 215
13.31 Dupuit Equation 215
13.32 Sources of Water in A Well in Confined Aquifer
13.33 215
Analysis of Decline of Discharge of Wells 215
Chapter 14
Solved Problems
216
Appendix I 237
Appendix II 238
Appendix III
Appendix IV
Appendix V 240
Glossary 241
References 247
Symbols used in the Book
area of cross section in m

uniformity coefficient
Cu
porosity in percentage or fraction
effective porosity in percentage or fraction
e
SY specific yield in percentage or fraction
S specific retention in percentage or fraction
storativity in fraction
S
Se specific or elastic storage coefficient in m
K hydraulic conductivity in m/day
Ka hydraulic conductivity in horizontal direction
Ky hydraulic conductivity in vertical direction
Intrinsic Permeability in darcy (1 darcy = 9.87 x 10 cm)
K
reciprocal of bulk modulus of elasticity ofaquifer skeltonlin
m/Neuton
m/Neuton
reciprocal of bulk modulus of elasticity of water in
dh/dl hydraulic gradient
hydraulic gradient
rate of discharge in m/day
h head in metre
VD Darcy flux velocity
draw down in m
dynamic viscosity of fluid (water) in centipoises
density in Kg/m'
acceleration due to gravity m/sec*
8
T transmissivity
well function represents a infinite series of Theis equation
Wu)
u=(r S}/4Tt the argument in well function
As draw down per log cycle
As residual drawdown per log cycle
Wu,r/L)-well function for a leaky aquifer (Hantush and Jacob)
pH hydrogen ion concentration
Ec electrical conductivity of water in micro mhos/Cm or micro
Siemens/Cm
TDS total dissolved solid in parts per million (ppm) or mg/litre
me/l milli equivalent per litre (concentration of ion in (mg/1)/ its
equivalent weight)
SAR sodium absorption ratio
PYT preliminary yield test
DST drill stem test
Lpd litres per day
sitivity in ohm-m and density in gm/cm" or kg/m3
P
Pa apparent resistivity
K geometric factor
V velocity in m/sec
Vi velocity of first layer
Y gamma, unit for measuring intensity of magnetic field:
10 gamma =
1 Oersted
Mhz Mega Hertz ; unit of frequency of electromagnetic field
SP self potential orspontaneous potential in milli volt (mv)
Rm resistivity of mud (in borehole) in ohm-m
Rw resistivity of formation water in ohm-m
For p porosity in geophysical logging
F formation factor
mgal milli gal, unit for measuring gravity anomaly (1 gal =
1cm/sec
CPS counts per second; unit used for recording natural gamma,
neutron and density log
Pma grain density obtained from lab measurement of samples
Pb density of rock obtained from gamma, gamma log
Pf density of fluid
At transit time in microsecond/Vft
At liquid - transit time in water = 189 to 200 micro second/ft (620 to 656
micro second/metre)
At matrix - transit time for rock matrix
At log the transit time recorded on log against any formation.

APo change in atmospheric pressure
ASk change in stress of the aquifer skeleton
Ap change in water pressure of aquifer
Nf number of flow tubes in a flow net
Nd number of potential drop in a flow net
CHAPTER 1
Ground Water Resources
1.1 Introduction
of all life on earth. Without water life is not possible. Water
Water is the source
covers about 70% of
the earth's surface. The distribution of water throughout the
rainfall than others. The areas
earth is not uniform. Some places have far more
with plenty of rainfall are full of vegetation and those with scanty rainfall are
deserts.
Water exists in three states - liquid, solid and vapour state. In the liquid state
it is found in oceans, seas, lakes, rivers and the underground water in the top
layers of the earth's crust and soil cover. In solid state, it exists as ice and snow
cover in polar and mountainous regions. A certain amount of water is contained
in the air as water vapour, water droplets and ice crystal. uge amount of water
are bound up in the composition of the different minerals of the earth's crust and
it's interior.
Assessment of the total water storage on the earth reliably is complicated as
water is in dynamic condition. It is in permanent motion, constantly changing
from liquid to solid or gaseous phase and back again. The quantity of water
found in the hydrosphere is the usual way of estimating the earth's water. This is
all the free water existing in liquid, solid or gaseous state in the atmosphere, on
the earth's surface and in the crust down to a depth of 2000 m. Current estimates
are that the earth's hydrosphere contains a huge amount of water -about 1386
million cubic Kilometre (million Km). However, 97.5% of this amount exists as
saline water and only 2.5% as fresh water.
The largest portion of the(fresh water(68.7% )is in the form of ice and
permanent snow cover in the Antarctica, the Arctic and the mountainous region
and only (29.9% )exists as fresh ground
water. The amount of fresh water
contained in lakes, reservoirs and river system is only 0.26% of the total fresh
water on the earth and is
roughly 1% of the total fresh water. The values for
Stored water given above are for natural, static water
over a long period of time.
storage in the hydrosphere
The water in the lakes, reservoirs, streams and
rivers called surface water is
typically low in salt concentration. Ground water on the other hand contain
high concentration of dissolved salts effectively limiting its may use.
Ground water having concentration of economic
dissolved salts in excess of{1000 mg/l is
termed as brackish.
Age is a major difference between surface water and
the surface waters are typically fresh and ground water. Whereas
average, ground
distinctly new, it recycles in11days on
water does not recycle readily. Rates of ground water renewal
vary from days to years and from centuries to millennia. The
average time of
2 Fundamentals of Hydrogeology
tend to be
Shorter renewal times
renewal of ground water is 1400 years.
renewal times are associated
associated with shallow ground water, while longer
with deep ground water.
1.2 Scope of Hydrogeology

is interdisciplinary science. It encompasses geology,
Hydrogeology an
Apart from exploration,
hydrology, chemistry, mathematics and physics. water
and monitoring of ground
assessment, development, management it has
resources and assessment and monitoring
of its chemical quality,
applications in several other fields including the following:
.In the field of environmental management.
open cast and underground, for assessment of
In the field of mining, both of accidental entry of
volume
of ground water entry and also management
of mining on
ground water in mine, and pumping requirements. Impact
ground water regime, stability of pit walls.
Assessment of contamination of ground water and remedial measures like
selection of safe sites for disposal of contaminants.
I n analysis of major industrial project like nuclear power plant, coal mining
projects etc.
1.3 The Hydrological Cycle

The circulation and conservation of the earth's water as it circulates from land to
the sky and back again is called the hydrological cycle. The total amount of water
on the earth and its atmosphere does not change but the earth's water is always in
movement. Oceans, rivers, clouds and rain all of which contain water are in
frequent state of change and the motion of rain and flowing rivers transfer water
in a never ending cycle. The stages of the
cycle as shown in figure 1 are:
Evaporation, Transportation, Condensation, Precipitation, Ground water, Runoff.
Condensation Condensation
d deposition and deposition
CtoudM loud
SublimationT ypteaptaton Evaporation Evaporation
ce
Tree Rrecipiation
Infltration
********
Ground Water Qcean
Fig.1.1: Hydrological Cycle

Evaporation: The Sun's heat provides energy to evaporate water from
earth's surface, land and open water bodies like lakes, rivers and oceans and send
Ground Water Resources| 3
up steady stream of water vapour. The plants also loose water to the atmosphere
through transpiration.
Transportation:1Themovermengofwaterthrough the atmospherc, especially
from over the occansto over land is called transportation. Some ofthe earth's
moisture transport is visible as clouds are propelled from one place to another.
However, most water is transported in the form of water vapour which 1s
invisible to us but satellites are capable of collecting data about moisture pattern
in the atmosphere.
Condensation: The transported water vapour eventually condenses forming
tiny droplets in cloud.
Precipitation: The primary mechanism for transporting water from the
atmosphere to the surface of the earth is precipitation. When clouds meet cool air
over land, precipitation in the form of rain, sleet or snow is triggered and water
returns to the land or sea. A portion of the precipitation evaporates.
Ground water: Precipitation that does not form part of surface runoff and
remains on the land surface percolates in to the ground. It can take following
three paths
(a) may remain in the unsaturated (vadose) zone subject to capillary action.
(b) may return to the atmosphere via evaporation and evapotranspiration.
(c) may flow downwards until it reaches the water table and joins the ground
water. The water in the saturated zone moves primarily along horizontal
hydraulic gradient from higher to lower elevation and finally reaches the
ocean.
(Runoff:A part of the precipitation which does not percolate the soil flows
down the slope as runoff. The water flows through stream, rivers and returns to
ocean where it evaporates.
1.4 Ground Water Resources of India
The resources of ground water of the country are estimated by Central Ground
Water Board in association with State Ground Water Departments. As per the
latest estimates the total reserve of ground water in the upper unconfined aquifers
is 432 x 10'm (432 billion cubic metre, bem) out of which 399 x 10'm is
available for development and the rest 34 x 10'm for environmental
maintenance. These aquifers are recharged during rainy season and the resources
as given above are replenishable ground water resources.
In addition, extensive ground water resources are also available in confined
aquifers down to several hundred metres in unconsolidated sediments of Ganga-
Brahmaputra valley and other alluvial fill areas of the country. Tentative
of water in these aquifers up to 400 m depth is
assessment ground resources
10,800 x 10 m. Aquifers are known to exist below 400 m at several places and
it accounted for, the resources may further increase. The resource has been
termed as "In storage ground water resources". These aquifers have their
recharge area in the upper reaches of the basin.
1.5 Status of Ground Water Development in India

in the country for
AS mentioned above the total replenishable resources available
As per estimate the
development has been estimated to be 399x10'm'(399 bem). Is about
of ground water in the country
Total
draft (extraction + evaporation) 92% of
(231 bem) which is about 58% of the available resources,
231x10'm and rest for domestic purposes,
which is being utilised for irigation purposes
the is not uniform. Punjab (172%),
The Development of ground water in country
Delhi (137%) are over exploited states
Haryana (133%), Rajasthan (137%) and
In Tamil Nadu (77%), Uttar Pradesh (74%), Gujarat
(67%) and Karnataka (64%)
Maharashtra, Uttarakhand and
the development is moderately high and in
of the states
between 50 -55%. In rest the
Telangana development is moderate
development is less than 50%. available resources, water
Though the overall extraction is only 58% of the
table is reported to be declining at several places particularly in urban areas
are being advocated and
during past several years and artificial recharge schemes
practiced to check the declining trend of water table.
1.6 Ground Water Regions of India

India is a vast country with diversified geological, climatological and
topographic setups. The rock formations range in age from Archacn to Recent
with different types of pores, openings, solution channels which control
OcCurrence and movement of ground water. The climate varies from tropical to
sub-arid to arid and topography varies from high mountainous in Himalaya to flat
alluvial plains. The quality of ground water also varies from fresh to brackish at
some places. As the
hydrogeological conditions vary across the country, the
ground water regions have to be studied based on following criteria. Ground
water regions are geographical areas of similar occurrence of
ground water.
Ground Water Resources | 5
84
Y
Brahmapu
Valey
Gangetic Plain
Peninsular Shield
YrCovered PeninsularShield
Deccan Trap
IT Narmada &
Tapi Trough
Seale
l1:27 M lapprox.sf
km 200400 600km
Fig.1.2: Ground Water Regions of India
I.6.1 Criteria for Ground Water Regions

.Based upon the type of openings in rocks forming the aquifer or aquifers
with
(a) Primary porosity such as unconsolidated sediments in Indo Gangetic
Brahmaputra Valley
(6) Semi-consolidated rocks such as tertiary rocks, Gondwana formation
etc., having primary porosity
(c) Rocks forming aquifers with secondary porosity with fissures a
fractures such as hard rocks
6 Fundamentals ofHydrogeology
such as limestone and
(d) Rocks with secondary porosity with solution cavities
dolomite
2. Physiography
(a) The extra peninsular (Himalayan) region
regions of peninsular
(6) Eastern and western ghat region, plateau region,
India
(c) The alluvial plains such as Gangetic basin
area of West Bengal and
(d) The coastal region such as eastern coastal
Odisha
5. Water storage and transmission characteristic of the aquifer
4. The nature and location of recharge and discharge area
broad categories which

1.6.2 The ground water regions will be described under
covers most of the above criteria.
1.6.2.1 The Himalayan Regions
The Himalayan region extends from Kashmir to Arunachal Pradesh and is
characterised by high relief, steep slope resulting into high run off. This region is
there is
underlain by rocks of pre Cambrianto recent age
and
ground water development. The area serves as recharge zone for the Indo-
little scope for
Gangetic-Brahmaputra valley. In the Tarai belt in Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh,
Uttarakhand, Sikkim, Bihar and Assam ground water occurs in auto flow
conditions i.e., spring has formed and is a source of water for the local people.
1.6.2.2 The Indo-Ganga-Brahmaputra Basin
This basin etends over 2000 Kmin length and area of about 8,50,000 Sq Km
from Punjab) in the west to (Assamin the east and is the most potential and
important regions from the point of view of ground water resources. This
ensive alluvial tract is underlain by clays, sand,
gravel etc and exhibit primary
porosity. At places it is more than 1000 m thick and is suitable for
development of ground water through heavy duty tube wells. The discharge large scale
tube wells range from 40 to 100 of
lps (144 to 360 m°/hr)
hydraulicand
conductivity from 10 to 800 m/day. Quality of water is
generally fresh. In canal
fed area of Punjab,
Haryana and Western Uttar Pradesh, there is
of water table and water logging conditions exist progressive rise
in
which has resulted in increase
salinity of top soil.
1.6.2.3 The Doon Valley
Limited extent of alluvium in the
form
intermountain Doon and
Kashmir valley also
potential aquifers. In Doon valley boulders,
potential aquifers with primary porosity. The discharge gravel, sand etc., make
0 to 50 m'/hr and
quality of water is fresh. of tube wells varies from
1.6.2.3 Narmada and Tapti Valley

The valley fill deposits in the Narmada, Tapti and Purma tectonic basins range in
thickness from 50 to lS0 m and consist of lenses of sand and gravel and possess
primary porosity. ln part of this region falling in arid or semi-arid area of
Rajasthan and Gujarat, ground water occurs in deep aquifers which store fossil
water. There is lack of recharge, rainfall is poor and water is saline in these deep
aquifers. But in rest of the area water is fresh and discharge of tube wells range
from 1 to 10 lps (50 m'/hr).
1.6.2.4 The Coastal Area
Coastal areas have thick cover of alluvial deposits and form potential aquifer
system in the states of West Bengal, Odisha, Andhra Pradesh, Tami Nadu, Kerala
and Gujarat. The aquifers show primary porosity. Though in coastal belt the
aquifers are potential but suffer from salinity hazards. In Odisha and West
Bengal coastal areas, shallow aquifers contain brackish water and deeper aquifers
contain fresh water at most of the places. The discharge of tube wells vary fromn
20to 115 m/hr.
1.6.2.5 The Semi-Consolidated Sandstones
The semi-consolidated sandstones mainly form aquifers with primary porosity.
Rajahmundry sandstonein Krishna-Godavari basin form moderate aquifers with
yield potential of 40 m°/hr. The quality of ground water is fresh in sandstone
while that in the alluvium is saline in the vicinity of Kolleru lake along the coast.
The(Cuddalore sandstone bf tertiary age in Tanjor, South Arcot district form
extensive and potential aquifer within 200 m depth. Quality of water is fresh
(EC<1500 micro mhos/cm).
The Mesozoic sandstone of Lathi series and Palana and Nagaur sandstone of
Rajasthan form aquifer of moderate potential within a depth of 100-150 m. The
yield of wells vary from 45 to 150 m'/hr. Water quality is generally brackish with
EC> 3000 micro mhos/cm.
The sandstones of Bhuj and Katrol series in Kutch and Kathiawad form
aquifers of moderate potential within 100 to 300 m depth. However, the quality
of water is brackish TDS being 2000 to 5000 ppm.
Tipam sandstone of tertiary age in Assam and Tripura form potential aquifers
and quality of water is also fresh.
The sandstones of Gondwana age occurring in E-W trending Narmada-Son-
Damodar valley and NW-SE trending Mahanadi and Godavari valley form poor
to medium aquifer. The primary porosity is poor around 5-7%, but fractures
developed in the sandstones contribute to storage and transmission of ground
water.
8I Fundamentals of Hydrogeology
1.6.2.6 Hard Rocks south of Indo Gangetic

plains in
of the country
Nearly 65% of the total land
area
store and transmit water
by hard rocks which
the Peninsular India is occupied
These are discussed below:
through secondary porosity in the rock. and Metamorphic
is occupied by Igneous
The major part of the Peninsula phyllites
khondalites, charnokites, schist,
of granite gneiss, of primary
rocks consistingvolcanic rock (Decan Trap). These rocks are devoid
limestones and
weathering and fracturing i.e.
rendered porous due to
porosity but have been weathered zone is generally
10 to 30 m
has developed. The
Secondary porosity of ground water is
restricted to weathered
thick. Occurrence and circulation
mantle and inter connected fractures at deeper
depths. Depth of weathering and
to 100 m or
is limited to about 60 m depth and occasionally
fracturing normally The calcareous members
The discharge of tube wells vary from 2 to 10 lps.
more. the solution cavities form good
beensubjected to solution at places and
have the water is of good quality
but at
aquifers. In the crystalline rocks generally
EC being about 2000 micro
places slightly brackish quality is observed,
mhos/cm.
Cuddapahs,
Precambrian sedimentary rocks belonging to the Delhis, Cuddapahs
this category. Ground
Vindhyans, Kurnools, Sullavais and Bhimas come within
water occurs in weathered zones, joints and fractures. Limestones are subjected
to solution activity at places. In southerm peninsula solution cavities have highly
of 200 to 1600 m/day is
places and Transmissivity in the range
developed Inat the
observed. Trans Arravali Vindhyan limestone in Rajasthan near, Borunda
intensive karstification is noticed. However the quality of water is brackish.
Deccan trap consisting of plateau Basalt is spread over Maharashtra, Part of
Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, northern part of Western ghat etc.
Ground water occurs in the weathered and jointed portions of upper horizons and
in the vesicular, weathered Basalt in the inter-flow zones at depth, the latter
mostly in confined conditions. Transmissivity ranges from 1 to
210 m/day down to 150 m. Quality of ground water in the west coast is good,
EC being less than 500 micro mhos/cm.
1.7 Age of Ground Water

Age is the major difference between surface water and ground water. Surface
waters are typically fresh and new. The surface water recycles every 9 to 16 days
on global basis. The fast recycling of surface waters are due to
evaporation,
evapotranspiration and surface runoff of water. Ground water on the other hand
does not recycle quickly. Rate of ground water recycle varies from
days to years
and from centuries to millenia, depending on aquifer location,
type (unconfined
or confined), depth, aquifer and confining layer properties and connectivity. The
average time for the renewal of ground water is 1400 years (Word Water
Balance, 1978). Shorter renewal times are associated with shallow ground water,
while longer renewal is associated with deep ground water. Renewal rates or
about 1/15 of those of shallow

are ground water. Some fossil
ns in deep aquifers water is practically
may be more
than 30,000 years. This fossil ground
wate waters future.
renewable and once used may
not be recharged in near
non
phi States of India

1.8 Hydrogeology of
ites Regionwise occurrence of ground
water is discussed in para 1.6. Regions have
nary broad uniformity in
several respects but differ at micro level. The valley
of
i.e Brahmaputra and the Punjab plains
are both alluvial belt but sharply
differ in
m occurrence of ground water in
various states of India
details. Here we discuss
ered separately.
and
mor 1.8.1 Jammu & Kashmir
of the state.
Ground water occurs in following areas
bers In the Dune belt in the outer Himalayas
within a depth range of 80 to 130 m,
ood varies from 3 to 6 m'/hr. In the isolated valley
fill deposits in
discharge of wells
at a of 65 m, discharge of 3 m'/hr has been
lesser Himalayas within a depth span
icro found. In moraines in Ladakh, the yield of tube
wells varies from 30 to 50 m°/hr.
are found in this area.
Ground water occurs in perched water table. Springs
ahs Ground water is found in the piedmont deposits of
outer plains of Jammu. In the
und to the weathered mantle and
hard rocks of Jammu, ground water is confined
cted discharge is poor.
zhly 1.8.2 Himachal Pradesh
y is
Himachal Pradesh is a hilly state which is underlain by hard rocks. Ground water
inda the sub mountainous
is found in the alluvial fills of inter mountain valleys and in
tract. The yield of wells in these regions varies
from 100 to 120 m°/hr. The sub-
t of south west.
mountainous tract merges with the Indo-Gangetic alluvium towards
etc water is limited in the weathered mantle and in fractures
In hard rocks, ground
and and the scope of development is limited. The quality of ground water is generally
tte good.
to
1.8.3 Utarakhand
Uttarakhand is a hilly state, northern part of which is part of Himalayan mountain
belt and the southern partmergesinto the Gangetic alluvial plains.
In the hilly regions, ground water occurs in fractures and joints and emerges
as spring. In Siwalik formation, the yield of tubewells ranges from 50 to
ace
80 m/hr. In the Bhabar belt the discharge is reported to be very high about
ay
330 m'/hr and in the Tarai belt ranges from 36to 144 m'/hr.
on
and The Gangetic alluvium has(huge thickness lof unconsolidated sediments
water is very
ars Composed of boulder, gravel, sand and clay. The prospect of ground 90 to 200
from
7ed Promising in the gangetic alluvium. The discharge of wells varies
The
m'hr.
limits at
ron and nitrate are reported to be found in excess of permissible
ter
some places.
er
1.8.4 Sikkim
Sikkim is totally a hilly state and is situated in the Himalayan belt. There is no
ground water abstraction in the state. Springs have formed due to structural
features and provide water to the population.

1.8.5 Arunachal Pradesh
The foothill belt of this state is correlated to Bhabar belt of Gangetic basin
uround water occurs under unconfined to semi-confined condition in this belt
Sediments down to 106 m are predominantly sandy and discharge of wells is
about 50 mhr. Springs are in abundance here particularly in the hilly region.
ron in excess of 1.0 mg/l has been reported from some places in the state.
1.8.6 Punjab
The state is underlain by alluvium of considerable thickness which abuts againgt
therocks of Siwalik system towards northeast. In the flood plains ofRaviBea
andSutlejrivers hickness of saturated permeable zone is sufficient to withstand
heavy duty pumping. During the past two decades, significant water table decline
has been observed in_most parts of Punjab. The main cause of ground water
depletion isitsfover-exploitation Bo meet theincreasing demands ofagriculture

industry and domestic uses. The stage of ground water development is 172% in
the state.
Salinity (EC> 3000 uS/cm), Fluoride> 1.5 mg/ and Arsenic > 0.05 mg/l has
been reported from some areas while Iron, Nitrate and
heavy metals are also
reported to occur in excess of permissible limits in many areas.
1.8.7 Haryana
About 96% of the area of the state is
covered by alluvium and the rest 4
%by
consolidated rocks. However the yield prospect varnes. In major part of the
the yield
prospect varies from 50 to 150 m°/hr. In parts of state
Karnal and Sonepat districts of the Ambala, Kurukshetra,
state, the aquifers are prolific and
prospect is highest in the state being in the range of yield
150 to 200 m°/hr. The area
Gurgaon, Bhiwani and Mahendragarh districts underlain in
the yield by consolidated rocks,
prospect poor.
is
From several places in the
state excess
micromohs/cm), Fluoride> 1.5 mg/1, Arsenic> 0.05of salinity (EC> 3000
are reported. mg/ and Nitrate > 45 mg/l
1.8.8 Utar Pradesh a p o d n c t
The state can be divided into
five hydrogeological
the north followed
by [Tarai belt, Ganga plain, units starting from Bhabap in
southern peninsular region. marginal alluvial tract) and
The yield of tube wells in Bhabar
belt varies from 100 to
Bhabar belt is followed in the south m'/hr. The
water level is 300
deep in this belt.
Tarai belt where autoflow conditions direction by
exist and discharge of tube
100 to 200 m°/hr. In the central wells vary from
Ganga plain, four major aquifers have
been
deciphered within depth span of 700 m which form prolific aquifers and the yield
a of tube wells vary from 90 to 200 m'/hr. In the marginal alluvial tract, the
thickness of alluvium varies between|50 to 300Jm and the yield prospect is 35 to
70 m/hr. In the hard rock terrain of southern peninsular region_coveredby
Vindhyans and crystallinerocks, ground water occurs inweathered mantlejand in
the joints and fractures ofthe rocks and its avaibility is limited.
Excess (more than permissible limits) of salinity, Iron, Fluoride and Nitrate is
reported from many places in the state.
1.8.9Bihar
The state can be divided into four hydrgeological units starting from the Tarai
belt, followed by alluvial covered area on both sides of Ganges followed by
marginal alluvialtract and the consolidated and fissured rock in south.
Auto flow conditions Jexist in the sub-Taraibeltin the north falling in
d Madhubani, Sitamarhi and West Champaran districts. The entire area following
theTarai belt and on both north and south of river Ganga spreads the alluvial
tract which has high potentiality of ground water. The yield of tube wells vary
from 120 to 245 m'/hr. Further south, the thickness of alluvium decreases in
marginal alluvial tract and the prospect of ground water also decreases. In hard
rock areas of the state, south of marginal alluvial tract, ground water occurs in the
weathered mantle and in fractures. Bore wells located near lineaments may yield
as
from 10 to 50 m'/hr.
0
Fluoride 1.5 mg/1, Iron> 1.0 mg/1, Nitrate > 45 mg/l and Arsenic> 0.05 mg/1
are reported from some localities.
1.8.10 West Bengal
y The state may be divided into three hydrogeological units, the hard rock covered
area, the area covered by alluvium of Ganga and area covered by marginal
alluvium.
About one third of the area of the state is covered by hard rocks including
crystalline rocks, meta sedimentaries and volcanic rocks. Ground water occurs in
hard rocks in the weathered mantle and in fracture zones. The yield of bore wells
in this area varies from 10 to 20 m/hr. Nearly two third of the area of the state is
covered by alluvial deposits. The yield of wells in Jalpaiguri to Kochbihar and
from Medinipur to 24 Parganas is about 150 m'/hr. In parts of Malda, Dinajpur
and western part of Murshidabad districts the ield varies from 50 to 150 m°/hr.
In the marginal alluvial tract in parts of Birbhum, Burdwan, Bankura and part of
Murshidabad districts the yield prospect is less than 50 m'/hr. In the area covered
by Gondwana formations also, the yield potential is low and less than 50 m''hr.
Problem of excess of salinity, Iron, Fluoride, Nitrate, Arsenic and some
heavy metals are reported from some places in the state.
12 | Fundamentals of Hydrogeology
1.8.11 Assam the Bhabar belt

units namely
state may be divided into five hydrogeological
he consolidated formations,
area covered with
ne belt, the area covered with
1arai covered with unconsolidated
formations.
Semi-consolidated formations and area
water is stored
in the weathered
In the consolidated formations, ground can provide
near lineaments some
and in fractures and wells located
mantie Cachar district provide
semi-consolidated formations covering
discharge. The is underlain by
yield of 50 to 100 m'/hr. More
than 75% of the state
of clay, silt, sand, gravel, pebble and
unconsolidated formations comprising to 60 m'/hr. In
tube wells vary from 25
boulder. In the Bhabar belt, the yield of to 240 m/hr
Tarai belt south of Bhabar belt, the yield
of tube wells vary from 80
are highly potential
and yield of tube
In the Brahmaputra valley the aquifers
wells vary from 150 to 240 m /hr.
0.05 mg/l) are reported from
of Iron (> 1.0 mg/l) and Arsenic (>
Excess
1.5 mg/l is also reported from some places.
many places of the state. Fluoride>
1.8.12 Rajasthan
The state can be divided into three hydrogeological units viz., the consolidated
rock covered area, the semi-consolidated rock covered area and the
unconsolidated rock covered area.
The consolidated rocks include gneisses, granites, schists, phylites, marble,
Vindhyan sandstone, limestone, quartzite and Basaltic flows occur in the eastem
part of the state. Ground water occurs in the weathered mantle of the rock and in
fractures and joints. The wells located near lineaments provide some discharge
Semi-consolidated rocks comprisingqf sandstone, limestone and Aur beds cover
Jaisalmer and Barmer districts.(Yield)of dug wells in Jaisalmer limestone vary
from 15 to 65 m'/hr. The yield of wells in Lathi formation varies from 50 to 150
m'/hr. The ground water quality is generally poor at
unconsolidated sediments are alluvial deposits and Acolian
deeper depth. The
deposits. The alluvial
deposits are confined to Barmer, Jalore and Jodhpur districts. They are composed
of clay, sand, gravel and cobble. Valley fill sediments also
occur in
Ajmer, Bhilwara and Udaipur districts. The Aeolian sediments of 40Jhunjhunu,
to 80 m
thickness form good aquifer with yield
potential of 100 to 150 m'/hr, east of
major fault in Bikaner district.
High salinity (EC > 3000 uS/cm), high fluoride (1.5
(45 mg/l), high iron (1.0 mg/l) and excess of mg/1), high nitrate
cadmium, nickel and copper are reported from many
heavy metals like lead,
chromium,
places in the state.
I.8.13Delhi
The National Capital Territory can be dived into
four
namely the NNE-SSW Quartzite ridge, the older alluvium hydrogeological
plains,
units
alluvial basin and the Yamuna flood
plain.
the Chattarpur
Ground water occurs in joints and fractures in the
NNE-SSW
Quartzite ridge. The yield of wells located in favourable locations variestrending
from 6
Quartzite
thelolder alluvium' on the eastern and western side of theand
belt to 15 m'/hr. In
12 to 36 m'/hr. In the isolated closed
with ridge, the yield of wells varies from
alluvium and weathered Quartzite
ns. Chattarpur alluvial basin, the wells tapping the
In the Yamuna flood plain deposits, the wells
aered vield in the range 9 to 27 m/hr.
in the range 18 to 140 m'/hr.
some tapping the granular 1ormation yield 0.003 mg/l
Fluoride> 1.5 mg/l, Nitrate > 45 mg/1, Lead > 0.01, Cadmium>
ovide and Chromium> 0.05 mg/l are reported from some part of Delhi.
by
and 1.8.14Gujarat
The state can be_divided into three hydro geological units namely the area
r. In
h occupied byconsolidated rocks, the area covered by femi-consolidated rocksand
tube the area covered bylunconsolidated rocks in Cambay basin.)
Archaeans and
The eastern and north-eastern part of the state isoccupied by
Deccan trap. This area has steep gradient with high
runoff and there is poor
trom water in this The yield of wells is in the range of
s. prospect of ground area.
from
5 to 10 m'/hr. The yield of wells in semi-consolidated sandstone varies
50 to 170 m°/hr. In the Cambay basin, where alluvial deposits occur,five major
dated dried due to over
aquifers have been delineated. The top aquifer has practically
from 75 to 150 m'/hr.
the pumping. The yield of tube wells in Canmbay basin Varies of the state. In
Salinity problem (EC > 3000uS/cm) exits in many parts > 45.0 mg/l is also
rble| addition Fluoride > 1.5 mg/, Iron > 1.0 mg/l and Nitrate
stem reported from several parts of the state.
ndin 1.8.15 Madhya Pradesh

arge The state can be divided into four hydrogeological units namely the area
over
occupied by hard rocks (granite gneiss and meta sediments), the area covered by
vary semi-consolidated Gondwana Sandstone and Limestone, the area covered by
150 Deccan trap and the area covered by alluvium.
The mantle and in
In granite gneiss, ground water occurs in the weathered
in wells located
vial fractures, joints and in weak planes. The ground water prospect
osed near lineaments is somewhat better than those
located in weathered mantle. The
of wells located in Gondwana sandstone varies from 20 to 30 m°/hr
and
unu, yield
those in limestone from 50 to 80 m/hr. The yield of wells in Basalt varies from
20 to 30 m'/hr in favourable locations. About 6% of the area of the state is
st of covered by Quarternary alluvium which forms prolific aquifers with yield
trate prospect of 50 to 80 m'/hr.
3000 uS/cm) exits in many parts of the state. In
ium Salinity problem (EC>
Iron> 1.0 mg/l and Nitrate > 45.0 mg/l is also
addition Fluoride> 1.5 mg/1,
Teported from many parts of the state.
inits
1.8.16 Chhattisgarh
The state can be divided into three hydrogeological units namely the hard rock
pur
area, the semi-consolidated area and the unconsolidated area.
ding
m 6
In the hard rock occupied area, groundwater is stored in the weathered
rock
jointedand fractured part of the rock. Water bearing fractures generally
occu
within 100 m depth and are in bore wells located near lineaments. The
tapped
sem-consolidated Gondwana sandstones and limestones form aquifer and yield of
20 to 30 m'/hr is generally found. The unconsolidated sediments
alluvium and laterite. Alluviums form prolific aquifers. include
Fluoride, Iron, Nitrate and Arsenic are reported to be more than permissible
limits from several places in the state.
1.8.17 Jharkhand
The state can be divided into three
hydrogeological units namely the hard rock
area, the semi -consolidated area and the area covered
-
by volcanic rocks
(Rajmahal trap).
A large part of the state is occupied by Granite gneiss and
sedimentaries. Ground water occurs in these formations in the meta
weathered mantle
and in the fracture and
joints. The yield of wells in suitably located fracture zones
near lineament,
yield in the range 3 to 54 m°/hr. Exploration has
presence of 3-4 fracture zones within 200 m revealed
depth. Rocks of Vindhyan formation
are
exposed in the north western part of the state. The yield of wells is
moderate in this formation. In east west poor to
-
running basins, Gondwana rocks are

exposed. Ground water occurs in the pores of sandstone as well as in the
and fractures in the rocks. Ground
water occurs both under unconfined
joints
confined to confined conditions. The and semi-
this fornmation. In the north eastern
yields of wells from 50 to
vary 170 m'/hr in
part of the state
volcanic rocks represented
Rajmahal trap are
exposed in
patches. Ground water occurs in the inter by
beds in this formation. trapean
Excess of Fluoride, Iron and Nitrate are
Arsenic >0.05 mg/l is reported from some area in the state.
reported from Sahebganj in the north
eastern part
state and lead > 0.01
mg/l from Jamshedpur, the steel city. of the
1.8.18 Odisha
The state can be
hydrogeologically divided into
covered with hard rocks, the area covered with three units namely the area
unconsolidated formations covered area. semi-consolidated rocks and
Among the consolidated rocks are Granite
rocks. Ground water occurs in the weathered mantle gneiss and compact sedimentary
and in the joints, fissures
and fractures. The yield of wells
in granite gneiss and in compact sedimentary
rocks varies between 10 to
35 m/hr to
5 to 18 m/hr
respectively. The
consolidated formations include rocks of
Gondwana and Baripada beds.
sem-
yield of tube wells vary from 20 to 110 m°/hr
in these formations.
The
unconsolidated
unconsolidated formations consist of recent
alluvium and Laterites.
The
discharge of tube wells in recent alluvium varies between 50 to 150 m' /hr. The
High salinity in coastal belt and excess of Fluoride, Nitrate and
reported from many places. Iron are
ock 1.8.19 Meghalaya

divided into
The The state with high rainfall (average 3290 mm annually) may be the northern
three hydrogeological units the hard rock covered area in
namely
formation in south western and south eastern part and
ud part, semi-consolidated
unconsolidated formation in the north west.
In the hard rocks comprising of granites, gneisses, schists, quartzites,
phylites and conglomerates with intrusive in the northern part, ground water
occurs in the weathered mantle and fissures and joints. In the semi-consolidated
sandstones covering south western and south eastern part in Khasi and Jaintia
rock hills districts, the wells in the valley yield 25 to 50 m'/hr. In the unconsolidated
ck formations occurring in the extreme north west where hills roll down to Assam
plains, the discharge of wells vary from 50 to 110 m°/hr. Shallow tube wells in
neta river fill in Garo district yield in the range 25 to 40 m'/hr. Quality of water is
antle generally good.
ones 1.8.20 Tripura
aled The state has high rainfall average annual rainfall being 2228 mm. The semi-
tion consolidated Tertiary formations consisting of friable sandstone, clayey
or to sandstone, sandy shale and shale form the main hydrogeological unit in the state.
are In the central part of Agartala - Udaipur, Khowai - Amarpur, Ambasa,
ints Dharamnagar valley area, fine to medium grained sandstone form the aquifer and
emi the yield prospect is good. Some flowing wells exist west of Tripura. In the area
bordering the hill ranges i.e., in the marginal part of the above valley the wells
dby yield in the range 50 to 100 m'/hr. In the inter mountain valleys occupied by
ean argillaceous formation of Surma series, the yield is around 50 m'/hr.
Iron> 1.0 mg/l is reported from some parts of the state.
tate 1.8.21 Nagaland
the The state consists of narrow strip of hills
running from east to south east. The
yield of tube wells on the banks of Dhansiri and Diphu rivers is about 2 m'/hr. In
the inter mountain valleys at Tijit,
m depth can
Tiru, longnoth and Baghty, tube wells of 250
yield between 20 to 30 m'/hr. Quality of water is
generally
area good.
and 1.8.22 Manipur
Manipur valley is covered by a thin veneer of alluvial deposit which is clayey in
tar nature. The alluvium overlies Tertiary formations. The alluvium
being clayey in
ures nature, the open wells have poor yield. The sandstones of Tertiary age form
good
tary aquifers. Ground water occurs in confined conditions in this formation. However,
emi the aquifers are not very extensive. Autoflow conditions are also observed in
The mphal, the yield being in the range 0.5 to 4 m'/hr.
The Quality of ground water is generally good.
The 1.8.23 Mizoram
The state with
high rainfall (average annual rainfall 2794 mm) is underlain by
a r e
Sedimentary rocks of Tertiary age. These rocks have been tightly folded in a
16
Fundamentals of Hydrogeology
o c c u r s under confined
Ground water and
of springs exist in the sta
anticline and syncline.
series of sandstone beds. Plenty
condition in the water is general
unconfined
the people. The quality of ground
to the needs
of
which caters
good.
1.8.24 Maharashtra
are
divided into three units namely the
ea
The state can be hydrogeologically
the area covered
covered with hard roCkS and
the area
covered with Deccan Trap,
unconsolidated formations. About 85% of th
with semi-consolidated rocks and of rock
is covered Deccan Trap and the rest is covered by variety
by
state
ranging from Archacans toQuaternary alluvium.
In Archaeans, Cuddapahs ground water occurs in weathered mantle and in
joints and fractures and yield varies from 1 to 10 m/hr. Ground water in tran
basalt occurs in the weathered and jointed portions of upper horizons and in the
inter-connected vesicles, weathered Basalt in the inter flow zones and in the inte
trapean beds. In the inter trapean beds ground water occurs in confined
conditions. The yield varies from 0.2 to 30 m/hr. In semi-consolidated
formations comprising of coastal sedimentaries and Gondwanas, ground water i
stored in the pores of rocks and also in the fractures, if developed, in the rocks
The yield of dug wells varies fYom 6 to 12 m'/hr. In the unconsolidated
formations, the discharge of dug well varies from 0.5 to 20 m'/hr.
Salinity problem (EC > 3000 uS/cm), excess of Fluoride, Iron and Nitrate is
reported from many places in the state.
1.8.25 Goa
The state is covered by rocks of Dharwar
Deccan Trap is overlain by alluvium. Super group and in a small patch
Ground water occurs in the weathered and
fractured part of the hard rocks in
unconfined to semi-confined
36 m'/hr. In alluvium conditions
and discharge of wells is
discharge of 108 m'/hr is found. within
Excess of Iron (> 1.0
mg/l) is reported from some parts.
1.8.26 Andhra Pradesh
The state can be
hydrogeologically
covered with hard rocks, the divided into two units
namely the area
area covered with
unconsolidated formations. Nearly 67% of
the
semi-consolidated rocks and
consisting of Granites, Gneisses, state is underlain
by hard rocks
Quatzites, Shales and limestones and Metamorphics, Intrusives, Pre Cambrian
Mesozoic
is underlain
by Gondwanas, Tertiary and sub Deccan trap. The remaining 33%|
Ground water recent to recent
occurs in the alluvium.
fractures and solution cavities hard rocks in the weathered mantle and
to 18 mhr.
In the
(in limestone). The
discharge of wells joints
water occurs in semi-consolidated
the pores of the rocks Gondwana and
from 7 vary
in confined Tertiary formations, ground
conditions. There are
multiple
Ground Water Resources I 17
upto 170 m3/hr.

. fonnations and discharge of wells is very high
is restricted to 20 ~- .
aquifers m:i:~ ed deltaic alluvium, fresh ground wat er ride, Iron and Nitr ate ts
of Fluo
In the coas . . (EC > 3000 µSiem) ' excess
High sahruty ·
repD rted from man y plac es in the state.
· l th area
J 8 27 Telangana hydrogeologically divi ded into two umt s nam e Y e
· · . tate can be
The reds ·th hard rocks and the area cov ered
with sem i-co nso lida ted rock s and
· d I · b hard rock s .
cove s~te ts un ~r am Y
unconsolidated formations. Nearly 80% of the
WI
mbn
usives, Pre -Ca 20¾ an
·snn·g of Granites Gneisses, Met amo.rphi cs, Intr . .
conSl ' Mes ozo ic Dec can trap . The rem amm g 0
Quatzites, Shales and limeston es and

nt alluvium. . .
is underlain by Gondwanas, and sub rece nt to rece
wea ther ed man tle ~d JOU:~ts,
Ground water occurs in the hard rocks in the
The dep th of wea then ng van es
fractures and solution cavities (in limestone).
ly with in 100 m vari es from 7 to
from 5 to 20 m. The yield of borewells general
18 m3/hr. The semi-consolidated formatio
ns of Gon dwa na com pris ing of
ti-aq uife r syst em und er con fine d
Sandstone, Siltstone, Shales and coal form mul 3
/hr.
conditions and discharge of wells are upto 170 m
Fluoride, Iron and Nitr ate is
High salinity (EC > 3000 µSiem), excess of
reported from man y places in the state.
te · 1.8.28 Kam atak a
into two unit s nam ely the area
The state can be hydrogeologically divided
with sem i-co nso lida ted rock s and
covered with hard rocks and the area cov ered
unconsolidated formations.
Gne isse s, Gra nite s, Sch ists
Major part of the state is covered by pen insu lar
stored and mov es thro ugh the
and Basalt (Deccan Trap). Ground wat er is
the hard rocks. The yiel d of bor e
weathered mantle and in the fractured part of 3
s suit ably loca ted on line ame nts may be as high as 50 m /hr. The
well
Kal adag i and Bhi ma grou ps. In
sedimentary formations are represented by
sedimentary formations, grou nd wat er is stor ed and mov es thro ugh por es in the
3
Rec ent allu vium is rest rict ed to
rocks. Discharge of wells is about 15 m /hr.
stream course and coastal area.
Fluo ride , Iron and Nitr ate is
High salinity (EC > 300 0 µSiem), exce ss of
reported from man y plac es in the state.
1.8.29 Tamil Nadu
into two unit s nam ely the area
The state . can be hydrogeologically divi ded
sedi men tary form atio ns.
covered with hard rocks and the area cov ered with
by hard rock s like Gra nite s
Gn ~ea rly 73% area of the state is occ upie d
l in thes e rock s in the wea ther ed
ma eisses, C~arnock.i~s. Gro und wat er occu rs
0 dug wel ls tap wat er from the
we: :!e a~d m the Jomts and fractures. Mos tly
J1J nd b?re wells from fractures. The wel ls loca ted nea r
pl linea ere man!le a
ls vari es from 7 to 35 m3 /hr
ments provide goo d discharge. The yiel d of wel
18 I Fundamentals of Hydrogeo logy
in the hard rocks. The sedimentary fonnations consist ~f sandstone, Lirnestoll

and shales and the Quarterinary sediments by older alluvmm , recent alluvium a ~
coastal sand. ln the Cauvery delta, flowing well~ with 4:5 to 17_m of Pressu:~
head above ground is seen. The yield of wells m alluvmm vanes frorn 27 t()
2 12 m3/hr.
High salinity (EC > 3000 µSiem) , Fluorid e ( > 1.5 mg/I), Iron ( > 1.0 mg;l)
and Nitrate ( > 45 mg/I) are reported from many places and high Lead
Chromi um and Cadmiu m are reported from some pockets. '
1.8.30 Kera/a
The state can be hydrogeologically divided into three units n~mely _the area
covered with hard rocks (crystalline rocks), the area covered with sedimentary
rocks and Laterite.
Major part _of the sta~e is underlain by _crystalline rocks of Ar~h~ean age_
Ground water m crystalline rocks occurs m the weathe red and Jomted 8.Ild
fracture d portion of the rocks. The yield of wells tapping the fractured rocks near
3
lineam ents is betwee n 6 to 10 m /hr. Sedimentary formations overlie the
Archa ~ baseme nt along the coastal belt. In the coast~! - areas, the tertiary
format:J.ons form promis ing aquifers and auto flow conditi ons are seen with
dischar ge of 12 to 15 m /hr. The area betwee n the hills and coastal plains is
3
capped by Laterit e and dischar ge of wells in this area varies from 10 to 15 m /hr.
3
High salinity (EC > 3000µS /cm), Fluorid e ( > 1.5 mg/I), Iron ( > 1.0 mg/I)
and Nitrate ( > 45 mg/1) are reporte d from many places in the state.
CHA PTE R2
Precipitation, Evaporation and Baseflow
2.1 Preci itation

to expan sion as the
When an air mass rises in the atmo spher e, it gets coole d due
n of the air mass ,
atmosphere becom es less dense with altitude. For conde nsatio
some seedi ng agent s
the@ r mass )nust get coole d to dew poiqt temp eratu re and
must be present. In
like dust particles, clay mine rals or comb ustio n produ ct
nt but rain drops
absence of seedi ng agent s the saturation may be hund red perce
or sea) is called
will not form. Once dropl ets are formed and fall on earth (land
or snow. Rainfall
Precipitation. The preci pitati on may be in the form of rain, sleet
over the earth is not unifo rm, some place s uch more rain than others. The
l rainfall along
average annual rainfa ll in India is abol!t 114 cm. The annua
is more than
ghat and certa in place s in Megh alaya an m other NE states
= and in parts of Punjjlb, H ana northern a weste rn Rajas than and

ow
ins · Kac and Kath iawad regio ns of Gujarat is belo 60 m and is e
condi tions in lowe r
in the dry regio ns of West Rajas than where the therma
i3tm.
atmosphere preve nts the rain beari ng wind s from rising.
mg,1 two types of rain
Rainfall is meas ured by a netwo rk o( rain gauges) Generally
ding facili ty) The
gauges are in use, one ~imp le type) and the other with( iicor
d over a maso nry
simple rain gauge consi sts of a funnel and a bottle and is place
and recor ded. The
work. Wate r is meas ured manually@_verfday)c\_t the sagie time
arran geme nt and has
other type i.e., self-r ecord ing type is provided with a float
rain with time may
chart recording facility attach ed to a clock. Distribution of
role in catch ing
also be know n from the record. Wind plays important
particularly light rains.
in plain s to 4 in
Density of rain gaug es may vary from 1 in about 500 Sq km
of an area or basin
the 500 Sq km in hilly and hea rainfall area. Rain fall data
g place s of
is presented in conto ur map called Isohyetal map. The contours joinin
reported. This is
equal rainfall is called Isohyets. Aver age annual rainfall is also
a coal field or state
simply the sum of annual rainfalls at 'n' numb er of stations in
or country divided by 'n' .
2.2 infiltrationl d surfa ce enter s the

.!!!.@_tration 1s t e process bl'. which wa!er reaching the groun
orb rainfall. It is
~oil; Infiltration raie is a meas ure at which soil is able,t ~abs
me~sured i mm er hour Infiltration is gover ned by ~
Jorces;\i_raviiy)and
gravity; very small
capillary action . Smal ler pores offer great er resistance to
against the force of
pores pul water through capillary action in addition to and .
gravity.
AV~ " ~ '-\. ~ V-C-l,\'i--~ lQ ~ ~q :;; ,)
20 I Fundamentals of Hydrogeology
€9
. If a soil is initiallythe infiltration capa~ ~gure 2· 1· As the soil
~oistur~ content increases, the infiltration capacity ~ea_ses. Eventually the
mfiltrat1on capacity reaches almost a constant value detemuned_ by unsaturateq
permeability of the soil. lf the infiltration rat~s mor~ tba:tj)t?e ramfal~, t~er~will
be@>over land flow or runoff. However, in case the mfiltratton capacity Is lower
~ \
.c \
E \
~
E
' ' _-------
......
.:::
I+=
C:
Time in hr )
Fig.2.1: Inflltration Capacity of Soil
than rainfal1,(Qyerland flow)and8will result. The decay of infilt~ation with

saturation of soil is given by an exponential curve. As per Horton, the mfiltratioo
rate after time t may be jiven by the following equation.
[ft= fe + (fo - fe) e-1ct_ (2.I)
Where ft = infiltration rate at time t
fo = initial infiltration rate or maximum infiltration rate
fe = the constant or equilibrium infiltration rate after the soil has
been saturated or minimum infiltration rate
k = decay constant specific to soil
2.2.1 Factors influencing infiltration:
I. Soil texture and structure - Coarse soil encourages high infiltration
2. Vegetation type and cover - Vegetation creates more porous soil which
encourages infiltration
3. Soil moisture -As mentioned above dry soil or low soil moisture encourages
high infiltration. With increase of soil moisture infiltration drops and finally
reaches a constant.
4. Top soil layer -Top soil rendered porous by insects and burrowing animals
encourage high infiltration.
5. Agricultural practices - May create compaction of soil and reduce
infiltration.
2.3 Evaporation
As sun rays heat free water bodies like lakes, reservoirs, dew drops etc.,
evaporation of water takes place. The rate of evaporation depends on water
temperature and temperature and humidity of air mass just above the water
Precipitation, Evaporatio~ and Baseflow I 21
urface. Sun rays heats both the water and the air above the water surface. The
~te of evaporation is also related to wind as wind carries water vapour away
from the free water surface and keeps humidity low. The process of evaporation
continues till air becomes fully saturated with moisture.
Evaporation is measured with a simple pan in which depth of water is
maintained initially a~ Measurement of depth of water is taken daily at the
same time and volum ~ter required to be added to compensate for the loss
due to evaporation is also recorded. The rainfall during the same period is also
recorded.
Evaporation = (volume of water required for maintaining water level) +
(rainfall)
~ used to measure evaporation get heated from sides and also from
bottiiiil.for this reason, the pan evaporation is multiplied by a factor ot@.6 to 0.8J
to get evaporation from lakes, pools. Evaporation from lakes can also be
computed by knowing the inflow of water into the lake and outflow from the lake
and the change in storage of the lake.
. with 2.4 Transpiration

~ation The roots of the growing plants draw water from the moisture in the soil and the
water moves through the plant to the leaves and vaporise into the atmosphere.
(2.1) This process of pumping of_water from ound to the atmos her b owin
lants is called trans rratio Transpiration ·s a function of size of the plant and
its oensity Transpiration from small p ants is lower than large plants. It is also
1 has affected by availabili of soil moisture. Transpiration is measure d with an
instrument calle hytometer.
2.4.1 Evapotranspiration
The total water loss from evaporation of water from free water bodies,
evaporation of soil moisture and plant transpiration is called evapotranspiration.
vhich Evapotranspiration is a source of loss of water. If evapotranspiration is reduced
the runoff and / or ground water infiltration could increase .
rages
nallY 2.~ unoff~ tream floajan Base flow
The total amount of wate flowm in a stream is called runoff. It may consists of
imals several components like overland flow, interflow, base {low etc.
During heavy rainfall part of water which cannot infiltrate flow as thin sheet
of w~ across the surface. This water flowing as thin sheet across the surface is
J
callel.\...qyerland flow
The part of water which infiltrate in the unsaturated zone may encounter
1
ayer of lower hydraulic conductivity (silt and clay) below surface. In such
cond' ·
etc,, itions the downward movement of water is retarded and horizontal
.vate! :~~em~nt in the unsaturat~ zone will occur. This horizontal movement of
tratin water is callec(interflow7)
.vatef
·~CJ-fO~~~ ~
'\'Vb,\ ~ ptvo---tl ~1// ➔ c-£5 :
---1-,--½'_WJ_«z.-rt~
22 I Pundamcnt'ali. of H.ydrogcology
I_f the unsaturated zone is uniformly permeable the water will percolate b
gravtty_and reach water table which is in constant mo~ement .. The gr~und wat~
may d1scharg~ into strea~ under favUWt-.i.li~ b~drauhc gradient. T~s flow Of
ground water mto stream 1s called ase flow This generally happens tn sunun~ C
w en stream water level drops below · a jacent water table. The stream Whic~
receives water from ground water is called a Gaining stream r @ fluent stre~. Gl
As a result of@ of ground water into stream as base o~ the wate_r table WilJ
fall and consequently the base flow will decrease. The decay of discharge of
stream follows an exponential pattern.
2.6 Gaining and Loosing Stream .

The stream that receives water from ground water as baseflow ts called a Gaining
stream or Effluent stream. This is shown in figure 2.2 The water table slopes
towards the stream so that the hydraulic gradient of the aquifer is towards the
stream.
water table
---- - - - stream
Fig.2.2: Gaining or Effluent Stream
If the
bottom of the stream channel is higher than the local water table water
may drain from the stream into the ground. This type of stream is called ioosing
or Influent stream (figur_e 2.3). Th~ ~ate of loss of water is function of the depth
of water and the hydraulic conductivity of the underlying aquifer.
stream
water table
--- ---- -------------- -------.,._

Fig.2.3: Loosing or Influent Stream
~ -
Precipitation, Evaporation and Baseflow

I 23
temporarily become a losing stream

A gaining stream during base flow may
during floods. ov" ~ V<!t
2•7 Recession of
Base flow
nd the year, the @ischarge increase }will
If discbai:ge of a stream is me ~ur ed rou
During summer, the discharge of the
during ramy seaso~ ~nd decay m summer. of
water i.e., from base flow. If discharge
s tream will come entirely from ground
have arising nature during the period
the stream is plotted against time it will
80
.g
Period of Base Flow
!S 60
IC E
~
-~ 40
.g
u 20
0 July
July Sept Nov Jan March May
a Str eam
Fig.2.4A: Sch ema tic Hydrograpb of
80
60
-
E
E
() 40
:.0
::,
u 20
~r
,g 0 0 80 160 days
:h ession cur ve
· Fig .2.4 8: Sch ema tic base flow rec
r land flow , interflow etc~ and decays
when the stream receives wa ter from ove
A. Thu{i;ase flow recessio curve is the
exponentially during base flow figure 2.4
dro a h and ex resses the relationship
lower part of a fallin limb of a h ,
base flow recession curve, figure 2.4
between the base flow and time. The
water storage. Base flow to the stream
represents mainly withdrawal from ground ,
of rise and fall of water level in stream
will depend on level of wa ter table, rate
in the neighbourhood of the stream. If the
river/stream bank material and the soil
er with discharge on log scale (Y-axis)
recession curve is plotted on semi-log pap
s) it will plot as a straight line with
and time on simple linear scale (X-axi
· f b flow is expre ssed by the followin8
negat ive slope fig2.5 . The reces sion o ase
r_ 7 (2.2)
equat ion:
L,'l = qo e - ~ through. stream at the start of reces sion
11
Wher e q 0 ts flow
q is flow after time t
a is recession const ant and
t is time for flow to reduc e from qo to q
The slope of the line gives a= (lo~ - lo~q o)/ t
100 equaq tion of line
i
Log scale
/ q: Qo e -al
1O
Disch arge
(cubic m/m)
1 L------=Tr:im~e"T,in~d~ay:;.;s~---➔---
linear scale
Fig.2.5: Reces sion Curv e on Semi - log scale
D Durin g recession, the outflo w is a funct ion of the hydr

hydrauHc gradi ent will decre ase with time and the drivi ng force
wi] I be reduced.
aulic head and
for disch arge
q' = f(b); where q' is the disch arge per unit width of strea m.
Cons ervat ion of
ge. The time rate
mass requi res the outflo w to be balan ced by the chang e in stora
stora tivity S for
of chang e of groun d water stored shoul d depen d upon h, the
The appro priate
confi ned aquif er or Sy speci fic yield for unco nfine d aquif er.
conse rvatio n equat ion woul d be
S x Lxl x dh/dt = -q' (2.3)
= -f(h)
side of the
Lx 1 is the appro xima te area of the aquif er and the left hand
per unit width of
equa tion is the time rate of chang e of water store d in the aquif er
lest form of f(b)
the strea m. To integ rate the equat ion 2.3 we assum e the simp
equa tion 2 .3,
such that q ' = KSLh , K is propo rtiona lity const ant. Subs tituti ng in
we get
S L dh/dt = -KSL h
or dh/dt = - Kh
Integ rating the abov e equat ion give
h = ho e •Kr (2.4)
Wher e ho is the avera ge hydra ulic head at initia l time.
From abov e q ' = K S L h
q ' = KSL h 0 e · Kt
or q ' = q'o e·Kt (2.5)
Precipitation, Evaporation and Baseflow I 25
The equation 2.5 ~s comparable to base flow recession equation 2.2. It

implies that the reserv01r behaves as a linear reservoir ie the out flow is directly
proportional to the amount of water stored.
2. 7.1 Estimation of Ground Water Recharge from Base flow
If hydrograph of a stream is available for two consecutive years, it is possible to
estimate ground water recharge to the basin. Figure 2.6 shows hydrograph for
two consecutive years.
B D
100
t
Discharge
Base flow-recession
cubic mtm 10
E
year 1 Year2
1
Month )
Fig.2.6: Baseflow recession for two years
In figure 2.6, B indicates start of recession during a year when water level in
stream falls below adjacent water table, C indicates potential discharge at the end
of a recession and D the total potential ground water discharge at the beginning
of next recession. The ground water recharge is given by the difference of total
nd
potential ground water discharge at the beginning of 2 year recession (Vu) and
st
potential ground water discharge at the end of 1 year recession (V 1) i.e., Ground
water recharge = (Vt 1 - V 1) .
Vt1 and V I are given by the following relationship

Vt1=( q0 t 1)/2.3 (2.6)
Where q0 is the base flow at the start of recession and t I is the time for base
flow to reduce from q0 to O.1 q0 and
V1= Vt1 / (10) t/tJ where tis total time for recession (2.7)
!he steps for calculating recharge are as follows:
1. Calculate V11 for first year from equation 2.6.
11 · Calculate value of V at the end of the recession for the first year from
I
equation 2.7.
u1. Calculate Vu for second year from equation 2.6.
iv. Ground water recharge = V11 for second year step iii - V 1 step ii.
CHAP TER3
Hydrological Properties of Rocks
Hydrological properties of earth material vary widely. Based upon hydrological

properties, rocks are classified as Aquifer, Aquita rd, Aquicl ude and Aquifu ge.
3.1 Aquifer
aquifer is a saturated geological formation or@ whic_h can yield reason~~!e
amoun t of water to wel s. An a mfer performs two funct10ns 1 store water m
the pores, fractures and ransrmt water. Thus aquifers are geolog1ca formation
that have relatively high storage capacities and that allow relativ ely rapid
movem ent of ground water through it. In terms of hydrol ogical parame ters rock
· ving intrins ~ p~ eability and hydraulic conduc tivity greater than
2
10- Darcy nd~ ,Cm1se: respectiveJ_y are regarded as_ aquifers. {he intrinsic
permea 1 1ty an ny au 1c conductivity may be as high as 10 Darcy and
1 cm/sec respectively for well sorted gravel. Porosity of aquifer s is also high.
Examp les of aquifers are unconsolidated sand and gravel, sandstone, fractured
igneou s and metam orphic rocks, limestones and dolomite with solutio n cavities,
basalt with cooling fractures etc.
( 3.2 Aquitard J
A geological formation or a bed which can yiel~ but not enough to
meet demands is called aquitard. However, certain amount of water may leak ~
through ~he _aq':1itard, on r~g_ion~l scale, from on~ a uifer to another. It is a layer
of low mtnns1c permeab1hty m the rang 10 to 10- darcy and hydraulic
conduc tivity in the ange of 1o- to 1 - c sec which can store and transmit
ground water slowly. Almos t all formations can yield some water and are
classif ied as aquifer or aquitard. The aquitards are classified as leaky confining
layer. Examp les of aquitard are silts, clayey sands, non fractured weakly porous
igneous and metamorphic rocks etc.
[3.3 Aquiclude_J
A shale or clay bed is nearly impermeable and practically water does not move
through it. It is classified as aquiclude. It intrms1c erm · i is less than 10-3.
6
Darcy and hydraulic conductivi less than 10- cm/sec Aquicludes may have -
high porosit y with very low intrinsic permeability. It forms the upper or lower
bounda ry of an aquifer system.
f\\-Vv\ 'F ➔)l

..-1..
C) De\ ~
(_
K ~ ) It)- ~ CAI")/1/.t tc. J
~-\ -q~ ➔ -162- kn ·1o3 ~~ C 'K -:. 1i4 to ,;'°"'h(t1
-A ~'tl t.\ ~ ➔ r ~ -H-i "',, , o3 () ~,. ~ K < ,ti"~ <'.,H)r"'4-]
c
Hydrological Properties of Rocks I 27
~uge]
It is a formation which is completel y~of permeability and porosity. An
aquifuge will not transmit any water through it. Examples are massive igneous
and metamorphic rocks.
The classification of formations as aquifer or aquitard depends upon
availability of water in an area. For example silt is generally classified as aquitard
~icaJ
but in areas where sand or avel is not available at shallow depth, a silt bed may
be regarded as aquifer. Aquitard aquiclude and(iquifug~ are designated as
[confining layerJ
:tbie
.,.,,,. 3.5 Types of Aquifers
:r ~
Ground water may exist in aquifers in two completely different physical
tion environments. It may be in@nco!)fined conditions) when the u er surface of
lpid ~ater in the rock is exposed to the atmosphere. Otherwise it may be in confined
·ock conditions with a confining layer above the aquifer, the water in the agui er emg
:han !! higheUJressure than the atmospheric pre~~- Fig.3.i below shows a confined
nsic aquifer, an unconfined aquifer and a flowing well in confined aquifer, an artesian
and well (non-flowing well in confined aquifer) and a water table well (in unconfined
igh. aquifer) along with potentiometric surface and water table.
ired Surface
Water table well Non flowing well
:ies, Flowing well U - - -- .u ~ Potentlometrlc surface
. _._.-:- __y _:.__. .:. -:- ._. _. .-:._~ _--- Water table
Unconfined
aquifer
1 to
eak Confining layer
lye!
uliC Confined aquifer
Jlll'!
are Impermeable bed rock
1in8
o\J.S Fig.3.1: Showing confined and unconfined aquifers
Based on hydrological properties, the aquifers are classified as:

i. Confined aquifer.
11. Semi-confined aquifer.
~11 - Unconfined aquifer.
iv. Semi-unconfined a uifer.
_A Confined a uifer is overlain and underlain by confming layers of
aqu1clude or aquifuge as shown in Fig.3.2.
•. u., t..&n(P~ ➔ ·P~~ v-)c...!--Vv"' p ~ ~~c p ,

~~ rt , ~l),,Q. ·Wo-ct~p 7 AM~~~ 6 p •
A,;ijJ;KDWI
Surface
l 1 1 7 7 1_______
I I T Potentlometrfc surf
ace
------------- Aquiclude/aqulfuge (Impervious)
b Aquifer
Aquiclude/aqulfuge (Impervious)
----- -----
Fig.3.2: Showing confined aquifer
This type of aquifers is also called artesian aquifer. The hydraulic

conductivity of the aquifer may be in the range of 1o- cm/se~ to 1 cm/sec and
that of confining layer less than 10·6 cm/sec. Water level m a well tapping
confined aquifer rises above the aquifer indicating that the water in the aquifer is
under pressure. The height of water level in the well above the top of the aquifer
is a measure of the confining pressure and is equivalent to hydrostatic head. The
elevation to which water level rises above a datum or sea level is called
potentiometric level. A confined a uifer at a lace may become an unconfined
aquifer at another place In Indo Gangetic plains xtensive confined aquifers exit
}Veils tapE_ing confined aquifers may be in flowing or non-flowing conditions.
Flowing wells are found in foothills of Himalaya in (f___arai be!!Jand also in
u a ore san stone in Tamil Nadu.
Semi-confined a uifer or leaky confined aquifer shown in Fig.3.3 is similar
to confined aquifer except that the confining layer above or below the aquifer is
aquitard through which vertical leakage takes place due to head difference. The
in~ic perm~abi~i~ and hydraulic conductivity of the confining layer as
mentio~ed earher 1s m the range of 10·3 to I0·2 darcy and 1o-4 to 1o·6 cm/sec
respectively.
7 7 / 7 7 1
1 I I Surface
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Potentiometric surface
- --x-- - - - - - - - - - Aquitard (semi pervious)
b
Aquifer
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _,Aqulclude/aqulfuse (Impervious)
Flg.3.3: Showing semi-confined aquifer
(Jn.... thunconfined aguiferlshown in Fig · 3•4 •is not over l · b fimino

·a
layer ~ er rockE of )Jjgh permeability and hydraulic condamt' 7y any condfr
.
fl)
the top of underlying confining layer upt~ the ~surface. uc IVI~ exten °
-7--1r----,7--7r--7r---r7-,7,----,7,...._--r, Surface
Unsaturated zone
- - - , - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Watertable
b unconfined aquifer
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _Aquldude/aqulfuge (Impervious)
Fig.3.4: Showing unconfined aquifer
In this case the top of water level in the aquifer fanning the ~ is
exposed to the atmosphere through openings in the rocks. Recharge ~ f u r
can take place from downward seepage of precipitation, lateral movement of
ground water or upward seepage from confined aquifer. This is the most common
type of aquifer. In the@lre peninsular part 'ground water occurs in unconfined
condition.
- In semi-unconfined aquifer the top of the unconfined aquifer is made of
fine sands ~ hose hydraulic conductivity is less than the rest of the unconfined
aqm er ig.3.5). These aquifers show character in between semi-confined and
unconfined aquifer. The intrinsic permeability of fine grained sand on top is more
than that of the aquitard in semi-confined aquifer and there may be a horizontal
tilar flow component in the fine sand.
H Surface
Thi -- - - - - - - - fine graineasa-na - - water table
al
'sec
b Aquifer Coarse sand/gravel
---------------
Fig.3.5: Showing semi-unconfmed aquifer
Aqulclude/aqulfuge (impervious)
3.6 Classification of Subsurface Water

The classification of water in the subsurface is illustrated in Fig.3.6 below. The
water table separates the zone of saturation or{phreatic zon~ from the unsaturated
zone or vadose zone above the water table. In the unsaturated z ee types of
water exists e.g. soil water intermediate vadose water and apillary water.
The soil mois e pressure 1s ess an a ospheric pressure. · ermedia!e
jpS vadose zone and also in ca ill fringe the ressure is ess than atmosphenc
ofll ~ t the ater table the ore water pressure equals the atmospheric
wat er pressure is grea ter that\
pressure. In the zone of saturation the pore
.
atmospheric pressure. attractiQ !l and cap illar y forc es which
:Water is held in soil by molecul ar
ortant ~or grow th of plan ts and
oppose the gravitational force. Soil wat er is imp
percolation of wat er and also by
crop. Water from soil is lost due to downward
evapotranspiration. rme diat e vad ose zon e or
Below the soil moisture zone is the inte
downwards and only sma ll Part
intermediate zone. Water in this zone is moving
not be reco vere d for any use. In
is retained in this zone. However, this water can
intenm~diate zo~ e is quit e thin
the humid region or in areas of plenty of rainfall,
percolat10n of ram wat er. In dry
or may even be absent as water table rises due to
water pass es thro ugh this zone
regions, the intermediate zone is thick as little
because of scanty rainfall. e lies the cap illa ry fringe,
At the bottom of the intermediate vadose zon
ration by cap illa ry acti on. The
Ground water is drawn upwards from zone of satu
ave ra e ain size in this zone.
thickness of the{cap1llary trmge)de ends u on the
n in coa rse grained soil because
In fine ained soils ca illa frin e is hicke 1ha
ss of this zon e in fine grai ~d
of greater tension created by fine pores. The thickne
s may be neg ligi ble. In very fine
soil may be few metres and in coarse grained soil
abo ve the wat er tabl e. The
grained soil, capillary fringe can saturate the soil
pres sure as stat ed abo ve.
pressure in capillary fringe is less than atmospheric
illary zon e. Bel ow the water
~e ground water table lies at the bottom of cap
s of rock are satu rate d with
table 1s the zone of saturation in which the pore
ration is call ed( irou nd wai iu
water. Water below.water table in the zone of satu
grou nd wat er who se cap acit y ·
The saturated zone 1s a huge natural reservoir of
e dep end s upo n loca l geo lo;s
the ~ota~ ~olume of pores. Thickness of this zon ·
n local geo logy .
Availability of pores in the rock also depends upo
-r-- ,--,I---- -:r- -r-~ ---, ---~ - Surface
7 7 .I I l I 7 7
________________ .
---------------~QU.Witec
Unsaturated zone
---➔ Pressu re less than
or vadose Zone atmospheric pressure
or Zone of aeration Intermediate zone
::. -.:!re ssure of water equal

·.·.-.-.-.-.-..................... ....c;apillary wate r...................... Water table
-'lo atmos pheric pressure
z.o,.. of saturation Ground wate r

or phreat ic zone (Phreatlc wate r)
Ill 1 - - - ~ Pressu re of water greate r
~ than Atmos pheric pressu re
--- _.J_________________ _-------
::,
.,., Wate r In unconnected 0
,;;·- ---- --
Fig.3.6: Classification of water in subsurface

.
At the bott om of the zon e of saturat. a regi on may exis t whe re por es ill
d ton,
rock are not con nec ted to eac h other an wat er may n 0 t fl hr
ow t oug h thes e pores.
➔ .I'\ L _ .u_
~o~ .,,, uz... w ~ e...v ~
• / ~ ~ o-..!=<tv ·~~ ~
·
~ ~ ~ ll,-hLA
.. '\l(_V) c. ~ \ _ Q _ .
Hydro logical Properties of Roc~ I 31
r Tab~e .
3•7 wate water. 1he @f the
t some depth m the earth, the rock is fully saturated with
tic~ I defined for unconfined
saturated layer re resents the water table . ater table is
sure o ~ate r i,n the pores equals the atmospheri9
~I aqut er. At water table, the
~ We ~ay also say that the height of water level
unconfined aqmfe~ when connected represents water table
s in shallow wells in
. The height of water
Or I table is expresse~ m metre above mean sea level AMSL
. Generally water table
)ltt1 will generally follow
contour maps (Fig.3.7) are prepare~ for an area. ater tabl
~ contours to lower
the shape of topographY.. Water will flow from higher value
h~ urs are( wide ap~ L
;,alue contours as shown in figur~ 3. 7. If water table conto
iry are close to each other
implies that flow of ound water is ve slow. If contours
lt1e ow is relatively faster.
20m 30m 40m
ge,
'he
9e.
!Se -- ---
led
IIle
'he
ter
ith water table contours
or equipo tential lines
w Stream
Fig.3.7: Water table contour map
IS essed as metres
'J, Water table is always measured from sea level and is expr
reduced level of point
above mean sea level (amsl) (Fig.3.9). For example if the
is 10 m, the height of
of measurement is 100 m amsl and depth of water in a well
ent from surface to
water table is 100-10=90 m. Depth tofw ater level\is measurem
!fill depth of water in a welL the ground, passes
Part of the precipitation that falls on land, infiltrates into
r table . The water table
through the unsaturated zone and finally reaches the wate
ed zone, it may cause
is raised. If silt and clay lenses are present in the unsaturat
clay formi!}g a Perched
infiltrating water to accumulate above the lens of silt and
Water table locally above the regional water table (Fig. 3.8).
Realonal water table

Perched water table
CJay - --
.s~~t-=
bed -=s
:: ->
~~~:::::::::::::·---1
::::::- --- --- --- --- --
------------
Unconfined aquifer
iJJ impermeable boundary
Fig.3.8: Showing regional and perched wate r table

32 I Fundatnentals of Hydrogeology
3.8 Potentiometric Surface . . confined a uifer, wate r in t

Whe n a piezometer (well) ts constructed 111 a
-. ·
.
p1ezon1eter nses above the.a~ . •·. Tl'\e 1ie,g t fO the water eve1 1·n the 1ezo
· he
rnet
confining pressure nd ~
above the top of the aqmfer ts a me~sure o hi
h water leve nses a ove ts
eqU·tvalent to hydrau1·~c 1•1ead. · The elevation to w c
. 3 9 below. Earlier it was referredsea
level is called potennometnc level see Fig. · as
-~ well/P fe1om eter
RllOOm amsl Surface
Dept h to wate r level

Say 10m
100m ~
Height of wate r table
<E' <-- or poten tiome trls surface
..1 --- --- --- --- Datu m or sea level I

Height of wate r table or poten tiome trlc-
\
surface (100- 10) = 90m
Fig.3.9: Showing height of water table / potentiometr
ic surf ace
piezometric level. The term is obsolete and not
in use any more. The
potentiometric surface is the representation of the hei
ht of otentiometric level
in part or throughout the confined aquifer. If the
otentiometric surface of the t
confined a uifer is above round surface, water will
flow from the wel l without a
pumping. It is called owin well To measure the wate
r level of such wells; few
casings may have to be connected to the well above
the grou nd surface for water r
level to remain within the casing. Height of wate
r level abov e the ground is C
mea sure d to obtain the potentiometric surface. Whe
n a well in conf ined aquifer is t,
pum ped, the potentiometric surface falls but the aqui
fer rem ains fully saturated.
Inve rsel y, if wate r is pumped into the confined
aquifer, the potentiometric s
surf ace will rise. In the event of fall of potentiometr r
ic surface belo w top of the
conf ined aqui fer, the aquifer becomes partially satu
rated. C
3.8. J Hy drau lic Hea d s

1
drau lic head is defined as sum of the elevation head
nd(press ure hea<Ll This is
also th tota l mec hani cal ener er · · If wate r is flow ing through a
pipe pac ked with sand and a manometer s introduce
d in the pipe , the wate r will
rise abov e the pipe in the manometer. The height
of wate r colu mn from bottom
of man ome ter is the pressure head. The elevation
head is the heig ht of bottom of
man ome ter from datu m or sea level .
~
H~ ~ v0vv--lt c H ~ ~ ~ ~ ''t k --s0 + ~\» ;.::--..fl ~,
k..,.,-0 ...
Where h is hydraulic head,~ is {eressure hea~ and@s@evation hea4)

figJ,10,
pipe packed
-~- Manometer
wIth sand ~
r,
i i\ "" I~
w
L.
p
I
"
h z
\I \I
Datum or sea level
h =z+ hp
Fig.3.10: Showing hydraulic head
3.9 Porosity in Rocks

Porosity (I}) of a rock is the ratio of the volume of void space (V v) to the total
volume of the rock (V). It is ex ressed in ercentage.
Porosity (I})= (VvN) xl00 (3.1)
The porosi ma be com uted from measurement of density

Porosity (I))= (1- Pb/ pp) (3.2)
Where, Pb is t e ensity o t e u aquifer material, and PP is the density of
the particles of the aquifer material. The particle density of most of the rocks is
abou{f65 gm/cm3)
An aquifer holds water in its pores but all held water may not be released by
it. The porosity of unconsolidated sediments is higher than those of the semi-
consolidated rocks. The porosity of semi-consolidated sediments is reduced due
to presence of cementing material in the pores. Porosity in rocks are of two types
- primary and secondary. The porosity of sediments, both unconsolidated and
semi-consolidated is primary porosi,!y (fig. 3.11). The Igneous and metamorphic
rocks have little or negligible primary porosity. Fractures in these rocks
developed due to tectonic activity are called secondary porosity (fig. 3.12a). The
solution channels developed in Carbonate rocks is also secondary porosity (figure
3.12b).
-~6
Q • ,,_ T_,_....,.-- Q•
'g ·~-~~
- ---- -0 3·
Fig.3.11: Poorly sorted sand (Primary porosity)
z
Fig.3.12a: Fracture in granite Fig.3.12b: Caverns in limestone

Secondary porosity Secondary porosity
Typical values of porosity of both unconsolidated and consoli~ated rocks are

given in table below. Porosity of sediments is affected by shape, size and packing
of the grains. Factors that affect porosity are as follows:
i. Grain size has no effect on porosity but the manner of packing cubic or
rhombic changes porosity from 48% to 26%.
ii. Well sorted sediments generally have higher porosities than poorly sorted
sediments for the simple reason that if sediment has a range of particle size
then the small particles may fill up the voids between the lar e particles. In
terms of Uniformity Constant Cu= 0 6o/D 10 ; i Cu is less than 4, he sample is
well sorted and ffnore than 6)is poorly sorted. Where D 6o is the grain ~7.e
below which 60% of the sediment is fine and D 10 is the grain size below
which I 0% of the sediment is finer. (
D iii. Grain shape affects porosity as irregularly shaped particles do not pack as
neatly as rounded particles. This results into higher proportion of void spaces
thereby increasing porosity. Organic particles tend to be irregularly shaped
and increase porosity
iv. Clay particles tend toC__e.le. _c_tr_o_s_t-a t"'."i--:'~a-:1-:-ly- re_p_e-:-,
l Jone another along the surface of
the particles. This results in higher proportion of void space and increase
porosity.
Cubic Packing 48% Rhobohedral Packing 26%

Fig.3.13: Showing effect of packing on porosity
~X hto
~
v~ ,X\ (/\) ' Hydrological Properties of Rocks I 35
.
Table3 1 PorosItcy ofR ocks
....-:--- unconsolidated Porosity Consolidated Sediment/ Porosity
s. Sediment o/o Rock o/o
~ Well-sorted sand & gravel 25-50 % Sandstone 5-30 %
-1- Sand and gravel mix 10-35 % Limestone and Dolomite 1-20 %
J- Glacial till 10-25 % Shale 0-10 %
_1- - Silt 35-50 % Fractured Crystalline Rock l-10 %
4
35-55 % Vesicular Basalt 10-50 %
~
5 Clay
Solid Rock <I%
6 -
(Source: adapted from Applied Hydrogeology by C.W. Fetter, 2000)
c..--
3,1 oVoid Space .

oid space e 1s defined as ratio of the volume of void space (Vv) to the volume
of solids (Vs)- This is normally defined in material science and is related to
po i as ows·
e =VvNs Vv/(V- Vv) = 11/(l- q)
= (3.3)
3.11 Effective Porosity " )=>oYO~ ·~ twc-v.' Lwok ~ ft""-4.'1.. ~ '

In sedlll1en s a ores are not interconnected. Water flows through only
interconnected ores. The effective porosity (11e) is the porosity available for fluid
flow and is always less than t e oros1 o e e unent. e void spaces that
are very small do not admit water mo ecu es t oug it and do not contribute to
effective porosity. Even larger pore spaces interconnected by small pores are
unavailable for flow of water.
l}e = k I} ; where k is always less than 1 (3.4)
3.12 Grain Size Analysis of Sediments

Size of particles in a sample of unconsolidated sediment is important for deciding
the slot size in tube well assembly and sorting of rock particles has effect on
porosity which is important for storage of ground water. Grain size analysis or
mechanical analysis of sample is done to find out the ercentage of different
sizes of grains in the sample. The Wentworth-Udden Scale of Particle Size is
given below:
S.No. Size Range Particle
I > 256 mm Boulder
2 64 - 256 mm Cobble
3 4 - 64 mm Pebble
4 2 - 4mm Gravel
5 1/16 (0.0625 mm) - 2 mm Sand
- 6 1/256 (0.00390 mm) - 1/16 (0.0625) mm Silt
- 7 < 1/256 mm (0.00390 mm) Clay
(Source: A Dictionary of Geology by DGA Whiten with JRV Brooks)
A weighed quantity of dry sample (about 500 gm) is taken for anal is a
put in the top sieve of 2.8 mm perforation. It is put on the top of set o 8 sievllij 3
and is covered with its lid. In the set of siev e other ans are aduaU ~ 3
smaller sieve sizes such a 2 mm, 1.4mm 1.00 mm 0.7 I mm .0.5 mm 0.3 ~ <;
....
and the bottom pan is without any sieve. The pans are arrange~ m decreasing si t
of sieve with pan of 2.8 mm size on top and pan without any steve at bottom.~ V
~ans fit ~ell in their counterparts and are placed m a motorised shaker With f
timer. It 1s shaken for about 5 minutes. The pans are opened and part of sarnpl a
retained in each is wei bed. The foll · xample illustrate the procedure fie (
obtaining iformity coefficient Cu= D6ofl) 10. Let weight of sample for analys~t18 I
be 500 gm and ana ysis report is as s own m table below: I
Table 3.2 t
IS sieve size Weight of Percentage of Cumulative Cumulative
retained total sample retained in passing in
sam le m ercent ercent
2.8mm 0 0 0 100-0=100
2.00mm 50 (50/500)x 100=10 0+10=10 100-10=90
1.40mm 150 30 10+30=40 100-40=60 J
1.00mm 150 30 40+30=70 100-70=30
0.71 mm 100 20 70+20=90 100-90=10
0.50mm 50 10 90+10=100 0
0.30 mm 0 0 0 0
Bottom Pan 0 0 0 0
~S sieve size is _plotted ~n log scale along X axis and cumulative ercenta
~assmllgdalong '! axis on a lmear scale. The data of example is plotted telow angde
18 ca e gradmg curve From · size
· is
· read against d6O and dl0
U 'ti . . .. . curve gram
m onruty coefficient is given by Cu= o 60;o10. ·
[
0,1
. 1
10
Sieve Size in mm
Fig.3.14: Grain size di;=-:
st~ri::--b- t-:-1- --- - - - ~
u on curve
ll.(j -2 ortgin of Porosity in Rocks
3.1.1
~ _ Sedimentary Rock .
3 13 1
~ S~iments are formed by weath ~~ng and erosion in a source area and then
ie
~l)
th
:d sported to the place of deposition by the agents of denudation like water
etc., Sedimentary ~ocks are fo~ed from sediments by diagenesis. Th~
,..,..ess includes compactwn due to weight of the overlying material and removal
prvv f .1d ..
le and addition o mate~a , epos~tton of cementing material etc. Compaction and
Or deposition of cementing ~atenal reduces porosity of sediments. Though, the
·IS primary struc~e of the sed1me~ts may ~~ retained, the porosity is reduced. Thus
porosity of sedimentary rocks ts depositional features of sediments as modified
by process of digenesis.
3. J3.2 Carbonate Rocks
Limestones and Dolomites are sedimentary rocks of chemical or biochemical
origin. Initially these rocks do not have appreciable pore spaces but show joint
system developed due to local stresses. Due to circulation of water through these
joints, the joints are widened in course of time by dissolution of the rock. The
solution channels, if developed, become large reservoir for ground water.
However some limestones are not cavernous and only cracks and crevices
provide storage for ground water.
3.J3.3 Intrusive Igneous and Metamorphic Rocks
Intrusive Igneous and metamorphic rocks are generally devoid of primary
e porosity. Secondary porosity develops in these rocks by processes described
d below. The intrusive igneous rocks while cooling at depth under high pressure
I. , develop cracks and fractures. As the overburden is removed by erosion, the
plutons tend to expand and additional cracks or fractures develop in the plutons
parallel to the erosional surface. Removal of overburden may cause tectonic
movement producing vertical fractures. Weathering of the plutonic rocks at
surface and shallow depth increases porosity.
3.13.4 Volcanic Rocks
As volcanic rocks are formed by cooling of the molten magma in the surface
environment, they develop shrinkage cracks which create joints. Due to escape of
gaseous products vesicles develop in the rock which may or may not be
interconnected. However the vesicles produce porosity. The broken surface of
buried lava flows, the sand and gravel deposited between successive flows add to
the porosity of volcanic rock. As obvious from above, the porosity in volcanic or
Basaltic rocks is secondary porosity.
3.14 S ecific Yield

Specific yield is defined as the volume of water released by an unconfined
aquifer by gravi; to the total volume of the unconfined aquifer. In fig. 3.13 a
l tliffa....,_ _
is shown. It may be expres
fuJly saturated prism and partly drained prism
mathematically as follows:
Specific yield (Sv) = (VdN) x 100, Wher~
(3.5)
ifer
filSpel
Vd is the volume of water released or drained
from·e:unc onfi ned aqu Uti.d.. aga
ned a_q mie r. "'l
gravity and Vis the total volume of the unc onfi the
awa y from !he unconfi
Thus it is a measure of how much water can dram ~
p~res of the aq m fe r.~
aquifer under gravity out of the total water in the .
a~_a ve _larger s ~ r ~ (Ii
has a definite effect on specific yield Smalle~ gr
10 n.~ ame d sedunents ~
Larger surface area imp ies more s f. e ens Th
im~ ts. If two s~mples ha deJ
have ower. spec1 1c _yield than _co~se grained sed
ple with larg er gram sizes ~e aq1
same porosity but different gram sizes, the sam
y has fine grai ns and laWill be
have higher specific yield than the finer ones. Cla
will rem ain beh ind clinginrger po
surface area than sand and therefore more water
varies from 18% for silt to 50 sp1
~lay particle surface_ The range of specific yield
i~ ·eld ~ay b e ~ '.'
to 27% for medium to coarse s~nd. The s ecif
laboratory or may also be determined fro ump mg tes m wel ls in unconfui !.n
. ~
~u i~
as follows:
Factors affecting specific yield may be summarised
increases lead ing to
i. As grain size decreases, total surface area smaller
specific yield.
11. The highest spec~fic yi_ eld c_omes from coarse san d and fine grav el.
111. The low~st specific yield 1s
for clays which hav e sma ll part icle s and v .
osit y of SOo/c0 d ~Id
s~aces with large surface area. Clays may have por an specific
yield of only 3%
. - .- s
n
/
~
f
r
q
Fully saturated rock
Upper Part drained
. by gravity
Fig.3.15: Specific yield f
o unconfined aquifer
Hydrological Properties of Rocks \ 39
S eciftC Retentio~ (.s -<J .

3.l~ 'fie retention (Sr) ts defined as ratto of volume of water
retained by a rock
spe~t t gr·avity to the total volume of the rock. Thus specific reten
agan'ls tion refers to
lei- volutne of · mam· sm· the roek
the mass after gravi ty drainage. Thus ,
porosit t = Sv + Sr
~<i (3 .6)
~ Stora e Coefficient (Storativity)
3.1 6 storag
!a. e coefficient also ca ed Storativity (S) of a (confined aquif
er} is
ill e ed as the volume of wate r relea sed or gaine d
hfin
by a unit surface area of the
de .
Ve 'fer for a fall or nse o f potent10m
. .
ill
er
:Ut etnc surface by unity (Fig.3 .14). Wate r will
released with fall of poten ti~~e tric surface and gained with
rise of the
t ntiometric surface. The storattvity (S) for confined aquifer
is equivalent to
to
~
~;e~ific yield (Sv) of unco nfine d aquifer.
¼
1n
....____
Unit cross sectio nal area
~
~r unit decline of head_ .f.~-__", _._._ I

Potentiometric surface
id Confining layer
----, ,---- +--- '---- +--- -+-- -
IC
Aquif er I
I
Impervious layer
Fig.3.16: Storage coefficient of confined aquifer
Storativity values range from 0.005 to O.OOOOS'an~ is dimension

less. ~ ater is
released from confined aquif er nmar il b com ress1on
~ t e aquif er and
ex ansio of water when pump ed. Durin g pump ing, the confi
ned aquifer rema ins
fully saturated, only the press ure is reduc ed in the aquifer reflec
ted by decline of
potentiometric surface.
3.17 S ecific Stora e Elastic Storage) Coefficient

pecific storage (Se) is defin ed as the amou nt of wate r per
unit volum e of a
saturated formation that is store d or expel led from storage due
to compressibility
of mineral skeleton of the aquif er and(pore wate! J)er unit chang
e of head.
Sc = Pwg (a+ q~)
(3.7)
Or Se= Yw (a+ q~)
(3.8)
Where Seis the Specific stora ge or Elastic storage coefficient (1 /m)
Pw is density of wate r (Kg/m3)
~
_sl-oVC';f Co-~0~hlr ,a:. b)(' .cpe tl~~~ae
40 1 Fundamentals ofHydrogeology
· ht per unit volume an
y" is specific weight of water defined as we1g (I roclc
y" = p"'g (newton/n13~ 3 qui
. 9 81 m/sec2
g is nccelerat:1.on due to grav,ty · d. ciprocal of bulk modulu abS
:;;.-.:<l
a is compressibility of aquifer ske~eton an / n2 s beer
1
of elasticity of aquifer skeleton expt·essed~
m .Newton
d · eciprocal of bu tk mo d u 1us of para
~ is the compressibility of water an is r ~
water e>-.l)ressed in Newton!nl .
vole
t} is porosit)' of aquifer (fract1on) . in the range of IO - 4 and has
Specific storage is a very small fraction
dimension of 1 1metre. oefficient (storativity S) of aquifer
In case of confined aquifer' the storage c
is related to specific storage as follows : (3 .9)
S = b Pwg( a+ qp)==fuLl (3 .10)
sba1
Or. S = b Y,. (a+ IJP\a~
35~
b _is thickn;s: o~~:1:::Jfer b is constant and specific~ht of water due
. As true~~~~ st!a e coefficient S deoends largely upQP ~ th ~ elastic
is nearl_y co ~ • b tc
propernes) an I'J · 6 e u2 .
modulus of el~city of rock skeleton I/a vanes frolll
800 I 06 N/ 2 fi .
frac
por,
.... loo to 200 x 0 N/m for loose sand to 500 to ~ ~ or senu, 12~
consolidated sand and bulk modulus of elasticity of wat!r 1s approximately 2.1 x
109 N/m2. The porosity of rocks also vary from 25 ~o 501/o for well sorted sand to 3.1 1
I to 30% in consolidated sedimentary rocks. It 1s cl~ar that th~ type of .r~ck Hye
forming the aquifer and porosity of the rock is most important m detenrunmg por
storage coefficient. trar
All water released or absorbed by the confined aquifer is accounted for by disc
the specific storage. The water is released from the entire t~ickness of the um
·~
aquifer, the aquifer remains fully saturated and only the head declines.
In case of unconfined aquifer storage coefficient is given by hyc
S = Sy + b 1 Sc (3.11) Tr2
Where, b 1 is saturated thickness of the unconfined aquifer. The second tenn 10
bi Sc is negligible in comparison to the first term Sy.
Therefore, for unconfined aquifer S = Sy and Sy is the release of water due to 3.2
gravity drainage from the unconfined aquifer and Sy=( I} - Sr)- lnt
It may be noted that because of Sy> > S, the volume water released from an dei
unconfined aquifer (V= area x Sy x decline of head) is much more than that from me
a confined aquifer (V= area x S x decline of head) for equal decline of head. an
3.18 Ground Water Storage in Relation to Porosity

Porosity of aquifers is important for storage of ground water because it is the
pore ?r voids _in rocks ~here water is stored . The porosity may be primary
porosity of sediments, sedimentary rocks or secondary porosity in plutonic rocks l ff
due to weathering and fracturing or due to development of solution channels in ve
limestone and dolomite or shrinkage cracks and joints and vesicles in volcanic
rocks. The porosity affects stora e of water in both confined and unconfined
aquifer. The stora e coeffi,cient, a ..measure of (vohune) of water expelled or
I~ !!>so!!?,ed by a_c2,nfined agmfer eer_unit surface area p~r unit change of head has
been shown m para 3.6 to be largely dependent upon :fosity and elastic
paranieters of rock forming the aquifer. The( elastic prope of rocks depends
Of
upon the type of rock e.g., unconsolidated, semi-consolidated, plutonic, and
volcanic or carbonate rocks forming the aquifer.
In case of unconfined aquifers Storage Coefficient S equals Sv as shown in
para 3.17 above and porosity is only responsible for storage. Part of the water in
the unconfined aquifer is drained and part is retained in the aquifer.
Sv =11 - Sr or uncon med aqui er.
ere Sv is specific yiel and Sr is specific retention.
The porosity of unconsolidated sediments vary with grain size, sorting, grain
shape etc., and vary from high of 25 to 50% for a well sorted sand gravel to 20 to
35% for mixed sand and gravel. The porosity of sedimentary rocks is reduced
er due to compaction and cementation and varies from 3 to 30%. Sometimes
le fracture developed in sedimentary rock increases porosity. The secondary
Ill porosity in plutonic rocks may be in the range of 2 to 5%, in volcanic rocks 1 to
u. 12% and in carbonate rocks from 1 to 30%.
X
to 3.19 Hydraulic Conductivity

:~ Hydraulic conductivity (K) ~s defmed as@ at which water can ~ ove through '1_
~ porous medium. Hydraulic conductivity is a measure of a material's capacity to
transmit water. It is defined as a constant of proportionality relating the specific
1r discharge of a porous medium under a unit hydraulic gradient in Darcy's law. Its
11 unit is metre/sec~retre/day. K is a function o~oth the properties of the porous
\-medium) nd th flui flowi~g thr?ugh it. Hydraulic co~ductivity is an important
· hydraulic prop and 1s estimated from pumpmg test of wells (K=
Transmissivity / thickness of aquifer). The range of values ofK varies from about
ID l 0 -3 m/day for silt to about 800 m/day for well sorted gravel.
3.20 Intrinsic Permeability

Intrinsic Permeability (Ki) is a property of the(iorous medium_ alone] and
Ill describes how easil a fluid wate ·n our case) can move through the porous
[l1 media. Its unit of measurement is m2. t is related to (i) connectedness of voids
and (ii ain size of the rock. In ma ematical terms
~ = C d2 (3.12)
ere c 1s s ape factor (dimensionless) and d is mean pore dia .
9 2
In Petroleum industry Ki is measured in Darcy and 1 Darcy 9.87xl0- m .
If the pores of a rock are isolated from each other, the rock would be
impermeable ie permeability is nearly zero. Volcanic rocks may have many
vesicles but if the vesicles are isolated the rock is rendered impermeable.
42|
W
have small particle size and small voids. The s

Similarly clays rendering it of no
water
of water on th
movement of additional
particles chokes increaseeability.
rock increases, the permeability
As the grain size of the finer materials ucause of
I22R
openings. In poorly sorted samples, oid Textu

larger pore isreduced.
between larger fragments and permeability Relatr
permeability of one dominant size sample is (morejthan tun

The Intrinsic two Sedime
dominant sizesamples. as follows:

exur
Intrinsic Permeability K; is related to hydraulic conductivity betwe
K= K(H/pg) (3.13)
Where is dynamic viscosity of fluid (water) W
pis fluid (water) density Kg/m', and
gis acceleration due to gravity m/sec
K is hydraulic conductivity m/sec Varies
K, is intrinsic permeability mf SOrted
Range of intrinsic permeability and hydraulic conductivity for unconsolidated

sediments are given in table below:
W
S.
Intrinsic Hydraulic Hydraulic
No.
Sediment Permeability Conductivity Conductivity porosi
(darcy) (Cm/sec) (m/day) ig315
Clay 10 to 10 10 to (10to to 10)x 0.864 $an
2 Silt, sandy silt, 10 to 10

10 to 10 (10 to 10) x 0.864 porosi
clayey sand particl
3 Silty sand, fine sand 10to 1 10 to 10 (10 to 1)x 0.864

perme
4 Well sorted sand I to 10 10 to 10 (1 to 10)x 0.864 Sc
Well sorted gravel 10to 10 10 to 1 (10 to 10) x0.864
(Source: Applied Hydrology by CW Fetter, 2000) forme
perme
3.21 Relation between Specific Yield (Sy) and Permeability (K poorly
i) The permeability K; defines how easily water is able to move through the
SOrtins
rock mass and Specific yield Sy is the volume of water drained from
the rock media
due to gravity to the total rock volume.
poros
ii) Permeability is related to connectedness of (void spaces and grain size.
SOrtn
Specific yield is also related to grain size of the rock.
(ii) Permeability of clay (particle size < 1/256 mm) is very low inthe range of
10 to 10° Darcy i.e., almost non permeable. The Specific yield of clay is but pe
also very low 3%. iSolate
(iv) With increase of size of particle size, the permeability increases as also the
specific yield. Well sorted sand has permeability of I to 10 Darcy and
specific yield of 25 to 27%.
(V) Specific yield increases rapidly as the percentage of clay in rock mass
decreases and percentage of sand increases and similar is the effect on
permeability of rock.
Hydrological Properties of Rocks 43
dWell sorted samples have greater permeability and also higher specific yield
. sorted samples.
than poorly
O 3.22 Relation between Porosity, Permeability and Texture of Rocks

Texture is the relationship between the grains of minerals forming a rock.
Relative proportion of sand of various grain size, silt and clay in a sample of
affects
sediment determine its texture. In other words grain size and sorting
has been established
texture. Through experiments, empirical relationship
between intrinsic permeability and porosity and sorting.
Ki =
10 Ddom C3.64 (m+3.64 (3.14)
Where Ki is intrinsic permeability
Daom is dominant grain size
C is a constant derived from the sorting observed by microscope and
varies from 0.70 for extremely well sorted to very well sorted to 1.0 for poorly
ted sorted sample

is porosity in fraction
m is cementation factor
When intrinsic Permeability in milli Darcy is plotted on log scale against
in
porosity on linear scale, the plot is a straight lin with positive slope as shown
fig.315. It is clear from above relation that (Ki will increase for well-sorted
64
samples with large porosity and larger size dominant particles. Clays have high
porosity 35 to 55% but small particle size and small voids. The film of water on
particles choke movement of additional water rendering it to be of very poor
permeability in the range of 10 to 10 Darcy.
Sorting of sediments affect both porosity and intrinsic permeability. Rocks
formed of well sorted sediments have higher porosity as well intrinsic
permeability than poorly sorted sediments as small particles may fill up voids in
poorly sorted sediments. The decrease in permeability associated with poor
sediments. As the
Sorting is more pronounced in coarse sediments than in fine
median grain size in the rock increases, the permeability increases. However
size but is affected by manner of packing and
porosity is not affected by grain
sorting.
If the pores of a rock are isolated from each other, the rock will have porosity
Dut permeability will be nil or negligible as in the case of volcanic rocks having
isolated vesicles.
af
Permeability in m darcy
Reef Lstone
Well cemented sand
Fine
grained friable
sand
CHAPTER 4
Ground Water Flow
4.1 Energy in Ground Water

Ground water in aquifers is in motion. The(energy)responsible for its
movement
Here we are concerned with (only mechanical)
will be examined in this section.
other forms energy like thermal and chemical are
energy of ground water and unit weight (h) is given
consideredas constant. The total mechanical energy per
by Bernoulli equation as follows:
h=Ply + V/2g +Z (4.1)
or hP/pg+ V/2g++Z
reduces to m.
Every term of equation 4.1 and is equal to the
Where, h is total mechanical energy unit weight
hydraulichead measured in piezometer in the aquifer (fig.4.1)
lity
ted
h Confined aquifer
lic
Datum
h=h1+Z
and elevation head in confined aquifer
Fig.4.1: Showing pressure
P is the pressure (Pascal or Newton/ms)

defined as weight of water per unit volume
y is the specific weight
(newton/m°)
IS V is the velocity of flow water (m/sec)
p isdensity of water (kg/m')
gis acceleration due to gravity (m/sec*)
Zis the elevation head measured from a datum or sea level (m)
contained in water mass due to the
The first term P y or P/pgjis the energy
above the top of the
forces confining the water. Rise of water level in piezometer
confined aquifer is measure of the force.(V/28is
the kinetic energy due to
from a datum or sea
movement of water and(Z is the elevation head measured
levelAs given in equation 4.1, h is the total mechanical energy per unit weight
contained in water. The contribution of second term(V/2g/is negligible in
Thus h is
comparison to first and third term as velocity of water is very slow
46 Fundamentals of
Hydrogeology the
mainly a function of pressure in
the aquifer This
hydraulic head h is equal to P andandelevation headJ
(elevation n
offpressure headarence in encB water
sum head) water
energy will vary from place to place. As a result
ressure of difto
erence in energy
will move from
place of higher energy to
In case ofan
unconfined aquifer theplace of lower energy.
lower en
nder atn atmospheric
is under
pressure which may be taken as constant Water table
water table i
h a s constant. The elevation head t
height of water table is tthe the aquifer
water in
from higher to lower head only energy avaavailable drive w
i l a b l e to drive
(fig.4.2).
-Water table to
unconfined aquifer
Eq
des
Datum dir
h z
Fig.4.2: Showing head in unconfined Da
aquifer dis
4.2 Darcy's Law OCC
Darcy, a French
engineer, carried out experiments by packing a pipe of cross vel
sectional area A with sand and observed the rate of
flow of water and head m nc
two manometers in the pipe as shown in fig.4.3. He found that rate of flow ot
water through porous medium (q in litres/sec or m°/hr) like sand is
a
un
(1) proportional to the difference in hydraulic head (h,-h,) between the two ends
of the porous media (hydraulic head is
height of water in an aquifer 4.2
measured from sea level or datum). Difference in hydraulic head between
the two ends of the aquifer is generating the pressure pushing water through The
the pipe i.e., q a(h, -hs) fro
(ii) inversely proportional to the length L of the flow path. It is obvious that per
longer the water has to flow through the sediment the more it will be The
impeded i.e. qa 1/L call
(1i) And proportional to the area of cross section A ofthe aquifer i.e. qa A fou
an
ha
tol
na-hb .--- hb
(wa
Area of cross section (A)
Fig.4.3: Showing Darcy's experiment

Therefore q KA (h, -h,)/L (4.2)
wate
force
- k o
A ctuo velouty
Radial Flow | 47
Kis proportionality constant which depends upon the
through which water is flowing and the property property of the
m
mc
e d i u m
of the
is hydraulic gradient and in more general form is represented water,
as dh/dl.
Therefore we can rewrite equation 4.2 as follows:
q=-KA dh/dl
This is one dimensional flow equation (4.3)
OI,
q/A =-K dh/dl
q/A is velocity of water and is called Darcy flux velocity
represented by Vp
Therefore Vp=-K dh/dl
(4.4)
It is customary to add a minus (-) sign on the right hand side of equation 4.3
toindicate the flow of water is in the direction offdecreasing hydraulic head

Equation 4.3 is the general form of Darcy's law which is the basic equation
describing the flow of ground water in one dimension. The velocity of flow is
directly proportional to the hydraulic gradient. VD in equation 4.4 is called the
Darcy flux velocity. It 1s not the actual velocity of flow as it assumes the
discharge to occur from the entire cross section of the aquifer. The discharge
occurs through voids and not through solid grains of the aquifer. The actual
velocity of ground water flo(V,j given by
V=Vp/n= -K(dh/dl)/n (4.5)
If dh/dl is written as I in equation 4.3 and minus sign is considere as
understood, the equation may also be written as
9 KIA (4.6)
4.2.1 Range of Validity of Darcy's Law
The velocity of flow of water in porous media or in earth is
very slow. It ranges
from a fraction of a metre per
year to 100 m per year, a typical value being 30 m
per year. At this velocity of flow the molecules of water follow smooth line
The resistance to flow comes
path.
mainly from viscosity of water. This type of flow is
calleddaminar flow(fig.4.4) ( Darcy's law is valid for laminar flow.)It has been
foundfrom experiments that Darcy's law is valid for Reynolds Number between
and 10, At above mentioned velocity the flow is laminar, the water particles
1ollow smooth line path, viscous forces predominate in resisting the flow of fluid
water) and Reynolds Number isbetweeúl to 10.)
-=w=asoa==w=amans
sao-------=-
Fig.4.4: Showing Laminar flow
the velocity of flow increases,

the frictional forces between the
and walls of pores increases and becomes more dominant than the movinng
viscous
n e water
particles begin to rush past each other in erratic manner. The
C L io) -> Lam inar Au
60 uet Aoso
48|
smooth path. Turbuleno. in
rbulence
longer move along
of 60 more. This ground wat
no
water particles
Number in the range
may start
forReynolds near pumping well anow is
and may exISt and solution
called Turbulent flow (fig.4.5)
openings
Fig.4.5: Showing Turbulentflow
4.2.2 Reynolds Number whether the flow is

the criteria for deciding
Reynolds number (R) is one of
relationship
laminar or turbulent. It is defined by following (4.7)
R=p Vpd/
Where, VD is velocity of flow of water
p is density of water
His viscosity of water
d is diameter of flow path and
R is Reynolds Number
and Laminar and Darcy's law
IfR is between 1 and 10, the flow is very slow Darcy's lawis
is valid. When R ismorethan 60J the flow becomesturbulent/and
not valid.
4.3 Flow Net (V

two dimensional steady stateground
Flow net is a (graphical representation of for solving
through aquifers. Construction of flow net is often used
water flow analytical solutions
ground water flow problems when geometry makes
solution to flow problem. It is also used
to
impractical. It is an approximate
estimate seepage under a dam.
of lines (see fig.4.6), may be curved, which
A flow net consists of two sets
flow
must always be orthogonal
(perpendicular to each other). The first is the
and the second is the
(lines) which show the direction_of ground water flow
lines of (constant head Awhich shows the distribution of
equipotential lines, the the strip between two adjacent flow lines is called
potential energy. In a flow net,
any two adjacent
a flow channel or flow tube.and is drop head between
The in
equipotential lines is the same calledpotential drop.
ar
HHTHNHTH
Ao
Radial Flow | 49
ate
h2
h4
Flow line
- aq->
A41
Flow line
Equipotentials
Fig.4.6: Seepage through a flow channel with square elememt
Flow nets are usually constructed by trial and error sketching. The stepwise
procedure may be as follows:
Obtain a map of the area on suitable scale.
)
(i) Mark the position of water table or any point of known head or pressure and
any impermeable boundaries.
and
(ii) Flow lines )are always parallel to an impermeable boundary)
equipotentials are always perpendicular to impermeable boundary.
(iv) Equipotentials are always parallel to a þonstant head boundaryJand flow
lines are always perpendicular to a constant head boundary.
law (v) In a homogenous isotropic system, flow lines and equipotentials are always
wis perpendicular and form curvilinear square.
(vi) Identify and mark the places where water is entering the system and where
it is leaving.
Draw flow lines and define all flow tubes.
(Vii)
(vii) Draw equipotentials based on the known position of water table or point
und
ving of known head and make curvilinear squares. While doing this some trial
ons and error sketching may have to be done.
to
3.1 Estimation offlowelement by applying Darcy's law
may be estimated
as
Theflow through an
ich
follows (see section 4.2, equation 4.6).
low
the Aq1=KhI-h2)11 (4.8)

11
Similarly flow through other elements in the flow tube is
lled
Aq2 K2-h3)12 (4.9)
vent 12
Aq3 = K h3-h4)13 (4.10)

13
Aq1 Aq2 Aq3 (4.11)
Aq K Nd
= (4.12)
Ná
here Aql, Aq2 and Aq3 are flow through different elements in a flow tube
and
A1s the flow through the flow tube in consideration. (Nd)is number of
50| Fundamentals of Hydrogeology
potential drops i.e., of ao

bers
the number of squares. If there are Nf numbers of flow tubes
in a flow net, the flow through the flow net q is given byg = K " | 4.13
h1, h2, h3 and h4 are equipotentials and H is the head difference between the
(4.13)
the
and downstream is equal to (hl h4) in this case.
upstream
-
(Ndis the number ofpotential dropsie the number of squares, and

Kis hydraulic conductivity
Ng is the number of flow tubes in a flow net
Normally for Darcy's law q=KIA, q is expressed in m'/hr or litres/sec. But in
this case as the equation is written in 2D form and expressed in the form q=KIL,
the unit for q is m'/hr/m.
Sometimes rectangular elements in a flow tube is drawn as shown in fig4.7
In such case care is taken to maintain the ratio of breadth to length the same for
every element i.e., b1/11 = b2/12 = b3/13 = n
flo
Equipotential rec
-- F l o wl i n e
- h3 (loc
poi
p1 Aq
- - F l o wi n e 4.3
-V-- b2 Flo
dan
imp
Fig.4.7: Seepage through a flow channel with rectangular element and
tak
The flow equation for an element is as follows:
Wa
Ag1 (h1-h2)b1
11 (4.14) dra
And flow through the flow net is be
q KH Nn (4.15)
USI
dif
4.3.2 Flof below am impermeable be
boundary)
Flow net is quite often used to assess
seepage of water under a concrete dam. A
theoretical case of seepage under a sheet pile is illustrated below in
sheet pile is shown in an fig. 4.8. The
aquifer overlying an impermeable layer. The height of
water upstream is hj and downstream
h2. In this case as the sheet pile is an
impermeable boundary, the flow lines are drawn parallel to the impermeable
boundary and equipotentials are drawn perpendicular to the flow lines. As shown
in the figure there are three
flow tubes marked as I, II and III i.e., Nf-3 and six
Squares in a flow tube i.e., Nd=6 andH = h1-h2 as shown in figure. The i o
through flow net can be determined by applying equation 4.13.
IPwmeoe
Radial Flow | 51
bes
Sheet pile h2:Height of
h1,Height o t water downstream
A water upstream
Ground surface
Flow line
6
Equipotential line
AL
Impermeable boundary
In this case Nt=3, N=6 and head loss h1-h2
Fig.4.8: Flownet below impermeable sheet pile
In the figure above the fow through tube I is Aqi K(h1-h,)/Na , similarly
flow through tube II is Aq:= K{h1-h,}/Ngand flow tube III may be taken as
rectangular and flow through tube III is Aq=K (b/1) (h1-h2)/Na. So the total flow
q Aqrt Aqt Aqs = 2 Khj-h,)/Na +K(b/)(h,-h,)/N.
If we wish to calculate height of water in a piezometer placed at point "a"

(located on equipotential 1), the height of water= {h1 - 1(h1-h,)/Na]. Likewise at
point b, the height ofwater {h1-2h1-h,)/Na}.
4.3.3 Seepage through Earthen Dam
Flow net is also used to assess seepage through dam. Fig.4.9 shows an earthen
dam through which water seepage takes place. The dam is resting on
impermeable layer. The head i s equal to the depth of water above ground level
and on the upstream side is(h} and downstream side (h2) As flow or seepage is
taking place through the dam from upstream to downstream side, the line joining
water levels on the two sides of the dam is flow line. More flow lines can be
drawn. The equipotentials can be drawn at right angle to the flow lines and may
be parallel to the sides of the dam. The flow can be determined once again by
using equation 4.13. In case of anisotropy i.e., if hydraulic conductivity is widely
diferent in vertical and horizontal directions, Keq given by, Keq= (Ka Ku)"* is to
be used in equation 4.13 for determination of flow.
A Earthen Dam
he
of
h 2
a
be
SOlid lines are flow lines and dashed lines are equipotential lines
In this case NI= 4, Na =10 and head loss= h1-h2
OW Fig4.9: Seepage through earthen dam

Hydrogeology
Fundamentals
of
52| less dense
from a
lines while travelling
4.3.4 Refraction of Flow (change its path) the tlow
lines also refra
act n
refract velocity,
waves
of higher forma t i o n ofhigh
ation higher
As seismic denser rock
conductivity
to
to a conductivi
Conr
of lower velocity lower hydraulic lower hydraulic vity

f o r m a t i o n of
medium of
passing
from a
enters
from a
less of aquifer area
or
When water conductivity
the r e v e r s e case, water
conductivity. hydraulic
of higher water. In
toanother medium
channelis needed to
transmit the formation of lower
narrower flow conductivity formation to
flow lines
hydraulic Refraction of
flowing from higher will require a Wider flow
channel
hydraulic conductivity are shown

in figure 4.10.
conductivity boundary
at the hydraulic
K1 In
K2 fiuctus
Wells
Nao n tk»K
chnel KzK c o n t i n
Fig.4.10: Refraction paths of flowline lransn
> K1)the flow lines will

move away from the o ftide
figure, when(K2
As shown in K2)the flow lines will come nearer to
the normal. A willb
norma and in case of\K1 > to each other may be drawn. The equipotentials will Accon
number offlow lines parallel the hydraulic
lines and as theflow lines deviate at Lpressu
be perpendicular to the flow also deviate maintaining

cquipotentials will
conductivity boundary, the
orthogonal relationship with flow lines fig.4.11. fluctu
metre
Conducting boundary
aqui
sho
Solid lines are flow lines and dashed lines are equipotential lines
Fig.4.11: Refraction of flow lines

reci
4.4 Tidal Efficiency whi
In coastal areas the periodic rise and fall of water level due to tides in the
adjacentocean produce sínusoidal ground water fluctuations in adjacent confined 4.5
and unconfined aquifers. The fluctuations are recorded in monitoring wells. The In
effect of tide diminishes exponentially as one goes inland from the coast. There 15
a time lag between
pre
high tide and rise of water level in monitoring wells fig.4.12 bec
of
L Auctahien
TE Su An the
Stkant Tie
wotev w
Radial Flow | 53
range of fluctuation
ock surface 77NTTTT7TTT77T

tidal range
in
gher Potentiometric
level - Sea level
vity Confining layer
ra
ater
wer Confined aquifer
nes
Ocean
Fig.4.12: Tidal effect in coastal aquifer
In wells tapping water table aquifers, the water level response to tidal
fuctuations is due to the actual movement of water in the aquifer. However in
wells tapping confined aquiters which are
separated from surface water by
confining layer, the response is due to the changing load on the aquifer,
a
transmittedthrough the confining layer with the changing tide. Thus withtherise
the of tide (he loadjon the aquifer is increased. This implies that in the aquifer there
.A
will will be compensating increase of the water pressure and of stress in the skelton.
Accordingly, the water level rise in the well is but a reflection of the increased
lic (pressure head in the aquifer caused by the tidal loading
ing Tidal efficiency (TE) is defined as the ratio of the range of water level
fluctuation in metre, Sw, in a well tapping the aquifer to the range of tide in
metre, St. corrected for density if required.
i.e.,TE=S/S (4.16)
in well tapping the
Where Sw 1S range of water level fluctuation in m a
aquifer.
And S, is the range of tide in m.
Jacob has
TE of confined aquifers is related to its hydraulic properties.
shownthat TEis given by following relationship (4.17)
TE= (a/nB/(1 +a/nßB) skeleton of aquifer which is
where a vertical compressibility of solid
is the
of bulk modulus of elasticity and ß is the compressibility of water
procal
Wch is reciprocal of bulk modulus of elasticity and n is porosity of aquifer.
the
ed 4.5 Barometric Fluctuation and Efficiency
the change in atmospheric
4se of unconfined aquifer the force representing
he
the water table
of the well and also on
surface
A P , acts on the free water (fig.4.13). Thus the systemn
with the atmosphere
of forces
water table is in contact in water level in
of
forces mains in balance and there 1s no appreciable change if the soil is
the
the well in this case. However,
with change in atmospheric pressure
$4 Fundamentals of Hydrogeology
frozen or saturated with water, a well in unconfined aquifer may show barom
barometric coni
fluctuation
Well
Surface c h a n
p AP Apo axis
.--- Nater table baros
Unconfined aquifer
Clast
Confining layer
elasta
Fig. 4.13: Effect of change in atmospheric pressure in Unconfined aquifer

2od
Barometric fluctuations can cause significant effect on water level in a well

tapping confined aquifer. (Rise ) in barometric pressure is accompanied _by
depressionof water level in welt. The change in atmospheric pressure Apo acts on
ande
the free water surface in the well and also on the confining layer of the aquifer.
As per Jacob, the atmospheric pressure change is transmitted instantaneously
without any attenuation to the interface between the confining layer and the
confined aquifer. We ill also assume that confining layer does not play 4.6 F
any
role. The change in atmospheric pressure Ap, is accommodated by a change in We
stress in the skeleton of the aquifer Ask and a change in the water pressure in the well.
aquifer AP applied over the percentage b of the intertace where the water is in haror
direct contact with the confining layer (fig.4.14). Thus there will be a tappi
pressure
difference (Apo b Ap) between the water in the
well and at point in the
aquifer.
-
a
Thus water level will respond with fall of water low
level with rise of barometric
pressure and rise of water level with fall of barometric pressure. Some wells ne wells
the outcrop of an artesian aquifer or near a
discontinuity in the confining layer
will show little or no response to
atmospheric pressure change. The Barometric Vicin
Efficiency (BE) of an aquifer may be expressed as passa
BE= Sw/Sp nearb
(4.18) in
Where Sw 1S the net change in water level in a well tapping the aquifer
metre and
4.7 G
S, is the corresponding net change in atmospheric pressure in metre. Ghyb-
Well hydr
AP AP aquife
Surface
water
Confining
layer p coasta
Potentiometriosurce and
Confined aquifer
bounc
callec
to sal-
Confining layer to dis
Fig.4.14: Effect of change in ed aquifer
atmospheric pressure on confinea. showa
kee gt wotuv
bre widh, fou o Benoa
Radial Flow | 55
met Thus barometric efficiency expresses how water level in a well tappinng
confined aquifer changes with change of barometric pressure.
The barometric efficiency may be determined by plotting the water level
hanges On Y axis and the corresponding change in atmospheric pressure onX
avis The slope of the straight line drawn through the plotted points is the
barometric efficiency of the agquifer.
Jacob has derived expression relating to the barometric efficiency and the
elastic properties ot a contined aquifer_
BE=1+ 1/(1+ a/nßB)
Where a is the bulk modulus of compression (reciprocal of bulk modulus of
(4.19)
elasticity) of the solid skeleton of the aquifer.
B is the bulk modulus of compression of water (reciprocal of the bulk
l
wel modulus of elasticity).
db n is the porosity of the aquifer.
cts on This establishes relationship between the barometric efficiency and porosity
uifer. and elastic parameters of confined aquifer.
cously It can be shown that(BE + TE =1.)
d the
any 4.6 Fluctuation of Water Level
ge We have seen in section 4.5 the effect of barometric pressure on water level in a
in th well.(Increase)inbarometric pressure results in(fall)of water level and decrease of
is barometric pressure causes water level to rise in wells, particularly in wells
Ssue tapping confined aquifer.
In coastal areas water level in(wells
uifer rises during high tide) and (fallslduring
low tide. The tides in saline water are sinusoidal and effect on water levels in
metrie
wells tapping confined or unconfined aquifer is parallel to the tide.
nea
In addition to above, fluctuation of ground water levels may take place in the
laya vicinity of a pumping well. Fluctuation of water level may also be caused due to
netre passage of train (passenger or goods train) or due to running of heavy vehicles in
nearby road. Water level should be corrected for the fluctuation.
18)
fer
er4.7 Ghyben Herzberg Principle
Ghyben Herzberg principle is applicable for unconfined aquiferin coastalareain
nydlrostatic conditions. Under normal conditions fresh water flows from inland
aquiters and recharge area to coastal discharge area to sea, Density of saline
water 1s higher than fresh water due to higher concentration of dissolved solid. In
Coastal areas, fresh ground water in unconfined aquifer discharges near the coast
and mix with saline water. The fresh water being lighter floats on top. The
undary between fresh and sea water is not distinct. There is a transition zone
2 o n e of diffusion in which quality of water changes gradually from fresh
Saine. However, a sharp interface is assumed. The fresh water flows upward
scharge near the shore and the saline water flows in a cyclic fashion as
shown in fig.4.15.
Surface 48On
Water
table Sea level ft
aquifer
Surtace
Fresh water
applied
/Saline water
---oneofifision
Fig.4.15: Showing circulation of fresh and saline ground water

The Ghyben Herzberg principle states that the
depth to which fresh water Ifw
extends below sea level is
approximately 40 times the height of water table above
sea level
Equ
Z={pw/P Pu)}h (4.20) hh to
Where Z is the depth of fresh water below sea level at any location
his the height of water table above sea level at the same location
Pw is the density of fresh water (1.000 gm/cm*)
Pis the density ofsaline water (1.025 gm/cm) get
if we substitute the values of pw and p, in equation 4.31
(Z40h) at X
(4.21)
As mentioned above, the principle is applicable for static condition of both
fresh and saline water. It is clear from above that htZ is the depth of fresh/ saline
water interface below water table at the location shown in figure 4.16. At some
location in inland where h+Z is more than the thickness of the unconfined
aquifer, the saline water wedge will be missing.
Ground surface
Water table
Sea level
Unconfined aquifer
Fresh ground water Saline ground water

Z=40h
Interface of fresh and saline water
Fig.4.16: Ghyben Herzberg model
One of the limitations of the Ghyben Herzberg model is that as the fres 4.n3.2caseUn
water saline water interface cuts the water table at the coast line; fresh walo
does not have passage for discharge into seafloor. Different
model has been aquiwatefrer.îlo
suggested which provides outflow passage.
owreatehlr)
aqufer
Radial Flow | 57
Steady Flow
4.OneDimensional
el
4.8.1 Confined aquifer
f there is slope in the potentiometric surface, water will flow in the confined
aqu
uifer in the direction of slope figure 4.17. The flow is steady as potentiometric
rface is not changing with time. Under such condition Darcy's law can be
applied to calculate flow through an aquifer of constant thickness
q - K b dh/dx) (4.22)
Where q 1s thetlowthrough unit thickness of aquifer (say m'/day/m)
K is hydraulic conductivity
b is thickness of the aquifer
dh/dx is slope of potentiometric surface
Water
above If w is width of the aquifer, the total flow through the aquifer q in m'/day is
- Kb w dh/dx (4.23)
Equation 4.22 can be integrated with boundary conditions x= 0 to x= X and
.20)
h-h to h=h'
q Jdx K bJdh
= -
q'x = - Kbh, setting the above boundary limits for x and h we

or,
get
or, h' h-g'x/Kb\
(4.24)
at x distance the potentiometric surface is h' given by equation 4.24.
f bot Piezometer
Piezometer-
saline -Surface
Some
nfined Confining layer
h h2
Confined aquifer
Direction of flow
-Datum
(h1-h2)/L = dh/dx
ater
Fig.4.17: Showing one dimensional steady flow
4.8.2 Unconfined Aquifer Dpnt enno ,

fre
frest Case of uncontined aquifer, water table forms the upper boundary
There will be slope in the water table for water to If
guiter. flow (fig. 4.18).
Wate
been
weT tlows from left to right to right, the height of water table h in left must be
a n h , the height of water table on right side i.e., hl > h2. For steady
hland h2)will not change with time. The quantity of water entering the
aOi
T e r from left side will discharge from right side of aquifer assuming no
further addition from recharge or loss from evaporation. As thickness of aquifer
er
has decreased on the right side of aquifer as shown in fig. 4.16, the velocityof
flow and hence the hydraulic gradient will încrease on the right side of aquifer to
maintain the same flow. Thus the slope of water table is not uniform. Flow
through unconfined aquifer has been worked out by(Dupuit) and he made the
following assumptions:
(i) The ground water flows in horizontal direction in the aquifer. Therefore the
flow lines are horizontal and equipotential lines are vertical.
51Fle
(ii) Ground water discharge is proportional to the saturated thickness of the
When
aquifer.
These assumptions require that the water table is relatively flat and pumpe
equipotential lines are vertical. aSpre

The flow per unit width q' of the aquifer is given by Darcy's law reduct
q= - Kh dh/dx (4.25) depres
head s
or, q'dx - Kh dh (4.26)
Equation 4.26 may be integrated with boundary conditions x=0 to x=L and grows
h=h to h=h2 storag

fully sa
q'Jdx K/h dh
= -
Hc
qx=-Kh/2 +c
When x = 0, h= h head ir
c=Khs /2 starts,
and q=K/2x{ h-h°} (4.27) expanss

Applying the boundary condition, when x=L, h=h2 leaky
q'L -K {h;/2 - h/2} or, q K/2L {h - h} from
f
(4.28)
Equation 4.28 is known as Dupuit equation. Equation 4,.27 and 4.28 may be influen
combined to obtaintheequation for phreatie line decline-
h [hi-(h1- h: (x/L)]* (4.29) Co
The above equation for phreaticline has nature of parabola. If phreatic line of wat-
computed from this equation is plotted, it will plot below the actual water table as aquifer
observed in the field. The difference is because of assumption that flows are
horizontal which is not the actual case. 5.2 Flc
- Surface When
mecha-
Water table I. Dec
the
Exp
h1 h h2 beh
2. As
dec
Impermeable
boundaryy aqu
der
Fig.4.18: Showing steady flow in unconfined aquifer
sifer
of CHAPTER 5
o
low Radial Flow
the
the
in Confined Aquifer
the 5.1
Flow of Water
pletely confined aquifer without
When a compler any leakage from top or bottom is
pumped, the water is obtained from storage of the aquiferby(expansion of water
and
Pressurein the aquifer is reduced and compaction of the aquifer due to
Teduction of pore spaces. Ihe water level in the well is lowered and a cone of
formed around the well which indicates a reductionin the pressure
head surrounding the pumped well. Due to pumping the cone of depression
d increasingly larger portion of the aquifer contributes water from
n
storage. The potentiometric surface will fall but the confined aquifer remains
fully saturated.
However, in case of presence of a leaky aquifer, after some time, the lowered
head in the aquifer will induce leakage from the confining layer. When leakage
starts, the discharge of well will be partly contributed by leakage. With further
expansion of cone of depression, contribution from leakage from confining layers
(leaky aquifer) will increase and eventually pumped water will be coming mainly
from leakage from confining layer and further drawdown may stop.
If the expanding cone of depression intersects a recharge boundary like an
be influent stream, the stream will contribute to discharge of the well and further
decline of head will stop.
Contributions from leaky aquifer is the reason for discharge of large quantity
of
ne water from wells tapping confinedaquifers) though storativity of confined
as aquifers is 1/100 or 1/1000 times smaller than specificyield.
re
.2 Flow of Water in Unconfined Aquifer
wnen a well in unconfined aquifer is pumped, it derives water by following two
mechanisms:
Decline in pressure in the aquifer yields water because of the elastic storage of
ne aquifer storativity S As theressure declines)aquifer_contributes by
pansion of waterandcompaction of the aquifer) During this time the aquifer
2. Dehaves
like a confined aquifer.
As a result
Tesult of of pumping
pum the water table declines near the pumping well and the
declining
n g water table also yields water as it drains under gravity trom the
is
de here are both (horizontal and(vertical)component of flow. Water
erived from the pores of the aquifer. This is termed specific yield Sy. At a
60 |
reduces and the flow is
later time the vertical component of flow t
horizontal.
5.3 Ground Water Flow

Equations
and (isotropic)
L5.3.1 Flow in Confined aquijer)
for flow ground water
of
in(homogenous)
laws of
The equation
general (conservation of mass) and
is_based on (aw of flow of ground
confined aquifer these laws, the general
equation for
thermodynamics)
Based upon confined aquifer is as
dimensions for a homogenous isotropic
water in three
follows: (5.1)
a2h (apu9 +nBpug)
Where K is hydraulic conductivity
h is hydraulic head
a is aquifer compressibility
Bis compressibility of water

of fluid (water)
Pw is density
n is porosity
acceleration due to gravity
g is
Storativity S =b (apw9 + nFPw9)
Kb, where b is
thickness of confined aquifer
Transmissivity T
=
for S and T
Substituting in equation
+
(5.2)
a2 + = potat.
dimensional flow of ground
equation of three
the general
Equation 5.2 is or non-equilibrium
condition.
confined aquifer under unsteady
water through and 0 =
flow,Jthehead does
not change with time at
(In case of steady (5.3)
+2 =o
(5.4)
h =0 holds for three
5.3 and 5.4 are known as Laplace's equationand
Equations under steady state condition.
dimensional flow in confined aquifer direction is
horizontal flow, the vertical component of flow in Z
Incase of
zero and equation
5.2 reduces to
(5.5)
water for flow

In deriving the equation of flow it is assumed that the
derived from storage of the aquifer. When a confined aquifer is pumped ne
potentiometric surface declines but remains above the aquifer and the aqui
Radial Flow | 61
fully saturated.
LeaKAge through
the confining layers, theconfining layers common and if there
os
is
remaithrough
remains
is equation 5.5 will be modified. A term

leaded to left side of the equation 5.5 to account for
/T
confinin layer, w being the vertical leakage rate
o =
leakage through the
ax Tay?TT7 5.6)
5.3.2 Flow in Unconfined Aquifer
When
When aa well nconfined aquifer is pumped, the water table
well in unc
line With decline of water table saturated thickness of near the well will
decli
The two dimensional ilow in unconfined aquifer is given aquifer also reduces.
which is as follows: by(Boussinesq equation
+ ( = (5.7)
Where is saturated thickness of the aquifer
h
measured from bottom of the
aquifer after time t
Sy is Specific yield of the aquifer
5.4Steady State Radial Flow Thun C)

5.4.1 Confined Aquifer
Theim's method is applicable in steady state radial
flow in confined aquiferJThe
aquifer is assumed to be non-leaky confined aquifers. Steady state cannot be
achieved strictly in confined aquifer. However, after a long duration of
if the drawdown rate in a pumping pumping,
The method requires minimum
well is negligible, the method may applied.
be
of twoobservation wellsJapart from pumping
well.
Circular area around the well is considered and the flow
q is given by
Darcy's law as follows
2tKbr dr (5.8)
Where r Ts the radius of circularconsidered, (b]is thickness of the
area
aquifer, K is hydraulic conductivity and dh/dr is hydraulic gradient. If equation
.8
IS integrated with the boundary conditions: head hj at distance ri and head hz
at a distance of r2, the equation solves to
T2m(h-h, ni)| (5.9)
heim's hethod yieldsfairly accuratevalues fod(TbuulS gannot be estimated
by this method.
5.4.2 Unconfined Aquifer 4> Dpnt ay
For unconfin
folonfined aquifer the flow equation has been derived by Dupuitwith the
IOllowing
i. assumptions
The ground water flow in the unconfined aquifer is horizontal ie the flow
Sare horizontal and equipotential lines are vertical.
Sttoaltotote veneio Ao (kum E
ThaAA eay1)
unute
u f e l t o t e miot Plro
ii. Ground water discharge is proportional to the saturated
aquifer. thickness of the
Yos
The above equation is known as (5.10)

determine the distribution of head Dupuit equation and can be
used to
Where the terms are as follows:
radially from the pumping well.
Kis hydraulic
conductivity m/day
is rate of pumping m'/day
I1,2 are distances in metre of observation wells from
h,h2 are
pumping well
heads in metre measured in the observation wells at
rith
respectively.
Dupuit assumes ahorizontal br near horizontal flow line in the aquifer, which
1S not
satisfied in real situation. As such water surface
computed from Dupuit
equation is always lower than the actual free water surface.
5.5 Unsteady StateRadial Flow Theis Equation)

FlOw towards a well is called radial flow. It is also called axially symmetric
ground water flow. Radial flow can be dealt with(polar co-ordinate system. It is
assumed that the aquifer has polar symmetry. In this coordinate system a point in
a plane is denoted by an angle with polar axis, measured anti clockwise from
polar axis, and radial distance from origin. In polar co-ordinate system equation
for flow of ground water in confined aquifer (equation 5.5) reduces to
1o= Soh
r ôr TT Ot
(5.11)
Where h ishydraulic head measured at a distance r from the pumping well
Sis storativity of the confined aquifer
T is transmissivity of the confined aquifer
t is time of pumping
r is distance from pumping well (pole) to the point of observation (in
observation well)
The flow equation for a confined aquifer was solved by Theis which is
known as non-equilibrium formula of Theis. He derived the non equilibrium
formula from the analogy between the hydrologic conditions in an aquifer and
thermal conditions in an equivalent thermal system. The non-equilibrium formula
is
s du (5.12a)
rS
Where u =and s is the drawdown
(ho - h) =
4Tt
Radial Flow | 63
equation
tion has been solved by C.V.Theis and he gave the
This ass
a Theis equation or non equilibrium equation
Thei
following
kmown
solun
solution
h {-0.5772- log, 2.21 3.31 44 } (5.12)

ho rS
4.4!
4Tt (5.13)
Drawdown (ho-h) in
after time t Non pumpling water level or
obs. well >q cubic m/day
original potentiometric surface
Potentiometric surface at time t

Confining laye hn
FIow oi
Confined aguifer
water Flow of
water b
Confining layer sloted pipe
Fig.5.1: Showing fully penetrating pumping well and

observation well in confined aquifer
Wherelny is initial hydraulic head before start of pumping andhs hydraulic

head at timet since pumping started, observed in a well at a distance r from the
pumping well and ho-h is the drawdown. The infinite series within the bracket
in equation 5.12 is calledwell function and is designated as W(u).Thus cquation
5.12 may be rewritten as
ho-h= W(u) (5.14)

4TT
As ho-h = s (drawdown), the cquation 5.14 reduces to
s W(u) 5.15)
From equations 5.12 to 5.14 it is clear that the drawdown s is a function of q,
, S, T and t. It follows that if a well is pumped for a time t at constant discharge
drawdown is observed in an observation well-situated r distance away from
and
ne pumping well, the aquifer parameters T and S can be evaluated.
rouowing assumptions are made for solution of the equation:
thickness and infinite
he aquifer isghomogenous isotropiç and oflconstant
areal extent.
when pumped without any
water is discharged instantaneously from storage
lag of time.
(i) Discharge
Tge o'
of pumpingwellisconstant anddia of wellis infinitesimal
(ivi
Giv) penetrating the confined
Pmping and 6bservation) wells are fully
aquifer
(v) All water comes from storage i.e., no seepage from any
any stream or ove.
stream or
or underlying strata. overlying
(vi) Flow in the aquifer is in the range of Darcy's law.
Values of W(u) for various u have been worked by Wenzel
(1942). It i
plotted on double log graph paper with W(u) on Y axis and u or 1lu on X axiis
The nature of this curve resembles cone of depression.
The pumping test data of observed drawdown
This is called type curve
in one or more than one
observation well is also plotted on double log paper of same modulus as type
curve with drawdown on Y axis and time (for more than one observation
well
Ur) on X axis. The nature of the type curve and field curve is
similar. The field
curve(the curve containing drawdown Vs time data) is superimposed on the type
curve and
a match point is obtained. Corresponding to match point drawdown s
and t or vr is read on field curve and
W(u) and l/uis read on the type curve.
The cquations 5.14 and 5.15 be used to
can
calculatd (T and Sbf aquifer.
5 . 6Jac
V a c o b
o b s e r v
10
Ispur
infinit
1
0.1
0.01
0.001
0.1 1 10 100 1000 10000
1/u
Fig.5.2: Theis type cuve
ThieAA Cyrye 100

dra
Radial Flow | 65
ng
10
is
S.
0.1
De
0.01
e 0.001
0.1 1 10
S 100 1000 10000
e timet in minute
Fig.5.3: Plot of drawdown versus timee
(5.6 Jacob Straight Line Method Ahdol eTVe

Jacob straight line method is an approximate solution of Theis method. Jacob
observed that for large values of t (time of pumping) i.e., when the pumping well
ispumped for quite some time (t>rs/0.4T) and small values of u (u< 0.01), the
infinite series in equation may be truncated after the second term.
ho-h=(-0.5772
4TTT -In u) (5.16)
S
4tT -0.5772- Inu) (5.17)
This solves to
S 2.3qlog (2.25Tt/r2s) (5.18)
4tT
Ifs and sz are drawdown at time ti and t2 respectively since pumping started
S2 S1
S2-S1 log 25 log
4TTO8 2.25Ttl
o8 2s (5.19)
Equation solves to
S2 S1 2.3 log (5.20)
and t, are one log cycle apart (for example ift is at 100 minute and t, at
000 mimute they are one log cycle apart) then log 2 = 1 and szrS As is
rawdown for one log cycle and the equation 5.20 solves as
As 2.34 (5.21)
4TT
or, | T=234
4TAs
(5.22)
St
data is tivity 1s
evaluated from equation 5.18 as follows. The time X-axisdrawdown
drau lotted on asemi-loggraph paper, time on log scale along and
drawdown
points on Y-axis. A straight line is fitted to the plotted data
points on
leavi linear scale along
the initial few points which may deviate. The straight line is
66 |
extended up to(zero)drawdown axis shown as in fig.5.4 and
the
equation 51o Poi
5.18, s=0 andof
point
Substituting in
intersection is to and drawdown is zero.
tto, we get
S =
4TT
og(2.257tg
or, 0 log( rS
m e - e n w d o yo log l=log (25Tto

2.25Tto
r2S
1
or, S = 2.25 Tto /r
(5.23)
m e t h o d
Time in minute
1 10 100 1000
0
to-3.5 mm
6 As=(10-3)
7.0 m
10
12
14
16
Fig.5.4: Drawdown versus time (Jacob method)
5.7 Theis Recovery Method

In this method, the recovery of the potentiometric surface after the pumping is
stopped is recorded by considering a negative discharge i.e., recharge in a sense.
In this method the well is pumped at constant
discharge q for time tl. The first
part of the curve (fig.5.5) demarcates the drawdown pattern in the well. At this
time pumping is stopped and recovery of potentiometric surface begins as shown
in the figure 5.5.
Radial Flow 67
Ont tlme.
Residual drawdown
Drawdown curve
Recovery curve
Recovery
523)
t
ttt
Fig.5.5: Drawdown and recovery curve
The second part of the curve demarcates recovery of potentiometric surface.

After atimd 12)sincethe pumping is stopped, the residual drawdown is s'i.e.,
after timetrtthe residual drawdown is s'. Then
s'=log10
47TT logi0 (5.24)
s' logio(t/t2)] (5.25)

IfAs'is residual drawdown per log cycle, then
As'= 4TTl (5.26)
aslog1o() =1 (5.27)
Ifs' (residual draw down) is plotted on linear scale along Y-axis and tt, is
plotted on log scale along X-axis, it will be a straight line as in Jacob's method.
In a similar way as in Jacob's method, the residual drawdown per log cycle As' is
estimated from graph and T is calculated from equation 5.26.
pingi
sense
10 t/t2 100 1000
he firs
At this
show
2
3
RDD/cycle
Fig.5.6: Residual drawdown versus (/12)

68| Fundamentals ofHydrogeology
Theis recovery method is based upon Theis non equilibrium equati
in 5.5 should be satisfied for application ofthion and
all
assumptions given para
in Confining Layer
5.8 Semi-confined or Leaky Aquifer (vithoutStorage
water table Non pumping potentiometric
surface
Cone of depression
of confined aquifer
ho Unscreened aquifer
Leaky (semipervious) layer
Well screen
Aquifer
ImperviousS layer
Fig.5.7: Pumping well in leaky confined aquifer
In nature most of the confined aquifers are not overlain aDd underlain by
formations are
aquifuge aquiclude. Rather the overlying and underlying
or
head in the confined
aquitards and water can leak through it to the aquifer if the
for vertical seepage
aquifer is lowered due to pumping and becomes favourable
The flow equation for confined aquifer 5.11 is modified for a leaky confined
aquifer as follows:
ah 1h_hK =>dh (5.28)
T Ot
Solution of above equation has been given by( Hantush) and (Jacob)with
following assumptions.
(i) All assumptions of Theis equation given in para 5.5
(i) Leakage through the confining layer is vertical and in proportion to the
drawdown.
ii) Head in the formation supplying leakage is constant
(iv) Storage in the confining layer is negligible
ho-h=W(u;)
4TT
(5.29)
or, s=W(u,) (5.30)
Where(h-h)=s is observed drawdown in an observation well situated atr
distance from pumping well after time t
q is constant discharge of well
Tis transmissivityof confined aquifer
S is storativity
W(u.r/L) is well function for leaky confined aquifer
u = rS/4Tt and
(5.31)
Leakage factor L = (Tb'/K°')?
(5.32)
and, r/L =r/(Tb'/K°)2 (5.33)
Radial Flow | 69
on and a
metho (bis thickness of leaky confining layer
i s vertical hydraulicconductivity of leaky confining layer.
Tn the initial stage the drawdown for semi-confined aquifer will follow Theis
ayer sation. The discharge will come from storage in the aquifer. In later stage, the
ometrie equat
lowered hydraulic head in the aquifer will induce leakage from the confining
and the drawdown is described by well function W(u,r/L) for the leaky
layer
aquifer.
Waltonhas prepared type curve for leaky aquifer. The type curve is a plot of
well function W(u,r/L) against 1/u for different values of r/L on a double log
graph paper with 1/u on X-axis and W(u,r/L) on Y-axis. The observed data of
drawdown with time tor t/r is also plotted on double log paper of same modulus
with drawdown on Y-axis and t or tr (for more than one observation well) on X-
Axis, The field curve (time drawdown curve) is superimposed on type curve and a
match point is obtained. The match point on type curve will yield W(u,r/L), 1/u
and r/L and on field curve s and t. Equations 5.30, 5.3] and 5.33 can be used to
Crlaindetermine the values ofT, S,K°.
lerlain b
tions
confi5.9 Leaky Confined Aquiferrith Storaggin Confining Layer
confine In case of storage in the semi-pervious confining layer initially part of discharge
Scena
seepag will come from the semi-pervious confining layer. The drawdown s = (ho-h) is
confine
given by
S H(u,) (5.34)
(5.28) Where H(u, B) is well function for leaky confined aquifer with storage and
obwi B=r/4L (S'/S)?
L= [T/(K°'/b')]" and
(5.35)
(5.36)
u=rS/4Tt (5.37)
the K', S'and b' are vertical hydraulic conductivity, storativity and thickness of
confining layer.
5.10 Radial Flow in Well in Unconfined Aquifer
So far we have discussed flow through confined aquifer. In this section we shall
(5.29)
discuss flow in unconfined aquifer. We assume a fully penetrating pumping well
(5.30) and an observation well also fully penetrating at a distancer from the pumping
d atr Well. We also assume that theldrawdownis very small compared tothesaturated
thickness of the aquifer.
AS the well is pumped water is released by(expansion of water) and
npaction of aquifer. Theis non-equilibrium relation holds. Subsequently
Bavity drainage with vertical and horizontal component of flow occurs. Lastly
t of gravity drainage reduces and flow is horizontal and again Theis non
YS3),
brum relation holds with storativity equal to specific yield of the aquifer.
5.33
3 3)
Non pumping water level-.

D e p r e s s e dc o n a
c e dc o n
pressed cone Unconfined

Flow lines Flowlines
aquifer
Fig.5.8: Well in unconfined aquifer
The flow equation for

fully penetrating well
a in unconfined aquifer is given by
thefollowing relationship
S
W(U1, U2, E)} (5.38)
Where W(u1,U2,E) is the well function for an unconfined aquifer and
u=rS/4Tt
u=rS/4Tt
E =rKb2K,
u is a function which corresponds toearly phase of pumping when water is
released from aquifer by compression of aquifer and expansion of water.
u2 is a function which corresponds togravity drainage of the aquifer and is
related to specific yield of the aquifer.
E is a function of horizontal) and
(vertical hydraulic _conductivities of the
aquifer and its value comes from matching of time drawdown data with
type othe
curves.
s is drawdown in an observation well at a distance r from
the observation well is also fully
pumping well and
penetrating as the pumping well.
q is rate of discharge of pumping well O
Sis storativity of the aquifer var
Sy is specific yield of the aquifer TO

Tis transmissivity
K is horizontal hydraulic conductivity
Ky is vertical hydraulic conductivity
b is initial saturated thickness of
aquifer a
tis time
Neuman/has prepared type curve for this case. The type curve is plotted on
double log graph paper with 1/u1, 1/u2 on X-axis and W(uj, U2, E) on Y axis
for different values ofe. The observed time
drawdown data is also plotted on TO
double log paper of same modulus as
type curve and is superimposed over the
type curve. For match point for later stage of drawdown, values of W (U2, E) and
u2 on type curve and s and t on field curve is obtained.
to evaluate T and
These data may be used
S, using equation 5.38.
Radial Flow | 71
m p o s t u » t
Slug Test
56.11 crtain geological formation the permeability ofrocks may bso low)that
aatest
pumpingtest in a well in the formation is not possible. An example is wells in
Deccan trap)For estimation of transmissivity T in such
Cooper-Bredehoeft-Papadopulos method is used. In formations Slug
this method
Slug
a test
slug
test by
of
a f known volume is either injected into the well or withdrawn from the
The rate of fall (in case of injection) or(triset of water level in the well is
heerved
obsern
with time and recorded. The rate of fall or rise of water level is
nfrolled by the formation characteristics.
Head in Well at time ti
Water level afterinjection ***=**
by
Casing
nitial water level in wel
ho
hi
Dia of casing
Confined aquifer
IS Open hole -
Dia of open hole

Confining layer
Fig.5.9: Showing Slug test by injection of water
the
If ho is the water level in the well at the time of injection, which may
ype otherwise be calculated from relationship h,-V/tr¢ and hj at time t .Then a plot
of time on log scale on X-axis and h; /ho on linear scale on Y-axis will be a
and
astraight line. This is superimposed on type curve prepared by Papadopulos et al.,
on semi-log paper with h, /ho on linear scale on Y-axis and Tt/t:* on X-axis for
various values of u. From match point t' and p are found. T and S are estimated
from the following relations
T =1.0rÉ /t' \ (5.39)
S= er/r (5.40)
Where T is the radius of casing of the well and rs is radius of open hole and
and t' are determined from the match point.
5.12 Bailers Methodd)

oD
Skib has developed a method of estimating T from recovery of water leve
bailed. At any
wel from which volume of water has been removed
axs
or
oi
V point on the recovery curve the following equation holds
the
rws
and
S V/4TTt(e 4T)
=
(5.41)
Used
Where s' is residual drawdown
V is
volume of water removed in one bailer cycle
T is transmissivity
tis length of time since the bailer was removed
w is effective radius of the well.
The effective radius of the well, rw, is very small compared to the exte.
the aquifer and as t increases the term in the bracket approaches unity. tent
So
large value oft equation 5.40 reduces to
sV/4rTt) (5.42)
If residual drawdown is observed at some time after completion of n baila
er
cycle with V volume being removed in each cycle, then
s=V/4rT( 1/t, + 1/2 t..1/4n)
The same principle can be applied in Slug test also and equation 5.42 can he
(5.43)
used to evaluate T. In this case, s' represents the residual head.
Ifqo
5.13 Stallman and Jenkins Method I g 2a r e
This method of estimation of T of aquifer is based upon numerical analysis using uil
e q u i l i b r
finite difference method and observation wells are arranged as shown in figure
12.3 at the nodes of the grid. The differential equation for unsteady flow of whe
ground water is writen in finite difference mode as in equation 12.6 drawdo
N+ +RR% + N - 4 h = (G)( s a a ) - R) and up

A
and
Ifwe substitute h for h1, h1, hj#1 htyh- 4h:"
+ + +
Ah/Atfor I() -
h)] then equation 12.6 be written can as follows

Eh SaIT (Aho/At) (5.44)
A plot of Zh against (Aho/At) will be a straight line and slope of the line will
give AXh/(Aho/At). This can be used to evaluate T as follows:

T=a S/{ AZh/(Aho/At)} (5.45)
Where, T is transmissivity in m/day
Sis storativity (in fraction) has to be obtained from other experiment
h is head in m above datum or sea level
a is dimension of grid in m
the wells are located at the
The applicability of the methods requires that
the head is precisely observed at
nodes of the equally spaced square grid and
and there is no recharge or
each well. The aquifer is homogenous and isotropic
due
evaporation from the aquifer during the test.
va
5.14 Variable Discharge Method
Generally pumping test is conducted with
constant discharge of the pumping m
of a pumping well in a confined aquifer

well. However, sometimes the discharge
cannot be maintained at constant
rate. In such cases the continuously varying
in as shown in figure
discharge is approximated with discharge changing steps Stallmam.
5.10 and existing analytical method is used as given by
Radial Flow | 73
q2
q2
Aer
qo
Da
--Time->
Can Fig.5.10: Showing incremental discharge
If qo, q1 and q2 discharge at time to, t and t, respectively and Aqi and
are the
5.10 then the Theis non
Ag are the increments in discharge as shown in figurefollows:
be written as
cquilibrium formula (equation 5.15) may
S= 1/4TT [Aqi W(u)1 +Aq W(u)2
+. .+Aqn W(u)h] (5.46)
DW the
where the terms 1/4rl ( Aqi W(u)1), 1/4tl (Aq2 W(u),) etc represent
drawdown associated with each increment of discharge
and u rS/4T(t ti) = -
and u = r s / 4 T ( t - t ) and u,=rS/4T(t - t).
And u, u j ( t -t , ( t - t ; ) and us =u (t-t1(t-t) (5.47)
Iow
44 Extrapolated water level
ew
45)| Drawdown
at timet
to ti
-Time>
t Fig. 5.11: Showing drawdown

ed increase in drawdown
Figure 5.11 shows the extrapolated water level and the
is drawn with
due to incremental change in discharge. Type
curve
for different
Ag W(u) on Y axis and 1/t along X axis on a log- log graph paper the of
The field data is also plotted on log-log graph paper same
cs of u.
1/t X axis and is
odulus as the type curve with drawdown on Y axis and on
is shifted parallel to the Yaxis

mposed on the type curve. The data plot identical with an
is found where the curvature of the data plot is
position curve. Values of
s and
Ying type curve or with an interpolated type
in
read from a common point on
both the curves and entered
) are
en4 6 to obtain T. Then S can be computed with the relation u = rs/41t.
Test Data
5.15 Interpretations of Pumping drawdown data is plotted o n
from
conducting pumping test, the time

After and it may also be plotted on linear
sca8 negis
scale for Theis method (see fig.5.3) conclusions from the tim
We can make certain ime
shown in fig.5.12 below. pener
drawdown curves.
values oft, 100 to
1000 minutes, ishnot
i) In fig.5.3, the curve for higher which implies that
drawdown has an increasing trend an
horizontal and exits. In case of steady state t
conditior)
(unsteady state)or(non equilibrium
become horizontal.
last part of the curve will wells being pumped at thesame
drawdown curves of two
(ii) In figure 5.12 time on linear scale.Well î
500 m°/hr is shown. The c u r v e s are plotted
rate q= with time
non equilibrium state,
the drawdown is increasing
inunsteady or Well 2 is
nearly after 500 m of pumping.
Well 2)has achieved steady
state
as the draw
down is also less and
expected to be in m o r e promising aquifer
has achieved steady state.
Time -Drawdown curves
4m 5.17
Well 1
A cc
well
wate
Well 2 the
OCCL
proc
0 1000m
-Time---->
on linear scale arou
Time drawdown
Figure 5.12:
fror
drawdown at a distance r from the pumping wel
gives
(iii) Theis equation (eqn. 5.14) 14 for calculation.
well. See problem 27, Chapter increases the drawdown of the
as storativity S
and
(iv) Pumping rate remaining same,
T.
well will decrease and so is the case with transmissivity
As increases, T will decrease is
In Jacob's method if drawdown per log cycle
(v) wa
for the same rate of pumping.
postu
(5.16 Partial Penetration of Wells a confined aquifer, the flow to the well5
When a well is fully penetrating of aquifer, the flow towards
horizontal. However, in case of partial penetration see figure 5.13. In such case
the well has a vertical flow component also
vertical hydraulic conductivity K, and horizontal hydraulic
conductivity Kh
well results in increa
important if aquifer is anisotropic.(Partial penetrationof a
of drawdown in the well.
Radial Flow | 75
ace an observation welllis located at large distance (r 2 1.5 (K/K."

Incase.
ially
tially penetrating pumping_well, the effect of partial penetration is
from and Theis method is applicable. However if observation well is close
neglig
negl1.5b(K/K,)t o partially penetrating pumping well the effect of partial
penetration has to be accounted for by Hantush partial penetration method.
Non pumping water level
Surface
Potentiometric
Confining layer surface
Aquifer
Impervious layer
Fig.5.13: Flow lines in partially penetrating well
5.17 Cone of Depression
A cone of depression occurs in aquifer when ground water is pumped from a
an
well (see fig. 5.14). In an unconfined aquifer, this is an actual depression of the
water aquifers, the(cone of depression indicates a reduction in
level. In confined
the pressure head surrounding the pumped well.
well is lowered and a gradient
When a well is pumped, water level in the
occurs between water in the well
and in the surounding aquifer. This gradient
into the well.
produces flow from the surrounding aquifer
water levels or pressure in the aquifer
As water flows into the well, the distance
around the well decreases, the amount of
the decline becomes less with
from the well resulting into a cone shaped depression
radiating away from the
well. This conical shaped feature is called cone of depression.
rate, fquifer thickness
and shape of cone depends upon(pumping
hesize
andits properties, amount of water in storage. will expand until equilibrium
AS the well is pumped, the cone of depression
or recharge equals
the amount of
i.e., water released from storage
shed
water being pumped.
.
st-uogexeje jeAaaeM 1end
D
0
Recharging ip
Buildup component of
image well
Resultant cone
image well
impression
c o n eo f
intr
of depression Pumping bet
well
aq
Non pumping
water level
Dra
ssioDrawdown compo
depression
ho pu
Aquifer C o n e
of
nent of real well
Impervious boundary
Fig.5.17: Equivalent hydraulic system replacing stream with recharging well
well will induce flow from the steam to the well. Figure 5.16 illustrates the
condition near recharge boundary. Recharge boundary can be explained by
introducing an image well at a distance equal to the distance of recharge
boundary from pumping well on the opposite side of the stream as shown in
figure 5.17. The draw down at any location is given by the difference in
drawdown resulting from the pumping well and the increase in head resulting
from the recharge image well.
Nonpumping water level
Aquifer
Pumping water level
Impermeable
boundary
Effective position of
line of zero flow
Impermeable layer d
Fig.5.18: Showing well near a barrier boundary

Drawdown component Drawdown component
Real pumping of image well of real well
well Image pumping
well
Nonpumping watereyel
Resultant cone of depression

Aquifer
a
b>>h
Impermeable layer
Fig.5.19: Equivalent hydraulic system replacing barrier boundary with
image pumping wellI
Radial Flow | 79
In case of aa
of well near a barrier boundary
shown in figure 5.18 (like as
formation) being pumped, there will be no flow
through the
i m p e r m e a b l e
imperahle boundary. This type of boundary condition is simulated

i m p e r m e a b l e
oducing charging image well located at a distance equal to the distance

introducing discha by
herween numping well and the barrier boundary but on opposite side of the
between pumping
PIn Defer
aquifer boundary
bounde see figure 5.19).
Sum of the draw downs in two
wells is the
eva drawdown at any point near the
pumping we!l in the aquifer.
Fia.5.20 illustrates the relationship between drawdown and time since
purmping for a recharge and barrier boundary.
eh
Point of divergence
es
Influence of recharge
ed } boundary
cha
wn
nce
Influence of barrier>
Theoretical drawdown
curve
pat
sultn boundary
10
1 ts
10
100
Time since Pumping 1000
Fig.5.20: Influence of boundary on drawdown

5.20 Location of Unknown Aquifer
The method of images may be
Boundary
applied to locate an aquifer boundary where no
information is available from field studies. If si and s2 are drawdown in
two
observation wells located at ri and r2 distance from pumping well. The drawdown
is given by
Jacob's equation 5.18 as follows:
mp
S1 log S (5.48)
S2 logs (5.49)
4T. TAS
(a) if drawdown of the two observation wells are equal i.els1 S2
log S I08S
2.25Tt2 2.25T 1o8S
or, ty/r= ta/r2 (5.50)
b) If drawdo
drawdown is zero i.e., if there is no drawdown in the observation wells
2.25T l08S
2.25Tt2
log2S (5.51)
or, ty/r= t/
80 |
which means that the time OCCr
tima
of
5.51 are same
Equation 5.50 and
drawdown or zero
drawdown vary as square
well and are

of the
independer
occurrenceof s
distance after
equal pumping the
observation wells from the be expressedas
of ate
Ate Ilatte
of Times and may

pumping. This is known as Law
/ /T:= /T , (5.52) 5.21
=r,7 %
will 5.53)
or, / t r /
Trace
Law of times can be

used to locate the
unknown boundary.
We
method) drawn from the observed dateside
hydra
the time drawdown curve (Jacob wherea

Cstab
the curve chane

f the
After some finite time the slope of
barrier boundary exists. change ores
as shown in ig.>.20. Let us takethe c
to the effect of the barrier boundary
LncO
an well and one observation well as shown in fo c

image
one pumping,
plan). o fthe
Impermeable boundary the i
flow
Image pumping well Pumping well
Observation well
volu
parti
Fig.5.21: location of Impermeable boundary (Plan) b an
Let distance of observation well from pumping well be rs.

Distance of observation well from Image well be r, (unknown).
At time t, before divergence of the drawdown curve (before the effect of
bamier boundary). the drawdown is s as shown in Fig.5.20 and t is the time at the a
which the drawdown is s after divergence of the curve i.e., after the eftect or
barrier boundary as shown in Fig. 5.20.
Now from Law of Times
Injec
S.57
(5.54)
As r,, , and t, is known, r the distance of observation well from image well,
can be estimated from equation 5.54.
trane
Ifthere are three
observation wells and ri, r> andra are the distance of the
observation wells from image well, ri, r2, I can be evaluated from
Arc drawn from location of observation well with
equation 5.)* S.22
radius r, 2, rj will intersect a
a point which is the location of
image well. The barrier boundary will be midway mec.
between the pumping well and the demarcated image well and Will De
perpendicular to the line joining the pumping and image well.
urrenge
ce o
of rade
ase
Inathe
of recharge boundary the procedure
ti the. drawdown is read from the
is exactly
Radial Flow | 81
the same except that

after time appropriate curve (the curve which
flattens after divergence).
553
II1l cons (5.21 Tracer
Techniques
Tracer testing techniques is one of the reliable
techniques for characterization of
ta when hydraulic and
and transport
properties of fractured
a shing sedimentary rock. It is used for
hing tlow trajectories and hydrological connection.
anges estimation
he case for
tal
estimation of
es
The technique is used
ofaaquifer parameters like transmissivity and effective
"n ligs
figs unconsolidated aquifers. porosityof
The technique consists in injecting artificial radioactive isotope likeH)Na*)
C Co", Br, Ag etc., in a well at depth of some aquifer. The concentration
of the isotope is studied by pumping of another well situated ata distance r from
the injection well. It is assumed hat the aquifer is isotropic and homogenous and
flow is horizontal.
The effective porosity may be evaluated from the following relationship
V tr-b/ne (5.55)
Vis volume of water pumped in m'
r is distance of pumping well from injection well
b is thickness of aquifer
ne is effective porosity of aquifer
If the well is pumped till peak of tracer concentration is reached, then the
volume of water pumped is inversely proportional to transmissivity of the
particular aquifer. If there are two layers of the same aquifer with thickness bjand
b, and effective porosity ne and ne' then
VT Ne rrbi TT1 (5.56)
V=t ne'rb, T/T2 (6.57)
T+T2=T (5.58)
from each of
effect Where Vi and V2 are volume of water required to be pumped
eietime time the aquifers to obtain peak concentration of tracer.
r is distance of pumping well from injection
well. In case more than one
effect 5.56 and
well is used, the distance would be ri and r2 in the equation
nection
5.57.
(5.54 b and thicknesses of the two layers of the aquifer.
b are and total
the two layers of aquifer
2agewe 1, T2 and T are transmissivity of
transmissivity respectively.
c eo f ' t
ce 5.22 Intrusion of Sea

ion5 Water in coastal aquifers
is caused by following
l sea water intrusion
t e r
o
s e c
mechanisms.
of the aquifer
Cmidw
the sea due to excessive pumping

d encroachment from
in inland area.
W i l l
82 |
saline water from aline zones
deeper saline zones d
due.
ii. Upward movement of to
pumping
of overlying fresh water aquifer.
Under normal conditions
fresh ground water flowS from inland a s i e
area to sea as hydraulic gradient isand
recharge areas to coastal discharge water towards the sea prevents salea
natural movement of fresh
This water
coastal aquifers. Ground water develon ater
sea.
from entering fresh water
decrease the amount of fresh water flowing to or
pumping in inland area can into decrease of hydraulic gradient. The f
the coastal discharge area resulting
- saline water interface will shift towards inland position allowing salt water
of coastal aquifer. This is called sea wate
be drawn into the fresh water zones
in inland areas, the potentiometrie
intrusion. In fig 5.22, due to over pumping
in certain part causing intrusion of sea
surface has gone down below the sea level
water.
Potentiometric surface due to over pumping J22
causing sea watr intrusion beyond piezometer 2 Due
Piezometer 1 Normal potentiometric surface

Coas
(no sea water intrusion)
intru
Surface Piezometer 2 Piezometer 3
Sea level.
Confining layer Sea water
Confined aquifer .
Fig.5.22: Lateral encroachment of sea water due to over pumping
5.23 explains the upcoming of interface of fresh saline water. This

-
Fig.
overlie salt water bearing aquifer and
happens when fresh water bearing aquifers
in fresh water aquifer is pumped the fresh
the interface is horizontal. When a well
saline water interface is drawn upward. This may contaminate the fresh water
aquifer.
intrusion are as follows:
Some other causes of sea water
Tidal fluctuations and sea level changes.
to climatic changes or due to urbanisation
ii. Decrease in recharge due
iii. Construction of drainage canal which serve as conduit for sea water
migration.
Pumping well
Pumping well
Injection well
filled with fresh water ay be

may con
ii. Artificial recharge basins
coastal areas as shown in Fig.5.25.
constructed in
Fresh water recharge
basin
well
Water table Pumping well Pumping
h l
Introd
During
pe
Sea level Sea level ocks W
Lroundw
nuchlin
Fresh water Sea water

cquilibriun
dissolved
Fig.5.25: Artificial fresh water recharge basin to prevent sea water encroachment These
constituen
This will raise water table under the recharge bas1ns. Pumping wells may . Major
be installed between the recharge basins and pumped safely. These
iv. In another scheme, a series of pumping wells are constructed parallel tothe
charge
coast (see fig.5.26). These wells will pump saline water either from
i.
unconfined or confined aquifer and create trough in water table or
i.
potentiometric surface below the wells. Wells behind the trough will yield
fresh water. ii.S
iv. P
Fresh water Fresh water
The majo
Water tabie or i.
Surface
potentiometric surface
Surface Saline water ii. S
.
Sea level iv. B
2. Silica
Fresh water Saline water 3. Impo
Iron,
4. Impo
Fig.5.26: Pumping of saline water along the coast to prevent saline water
encroachment Arser
S.Majo
Oxy
6. Minc
Hydr
$2Unit
Dimgssolitresvee
eApressee
o solid
ommon
construdy CHAPTER 6
Ground Water Chemistry
evel 6.1 I n t r o d u c t i o n
During percolation, water comes in long contact with minerals in the soil and
rocks. Water is a solvent for many chemical constituents. As a result, most
ea
ea walground
water water contains a wide variety of dissolved inorganic chemicals and toa
much limited extent naturally occurring organic constituents. In course of time
equilibrium is achieved and water is saturated with dissolved solids. These
eros
ICrOaehadissolved constituents areresponsible for quality of ground water.
These dissolved constituents) are classified as major constituents, minor
ng welly constituents, trace constituents, major dissolved gases and minor gases.
1. Major constituents
These inorganic constituents occur in ionic form. The major cations (+ ve
arallel t
either t charged ions)
ter table i. Calcium Ca
gh will ii. Magnesium Mg
ii. Sodium Na
iv. Potassium K
The major anions (-ve charged ions)
i. Chloride C
ii. Sulphate SO4
ii. Carbonate CO3
iv. Bicarbonate HCO
ealevel
2 Silica can also be a major constituent but is not present in ionic form
Salinewa 3. Important Minor constituents
Iron, Manganese, Fluoride, Nitrate, Strontium and Boron
4 Important Trace elements
Arsenic, Lead, Cadmium and chromium
water
5. Major dissolved gases
Oxygen, Carbon dioxide and Nitrogen
6. Minor gases
Hydrogen Sulphide and Methane
.2 Units of Measurement
Ved solids lin water are commonly expressed in parts per million ppm) or
and is
The total dissolved solid in a sample of water is referred as TDS
expressed
ofcdinppm or mg/litre (mg/1)} Thetotal dissolved solid is thetotalJamount
COi t hat remains when water sample is evaporated to dryness. However,
is estimated from empirical relationship based on conductivity or
86| Fundamentals of Hydrogcology
also expressed as milli equivalen
The concentration of ions is
mg/l lent per litre
water.
(me/1) which is obtained by dividing
the concentration in mg/lby e
by lite
weight of the ion. Non ionic
dissolved solute cannot be expressedinva
in this ressed equivalent No.
a)Physical
is
of common ions given below: unit.
Equivalent weigh Colo
O
Cation Equivalent weight Anion
Equivalent weight pH
Ca 20.04 CO 30.0 1aste
Mg 12.16 HCO3 61.02 Turb
Na 23.0 SO4 48.03 Tota
K 39.1 Cl 35.46
b )G e n e r a l
Alun
NO3 62.01
Amn
F 19.0
Bari
Boro
6.3 Physical Character Calc
The physical characters of water are also important. They include colour, odour,
Chlo
taste, turbidity and pH (hydrogen ion concentration) and electrical conductivity C o
Colour is expressed in Hazen unit, turbidity in NTU and pH is pure number and 9Copp
electrical conductivity in micro mhos/Cm or micro Siemens /Cm. 10Fluor
1 Free1
2 Iron
6.4 Classification of Water
Generally the ground water is considered more hygienic than surface water 3 Magr
14 Man
which contains suspended matter and may contain bacteria. However ground
15Mine
water may also get contaminated by bacteria or toxic agents and may have high
16 Nitratt
dissolved solid rendering it useless. The simplest classification of water is based
17 Phend
18 Selen
upon TDS of water as shown below:
S.No. TDS range Quality 19 Silver
Up to 1000 mg/1 Fresh 20 Sulph
2 1000 to 10000 mg/1 Brackish Sulph
More than 10000 mg Saline |Total
Total
chemical in laboratory and its 24 Zinc
Quality of water is assessed by analysis C) Paramete
use is assessed .The dissolved
suitability for drinking, irrigation and industrial of Alpha
constituents are responsible for the quality of water. The chemical makeup Beta e
has been and what kind of
ground water is a reflection of where the water
Bacteriolo
material it has flowed through. E.Co
6.5 Drinking Water Specifications
The sta
In India drinking water specifications are given in IS10500 (2012). In the table 6 Impor
below are given specifications of physical parameters, general parameters which
are undesirable in excess amount, radioactive substances and bacteriological 6.1 Hydr
quality.The specifications for
included.
pesticide residues and toxic substances
are not
HuaAlt
rogery
s
S22 2 |2322
n -
+
=eeeees=elalss=a--5-
777(
ToSo 61x ec)
Water is acidic or basic depending upon the relative concentration of u
there are more H ions than OH, the water is acidic and if OH is more centration of H'. I
the water is basic or alkaline. When OH is equal to H the water is neutral,than
pH log(1/H) i.e. pH is equal to the log of inverse of hydrogen.
concentration. Range of pH is from 0 to 14. pH between 0 to <7 is for ani ion
expr
of 7 and 7 to indicates cidic

water.
pH indicates neutral
water > pH 14 or
water. Temperature of water is important in determining neutrality of wateraline
basic alkai
25C if pH is 7 water is neutral. At
The pH of ground water is derived from the atmospheric carbon dioxide and arees
the dissolved carbonate and bicarbonate rocks in water.
thea
6.6.2 Electrical conductivity
Electrical conductivity (EC) is a measure of the capacity of water to conduçt Alkal
electrical currents.) Since electrical current in water is conducted by ions, the rou
more \the concentration of ions, more is the conductivity of water. Therefore, EC duet
is directly related to the concentration of dissolved
a good indicator of
salts in water i.e. T.D.S. EC is 1ODS
salinity of water but do not provide information about ionic CaC

composition. EC is affected by temperature. It increases with increase of
temperature. Many measuring instruments compensate for,temperature deviation
andshow reading at 25°c
(TDS in mg/l =( K)x EC, ] 66.5
K varies irom 0.61 to 0.64 and EC is expressed in micro mhos/Cm or micro Water
Siemens /Cm which are numerically he
Electrical conductivity is measured by
equal Solid
determining the resistance of water
between two flat or cylindrical electrodes separated by a fixed distance. The nd
resistance is measured with a conductivity meter. Now thoug
a day's hand held
Const
conductivity measuring instruments are available.
race
(6.6.3 Total Hardness -> Ca M ca ov H tag C20- 6 ov may
Qualitative assessment of hardness of water is assessed from the foam the water very
amou
produces with soap. If foam appears quickly, the water is termed soft water and
requirement of more soap to produce foam indicates hard water. ryne
(Hardnessin water is primarily çaused by calcium and magnesium cations. empi
nos-
Heavy metals likaron'and manganesealso contribute to hardness. Calcium and
magnesium in water are present as calcium and magnesium bicarbonate, ng.
carbonate and sulphates. Carbonate and bicarbonate ions
originate in soil from 66.6
decaying vegetation, solution of limestone and dolomite and respiringorganism. Chlo
Hardness of water is of two types,(temporary hardness and non-carbonate TOckE
hardness. The temporary hardness is caused mainly by caleium and magnesium Weat
bicarbonate and minor amount of their carbonates, if carbonate is present
in POre
This of called carbonate hardness. This type of
water. type hardness is alsothe water.
be removed by
hardness can
The other
boiling
type of hardness called non-carbonate hardness is caused by
sulphate, chloride and nitrates of calcium and magnesium and harane mit
empova v HovaA 7aFMa MCabenote,
) Non Cartsonofe navdnos- Sos, °T tNo
ovntap Coivemade huyano An + D - Clono
Giround Water Chemistry | 89
contributed
c o n t r
by Iron. Non-carbonate hardness (Cannot) be removed by boiling of
waler,
otal
otal Hardness THcarbonate
/Tota
T. hardness t non-carbonated hardness.TH is
as mg/l of CaCO.
101 expressed
TH Ca x( CaCO,/Ca)* Mgx(CaCO,/Mg)
die (6.2)
- Ca x 2.497 + Mg x 4.115
line
At Or TH-2.497 Ca
t 4.15 Mg (6.3)
CacoyCa and CaCOyMg are ratio of cquivalent weights. Ca, Mg and TH
are expressed in mg/1. ater with hardness up to 50 mg/l is considered soft and
and
theacceptablc limit lor drinking
water
is200 mg/1
664 Alkalinity
duct Alkalinity is defined as capacity of water to rcact with and neutralise acid.)
the Ground water with pHless acidic) may have measurable alkalinity
than 7 (i.e.
EC due to presence of carbonate and bicarbonate ions. Chloride, sulphate and nitrate
Cis jons do not)contribute to alkalinity. It is expressed as cquivalent amount of
nic CaCO, in mg.
Non carbonate hardness = TH - alkalinity
0f
tion OrTH alkalinity + Non carbonate hardness
6.6.5Total Dissolved Solid (TDS) -> (So- 2v00 / 9
Water contains a number of dissolved inorganic constituents. Concentration of
1cro
the dissolved constituents (minerals) in water is referred to as total dissolved
ater solid of water, The major cations are calcium, magnesium, sodium and potassium
ater
Tand major anions are chloride, sulphate, carbonate and bicarbonate. Silica,
The though not in ionic form, is also a major constituent. Among the minor
held
constituents are iron, manganese, fluoride, nitrate, strontium and boron. Some
trace elements like arsenic, lead, cadmium and chromium may also be present in
very small quantity but are very important for quality of water. TDSisthetotal
ater amount of solids in mg/l that remains when a water sample isevaporatedjto
and drynes. Normally_it is estimated from electrical conductivity of water by
in micro
CaLrelation. Electrical conductivity of water sample is estimated 1DS in
ons
OnS.
and
mbosCm andmultiplied by a factor varying from 0.61 to 0.64 to obtain
ng. The acceptable limitfor drinking water is 500 mg/l.
ate,
at 666 Chloride
Tom 2 50- Looo /L
ue1s an important anion constituent of water. Weathering of crystalline
m. rocks contributes small amount water.
male Weathe (6 to 12 mg/l) of chloride to ground
jum
Ium
thering of Sedimentary rocks earlier deposited in sea with trapped chloride in
inaso
in contributes to chloride content of water. Intrusion of sea in coastalaarea
y also raise the chloride content of ground water. Other sources of chloride are
of
industrial
d activit Human wastes are reach in chloride content. Seepage from
by
ewageofping in lagoons contribute high amount of chloride. The acceptable
limit
nit of of 150 mg/l is
ness chloride cont
ontent is 250 mg/1 but chloride content
Huvelnu ta Eqjvo J ont amt qt ca t
90 | of much higher (3000
(3000 to
to dno.
4000 mg/l)
can drink water
Animals
satisfactory.
chloride content.
As per IS10500
6.6.7 Fluoride water in low
concentration.
Fluoride is present
in ground
fluoride content is 1 mg/l.
Fluoride in ground wat
of
upper acceptable
limit and mineral apatite and minica,
mineral in igneous rock)
derived from(fluoritea concentration of fluoride resultsi
as higher
Assessment of fluoride is important
called Fluorosis.
which is
decay of tooth enamel
6.6.8 Sulphate minerals like gypsum
water is derived from evaporite
Sulphate in ground
(CaSO4, 2H,0) and anhydrite (CaSO.). Pyrite
(iron sulphide) may also contribute
concentration in
oxidation. Sulphates are in low
sulphate to ground water on of evaporites, the concentration
igneous and metamorphic rocks. Near deposits an
may be higher. The acceptable limit
for sulphate in drinking water is 200 mg/l.
6.6.9 Carbonate and Bicarbonate
Carbonate and bicarbonate are found in ground water as calcium and magnesium
soil fromm
carbonate and bicarbonate. Carbonate and bicarbonate ions originate in
decaying vegetation, solution of limestone and dolomite and respiring organism.
Carbonate and bicarbonate caus temporary hardnessJto ground water. Its limit in
doe
drinking water is included in hardness.
6.6.10 Nitrate COL
Nitrate in ground water is not derived from rocks. Certain plants take nitrogen
from atmosphere and transfer it to soil for their use. Excess nitrogen is removed SO
by down ward percolating soil water.(Nitrate fertilisersland decomposing plants
SEd=
are other important sources of nitrogen in soil. Maximum acceptable limit for
nitrate in drinking water is 45 mg/1) Excessive nitrate concentration indicates
contamination from sewage waste or presence of contaminated water in nearby
dug well or tube well. Concentration of nitrate higher than the prescribed limit Nat
has toxic effect on children and cause intestinal disease. are
of s
6.6.11 Iron (Fe"", Fe*"")
Iron in ground water comes from igneous and sedimentary rocks. Iron is .6
commonly present in igneous rocks and is also present as trace in sedimentary
rocks. Water may dissolve iron from metallic iron in pump sets, casing, ana COn
distribution pipes and contribute to iron content of water. Iron in ground water
occurs as ferrous (Fe") oxide (Fe0) which is soluble in water under normal
conditions of low concentration of oxygen in water and pH in the range 6.5 to
7.5. When water comes in contact with oxygen/air, ferrous oxide is oxidised t
ferric oxide (Fe^0,) and is precipitated and can be filtered. Im
Ground Water Chemistry 9
T h
recommended acceptable limit in drinking water is 0.3 mg/1. higher

e r e c o m m e n
of iron will stain clothes, clog pipes and form encrustation on tube
ation of
concentration
w e l l s c r e e n .
Magnesiumn
Calcium and
66.12 and
.0m and magnesium are found in ground water as carbonate, bicarbonate
Calcium and
Calcu As carbonate and

bicarbonate they produce temporary hardness in
suts sulphate.
su As sulphate,
chloride and nitrate produce non-carbonate hardness.
from dissolution of carbonate rocks and from
Calcium
and magnesium is derived
vegetation and respiring organism in soil. Calcium is essential for
aving vegetati
decaying
for children as well as adults and especially for(bone growth
uman nutrition
human nutritio
ntih Magnesium js beneficial for({heart and nervous ystem of human body. It works
ation as a laxative.
is 75 mg/1
DiTah Acceptable limit in drinking water for calcium and magnesium
amount of these salts indicate
mgl and 30)mg/l respectively. Presence of higher
increase of hardness of water.
MES 6.6.13 Silicon

SiO2 (Silicon
occurs as dioxide). Quartz is pure silica or silicon dioxide.
oilSilicon
oil f of silicate
The origin of silica in ground water is due to chemical weathering
gami to 9. Silica
In ground water it occurs as Si(OH) under pH range of 6
limminerals. calcium and magnesium
contribute to hardness but forms scale of
does not
water and concentration of 20 mg/ is
silicate. Silica may be present in ground
common.
nitro 6.6.14 Sodium

are carried away from
rocks and
Sodium salts are highly soluble in water. They
remon
solution during weathering of plagioclase
gD sediments in solution. It is released in
halite (table salt).
amount may come from mineral
Imi
feldspar. n addition minor
Sodium is most abundant metallic ion
in sea water. In limestone terrain ground
content. Sodium compounds do not form scale as they
water is poorin sodium Concentration
bedi
highly soluble in water and also
do not contribute to hardness.
a r o1
esodium in ground water is in the range of{10 to 100 mg/l.)
6.6.15 Manganese from rocks. However its

derived in ground water
LIke iron, manganese is also bicarbonate
iron. It occurs as manganese
Concentration is lower than that of bicarbonate
favourable conditions, manganese
ime
wnlch is soluble in water. Under

Like iron, manganese also
SIng
choke well screen.

pitates and can completely than that of iron.
d remove the
stain of manganese
ds and it is more difficult to maximum acceptable The

are not desirable in water.
and manganese
1limit for manganese is 0.10 mg/l.
espLE
92 | Fundamentals ofHydrogeologY
andan
6.6.16 Zinc
Zinc is a very common substance
and many foodstuff contain Certad Thoug
zinc. Soils in the area where zinc (Sphalerite)
is mined or refined
tain amount of
process
fertilise
strial
of zinc in water is higher. Where sewage sludge from industrial ar concent
area hasr
used as fertiliser, the concentration of zinc is higher. Certain industriot be
ation w a t e ra
and waste combustion also add to zinc concentration. The acceptable iacti
ty fomp
limit for
zinc in drinking water is 5 mg/l. P o
Zinc in trace or in small concentration is essential for health. Shortage of-

our
causes loss of appetite, decreased sense of taste and smell and slow healin stinul
wound. dissol
6.6.17 Arsenic o 0S m9/A) vascu
Arsenic contamination in ground water is often due to naturally occurring hieh

&62
concentration of depths. This problem is seen in tube wels

arsenic in (deeper Natur
deeper than 100m in Gangetic basin in West Bengal and Bihar close to Ganga discu
is than the prescribej

and Gandak river, where the concentration of arsenic
more
most
limit of 0.05 mg/1. The problem of presence of excess arsenic is more severe in
merc
Bangladesh, Thailand, Taiwan and China. Higher concentration of arsenic in
addi
drinking water may cause health problems like stomach pain, Vomiting
diarrhoea, impaired nerve function etc., and long term use may increase risk of
6.0
cancer of skin, lung, kidney and bladder. B a c
Removal by adsorption using Bay oxide or

of excess arsenicin water is done qua
byfeverse osmosislon exchange and jactivated alumina)are used in removing oli

coli
excess arsenic. exts
star
6.6.18 Boron salts of boric acids. It is derived from If

Boron occurs mainly as Boric acid and
and in loam rich rock formations. In India shc
mineral Borax. It is also found in slate
presence of boron
is reported from water in arid and semi-arid region. Its 6.C
maximum acceptable limit is 0.5 mg/1. M-
0.7 mg/l of boron but is not considered dietary
Human body contains about T
element from food stuff. The amount of boron
requirement. We absorb this
in fruits and vegetables is below toxic level. Daily intake is about 2 me 01
present cause nausea, vomiting, diarrhoea and
than 5mg of boron may
Intake of more
1s life threatening. Excess boron can
blood clotting and more than 20 mg per day
be removed by ion exchange.
in excess
amount is essential for plant growth but its presence
Boron in trace
of number of
Boron is a dietary requirement
of 1 mg/l is detrimental for plants.
organism.
6.6.19 Potassium
water from feldspar (orthoclase and mierocline)
Potassium is derived in ground
present, coniibuteto
Carnalite and Sylvite, if l a n d f i l l sofdomestic
Minerals like dnest
through dissolution. of Potassium are
Other sources
potassium in ground water.
Ground Water Chemistry| 93
contain high proportion of potassium. Potassium from dead plants

vhich conta
wastewisoften bound to clay minerals in soils before it dissolve in water.
Cehasynt a a n da n i m a /
is
nosand
hough
process
cadily taken up by plants again, ploughing may disturb the natural
it read
partly may go to ground water. Potassium nitrate is used as synthetic

and partly
proeRegeneration
fertilis
Regenera releases waste water which may discharge into ground
or surface water. Potassium is not soluble in water but reacts with water to
hydroxide
ge of form potassium
form
Otassium a dietary
is a
Potassium is requirement for human being and 2 to 3.5 gm/day is
ealing our
ament. Vital functions of potassium include its role in nerve
requirement.
ion, muscle contraction, blood pressure regulation and protein

stimulation,
decolution. It protects the heart and arteries and may even prevent cardio
vascular diseases.
be we 6.6.20 Trace Constituents

to CGa
Natural ground water contains many more inorganic constituents other than
Tescrite
severe
discussed here. Fortunately their concentration in ground water is very low and
m o s t l y below determination level. Water may contain chromium, copper,
rmercury,
semc cadmium, selenium, lead etc. in trace or below determination level in
Nomitn
se Tisk
addition to elements mentioned earlier.
6.6.21 Bacteriological Contaminant
Bacteria in water are acquired due to contamination of water. Bacteriological
Oxide
of water is determined by analysing for coliform bacteria. Excess of
emovn quality
coliform bacteria indicates dangerous kevel ofcontamination. These bacteria are
extracted in large number from the human intestinal tract. As per current
standards water must not contain any coliform colony in 100 ml of water sample.
wedi I fhigher concentration is detected in water sample, immediate remedial measures
Inh should be taken to prevent disorder.
gion
6.6.22 Dissolved
Gases
Most common dissolved gases in water are oxygen, carbon dioxide and nitrogen.
d dieu
The
of bom
solubility of gas decreases with increase of temperature and increases with
crease ofpressure. Dissolved gases are involved in corrosion of metallic parts
ut 2 m of well and encrustation. Presence of gases are not analysed on routine basis.
oea a
Amount of free carbon dioxide contained in water depends on pH and alkalinity
oron
ater. For example at pH of 7.5 and alkalinity of 100 to 400 mg/1, free carbon
dioxide varies from 6 to 22 mg/l.
n exca
mber
mbe.7 Quality of Water for Industrial Use
r terent industries, the quality requirements of water are different. In milk
CSSingsoft drinks)canned food etc. industries the quality requirements are
roclia Detter than drinking water. Distilleries prefer hard water.Paper industry
hute
Tibute res soft water with hardness upto (50 mg/land low iron and manganc
J o m e s y
ntration (up to 0.1 mg/l cumulative) and low TDS (up to 200 mg1). For
washing of clothes)soft water with low concentration of iron and

required. For boilers at pressure of 0 to 10 kg/cm* water with TDS in mangar
the is
s00 to 3000 mg/l and pH of 8 is acceptable. Turbidity and colour
colour reaui
requirementsof
are 20 silica scale and 80 standard cobalt scale respectively.
6.8 Quality of Water for Agricultural Use

For irrigation purposes the concentration of sodium, calciurm, magnesium, The
and concentration of certain specific elements which are toXIC are important TDS i
6.8.1 Sodium Adsorption Ratio (SAR) Ntn .

When sodium rich water is applied to soil, some of the odium istakenup h The
clay in soil. The clay in turn releases calcium)and (magnésium/in exchang. Thi Rev
changes the physical character of soil which leads to retardation of growth ofhe The
plants. Clay, which adsorbs sodium becomes sticky when wetand hard whendry, om
Com
It is difficult to cultivate on this type of soil. High concentration of sodium in soj 1

leads to alkali soil on which no crop can grow. Sodium adsorption ratio (SAR) s
defined as
SAR = Na )
(6.4) i.
Ca +Mg ii.
2
When SAR is 10 or less than 10, the water is suitable for irrigation and there
iv.
is no danger of sodium problem.
6.8.2 Formation of Saline Soil
mineral concentration in irrigation water leads to formation of
saline soil
High
Most minerals carried by irrigation water remains in the soil or remain dissolved
in unused water. The plants take up little of the dissolved minerals. Repeated
and formation of saline soil and
irrigation results in accumulation of mineral salts
destroy productivity of soil. The crop roots have great difficulty in extracting
saline soil.
enough water and nutrients from
6.8.3 Miscellaneous Minerals
to 0.5 mg/l) is desirable fo
We have seen in para 6.6.18 that trace of boron (up
excess of 1.0 mg/l is detrimental for plants
plant growth but concentration in
fluorine in irrigation water are
Elements like selenium, molybdenum and .
tolerated by plants but are toxic to animals that

feed on them.
6.9 Purification of Water

When ground water is not suitable for drinking
purposes, it needs to be purified 6.1
to remove some of the
conventional techniques Th
for use. There are some modem
some more
and efiicient
suspended constituents and reduce hardness Suc
techniques which are described below.
cE NCL
CL
onventional techniques solids in water. Some
i.
remove suspended
. Coagulation: This_is done to ater and stirred.
stirred. The particles
coagulants like(alumoríron
saltsare addedto water and particle
MNT
Ground Water Chemistry| 95
ter would settle down at the bottom of the container. The suspended
water would
ids like
solids like lead, arsenic, Silver, chromium etc. can be removed by this
r o c e s s .
pronftening: lime softening is done to reduce hardness of water. Lime

CafOH reacts with bicarbonates of Ca and Mg to precipitate as CaCO3 and
Ca(OH)> reacts
Mg(OH)»
Filtering: After coagulation and lime softening, all the settled and
ii. ecipitated inorganic matter is removed from water by filtration before use.
Modern Techniques
6.9.26.9.2 inking water is now a day's very common. The main process is
The packaged drink
wthReverse Osmosis) anditra violet sterilisation)with several stages of filtration.

The steps of purification may vary with quality of source water. However, some
common steps may be as follows:
Circulation of air through water for conversion of iron in ferrous to ferric)
BAR form. Iron in ferric form (Fe") forms film on surface and can be removed
by filtration.
64) Chlorination of waterjto kill germs.
ii. Water is filtered through several stages to remove very fine suspended
the matter.
iv. Reverse Osmosis (RO): In reverse osmosis the concentrated input wateris
forced to flow through a(semi-permeable membrane by means of pressure
pumps. The membrane allows only the water to pass through and not the
ne so contaminants. The impurities are flushed and drained out as rejected water. It
ssol is opposed to the natural process of osmosis in which water of lower
peate concentration flows through a semi-permeable membrane to water of higher
oil a oncentration on the other side of the membrane.Dissolved solid )can be
ractin reduced to desired level by this process. Water is separatedinto two streams.
One stream contains water of desired concentration or TDS which is input
for the next process of ultra violet sterilisation and the other stream is the
bleto
rejected water which is drained out. RO can remove many types of molecules
and 1ons firom contaminated water and may be used for purification of
plan
er
saline/brackish water. UVS
N Water of desired concentration or TDS is input forqultra violetsterilisation In
the ultra violet steriliser micro organisms are killed. After ultra violet
Sterilisation the water is packaged or distributed for drinking purposes.
uritio
of
.10 Presentation of Chemical Analysis Data
CSUlts of chemical analysis of water samples are presented in several forms
noder
such as
. Tabular form
ii. Bar diagram
So
ii. PIE diagram
iv. Water quality maps

v. Stiff's Polygon
vi. Schoeller Semi log diagram
-
vii. Hill and Piper Trilinear diagram
o10.1 Tahular
Tabular form isform
convenient and most common. Data of several samples af.
o finvestigation can be presented in a single table as shown below:
of an area
Table
Tested
Parameters
S.No./ Water pH TH | TDS
|Location sample colour odour taste turbidity |
No.
FsO.Fe Ca Mg
If more parameters are tested columns may be added to accommadas
results. In the above table, colour is expressed in Hazen the
unit, turbidity iin NTU
taste agrecable/not agreeable, odour acceptabie/not acceptable, pH in number
other parameters in mg/1. all
6.10.2 Bar diagram

In bar diagram, data of only one sample can be presented at a time, In tho
diagram below three cations namely Ca, Mg and Na and three anions namel OCatton
HCO, Cland SO4 have been plotted. It can be plotted on any convenientscale Vanalior
Cation Anion paranet
Na
-so4
Mg C
Ca HCO3
Fig.6.1: Bar diagram
6.10.3 PIE diagram

Pie diagram shows both the individual dissolved solids and the total dissolved
solid in water sample. If the analysed data is expressed in mg/, it is converted m
to me/l by dividing the concentration in mg/l by the equivalent weight tne
or
The radius the total
6.10.5
of the circle is so chosen that the area of the circle represen
Ground Water Chemistry | 97
acentration. The concentration of different ions is represented in the

i o n i c c o n c e n
depending upon their concentration.

by sectors
circle.
Na
HCO3 Mg
Mp
Ca
SO4
1, Fig.6.2: Pie diagram
6.10.4 Water Quality Map

area whose
If water samples are taken from dug wells or tube wells of any
useful. It shows the
nlocation plan is available, preparation of quality map is very
variation of plotted parameters in the area of study. In one map more than one
le.
parameter say TDS and chloride may be plotted conveniently.
100 150 50 150 50 100 100
258
200
U
100 100 150
Contour of total hardness
Contour of TDS
in a study area
8.0.3: Map showing variation of TDS and total hardness
6.10.5 Stiffs Polygon

f analysis data the mg/l
data bys data reported in mg/1, it is converted to me/l by dividing
are
ivalent weight of the ion. A vertical axis is drawn

the equiv and a horizontal
line is also drawn to makea convenient scale for cations and anions on oppnsi
side of the vertical axis as shown in fig.6.4. On one side of the vertical a 0
cation concentration are plotted as per scale on the top and on other side aaxis
i
concentration. In the example concentration of Na +Kis 0.75 me/l and thatofC
and Mg 1.0 and 0.5 respectively. In the plot a horizontal line up to 0.75 has hee
drawn to represent Na + k concentration. Similarly concentration of Ca and Ma
are also
plotted. The anion concentrations are plotted on other side of the vertical
axis. All plotted points representing concentrations of different ions are
form a polygon. We may have
joined to
plot of another sample below the
axis.
same vertical
6.10.6 Schoeller Semilog
In this
Diagram
method, plotting is done on semi-log
spaced Vertical lines represent different ions. graph
The
paper (see fig.6.5). Equally
1on is plotted on its vertical concentration of a particular
line as per the log scale
representing concentration of different ions in a sample along Y axis. AIl the points
are joined. Similarly
of next sample can also be data
plotted.
Cations Anions
1.5mel 1.0 0.5 0.5 1.0 1 5 me
Na+K---
CI
Ca-.
-- - -
HC03 1st sampte
Mg
S04
Na+K
Ci
Ca HCO3 2nd sample
Mg SO4
Fig.6.4: Stiff's polygon method of
presentation of chemical data
10
sample 1
Sample 2
01
Mg Na C
SO4 HCOs
Fig.6.5: Schoeller semilog

diagram
ettic 6.10HilandP Trilinear Graph
nTesentation of data by this method, the data is first converted in me/lby
deviding the mg/l data by respective equivalent weights. Next the concentration
of each cation is expressed in percentage of total of all cations. Similarly anions
Can are also expressed in percentage. We take an example to illustrate the procedure.
he ve
Cation Concentration in mg/ Concentration in mel % of total
Na +K Na-30 & K=7.8 1.5 50
22
Ca 36.6
Mg 4.86 0.4
Total
13.3
3.0
Anion
ha 10.6
CO +HCOCO,=15
CI & HCO=122.5
pari 0.3 10
the SO4 9.6
2.5
0.2
83.3
6.66
milaly Total 3.0
The percentage of cations and anions are plotted on the(two) triangles. The
intersection of lines) extended from the two sample points on the triangles to the
central rectangle gives a point which represents the major ionic
sample on percentage basis (see fig.6.6). Similarly data of other composition
of a
samples can alsoo
be plotted on the
rectangle. Distribution of plotted
the difference in ionic composition of
points on the rectangle shows
sample from an area. Based upon this
method water) can be classified as caleium
typej or Sodium typejor (magnesium
type or no dominant typeJand bicarbonate type or sulphate
or no dominant
type or chloride type
type.
100
. CarMg
0
100 0 100
CO
So
100
o4 100100 VV
100 - Ca CI 100
Fig6.6: Trilinear plot for fresh water (F) & saline water (S)
100
Fundamentals
of Hydrogeology
Diagram)
6.10.8US SalinityLab is for classification of irrigation water I
US salinity lab diagram
plotteddiagram
along oa
diaRT
Ec of water in micro mhos/cr isis plotteda Exar
micrombos/cm
electrical conductivity classeshave hea.
graph Y axis(fig.6.7)(Sixteen defined8x
SAR along
water is less than(250 micro mhoe
axis against
diagram. In general EC of
if and SA
excellent for irripati
Sens
less than or equal to (10) the water 1s

mhos/cm and SAR between
ween
ion. Water of RiBc
10 to 18 is
micro
between 250 to 750
for irrigation.
regarded:as of
water
good quality We
30
25
D o n
Bad water
20 Ana
c a r
Moderate water Phos
Was
www
dise
Good water
100 1000 ev
6000
Conductivity (Ec) perT
Fig.6.7: US salinity diagram 6.11

The-
6.11 Ground Water Contamination thes
Ground water contains a wide variety of dissolved inorganic chemicals and to a bura
much limited extent, naturally occurrng organic constituents. These dissolved lead
chemicals are responsible for the quality of water. The chemical makeup of call
call
ground water is a reflection of where the water has been and what kind of rock i The
has flowed through. Ground water contamination is said to have occurred when the
the chemical constituent of the ground water is altered by man's activities like leac
seepage from septietanks.landfills for municipal wasteJor from fertiliser ptc. and res
pesticides in agricultural fields through which water passes. In some cases
6.1
contamination may increase the concentration of already present constituents and
n other case the contamination may introduce new chemical species. lf Wi
of
concentration exceeds the prescribed standard (IS10500) contamination is said to Py
have occured.
of
6.11.1 Sources
of Ground water Contamination rad
ne sources of ground water contamination may be classified in the following Sur
types
i. Point Sources ca
ii. Non-Point Sources xp
e diaga kind another.

sourcesare waste management facilities of
Most/pointsour one or
Most/pointseptic
t ed al r e septic tanks with soak pits, landfills for municipal waste, sewage
Sined n
and SA
d E x s for liquid municipal waste, chemical landfills for
industrial waste etc.
for disposal of waste may be large but they are point sources in the
facilities
Nata er Such
that they are

localised andbounded aerially.
of
garded amples oflnon-point sourcesof ground water contamination are areas
s e n s e
agricultural fields in which fertiliser and pesticides have been applied aerially.
icultural fiel
examine the sources of contamination in detail
Weshall
tanks and soak pits|
6.11.1.1 Septic
vastes are normally disposed off through septic tanks and soak pit in
Domestic wasi
waste.
urhan areas and also through sewage lagoons for liquid municipalwaste is
Anaerobic decomposition of wastes take place in the tank and liquid
carricd to the (soak pit) where it seeps in to the ground. Likewise the liquid
municipal waste may seep into the ground and contaminate ground water.
Phosphorus, nitrogen as nitrate and Bacteria and viruses contained in the liquid
waste are principal constituents of concern and are major source of(water borne)
diseases. In thickly populated areas more contamination is expected.
To reduce contamination, soak pits should be constructed above the highest
000 level of water table. In areas where the water table is very shallow or soil is
permeable, construction of soak pits should not be allowed.
6.11.1.2(Landfillsfor Municipal Waste

The common mode of disposing municipal waste, garbage, debris etc. is to bury
these in a landfill. Radioactive and hazardous wastes, toxic substances are also
asand buried in the landfills. Rain water can percolate the buried waste material and
e aisoleach compounds of chemicals from the solid waste. The leached compound
makeup called(leachateJcan subsequently mOve downward and contaminate ground water.
d of nThe chemical constituents of the leachate reflect the kind of material buriedin
urred wi the landfill. Wide variety of inorganic and organic materials may be found in the
tivities leachate. A lined landfill may be designed in areas where water table is deep to
sertc4 restrict contamination.
some 6.11.1.3 Mining)

ituents Widespread ground disturbances result from mining activity and may alter flow
species of ground water. A significant problem arises when ground water flows through
species
nn iiss
sauy t e which on oxidation produces sulphuric acid. Sulphuric acid depresses pH
Owater to
acidic level and enhances its ability to dissolve metals. Mining of
Tadioactive minerals like uranium and thorium can release radioactive material to
Surtace and ground water. In addition, most metal mines have tailing pond which
follom
cate large area of fine grained materials containing metals that are subject to
i n g . Nitrates are also available for leaching from mines. A commonly used
OSve in mines is mixture of ammonium nitrate which also contaminates
ground water.
102 | Fundamentals ofHydrogeolog
6.11.1.4 Chemical Spillage

Organic and inorganic chemicals may leak or spill during handling
to shallow aquifer. Petroleum products may leak from storage and
leakagemtaminate
ground water. Many transfer facilities are underground and
and leaka
undetected. Some petroleum products like oil are lighter than water will ma
water:_whereas heavier fraction will sink to the bottom. Some fraeat on
(Benzene)will dissolve in water. Natural flushing from recharge may restoe
quality of ground water. the
6.11.1.5 Agriculture
The application of fertilisers and pesticides on agricultural land to facilitat
growth of crops is a(non-point source)of contamination. The large agricultu
area covered by application of fertilisers and pesticides are available for leachin
Nitrogen in the form of nitrate is the most significant contaminant from
6.13
agriculture. The
6.11.1.6 Sea Water intrusion
Ground water may be contaminated by intrusion of sea water in coastal areas
Due to unplanned heavy development (extraction) of ground water, the fresh
water/sea water interface may move inland side and contaminate the aquifer.To
control intrusion, extraction of ground water should be controlled such that the i.
hydraulic gradient is always on the sea side. This is done by monitoring of water
level in wells in coastal areas. 11.
6.11.1.7 Miscellaneous
There are many other sourcesof contamination of ground water. Some of these
dust and ash rejected
are from the Thermal Power Stations which contaminate 6.14
both surface and ground water.
vehicles and rail carrying
The spills resulting from accidents of transport Suo
contaminate ground water.
petroleum products can aqu
foll
6.12 Restoration of Ground Water Quality 1.
contamination have already been mentioned in
Some of the measures to control measures can be
the above para. However in general two categories of remedial ii.
identified.
i. Source control measures
ii.
a major
toxic chemical is present in the landfill which is considered
(a) If a be excavated o removetne iv.
contamination, thel landfill may
source of
contaminant.
If thelandfill is above 6.1
(6) The waste may be
isolated by providing a lining.serious than it is below
the problem is
less
landfill with
Inc
all
water table) in
seasons, ot the
of the year. Lining i.
water table at least during part
essential.
impermeable material is
e of
courseof su
surface runofi may be diverted, if required, so that
The
from areas does not cross the landfíll site where
upland a r runoff
ce surface waste is dumped.
amine
may
This will
leachate.
reduce surf water that infiltrate the
A impermeable cover will further reduce water
waste and produce
reaching the
waste.
ion V ( d )
ination from sea water intrusion is avoided by planned withdrawal
C o n t a m i n a t
store () of g TOund
round water so that the seaward
hydraulic gradient remains
undisturbed.
ii. Plume Treatment.
The contaminated ground water may be restored by extracting it and then
culSatcuilite
fving in RO system or it may be left as it is for natural flushing during
purif
nteachiîronn
recharge
of Contaminants
6.13 Properties in water.
may bethree typesof
contaminants
There
:Soluble contaminants that dissolve in ground water. Most inorganic and
al area Some organic chemical constituents fall in this category. They dissolve in
he fre oround water and form elongated plumes of contamination that arise at a
water flow paths.
ufer. source and stretch out in the direction of ground
Doint
that those lighter than water. Many_petroleum
nar i . Insoluble contaminants ]
are
f wate and its derivatives fall inthis category.

products, especially the gasoline chlorinated
ii. Insoluble
contaminants Many
those are heavier than water.
solvents, most pesticides, and many other types of liquid organic
contaminants fall in this category.
f thes
aminat: 6.14 Solute Transport
Solute transport_refers to the (movement jof dissolved salts or inorganiç
arryng which these substances move in
substances in water, The processes through solutes are the
aquifer are complex. The basic processes operating transport
to
following: in water move from

onedn
1.Diffusionjis the process by which the (dissolved solutes
area of lower concentration
area of higher concentration to
l1. JAdvection is the process by which moving ground water carries with it
can
dissolvedsolute. which the solute

concentration isfdiluted) in
SpersSIon lis the process by
maya
ground water.
A
e th n d finally retardation ofthe solute movement takes place.
a b o w
.15 Incrustation and Corrosion

be
belo
rustation may be formed by the following: ofcalcium
l Iwid
i. of bicarbonatesremoved
Incrustatio may be formed due to
incrustations
precipitation
are soft and can be easily
by
e s i u m . These
are formed due to sulphate and
acids. However, hard incrustations
.
calcium and magnesium which are insoluble in acid and cannot be remo silicates of F r o
ii. Presence of Iron more than 2 mg/l or manganese more than I me/l mad
cause woridf
incrustation due to oxidation.
Corrosion may take place due to following:
less than 7 i.e. acidic water is corrosive.
.Water
i. of pH
Concentration of chloride in water in excess of S00 mg/l is corrosive,
Sanple
ii. Water of conductivity more than 1500 micro mhos/cm ie TDS of water m
more a r e ao r
than 900 mg/l may cause corrosion of iron and steel. deviate
Lhe
et
6.16 Environmental Isotopes

Environmental isotopes or naturally occurring isotopes and may be of two types
ThL
and
(a) Stable isotopes and pOsSIbI
(b) Radio isotopes.
Among the stable isotopes is hydrogen "H (deuterium) and "H and oxygen
) Rac
a n d oo ef the water molcule and carbon isotope "C. The radioactiye Among
isotopes ard HXtritiunm) and"cThese isotopes occur in the atmosphere and the
hydrosphere în varying concentration.
product
(a) Stable Isotopes withn i

The most commonly used stable isotopes are of oxygen and hydrogen. The stabje e x p l o s i
isotope technique involves measurement of isotopic ratios of less abundant to

fom(1
more abundant isotopes such as H/'H and o/O in a water sample. The
measurement is done using an isotope ratio mass spectrometer. Stable isotope in and T
TU. Th-
hydrology is conventionally reported in parts per thousand and deviation from
Concent
standard is denoted by the sign "S°.
(0/00)=[ (Rsample- Rstandara)/Rstangard x 1000 hemisp
Where R-H'H or o/O or "cc tritium
Thus we can have "O (0/00)= Tri
less tha
oO)agple-("O/"°O)jtandard}/ (""O/°O)standard] x 1000
Similarly for H (0/0o)-H{(H/'H)\ample(°H/°H)standara}/(°H/H)tandard] x 1000 Signific-
Rstandard for hydrogen and oxygen are the Vienna Standard mean Ocean water atmosp.
(VSMOW). The standard isotopic ratio for H/'H is 155.7 + 0.05 x 10 and for unconfi
oO is 2005.20+0.45 x 10 Study c
The isotopic ratios are used in
ground water studies. The variation in isotopic from nu
ratios of atmospheric precipitation results from processes like evaporation and (i)
condensation. During evaporation, the Me-
volatile than the heavier molecule light molecules of water H°0 is more
H2 °O. Therefore the vapour from an routine
depleted in "O and °H. As such ocean oror resi
resi
vapour will be more and
successive precipitation
from the same imit Techar
more
depleted in"O and H.The recharg
depends upon temperature, (latitude) and condensation
or
vapour mass Wate
water sa
temperature the heavy isotopes tend to deplete than at (altitude) At lower ture
Similarly the higher latitude higher tempera
precipitation is depleted in heavier isotope tnau the
H'Hz, 8o 4160, 3C
s t a
Je l l e
rotopeA
Utope) >*H4 14C Ground Water Chemistry 105
kaevogentrt
precipitation content of decreases

orecipitation and heavy 1sotope
licates
l o w e rl a t i t u d
asing altiuent o off 88 "0 and 8 H of water samples from all over the
w i t h i n c r e a s i n g a l t i t u d e .
moved
ay caus the
measurement
relationship has been found.

following
H = 8 8 " 0 + 10.
worla
otted
(0/00) is plotted
on
o
X axis and 8 "H (0/0o) on Y axis, it will be a
n
If
1f 8
o
hich is known asMeteoric Water Line. Continental precipitation
straight Iine
fall close to this line. As precipitation in lower temperature
sample will tend
ter mor latitude are depleted in"O and 8 *H, they will
pitation
at
higher
a r e a o rp r e c i p i
the
meteoric line. Oceanic water and palaeo water will fall below
deviate from
the meteoric line.

isotope technique is used for assigning origin
of ground water
Thus stable stable and
types finding interrelation berween surtace water and ground water
and for
i n t e r c o n n e c t i o n
between different aquifers.
ossible
oxygen b ) Radio
Isotope,
oactive the radio isotopes(tritiumHJand carbon "Chave found wide application
Among
and the w a t r studies.
Weshall first discuss tritium.
inground Natural
t Tritium) originates from both natural Jand (artificial) processes.
production of tritium results from interaction of cosmic ray producedneutrons
"The artificial source of tritium is from
with nitrogen in the upper atmosphere. and releases from nuclear reactors
stable explosion or testing of thermo nuclear devices
dant to of tritium is measured in Tritium Unit (TU
Tfrom(1952)onwards. Concentration
e. The TU =3.193 x 10 Curie)The natural content of tritium is about 2 to 5
ope in The testing of nuclear devices have injected periodic pulses of tritium and its
from concentration in precipitation have increased by three fold in the northern
hemisphere. International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) publishes data on
tritiumcontent of samples collected from all over the world.
(Tritium'His used qualitatjvely to date ground water The ground water with
lessthan 5 TU is supposed to be of prior to(1952. Mf the concentration is
significantly higher say 15 TU jit indicates that the water is in contact with
D00 atmosphere since 1952. Thus a quantitative study of tritium data in shallow
water
unconfined aquifers may help determination of residence time and recharge rate.
nd fo
d y of tritium may also be used to trace seepage of contaminated ground water
from nuclear waste disposal area.
topt
and Li) " C or Radio Carbon
Mcasurement of C in dissolved CO in ground water has been used
more
ans rney since 1970's to estimate age of ground water. The age of ground water
Techence time implies the length of time elapsed between entry of the
itia
ofa wate ater into the ground water flow system and the time when the ground
water
we sample is collected.
ture
the
Milke 7 thwmonuelaar
Device.
The radioactive isotope of carbon "Cis

produced continuousl
atmosphere with
interaction of neutron of cos rays with
reaction may be described follows:-
as nitrogen. The
LN+n-2"C+p)
The C atoms oxidize to form "CO; molecules, which becOma

inactive atmospheric CO%. Consequently "CO; mixes with Dote mixed with
al grOud
ground
water recharge water under atmospheric conditions,
and the radio
tbon iis
into vegetation by photo synthesis. In unsaturated soil Don
incorporated
gaseousCO; is released by root respiration and microbial oxidation of nones,
e
of
matter, where it builds up to super atmospheric concentration and dissolves organiç ana
infiltrating soil water. Once the water enters the zone of saturation, it beco into
isolated from the atmosphere and dissolved CO Will diminish unidirectional
due to radioactive decay at the rate of one halr of the radio carbon every s
years (the half life of "C being 5568 years). This means that a sample would l
lose
s0% of its concentration of the isotope each time a period of 5568 years passe
dra
is done as follows:
age calculation
The radio carbon
t-8035 In (8"Chnao "Cinitial) 1.
Where t is radio carbon age of the sample
8035 is the decay constant of radio carbon= half life of "C/ln2 = 8035
In is natural logarithm
sCima is the measured net radio carbon content of the sample
Cinitial 1
the net radio carbon content
of the modern standard
The above formula gives apparent age of ground water. When corected fr
carbon dilution with "C value, it is called the best estimate age. However there
are uncertainties present in calculating the percentage of carbonate species that
originated from living plants in the aquifer outcrop and the atmosphere as
opposed to that added by ancient carbonaceous deposits in the aquifer matrix.
CHAPTER7
Ground Water Exploration
cat
7.1 GroundWater Exploration
7emand for ground
lemand for ground water is
and Austrial
uses. It is
necessary
increasing day
to locate by day for domestic,
greatedepths for the above uses. sources of
ground irrigational
Cc portant assignments of Exploration for ground water water even at
ry enloration is to obtain the Hydrogeologist. The is one of the
available data in the formfirst step in ground water
maDs of the area and to obtain or of
hydrogeological
Arainage
TS pe basin from get prepared a map of the proposed reports
toposheet
issued in India by Central Ground on 1:50O00 scale. The area or
Issue
exploration are the following: water Board. The hydrogeologicalreports are
important steps in
1The hydrogeological report may provide
35 ground water, quality ground water,
of information on occurrence of
of ground water at the time of potentiality and state of development
study. The report may contain
map of the area, water table
map location of monitoring hydrogeological
recommendations for future exploration programme wells and may have
report is not available, hydrogeological and appraisal needs. If
ected appraisal of the area or
ver
basin is required to be undertaken to know drainage
the above mentioned details.
many cases reappraisal may be needed in
a In
Cies view of changes in extraction
scenario of ground water and its impact on
previous study may not be adequate andground
water regime. The scale of
phere more detailed
atrix required. Pumping test on existing wells may be carried out study might be
to know the
aquifer parameters.
(Toposheets or ftopographic maps of the area are very useful as it shows.
location of river, streams, habitats, rail and road and topographic features of
earth's surface etc. Geological map of the area is also useful as it
provides
information about the nature of the rock and geological structure like(fold,
Taultslineamentsetc. in the area. The nature of rock (such as sedimentary -
unconsolidated or semi-consolidated, hard rock igneous and metamorphic,
-
volcanic etc.) throws light on type of aquifer with primary or secondary

porosity which may exist in unconfined or confined condition or both in the
arca. Lastly the information collected from aerial photographs and satellite
imagery is taken.
2The aerial photographs and satellite imagery data may be studied for the
following
a Mappingof drainage and drainage network analysis.
108 Fundamentals of Hydrogeology Design
b. Mapping of landform.land use
and vegetation. Astal
JIn coastal
areas ba Aquitë
their land form, inland fluvial zone, coastal
intermediate and coasta
basea
zones mayupon
after
ce
demarcated. trace/ linea be Comp

mapping and fracture
c. (Geological and structural man
delineation ofoutcrop versus weathered
pediments in hara 77Expla
and
features \ike(alluvial fans Tiver te area.
d. Mapping of morphological
fills. abandoned channelsJand (natural levees Jetc. In lim
features,
acesvalle
mestone terrain Ka hithoogy
Karst
As
features may be mapped

with their morphological
potentia/
discharge areas.
e. (Demarcation of recharge and geophysicalsurveys Jike resistivity s
Ground
I n d i ae x
3. Studyof the results ofsurface vey and

seismic refraction survey which
will ation on thickn
provide informati alluvial
lineaments and buried channels in hard of
weathered mantle, fracture trace/ not be required
r O C Ka r a
area In alluvial terrainappraisal geophysical survey may

surface mentioned
4. The hydrogeological above may consiIst of collectino
8the
Z21D
hallur
a. following
Fixing of data:
(monitoring wells/all over the area of survey and recordin iing
dralling
geological formation in which the well is constructed and type of aquifer
t
b.
tapes.
Repeated water level measurements in monitoring wells for recordin
g
fluctuation of water level during a year.
C. Measurement of reduced level of each well for determining height of wates
e
table from water level measurement.
d. Collection of water sample for chemical analysis and noting temperature of
water.
e.
Collection of information on aquifers, shallow and deep, unconfined an
confined from existing ground water structures and also from mapping, In
hard rock area, information of depth of dug wells may reflect on thickness of
weathered mantle.
f. Conducting pumping test on existing wells to derive hydrological parameters
of aquifers
g. Collection of meteorological data.
h. Estimation of recharge in the area.
dri
i. Estimation of draft of ground water. (Ke
J. Estimation of available resource for future development.
k. Demarcation of recharge and discharge area, if possible.
rO
5. Exploratory drilling to know sub surface lithology up to target depth which
includes description of detailed lithology along with depth and thickness o
aquifers. The yield potential of aquifers may be ascertained through
Preliminary Yield Test (PYT) and water samples from various aquifers may
be oblained through packertest for chemical analysis to ascertain quality or
water.
6. Geophysical logging of exploratory boreholes is done for precise delineation
of lithology and for estimation of quality of formation water.
s baset Ground Water Exploration 109
Desig
fwell assembly and completion of well.
7. Dfer parameters like
ifer parameters like T andS are determined by conducting pumping test
ents na 3. completion
of well,
ock are after
mpilation of data and preparation of report.
TRCe7.2
s 9.
eran 7.
Exploratory Drilling
As
thology
AS
mentioned above exploratory drilling is done to know the detailed
mentioned
formation
o in the subsurface up to target depth and to ascertain yieu
y survey fial and quality oI warer in various aquifers through subsequent tests. In
otential and
Thick India exploratory drilling is carried out by Central Ground Water Board and State
thicknes
inha
in bardn Ground Water Departments. At present the depth of exploratory boreholes in
500 m or up to the bedrock whichever is reached earlier. In hard
r e a is 600
quired ial aarea
alluvial
area the deptho drilling
is about 200 m.
ollecing rock
7.2.1 Drilling by Direct Rotary Drills

The
recon alluvial area the exploratory drilling is done by direct rotary drills (rigs).
of aquisdrilling rig consists of a truck mounted mast, machine operated rotary table,
Direction of flow of mud through hose flexible hose
r recom
Rotary table
(Mud pump
ght of wa (Kelly mud with rock cutting
nperatue Settling tank

Cased borehole
Mudpit
Joint
nfined a Mud flow

Naked borehole
- Dnilling rod
mappng through rod
Return mud fiow
hickness
-Driling bit
paramea Fig.7.1: Direct rotary drilling (sketch)
pipe is connected to the

drilling rods,drilling bitjand(mud pump) Aflexible hose
end of hose goes to mud pit
other
ellythrough a swivel at its one_end and the bits are used for drilling. Drilling
rock roller (RR)
Ougn mud pump. Generally of a drill collar which in turn is connected to drnil
Dt attached to the lower end
iS
to the Kelly. Kelly)is rotated by the rotary table and along with it the
rod and As depth increases moreaunng
pth w and bit rotatescutting the formation.
p Ung rod a pit IS Circulared oy mu
are attached. Mud prepared from Bentonite in returns through
Icknes
ICK s rods to bottom of hole and
d throe
PL through the Kelly,
drill up
three functions
tuncuons (i) it
borehole wall.Mughas three
lar space between the rods and formation cuttings with
uifèes
uifen bit (ii) it brings the
des cooling effectto the drilling
qualiy
qa open borehole bytormilng nu

and (ii) provides(stability to the circulating mud are
cake uTace
on the wall of the borehole.
Drill cuttings brought by
elinea
110 |
a basin
and mud flows through channe to
allowed to settle in settling mud pit from
out from settlin
are taken out
cuttings
where it is
re-circulated. The
with increasing depth for for litholooi
lithological logging, basin, washed plottea
Formation sequentially
samples are collected at regular interval (3 m) and at ange8ingof
and preserved interval (3 m) and
logging and
other tests (packer test, PYT)
(packer PYT):are
conducted c Geop
formation. Geophysical
in open borehole. of mud in Girea
above, the direction of circulation
y
ithol
As mentioned to dril
drilling is from mud pit via hose pipe, Kelly, hollow drill rods bit Kesis
circulaion ana returns through the annut

through holes in the bit in downward
fom
rods to Surfacealong with format fo

space between the borehole and driling mation majo
cuttings figure 7.1.

WIth
with
7.2.2 Drilling by Reverse Rotary Drills

reverse rotary drills are used
for drillinglargediameter (e.g 60 cmLO p r o v
Generally area. This method of drillin

more) boreholes up to a(limited depth)in explored of formation are obtaine 7.4
has the advantage that representative samples
driling the Dril
Dril
satisfactorily compared to direct rotary driling. In reverse rotary
the und
drilling fluid (water in this casec) éntersthrough annular space between
und
borehole wall and drilling rods, goes down to the bottom of the borehole and PpEpipe
returns through the rods to the surface figure 7.2. A suction pump is attached to hol
holl
acc
the swivel on top of Kelly.
Direction of flow of mud through suction pipe CO
Rotary table
Suction pump
Kelly mud from pit
Rock
Cutting
Cased borehole settling tank
JOnt
m u d fiow
Mud flow -Naked borehole
through rod
Drilling rod
witn cuttings
-Drilling bit
Fig.7.2: Reverse rotàry drilling (sketch)

7.3 Preparation of Lithological Log
From the collected formation sample, a Hydrogeologist
prepares detailed litholog
by identifying the litho units, its colour, grain size,
cementing material, if any,
identifiable minerals etc. This is called descriptive litholog. In addition, the rate
of drilling is also recorded which is called drill time
log. Any
information such as(water loss)in borehole 18 also recorded. The other specific
lithological log
prepared from drill cuttings is seldom truly representauve ot the formation
mixing of the cuttings, time lag in arrival of the cuttings at surface andn due to
human error. The lithological log so prepared is certain
corrected and adjusted for the
depth and thickness of formations interpreted from geopnysical
log. A visual log
Ground Water Exploration | 111
in, wa m a yb e p r o
o1:500 scales) on graph paper using standard
ared
nay be nenetration rate and information of
units. Th water loss, if
symbols for litho
any may also be
by side,
changs plotted
side
condun 7.3.1Geophysical logging

Geophysical logging is dealt with in detail in chapter 10. As mentioned earlier,
rect o ical logging of exploratory boreholes is done forprecise delineation of

geop and for estimation of quality of formation water.
heArilanml
ing (ithology and
Generally of
ity and Natural Gamma logs are recorded in boreholes. QualitySP)
Resist
Omaormation
formation water
water in terms of total dissolved solid (TDS) is estimated for each
formatn .onior
ajoraquifer
aquifer from geophysical logs. If quality of formation water does not vary
with depth the case is simple. But in coastal areas the quality of water
water may
may vary
vary
from drill
y or
60 with
w depth. Litho log prepared cutting is corrected with the help of data
of geophysical logs.
from interpretation
ofAdrlli provided
of
obtain
lline 7.4(Drill Stem
Test
rillingg
Drill
Stem Test (DST) is performed in open hole to obtain water from aquifer
weennunder test for chemical analysis) For this purpose a packer made from alhollov?
ehole a diameter more than the diameter of the borehole is used. Both ends of the
uole apipe of
and threaded to fit drill rod. The borehole is reamed to
attached hollow pipe are tapered
The borehole is reamed up to the middle of
the
accommodate the packer.
which is to be tested.
confining layer (clay layer) above the aquifer
Reamed borehole
Packer
www
Clay
Confined aquifer
slotted pipe
against aquifer
borehole
Mechanical packer in
Fig.7.3: lowered in the
is fixed and is
d lithole
At casing of the
of the packer a(screened than the normal diameter
al,,if
ifa borehol diameter under
borehole. he packer having larger This isolates the aquifer
), the borehole rests on the confining layer
figure 7.3. casing should
The screened
T S p e c
test ro Es above the

confining layer.
pipe is
lowered
he aquifers inch diameter

Ogicale mee to be tested.
A one a n d ( c o m p r e s s e d a i r is
sent.
against the
tne aquifer
aqu casing water is
Jondue
jon through tthe rods
through to the depth
of screened
from the aquifer.
The
be
up thrownup by water has to
ndc e
Initially mud will

W be out
followed
Likewise
water sample
e df o r
Visual collected and sent for
Collected chemical analysis.
aquifers also, if change
in water quality is preis
ted from
obtained from other
geophysical log.
Borehole
Aquifer
Packer
Packer
Inflatable packers in borehole

Fig.7.4:
30m
In packers are available, the borehole need not be reamed. The
inflatable
case for
that the screened
packer casing is lowered in the borehole such
and screened bott
the confining layer. The
casing falls against the aquifer and the packer against
clos
7.4. This isolates the aquifer
packer is inflated and fixed on confining layer figure
obtained in a similar way as in
will
under test from aquifers above. Water sample is

wal
case of mechanical packer discussed above. wel
7.5 Design of Well Assembly wat

water and depth and
After confirmation of Chemical quality of formation
1S
thickness of aquifers and particle size and sorting of aquifer material, design ofaq
aqu
lowered in the reanmed bra
the well assembly has to be prepared which will be
borehole. Hydrogeologist has to decide the aquifers to be screened and slot size|
slot size (1/l0
of screen. Design has to be such that slotted pipes of appropriate
come against tne
inches for fine sand and 3/16 inches for coarse sand and gravel)
formations figure 7.5.
aquifers to be tapped and blank pipe against all other
Surface
Housing
30m Clay
Reamed borehole
50m Gravel packing
Slotted pipe
70m
Blank pipe
90m -Slotted pipe II
100m
Bail plug
Total depth 105m
Fig.7.5: Well assembly
slotted pipes are welded to make the well assembly. The top
The blank and called housing
the assembly is of larger diameter (12 or 14 inches)
30m or so of
med. T the rest may be of 8 inches diameter. At the
for accommodating pump assembly;
Screene bottom of the assembly a 3m blank pipe called bail plug with conical with shape and
>recne water
yer. closed bottom end is fixed as in figure 7.5. The sand particle coming
annular space between the assembly and borehole
aquilewill settle in the bail plug. The
well is called gravel packed
ay asas wall is filled up with pea size gravel. This type of
ay alluvial area.
well and is generally constructed in
contain brackish water. The fresh
In coastal areas, the upper aquifer may
water containing lower aquifer may
have to be isolated from brackish water. This
horizon above the fresh water
pth is done by providing cement seal against clay
cement seal may be given against
the entire
esignd aquifer as shown in figure 7.6. The
horizon.
ream brackish water bearing aquifer and the clay
reame
slotsi
e (1 Surface
INst t
Housing Reamed borehole
Clay
-Brackish water aquifer
Cement seal Clay

8 88 Fresh water aquier
200N
Slotted pipe
Bail plug
Gravel packing
with cement seal
Fig.7.6: Well assembly
114| Fundamentals ofHydrogeology
7.5.1 Filter Pack Tiize

filters are commercially availahla since
Filter packs or gravel packed for lowerin
boreholes drilled for
construction of water wells. Over a slotted
pipe of SIarted
is fixed with adhesive. These fileeo slott size
1/16 inches well sorted gravel are availabe
be coupled to
increase lengih. Ihe
well assembi
blytapped and is
in 3m size and can
in such a way that filters

come against the aquifers tobe
be tapped
etc. Fil
like clay and sandy clay etc, Filter
designedpipe
blank D
other formations
come against
particularly suited to very fine to
fine sand as encountered in deltaic packs ate ollon
B
(7.6 WellDevelopment)
After lowering of the well assembly and gravel packing, the well hashas to be
developed for production ofwater.yThe well is developed with compressor
of 70
to 1000 KN/m* capacity. The process involves repeated surging and pumnin
pingtill
the well yields clear and sand free water.
L77Well Field
Once the pumping well is ready, minimum of one or more observation wellas a
different distance from pumping well is constructed 1or conducting pumping tes
The observation wells tap the same aquifer as the pumping well but the diamete
of the observation well may be smaller compared to pumping well. The pumping
well and observation well/wells are collectively called(well field.) 3.
(7.8 Conducting Pumping Test

For conducting pumping test a pump is lowered in the pumping well to run it for
long duration (say 10000 minute) at a constant discharge Discharge q may be

measured by fitting an orifice at the outlet end of the discharge pipe and a
manometer in the discharge pipe. During pumping height of water in the
manometer should remain constant which implies that the discharge q is constant
If diameters of (disçcharge pipe and of(orificejare known, discharge q may be

start of
calculated from height of water in manometer (see appendix V). Before
and observation
pumping test the non-pumping water level in both the pumping
wells are recorded. The distance of the observation wells (ri and r,) are also
in
recorded. The pumping well is pumped at constant discharge and water levels
observation wells are recorded as shown in table below. Water level is measured
ot
With a steel tape over which the graduations are embossed. In the lower part
15
the tape, where water level is expected, chalk is applied on the tape. The tape
the
lowered in the well and held at the edge of casing pipe. Water level will mark
It 1s
chalk on the tape and can be read accurately up to 3 place of decimal.
commonly called hold and cut method. 13 for wetted tape and airline
(see chapter
method.)
Ground Water Exploration 115
Observation well 1 Observation well 2 Remarks

Time
Non- water Draw Non- water Draw
Since
Pumping level down Pumping level down

e ava pump
started
water during (ho-h) water during (ho
level ho pumping level ho pumping h')
in
h
minute
padk Depending upon the case, the pumping test data may be evaluated by the
POns followingmethods
BTheim's Method {see chapter 5). If steady state is reached during pumping
However steady state
thismethod may be used to evaluate Transmissivity T.
has is difficult to be achieved in confined state or
aquifers. Near steady
s oT eauilibrium condition may be observed after long duration of pumping.
Storativity (S) cannot be estimated by this method.T is given by

In(.Where hj and h; are observed drawdown after steady
T 2r(h-h,
2 (h2-h)
from the
state is reached
in observation wells situated at (fand(r. Histance
on wel pumping well.
Non-Equilibrium Method}(see chapter 5).This is the standard
pine 2. By (Theis T and Storativity S of confined aquifer
method for evaluating Transmissivity of field
ne diam state flow conditions. In case of difficulty in matching
in unsteady
e pump.
curve with type curve, Jacob's Straight line method may be applied.
Line Method (see chapter 5). The method 'widely used)
is
3. By Jacob's Straight the
of its simplicity in analysis of the data. Limitation is imposed by
because
to the infinite series ot 1Theis
assumptions for deriving(approximate solution used for
the method should be
run i Accord1ngly assumptions to be valid,
equation. distance of observation well.
long duration pumping
may test and for short is stopped
Recovery Method) During pumping test after the pump
D1pe 4 . Theis also recorded in
observation wells as well as
ter in recovery recuperation data is
or available. In such
observation well is not
in pumping well. In many
ISCons cases,
(Transmissivity.)
of recovery data is solution for obtaining
may cases analysis from this method (see chapter 5 for analysis).
r estar
Storativitykannot be obtained for long duration pumping
and
Like Jacob's method, this
method is applicable
bservat
well. The format for
pumping
observation well from
2/areA small distance of
table:
data may be as given in Remarks
r leve
Tecording recovery Observation well
measu Time Time Ratio Pumping well Water Residual is time oft
Since Since of time Non- Water Residual Non drawdown
pumping ot
werpar drawdownpumping level well with
pump pumping | level
pump Water during constant
The. stopped started ater during level recovery
level recovery discharge q
anda
olalermineal.
Thiem Catbe
S
ee
TheinReenrey-
7.9 Well Loss

Well losses areTosses in headwhich occur in thetmmediate
andare caused by flow through the well SCreen and by flowinside vicinity
insidet0Ë awet ater
flow, itit iis the well to t
pump intake. As well loss is associated with turbulent flow, well
an nth power discharge where n >
ofthe I and 2. proportionall to
Drawdown = Bq + Cq
Drawdown/q = B +Cq
obser
Where Bis coefficient of formation loss
T h e
Cis coefficient of well loss

SthO
q is discharge
If Drawdown/q is plotted against q, the plot will be a straight line as in fin
7.7. The slope of the line will give the well loss coefficient C and ngure
axis will give the coefficient of formation loss B.
intercept on Y
y Cavi
aqui
more
>well omle not
Over
(DD/q)
r e s t
casir
ww.6on deve
30 c
with
Fig.7.7: Drawdown/discharge versus discharge plot
sphe
Well losses can be minimised by (1) constructing (large diameter) well
(2) proper maintenance of the well and (3) pumping the well at low rate as
obvious from equation.
7.9.1 Demonstration of Well loss
If well loss occurs in
the immediate vicinity of the pumping well, Jthe
resulting
picture will be that of a smallkandsteep cone of depression)superimposed on the
main cone during pumping figure 7.8.
Surface
Non pumping water level----

Formation loss Bq
steep cone due
Welloss Cq" I:: to well loss
Confined aquifer
Impermeable boundary aug

Fig.7.8: Demonstration of well loss wit
Spec 6c Dwdo0&M
Dumping stops, the small cone will fill up rapidly and subsequently the
pumping
W
ill fill up. It can be observed that in first few minutes (1 to 5 minute)
main cone will
n u m p i n g is stopped, there is rapid recovery after which the recovery pattern
rtioa
a f t e rp u m p i n g
nulates the
the inverse of drawdown. The steep cone of depression which
recuperates
rapidly demonstrateswe loss.
n u m b e r ofobservation
c wells at different distances is available, drawdown
If
ed in
observed in obse
observation wells can be plotted against distance from pumping well.
curve
when extrapolated up to the well diameter of the pumping well will
The
less drawdown
than actually observed in the pumping well.
show
n fi
ept7.10 CavityWells
tube wells which are without strainer and draw water from one
wells are
Cavity 3m
depth
auifer, Areas with extensive thick aquifer at shallow wells. by overlain or
aqu
suited for making cavity A cavity well does
more of hard clay are ideally a hard clayey layer to form a dependable roof
not go very deep ana requires very and casing pipe is lowered to
the cavity. drilled
A hole is usinghand boring
over drilled through the
the hard clay. A hole of smaller diameter is
rest firmly on When the well is
into the thick and extensive aquifer (figure7.9).
casing forms in the sand. The cavity is usually
developed at a high rate, cavity in radius. Initially fine sands
come
at the centre and about 6 to 8 m
30 cm deep water into the cavity is
into formation of cavity. The flow of
with water resulting
spherical and yield is low.
Surface
ter) w Non pumping
water level Soil
rate
casing Stiff clay
esulti
d on t
Extensive aquifer
Impervious boundary
extensive aquifer
well in thick and
Fig.7.9: A cavity
underlain by
711Driven Well where clay layer
at the surface
is
(see figure
Wells aresuited for a r e a s boulder and cobbles with
aqi and gravel and(fre of drilling a hole
nsisting of sand layer by
bottom of the clay
coupled
bottom and
7.10). A
7.10). A casing
Tng is driven up to the
drive point at the
the casing.
auger. The well assembly consisting of a the top is lowered through
auger.
with screei Or Slotted
at
pipe, blank pipe
Drive weight
Drive cap
facn
Clay also
Casing-
Pipe W e l
nan
Aquifer
screen dian
Drive point loos
S a n
Impermeable boundary S i n
Fig.7.10: Driven well r o c
ins
A drive cap and driveweight is attached to the
top end of
pipe for pushi.
the assembly into the sand layer. Once the assembly 1s placed
screen in sand and
properly i,e, Ge
gravel layer, the drive cap and weight may removed, T
be
well is developed to
produce sand free water. Depth of well varies from 10 Sp
15m only. 0.
7.12 Exploration in Hard Rock Area

Ground water in hard rocks occur in T
(weathered mantle\and(in fractures fault A
joints etc. developed in the rock. The fractures, faults are not uniformly
distributed in rock both laterally and is
and satellite imageries become
along depth. Study of aerial photographs de-
de
very useful in hard rock terrain. The fracture and
faults appearing as lineaments on photographs and Sp
map. Fracture traces are surface
imageries are marked on the
manifestation of fractures, faults, zone of joint
concentration etc. and fracture traces longer than 1.5 km are called lineaments. It
is confirmed by field
mapping and finally by geophysical surveys. After pE1S
confirmation of the fracture traces or
undertaken. The thickness of lineaments, exploratory drilling is
(weathered mantle} can also be assessed by
geophysical surveys.
7.12.1 Exploratory
Drilling in Hard Rock Terrain
The boreholes in hard rock terrain are drilled
Down the Hole Hammer (DTH) drills It by(Rotary cum Hammer Drillor
and is provided combines percussion and rotary action
withTungsten
collar and drilling rods. Carbide (TC) bit) The bit is connected to the dril
Compressed air from high capacity compressor
passed through drill rods to the bottom of the holea and s
space between borehole and
drilling rods. The
comes out through annular
the bit and brings the compressed helps in coolng
cutting with it. The machine
air
is also provided with a
pump. Drilling is very fast in hard rock. A
100m or 200m borehole is
fiusi
in few hours. However its
efficiency decreases completeu
in muddy formation. The irill
cuttings are preserved sequentially with depth by the an
drilling crew and litholog
ed by aa hydrogeologist. Weathered mantle, massive rock, rock type and

ed by hy
fractures will be describeg in litholog. Discharge of water during drilling may
prepates will
prep
fracu
also bemeasuredwith aVnotch fixed on the flow path of water.
712.2 Well Completion
mpletion in hard rock is simple. The borehole is reamed up to weathered

welufr
mantle for
lowering of MS or PVC casing. The casing will rest on the reduced
eter of
diameter of the
the hole initially. Later the casing will get jammed due to caving of
rock. The lower portion
of the borehole below casing is left open as it can
loose
due to hard nature of rock. Development of the borewell is done
stand
imultaneously with
simultaneously with drilling with repeated surging and pumping, A well in hard
called a borewell. Now the borewell is ready for
ro is conventionally
installation of pump.
ly
or pushi 7.12.3 Specific Yield
ly ie. Generally in crystalline rocks specific yield is reported from pumping test. The
oved. T Soecific yield of granite gneiss varies from 0.01 to 0.04 and that of basalt fromn
rom 10 0.02 to 0.025.
7.13 Specific Capacity

The specific capacity of a well is the discharge per unit drawdown and is
ares fa expressed as litre per minute/metre (lpm/m) or cubic metre per hour/metre. This
unifom is a measure of the effectiveness of the well. The\specific capacityJof a well
otograpl decreases with increase in pumping rate. Prolong pumping will also decrease
acture a specific capacity.
Specific capacity = q/drawdown
ed on t
A (high)specifie capacity indicates_a (good) yielding well located in a
ne of ja
aments permeable formation and higher the specific capacity the more efficient the well
ys..At
1S in
yielding water supply from subsurface.
Irilling7.13.1 Step Drawdown Test SDT
essed Step drawdown test is conducted in a well prior to conducting pumping test to
ecide the optimum rate of pumping of the well. The well is pumped at(several)
narges in turn and drawdown is measured each time after saylone hour The
r Dnl c capacity is calculated for each discharge separately. The pumping rate
c h specific
ya
r ya c n o
capacity is highest is selected for conducting pumping test.
O t h ea
14 Preparation of
r e s s o r
h a n n u
Reportis a document which contains all the data collected
A hydrogeological report
during investigation an analyses of the data. It may contain many of the
ooling
tha t
information ment
ar mentioned in para 7.1. A map of the area under investigation
has to
om
Omple
be needed
be epared. This may be traced from toposheets. Several copies ofthis map may
Thed needed preparation
for pre of the report. The area of investigation should be
The
t h o l e
properly demarcat
properly de
cated and its boundaries in terms of physical features
as n
as well
P h c Copacity
War
boundary,no flo low boundary etc.,

flux
terms of constant head boundary, constant dre
should be defined which will be useful for modelling of the area. Tundaryv.
area
The
contain the following chapters report may and
1. Introductory chapter may contain subjects, problems and issues issues addre
essed
i i
Cor
the report and purpose and scope of The objectivedi

the report. The objectives in
Of
hydrogeologicalwork should be clearly stated. This section mav ala the also
owledgement. contan
background information, previous investigation and acknowledgemennin
wat
2. Geology of the area may be described briefly as the rocks formi orming aquifer Cal
important and a geological map of the area of investigation may be Drene

if necessary. This is generally available from GSI reports. prepared i
S C O
Ths
3. Hydrogeology of the area such as description of the aquifers,
unconfn.
semi-confined and confined, in the area and its depth, thickness and a fined, Wa
extent may be
described. Conducting pumping test on existing wellsserial
obtaining(TJand(S bf aquifers and also observation of the extent ofcone of tab
depression and effect of pumping on surrounding wells. Location of the wel var
field should be demarcated on the Pre

map. Recharge and discharge area should
be identified and demarcated. she
4. Collection of data Potentiality of each aquifer should be assessed
ind
i. Setting up of
monitoring wells (dug wells and tube wells) all over the area
and periodic collection of
V. Fro
water level data during a pur

water samples from year. Collection of
of RL (reduced
monitoring wells for chemical
analysis. Measurement de
level) of the monitoring wells. The monitoring wells should
be precisely demarcated on 6. Con
the map. i. Th
ii. Mapping of the area
for demarcation of
etc., which are important for structure like faults, lineaments co
storage and flow of ground water.
photographs and satellite imagery may be helpful for this. In
Aerial ad
water bearing zones
deciphered by addition, the the
demarcated on this geophysical surveys may also be ii. Re
ii. Demarcation of all map.
streams and rivers fu
whether influent or effluent with (from toposheet) and identification
al
major Karst features, springs etc. period, surface ponds,
reservoirs, lakes, at
specific recharge features should alsoAdditionally,
be hydrogeological barriers, st.
iv. Collection of current as well
identified.
as historical
v.
area.
An estimate of
hydrometeorological data of the ii..D
gross extraction of be
should be made. ground water for various
5. purposes
Analysis of data
i. All collected data should be
monitoring wells will show the analysed for example the
hydrographs
itshould be related to fluctuation of water level ot
rainfall. during a year and
declining or rising trend basedLong term behaviour of water level such as
prepared. The collected data is upon current and previous data has to be
are also
prepared and presented. appended in tabular form and
Stream hydrographs hydrographs
also be
may prepared.
Ground Water
and Exploration | 121
Water e
table
potentiometric
flow of ground water
surface map should
should be
direction of should be prepared and
4(11) and 4(iii) established.
atures described in
dand verified through existing ground watershould be demarcated
All
i. on the map
map of thickness of unconfined structures.
i i .Conto
try
of confined aquifers may be shown aquifer be
may prepared. The
geo
geomet
with sections. Gross annual
recharge and extraction should be calculated. The
and extrac
The replenishahle
water reserve
water reserve
ground water reso
and ground
reseTve and resources in confined replenishable ground
Onined
of adevelopment of
aquifers should abe
aquifers should
aleulated. This will
calculated. stage of
vill indicate the stage
ground water and
ne of future development as also artificial
T chemical analysis of collected water sample recharge requirements.
iv. will indicate the quality of
uater and any change taking place with time or if there is any impact of
pumping on quality of water. Chemical analyses data may be presented in
tabular form and if necessary by graphical means. Contour maps showing
variations of important properties may be prepared and placed in the report.
Presence of any solute (Iron, Nitrate etc.) in excess of permissible limits
should be reported. Sources of polution of ground water from landfills and
industry etc. may be examined and remedial measures may be suggested.
v. From the T and S calculated from pumping test, effect of current and future
pumping on surrounding wells should be estimated or the cone of
depression projected. Potential of each aquifer should be analysed.
6. Conclusion and Recommendation
i. This section draws together and briefly reiterates the main results and
conclusions of the study described in the report. This section should
address the objectives stated in the introduction chapter and clearly state if
the objectives have been fulfilled or not.
1. Kecommendations will be for reassessment needs after specific period,
Tuture exploration requirements to establish aquifers vertically and laterally
of
hydrological properties. Requirement of study
and evaluation of their
a l photographs, satellite imagery and ground geophysical work may be

Recommendation also be made for safer sites for disposal of
da. may
industrial and human waste.
mathematical methods may
velopment of ground water flow model by
be recommended.
CHAPTER 8 e T a nB 3
Ground Water Basin gons,

Management Walershec
A5micro
o f o r ma
8.1 Ground Water Basin The
walershe
Ground water basin is an
underground reservoir of
water lwhich may order
etc.
single aquifer multiple aquifers. It

or is sometimes
difficult
ult toto detem have a
determine i ,i sc a l l
boundaries of the ground water basin. In some cases there the Second
are clear pen f or
boundaries which make it clear where the aquifers geologictheeach
al each1int
begin and end
aquifers are continuous or not. In other cases, the distinction and whetherthe
Large basins are divided into sub-basins based upon may be difficul aersh watershec
sub-basins may have different ground water geological evidences. The

In basin
potentiality.
a
aquifers may exist at various
depths.
Some area of
basin may be able to
support heavier pumping than ground water
another due to existence
deep aquifers which extend below the level of of
Risk of contamination aquifer in rest of the basin.
ground water in a basin is a matter of concem.
Contaminants spilled in the basin can
spread and contaminate all of the water.
8.2 Geomorphic Basin
Geomorphic basins are naturally defined geological regions that
landscape or land form. Each display a distinct
features based geomorphic province displays unique, defining
on
geology, faults, topographic relief and climate. The
may be diverse. provinces
8.2.1 Structural Basin
Structural basin is a large scale structural
deformation of rock strata by tectonic
warping of previously flat lying strata. Structural
basin in which sediments filled basin may be a sedimentary Wat
up depression. However, most structural
a
were
formed by tectonic events basins problem
long after the sedimentary layers were
Basins appear on
geological map as roughly circular or deposile practices
layers. Because the strata dip towards
the
elliptical, with concentne manager
ager
progressively younger from outside in, centre,
with
-
the exposed strata in a basin are
the
ivestoce
(e.g., North Karanpura coalfield). Structural youngest rocks in the cenur and effie
basins are often
coal, petroleum and ground water. important
sources ol relance
Water
8.3 Watershed contour
A Watershed,
in which
also called adrainage basin orcatchment area,jis defined as an ared
all water flowing into it goes to a common outlet. It is also
protecs
and gro
natural hydrological entity that covers defined as a Check dz
a specific aerial expanse of land surface
from which the rainfall runoff flows to a
defined drain, channel, stream or river at
WaLAWa
any particular point. It is a general phenomenon
governed by topography of the ter
any per
Ground Water Basin Management| 123
t in Based upon the s1ze, the hydrological unit is termed as water resource
terrain.
sin, catchment,
ons, basin, catchme sub catchment, watershed, sub-watershed and micro
ershed respectively. The smallest hydrological unit in the hierarchy is termed
vatershedrespecti
TO watershed
micro
having area of500to(1000 Ha Small watersheds aggregate
w a t e r s h e d having.
as
a large watershed.
to form
The stream order 1s a measure of degree of stream branching within a
its order (e.g, 1" order, 20d
of stream is indicated 2"
watershed. Each length
watershed. by
dete orde etc.). The start or headwaters of a stream, with no other stream flowing into
ear gea i Called the first order stream. First order streams flow together to flow a
order stream and so on. describes the the
and whe ond
second order
Stream order relative location of
ay be i reach in the watershed. Figure 8.1 shows a large watershed divided into six micro
evide
dwatersheds
based on stream order.
f groumd
to exista
basin.
er of oa
fthe wat
splayad
ique, dk Stream
The prou Water shed
Number on stream (eg 1 or 2) shows stream order
Fig.8.1: Water shed
water
ata by a not only limited to addressing
Watershed management programmes are land and water conservation
a sedime nclude agricultural growth,
mlproblems. They and nutrient
uctural
diversification and intensification, integrated pest
e r e
practices, crop
d e p P a c t i c e s
activities like dairy farming

non agricultural
management, introduction of to make effective
ithcon livestock management etc to strengthen the abilities of people
1n a ba of economic stability
and
ser
efficient use of resourçes to achieve their goal
and conservation)practices are primary steps o
Teliance. However, the(land and(water include construction
or
ant
sou
a e r management. The insitu soil moisture practices
etc. These practices
graded bunds, field bunds, terraces building
rund, andíncrease soil moisture avaioiy
PrOrectland degradationJimprove soil health are construcion O
exsitu management practices
EOund water recharge The
ned
neda
7as8
Cneck dams, gully control structures, farm ponas erc.
Odetina
8.4 Water Balance

basin or sub basin uuu
entering a river or ieave
a m
o r n
An aance implies that all water

within its boundar+es
to the storage
0 of time should either g0
Davey L
124 |
Cor
period of time i.e. Inflow balaene).
the basin during the
same
component Change in storage.

The general water
equilibrium
condition is
balance equation
drainage basin in dynamic
inflow G1 + surface wat
n
+ ground water
Evapotranspira+inflow thrO
[Precipitation P
canal Iw] [Evapotranspirat
-
water through
stream Q+ imported
nchy
reservoir evaporation E +
surface water (runoft) o
outtiow
water through canal

Ew)=oound ground Auding
outflow (base flow) Go +Exported in water change
water storage ASg + change in
surface water storage ASs. Found
Ew]=+ ASg + ASs
P+G+Q+ Iw] [E +Q+Go+ (8.1)
-
Where P is precipitation to be measured by rain

gauge
inflow across
to
the boundary to be estimated hu
estimated by Dupuit
G ground water
law for confined aquifer
equation for unconfined aquifer and Darcy's
Go ground water outflow from the basin to be estimated by Dupuit /D
law as above
Q surface water inflow to be measured by gauging
stream
Q surface water outflow (run off) to be measured by stream gauging
lw imported water through canal by standard hydraulic method
Ew exported water through canal by standard hydraulic method
E evaporation andevapotranspiration by land pan andLysimeter|respectively
y
ASG Change in ground water storage to be estimated
ASs change in surface water storage from water level record in reservoir
In a non canal command area and if watershed is taken as assessment unit F
Q-0, Iw 0 and Ew = 0; the equation 8.1 becomes
[P+G]-[E +Q+Go]=+ASg + ASs (8.2) .

Recharge of ground water which is simply increase in storage is given by
RechargeP+G]-[E +Q+Go] ASs (8.3) 1
In further simplification if Gj is neglected and Go is taken base flow
as
(B)
and ASs is also neglected, then equation 8.3 becomes
Recharge=[P-(E+Q+B)]
Equation 8.2 can be used to evaluate evaporation and evapotranspiration, if
other components are known.
8.5 Ground Water Resources

Ground water is stored in the pores of rocks below water table. The water
rocks called aquifers may occur in unconfined condition and also
bearing
in confined
conditions. The assessment of resources of ground water has to be made for both
unconfined and confined aquifers separately. Only part of the water stored can be
gainfully utilised depending upon specific yield of the aquifer.
Reserve in Unconfined aquifer:
(a) Dynamic Reserve-
Water stored in the aquifer in the zone ofseasonal fluctuation)of water level
is called dynamic reserve. It may also be called replenishable reserve because
a.
PrDamc Ree: SyA Ah]
Ground Water Basin
Management | 125
t i s e x p e c t
dd that water derived from this zone is likely to be replenished
e d
seasonon long term basis.

during
rainy
(Dynamicreserve.
Dyness of aquiferin the zone of water_level fluctuation) x (area of

= (thickness
(specific yield of aquifer)

quifer)x
((b) S t a t i cR e s e r v e
( static reserve refers to the water stored in aquifer below the zone of
The static reserve
to the exploitable limits (GEC, 1997). The static

water
level down fluctuation
reserve of aquifer may be utilised for drinking purposes mainly.
8
Static reserve
Du (thickness of aquiferbelow the zone of water level fluctuation down to

(thi (area of aquifer) x (specific yield of aquifer)
exploitable limits)x
Confined Aquifer -
Tyarsk c)
Reserve in
be estimated from flownet analysis
Tateral flow in confined aquifer may
However assessment ofresource
which uses Darcy's law (see equation 4.13).
also be made by identifying and demarcating
of confined aquifers may
confined aquifer and estimating average annual
recharge area for the
The average annual recharge may be taken as reserve
recharge (GEC, 1997).
bectivel of confined aquifer.
8.6 Basin Management)

water resources of any basin and their
unit For optimum development of
be adopted.
management, the following procedure may tributaries and other
demarcate the main river and
(8.2)i. Identify the basin boundary,
physiographic features.
nby forest area, irrigated and
(83)i. Divide into sub-basins on factors like hilly terrain,
non irrigated land etc.
flow basin by standard
11. ldentify and estimate each component of(supply)into the
methods. have to be identified and
.All components ofdisposal)from the basin also
atiat
ation
estimated.
water resources includes (aXsuppl
ne
strategy for management of ground
simplest approach 1s to
masures and (b) disposal sidel measures. The side) measures incua
The supply
ase supply and limit the demand.
bean
of additional resourees
the ground water avaibility, development harvesting.
Oni
n ing recharge and rain water

rh
augmentation of resources through artificial ound water by
of ground waicr
d can
The disposal side control include limiting use
measures
reservolr.
Drovisal such as water from
providing additional water from other sources
Sustainabili
Ground water s of Ground Water Resources
development and use of ground
water to meer
table
SUstainability is
the
causing depletionofwater
beca
WhwhichDe Current and future requirements,withoutdegradation ike drying up of

cannot replenished,
environmental
of land and
intrusion
streams, lakes etc., and subsidence on of sea w
quality along with water Sea y
areas. Sustainability
of water
ater AIPere
Ground water at shallow depth particularly vulnerable to
is quantity
ntity is essent Theama
action oromission of human being.

Some of the potential methods to help achievelground
contaminas waterb
due Causing
ter sustainabliw Perenni
are:
i. Supplementing local ground water with available surfa
some area this may be possible but in other areas surface urface waterer s a f ë
recharg
i f
fully allocated or unavailable. In these areas additional ground maywater mayappy.also h Ths
may be investigated and established. Treating currently conteres Nater resov Water
for use is also an option. Cos
ii. Change of rate of pumping or spatial pattern of

pumping mas the
yie
option. Withdrawing ground water from centralised location

the system. Increasing the number and spatial may othe
wells may allow the same quantity of ground water to ibution
distribution of
of the overstres B10E
minimization of the adverse effects. Centralised water extract pumping Gro

Groun
be
withdrawalswitha
availa
confined aquifers where low permeability withdrawal fr

geologic layers between the o irom h
major
surface and aquifer restrict rainwater from I. Th

reaching the aquifer, can
mining of the aquifer using more water than is naturally cause shE
result in land subsidence also. replenished. This m be
ii. Increasing
Tmay
recharge to the ground water system
surface spreading, induced recharge irom by(artificial recharge lik ur
injection wells. adjacent streams, lakes and through
G
8.8 Ground Water
When water is
Mining and Cyclic Storage
is not
pumped from storage resulting into depletion of water
recharged fully during wet season amounts to level which
arid regions in
Rajasthan, ground water in deep confinedmining ground water. In
of
connate or fossil water which were recharged aquifers is considered
pumping is simply mining of ground water and during wet climatic period. Its
millennium away in future. Because of recharge of the
lack of circulation, salt aquifer may
be 4. I
increases resulting into concentration also
quality problem.
However, if the createdstorage due to pumping is(fully
season by natural recharge or artificial recharge, it is
recharged during we The
suitable time to deplete
ground water reservoir called(cyclic storage The
drought. At this time pumping will cause artificially is dry season or durin
created.During wet season the created water level to fall and storage space s
area or area
prone to water logging,
storage is fully recharged. In flood prone
pumping during dry season. Rainfall storage space may be created by neavy
may be avoided. may recharge the aquifer and water
loggms
Ground Water Basin
Management | 127
or
Safe Yield
Coasu perennit of ground

Perennis
that can
water be withdrawn from
8 I amount aquifer or a ground an
nSsent
dueia
The
each year
economically eaci for an indefinite
water b a s i n period of quality is
basenvironmental damage or impairing ground watertime(withou
vield.
y i e l The development of a ground water system is considered
safe
Tem is considered
inabilin perennial
or
if rate
ground
of ground
of water
water withdrawal does
does not exceed the rate of annual
not exceed
ot
sate
natural and artificial sources of charge.
from
pply. h rechenvironmental effects include reduction of stream flow, lowering of
recharge
The environmental
also be in lakes, drying of wet land and subsidence of land surface.

levels
esourcg
d wate
Computer models of ground water flow system are ideal tools for estimating
water
theyield
and its impact on hydrological parameters, environmental effects etc.
anothe ofOverexploitationjof Ground Water
erstres
werstr .10 Effects
water is essential and highly useful and at many places is abundantly
ump
umpin Ground or over draft of ground water may create
awailable. However, overexploitation
with to human users and environment.
als fron major problems of water table beyond the reach of
egrou. The most obvious problem is (loweringlike dug wells which may dry up and need to
an cau shallow ground water structures
of water table may have long term effect
his ma be drilled further deeper. Depletion
and may not get recharged fully during rainy season In Punjabland in several
rgg hike urban areas like Delhi, the water levels havewater dropped (10 m) Rain water
levels.
harvesting is being advocated to arrest declining
throug 2. Ground water is also important for environment. Depletion of water table
lakes etc., which get water
impliesloss of base flow.The streams, wetlands,The subterranean ecosystem
from base flow are severely affected and dry up.
el whic within karst will also get affected.
subsidence. As a result of
ater.. A lowered ground water level may in turn cause
vater
nsidera overexploitation, deflating of the rocks can cause the ground to collapse. This
iod
4.
results in formation of cracks or craters on the surface. in depletion of water
may may Coastal areas, because of overexploitation resultinginterface to move inland side
Ionals
a y induce fresh water/ brackish water
and fresh water
aquifers may get contaminated.
Tingwe
The summarised as follows:
2e measures use
1.1. Conjunctiv
to control the effects
of ground watermay be briefly
and surface water to reduce draft of ground
wate
s p a c e
2. Cha
hange of rate of pumping and spatial pattern of pumping.
d pror 43. Adoption of artificial recharge system
4
Search of additional grou water resources.
y h e a
logg
8.1Changes
1Conjunctive
Water chauveits Use)ofGround and
aler
d of
Surface Water
water
form from Surface water to groundneed for
and vice
versa.
managemento
when
the
water incre
C a s e s and avaibility
is less, the
ground water and surface water resources becomes important. It is in this e
cont
that conjunctive use of the two resources is advocated so that overuse ofhox
resources to the extent of depletion is avoided. For example over
extrahene
ground water may deplete the water levels beyond recharge, dry stream
and dry lakes and induce sea water encroachment in coastal area. If a strflows
which looses water to the unconfined aquifer is over used, the recharge to
aquifer will stop. Consumptive use of surface and ground water can ens
the
sure
avaibility of water round the year. In many cities and towns situated over ha
rock area, the domestic water supply cannot be fully met from surface wat
ter
reservoirs and partly the requirement is met from ground water. During rainy
season surface water is available in plenty and may be used during this perio
riod 6
and ground water may be used during summer. Advantages of conjunctive use of
ground and surface water are many and some are given below
1. Large subsurface storage with safety against risk of destruction of reservoir
structure, quality deterioration etc., is available with ground water.
2. Ground water can provide water supply for few years during drought, whereas
the surface water resources may dry after a year due to lack of precipitation.
3. There is no evaporation and percolation loss in ground water as in surface
water.
4. In conjunctive use of water, tube well load can be reduced by releasing
surface water.
5. Crop water requirements can be ensured for the whole year by releasing
surface water during monsoon and ground water supplies when surface water
is not available.
6. Ground water is mixed with treated and filtered water for domestic use in
areas of salinity hazards.
Now computer models are developed for management of surface and ground
water. The relationship between streams and aquifer can be described by partial
differential equation and can be solved by numerical methods.
8.12 Environmental Study

The environmental study for industrial and mining projects includes study ot
meteorological data (rainfall, wind speed and direction, temperature, relatne
humidity etc.), air quality, water quality, noise quality, flora and fauna and soco
economic study (population with male/female population, literacy ete.) m
proposed project area and its surrounding in the buffer zone. However. 8
oJect
hydrogeologist is required to prepare a report showing the impact oI tne p d
on ground water system and its mitigation plan. A detailed report on grou
for
water avaibility and its chemical quality before start of the project is prepa
core
the project area called Core Zone and in area within a radius of 10 km o
zone called Buffer Zone. The essential components of the report are as foloo
an
1. Description oftopography.jdrainage) and élimate)of thearea (core
zone).
overse Ceology of the area with stratigraphic sequence.
Ground Water Basin Management | 129
escription offünconfined and confined aquifersJand their confining layers.

Doriodic monitoring of
he rechate one. Hydrograph of eachwater leve) in dug wells and tube well in the buffer
station is to be
prepared. Collection of water sample
from monitoring stations
and also from surface water bodies for (chemical)
analysis nd its presentation.(Preparation of water table map of the area)
rostmhuatsute
ed oConstruction of well field in the buffer zone. The well field may consist of
ne pumping well andIew [one to three) observation wells, Pumping test is
ater. Dun conducted and hydrological parameters Transmissivity (T) and Storativity (S)
COn durine t is evaluated.
Conmjunctin Recharge and discharge area may be demarcated

with the help of drainage
map and topography of the area. The recharge and discharge area may fall
uction of outside the buffer zone. Direction of flow of water may be established from
water.
gdrought
water table map.
7. Ground water balance)for the buffer zone has to be prepared. The balance will
of precipitea show sources of ground water recharge, ground water draft and balance
water as in available for ground water recharge. The following table shows an example of
ground water balance study.
uced by r Ground water recharge Ground water draft
i. Recharge through rainfall = 1. Irrigation
Area x rainfall x infiltration (for i. irigation use
year by re
sedimentary area 0.13 and for area x volume of
when surtace metamorphic area 0.08) water/km/year
ii. Return to ground water @20%
r domeste of item i above.
ii. Natural discharge and other 2. Community use for (i) projected
losses 15% of above population (ü) cattle population
urtace andg
escribed by and (ii) domestic consumption
ii. Net annual ground water A 3. Mine discharge, if any. A part
recharge (i- ii) of the mine discharge will
returnto ground water system
4. Net annual ground water draft
includes so (1+2+3)
perature,
Balance available for annual (A- B)
d fauna an ground water recharge
racy8 . Estimation of dynamic and static resources in core and buffer zone as per
ne. Howe
following:
actofthe Dynamic resources = area x water level fluctuation x specitic yield
TCport a n 1. Static resources = area x extractible depth range below zone of fluctuation
of water level
ct i sp r e p u
x specific yield
1. Ground water resources in the confined aquifers to be estimated by tlow
vf10
kma
are
asfoll
net analysis.
( C o r e
a n d
9. Impact of industrial activity / mining
i. Impact on natural topography
and soll.)
the top soil has to be restored withi the
The land has to be reclaimed; e
areas where work
has already been completed. Simultanen.
project have to be done to bring back the area
afforestation and plantation may o
the originalland use pattern. 1Dyn
ii(Impacton surface water.

A na q u i
to be treated before being discharoedd

discharge may have
are
met
Industrial water
to surface water bodies. ( a )r e c k
iii. Impact on ground water system. (b)The

on ground
mining or industrial activity be
water
lmpact of pumping for obtained
e ) The
radius of influence may from
system has to be estimated. The i.c.
the cone of depression.
pumping test data by projecting be done by making water
(d) Am
() The
of discharged water may have to
10. Harvesting of industrial
at suitable locations which will reduce the impact
lagoons an aqu
activity/mining on ground water system. Th
(8.12.1 Ground Water Modelling gradier
water modelling is increasingly being

used to analyse, estimate)and raf
saturat
Ground water flow and quality of ground water
predictthe impacts of mining on ground uncon
or underground mine is three
Ground water flow in the vicinity of open cast surtac
water flow model should be
dimensional. As such three dimensional ground the aq
data including lateral and
developed. For this three dimensional hydrogeological the ab
water quality and ground water
vertical variations of hydrological parameters,
to the bottom of the
levels must be collected. The hydrological parameters up 9.2 R
seam to be worked should
be collected. Preliminary hydrological parameters can Recha
be obtained by conducting Slug existing exploration boreholes and by
test in
(a) A
selected boreholes. Ground water levels and water
conducting Packer test in few (b) \
studied in pre mining period. In addition, data on
quality are usually runoff should be evaluated in pre mining stage. Ifa
(c)
precipitation, evaporation and
reliable model is developed, it can be used for addressing problems like mine
walls or developments and environmenta
dewatering planning, stability of pit
levels and ground water quality during mining and post
impacts on ground water max
mining periods. Tech
Teje
and
eno
Tect
int
in
Sur
oe restored
CHAPTER 9
eted. Simltoa
brng back te Recharge of Aquifer
fore being 9.1/Dynamic

ä Equilibrium
state of dynamic equilibrium if following conditions
An AGuifer is said to be in a
are met
ity on isequalto discharge
od(a) rechargetothe aquiferwater from
may beobtai(b)
1.
gomd
obtaned The aquifer transmits
) recharge area to discharge area
(c) The potentiometric surface (or water table for unconfined aquifer) is steady
one by making i.e., it is not changing with time at any location and
Impact of(d) Amount of water in the aquifer is constant.
impact of i The above conditions prevail in a non-pumping aquifer but may also exist in
an aquifer being pumped as discussed in para 9.4.
The amount of water flowing through the aquifer is function of the hydraulic
nalyse, (stim gradient (), hydraulic conductivity (K) and thickness of the aquifer (6). Fuly
ality of groundsaturated unconfined aquifer transmits maximum amount of water. When
mine iist
2round mine
ground
unconfined aquifer is partially saturated and water table is quite below the
w madel chSurtace, the aquifer does not transmit at full capacity. In case of confined aquifeer,
shou the aquifer remains fully saturated and amount of water flowing is determined by
inciuang althe above factors K, I and b (as per Darcy's law).
y and groundi
to the bottom9.2 Recharge to Unconfined Aquifer
gical parani Recharge to unconfined aquifer is controlled by the following three factors:
n borehols(a) Amount of precipitation (evapotranspiration + runoff)
ater levels n(6) Vertical hydraulic conductivity of the soil or upper layer, and
addition, neuransmissivityof theaquifer and/gradientofthe watertable in the aquifer
reminingsta which will determine the amount of water that can move away rom the
problemsiMe recharge area.
a n de n v i r o
When the water table is (close to surface _and the aquifer is transmitting
a
mining
nga umamount of water, it is possible that enough recharge is available in the
zng arge area and any additional recharge available in the recharge area 1s
And as it is not required at this stage. In arid region, the water table is deep
O e s not transmit maximum amount of water. It may be due to the fact that
recharnarge is not available or hydraulie conduetivity in the

vertical
area poor which restricts downward percolation of water.
is
eralrechargelareas
intopographic low places. Thearewater
on topographic
table is deephigh
andplaces and discharge
unsaturated zone is areas
thick
in
recharge area and in discharge
Surface. area the water table may be shallow or close to
The flow lines on a flow net will tend tofdiverge)from a recharge area
and convergetowardsthedischarge area, if the discharge area is not aa ven

very large
area. Kacha
tapte
9.3Rechargeto Confined
Aquifer Recha
Recharge to confined aquifer can take place where the confined layer
unconfined ie., the confining layer is absent. Under such condition, thebecome
fae ot
pre
controlling recharge to unconfined aquifers are effective. In addition recha u
can take
place from leaky confining layer if hydraulic gradient across the le pupo
confining layer is in a direction that promotes flow into the aquifer. In this e
the vertical conductivity of the
d o m e s
confining layer, the thickness of the confinino The

layer and the head difference across it control the amount of
recharge. Rechar
to confined aquifer may come from both COunts
downward flow from a higher

and upward flow from a lower
aquifer.
aquifo Correc
the
9.4 Effect of Pumping furthe
When a well infconfined COnlrc
aquifer )is pumped, (water is

withdrawn from
around the well and from vertical leakage (see storage availa
will be lowered, the cone of chapter 5). The head near the wel methc
depression
aquifer will be contributing water from
will grow and
larger portion theof
storage.
depression spreads is a function of Storavity( S
The rate at which the
cone of 9.6
96C
depression reaches a discharge area, the of the aquifer. When the cone of (A)S (A)
potentiometric
discharge area is reduced and the amount of natural gradient towards the Spreas
reduced and Recharge
=Reduced discharge is
proportionately
equilibrium is established. If the Discharge Draft
+
and a new
dynamic
recharge area of the aquifer, it may pumping, cone of depression_reaches the 1
induce additional
previously rejected. The drawdown near any stream recharge) of water that was
stream and induce infiltration from may stop base flow to the
the river into the
previous direction of flow. If
discharge is balanced aquifer, reversing the (B) Ir
changed condition again a dynamic by recharge under the
Recharge= Discharge + Draft. equilibrium is reached and Enhanced
When a well
inunconfined aquifer)is pumped, water table around the
will be lowered. Water
C) Ir
will come from we D) F
aquifer. The cone of depression will gravity drainage of water stored in a
slowly expand to intercept more water
supply discharge of the well. If recharge o
dynamic equilibrium is reached. However,equalsif

the discharge of the
well a new
equal recharge is not intercepted by discharge of the well is
high a 97 A
not be reached. The unconfined growing cone of depression,
equilibrium w
of cone of depression in this caseaquifer may get fully drained. The
will be rate of sprea discus
aquifer. proportional to Specific yield S,u of
The pumping cone of
depression
97.1
larger than infunconfined aquiter)as thein(confined aquiferis 100 to 1000 time
100to 1000 times larger than storativity specific yield S, of unconfined aquifer COnStr
S of confined
aquifer, Addit
Recharge of Aquifer I 133
fov UPsC Pre

9.5 Artificial Recharge
95Aarc to aquifers from precipitation
Recharge to is a natural process. We have seen in
ned layer be chapter 8 that
dition, he RechargeBecause= of urbanisation, construction etc less+runoff

Recharge=[preciptaion-(evapotranspiration
[precipita +base flow)]
area is available for percolation
addi ton te cipitation. In addition rapid growth of population has increased demand of
tuiafcrero. ss In thtehis
o fprecipitation.
n d water. Ground water is also required for irrigation and industrial

ground
s
h moses. Thus
purposes. Thus ground water is increasingly being withdrawn (punmped) for
of thee Cdomestic, irrigation and industrial purposes resulting into decline of water level.
echarg e. can The trend of water level is reported to be declining at several places in the
Re
nahighercountry
higher a indicating that withdrawal of ground water is more than recharge. To
Trect this situation artificial recharge methods are practiced.(Artificial recharge
is the process by which the naturalprocess ofrecharge to aquifers is augmented
further. In the above equation, precipitation and evapotranspiration is beyond the
awn from slon control of human being, only the runoff may be reduced to make more water
available for recharge. In the following paragraphs we shall examine different
head near
ger portionthemethods
of artificial recharge.
di
which the cou9.6 Criteria for Selection of Ground water
When the
nen
Recharge Sites
the corcoe (A) Some of the common criteria for selection of recharge sites for(water
dient towari Spreading,fnfiltratiombasin andrecharge pits are:
Is proportion i. Soil is permeable at the site
a new dy ii. Water table is not close to the surface
ssion_reaches ii. Land is relatively flat
of watertha iv. Aquifer(transmissivity) is sufficient to
cary the water away from the
base flowb recharge site
uersin B) In areas where the top soil is poorly permeable, passage of water to
er, reversing
harge unda unsaturated zone may be
provided through dug wells filled_with boulder,
d and Enha gravel and coarse sand.
(C) In hilly terrain contourbunds /with trenches are selected for recharge.
D) For recharging confined
around the aquifers, water level in injection well is maintained
a t e rs t o r e d
at higher level than the non pumping water level of the well or water is
p Im o r ew a l injected into the aquifer.
f t h ew e l l a
.7 Artificial Recharge to Unconfined

me common methods of artificial Aquifer
welli shigh
equilibriun
discussed below: recharge
to unconfined aquifers are
herateo f
ic
yield.,o 9.7.1 Water Spreading)
COpreading is alvery common method of artificial recharge. Low dams are
Ad
Additionaled water stream which results in flooding of land along stream
across
water on the land will channel.
n i n e da 4 u
partly percolate to recharge the unconfined

aquifer. The water table will be raised. The favourable condition for
for wate
spreading are as mentioned in para 9.6 A. Inhilly
construc
9.7.2 Infiltrations or Recharge Basin a ss h o w
Normally recharge basin and infiltration basins are constructed near hanl.
percola
stream and substantial hydraulic head is maintained to iFcrease infiltration
to infiltration from basin, ground water mound is formed under Tate W a t e ra
Due basin
figure 9.1.
Pumping well
Pumping well
Infiltratiqn basin
Surface
Water table WL
-
Streamn
Fig.9.1: Infiltration or recharge basin

When recharge ceases, the mound
decays as water
aquifer. Due to surface clogging in the recharge basin, the spreads through the
declines. Periodic maintenance of the basin infiltration gradually
surface of the basin is by removing fine sediments on the
required. Alternating flooding and drying of the basin wil
keep basin in good condition.
9.7.3 Check Dams
Check dams of cement concrete is
constructed
permeable formation are present in the across(rivulatesand
subsurface. Due to presence ofnala wher
formation the water collected permeabie
by check dam quickly
recharged. In this percolates
type of structure, the collected water and water table d
Normally the height of check dam is (ess remains within the nala
2than m.)
-Check dam 9.7.5 F
In area
Layers of sand deposited

Debris done
during rainy season purposs
9.7.6 C
f gull
Lesspermeable soil
Sope S
Fig.9.2: Check dam across rivulet will ev
Recharge of Aquifer | 135
9.74ContourBund
hillyarea where ground is sloping, shallow trenches with bunds may be
In ed parallel to topographic contour with plantation to check rapid runoff
e ntiltrath constructed
a shown in
shown in fig
figure 9.2A & B. Water collected in the trenches will slowly
Aunder o
th l a t e and recharge the water table. Plantation will help in checking flow of
perc
and provide aesthetic look to the site.
water 8
600
Flowoflwater 595
WL 58>
Bund
ream
Bund
eads throug
Itration godu Fig.9.3A: Contour bund in hilly terrain
sediments a
of thebast Bund
600
and nal 575

nce ofpemi A B
andwatera
Trench
Swithinthe
Fig.9.3B: Section along A-B
9.7.5 Recharge(Pits
arcas where pervious formations are present at shallow depth, recharge may be
k dam
done
npurposes.constructing pits. Abandoned gravel pits may be utilised for recharge
Debris
9.7.6 Gully Plugging

If
gully, geor
slone a eomorphic feature, exists in the area, it can be plugged on the down
collected in the gully
wil
will nh by earthenware wall to stop flow of water. Water
eventually percolate at least in part raising the water table.
136|
9.7.7 Recharge Shaft

formation by poorly permeable soil is recharge v
overlain
el and
V.
The(shaftjis filled up with boulder, gravel and

Unsaturated
constructing shat.
passageto
er
water for recharging the unsaturated zone. sand a coarse
e. Such structure
rovides in ponds. to 3m dia well of (10 to to 15)m
15m dep1th
are also
constructed
in the pond. It is: filled up with boulder, gavel and de

coarse
constr
order. The top of kept at half of the maximum

the well 1S sand int
same
level in the pond. Excess water in the pond percolates to unsaturated fa
through the shaft.
VE
EM mation
2.7.8 Abandoned Dug Well
Wells may also be used for
Abandoned Dug recharging. However,
used, the well should be cleaned and silt and other material shouldbefore
be re bein
from the well. The water for recharging should be desilted and removed
the well through pipes below its water level to avoid air entrainment. j discharged
Cover
Inlet
>Outlet for execess water
GL GL
Boulder
-
Desilting chamber Dug well
Fig. 9.4: Abandoned dug well used for recharge
(9.8 Recharge of Confined Aquifer
For recharging confined
aquifers, recharge wells similar to
pumping wells n
construction are used. In this case water flows
through the well to the confined
aquifer. The head in the well is maintained at higher level than the
surface. Alternatively water may be potentiometie
injected into the well so that water movs
through the well into the aquifer.
(Injection wells are prone to (clogging)as large volume of water
pushed through small area of aquifer near the well. Water for is bemg
pass through settling tank before being injected to remove injection shou
suspended
Apart from problem of clogging, there are many other problems particls
associated wiu
injection well. Some of which are given below:
1. Air entrainment caused
by aeration of water falling into the wel
ii. Bacteria growth in the aquifer
ii. Formation of precipitates due to geochemical reaction between recharue
water and formation water.
iv. Swelling of clay colloids in the
aquifer
V.
Dispersal of clay particles due to ion exchange between rechargiug water
and aquifer material

vi. Growth of iron bacteria
1sTedhat
. Such stn
.Precipitation of iron irom formation water due to recharge of water with pH
and eH in the range

of ferric iron.
Mechanical compaction of aquifer material due to high injection pressure.
vii.
oarse sand Injection (q)
Surface
turated fo Water levvel
before injection
Cone of impression
due to injection
hw R
ver, betoe ho
Confining layer
ould be rem
dischargal
nent. E Confined aquifer
> K Imperviousboundary
2rw
or execess wa Fig. 9.5: Recharging of confined aquifer
9.9 Roof Top Rain Water Harvesting

To check declining trend of water level, rooftop rainwater harvesting is practiced
in cities to recharge the near surface unconfined aquifer. In this system the water
collected on the roof of the house is sent to various types of structure to recharge
the water table. Some of the designs are discussed below.
9.9.1 RechargeSystemfor Small Houses
In small houses with roof area of100 sq_m) recharge may be done through
wenches
e cut in the earth around the house. The trench may belito2 mwide and
Dumping (2 to(3) m deep. The length of the trench may be 10 to 20 m depending upon
l to the con" availability of space. It may be laid around the house. The trench is filled up with
hepotentio
he poeu brick pieces, boulders, gravel, kankar and coarse sand in the same order. Water
that waterm
hat wa from roof is carried through gutters to the trench where it will percolate to the
rOund Techarging water table. Gravel and sand filled up in the trench requires
f waters periodic cleaning by removing it from trench and cleaning and refilling the same.
injection.
pendedpan
ISassociated Roof with parapet
w e l l
Tween
reho
Gutter
_chan eltrench
rechargig
Chaarelirench
Fig.9.6: Roof top rain water harvesting scheme
Hydrogeology
of
F u n d a m e n t a l s
138
Small
Houses b hard
9.9.2SoakPits
for tructed to recharge water table.
constructed to rechar
soak pits are hag
For small
houses,
of the campus. Usually it is(circular)withThe
0akpi
ucted in a
corner
above the th diaP
highest level i ater
l n d
maintained just f
ter aaround 3m. There1s
depth is
3 mThe lined with brick leaving space for flow ofwater. About threed3
cothree fourth a
L D e
w e
The pit is
filled up with brick pieces, boulders, and oefourth
oulders, gravel and LDdersa
ofthe pit is carried to the pit by gutters. W Snd in t
Water from roof is rainOCCun
order. on the roof of the house will be carried to the pit and will
watercollected flow
ocours,
table. The
l
tlow t
the unsaturated
formation recharging water
pit is covered with
concrete slab.
Cover
oMoos oo00000OOO% About 3m
About 3m
Fig.9.7: Soak pit for small houses
9.9.3 Recharge of Deep Aquifers

For rechargingdeep semi-confined and confined aquifers,the waterkollectedon
roof top of the building first passes through filter consisting of tank filled up with
gravel and coarse sand to remove suspended particles in water. The water from
filter tank is fed into the tube well or bore well where it recharges the deeper
semi-confined/ confined aquifer from which the bore well is drawing water,. The
head for recharge has to be maintained always higher than the nonpumping
water level of the bore well. The recharge rates are alvways lower than the
pumping rate. Initially the intake rates are higher and gradually decreases
becomes constant. As a result of recharging, cone of impression (opposite to cor
ofdepression) is formed as shown in figure 9.5. The shortcomings mentioneu

section 9.8 apply to this recharging system.
(9.10Induced Recharge uiter
It is an
indirect method pf artificial recharge involving pumping from an a am
which is hydraulically connected with surface water bodieslike perenniai
unlined canal or lake. The pumping lowers the ground water level and cone
eam
depression is formed. When the cone of depression touches the perennialSt
wate
water from the perennial stream or surface water body replaces the g r b
(figure 9.8). The method is effective where stream bed is connected to a h
sandy formation. In this method there is no build of ground water storage
only passage of surface water to the pumping well through an aquifer takes plac
abandoned channels often provide good sites for induced

rock areas the
I n h a r dr o c
mete duced rechargejis equivaler to pumping a well near a recharge boundary.

echarge.
und reversal in the flow direction and the water body begins to lose water to
There i s r e v e r s a l
ourth e r by induced
induced recharge. Streams, wetland and lakes may dry up completely
well by
nd the
sustained
condition of induced recharge.
under
Perrenial
Pumping stream
red Cone of depression well
- - . -
Non pumping water level
b
Aquifer Modified cone b>>h
of depression
Impervious boundary
Fig.9.8: Induced recharge
llected
dupw
"ater fru
he dee
ater.
pumpn
than
Cases a
t et oc
7tioned
al
strea
d cone
al
Stres
quutr
orage
kes
pla
CHAPTER 10
Geophysical Methods in Ground Water Exploration
10.1 Introduction
of
In chapter 7
we briefly learnt about application geophysical methna.
have ods i
methods in ground water
ground water exploration.
Geophysical exploration may
classified into following categories
be broadly
methods.
1. Surtace geophysical
ela
borehole geophysical method or geophysical logging.

2. Subsurface or
Among the surface geophysical methods, the tolowing types of techniques
10.-
are mainly used
in ground water exploration. Out of these, electrical resistivh
Ivity
is A
survey is most frequently
used and ground probing radar rarely used
TesL
1. Electrical Resistivity Survey and

2. Seismic Refraction Survey are
3. Magnetic Survey
4. Gravity Survey
5. Electromagnetic Survey
6. Ground Probing Radar
We shall discuss the principle of the techniques, method of data acquisition
and interpretation methodology one by one.
10.2 Electrical Resistivity Survey
in ground water prospecting as the
Electrical resistivity survey finds application
the of water in the pores ofthe
(resistivity of rocks depend primarily upon or amountin the rock. Rocks saturated IS CE
brackish saline)
rock and quality of water (fresh, than unsaturated and dry rocks. If a rock
is
with water are having lower resistivity s
line
will be lower than when it
saturated with brackish water, its resistivity s
of the saturating water, lower
saturated with fresh water. The higher the salinity aiso
of clay and conducting minerals may
the resistivity of the rock. Presence
reduce the resistivity of rocks. unit cube
is the resistance offered by a ES1S
Resistivity of rock (designated p)
Sch_
the rock. Its unit of measurement is Ohm
m.
(10.1) ine
p=(A/L)R
Where A is area of cross section
Lis length
Ris resistance in Ohm
Using Ohms law; R=V (10.2)
P (A/L) (V/M) S Ce
Geophysical Methods in Ground Water
Exploration | 141
For a medium (similar to one when
infinite
measurement is made on
Fof o fearth) resistivity may
orat surface
electrodes
p K( V/I
each as lows:
be derived for a
pair of current and potential
here K is a (geometric factor of the electrode arrangement and (10.3)

depends
the spacing
of current and potential electrodes.
the
upoIf
uponi
of resistivity is made over a semi-infinite,
metho homogeneous and
measurement
medium, the resistivity computed from above relationship is true

\orationn S0 o f the medium. However, if the medium is inhomogeneous and or
anisotropicsuch
anisotropic such as in layered earth, the resistivity computed from above
.
anshin will
will yield apparent resistivity to be designated as(p.) Apparent
relation
f tech resistivity is aweighted average pf the resistivities under the electrodes.
f techmine
al resisti 10.2.1 Electrode Arrays
d. A number of electrode arrays or electrode configurations are available for
resistivity measurement. For measurement of V and I (equation 10.3) two current
and two potential electrodes are used. By convention the two current electrodes
arC designated as 'A' and 'B' electrodes and the two potential electrodes as 'M
and 'N" electrodes. 1he two mOst commonly used configurations are
1. Wenner Electrode Array
M N
ta acquisti
Fig.10.14A: Wenner electrode array
oecting s Where A and B are current electrodes, M and N are potential electrodes and o
eporesis
pores of centre of the array.
cks sau
cks satur In Wenner electrode array all the four electrodes are arranged in a straight
s. Ifarad
s. line at equal distance.
n when f h e spacing A M = MN = NB = a and the geometric constant K = 2pa and
vater,Jowe
P 2pa (V/D_ (10.4)
rals m . Schlumberger Electrode Array
in electrical
umberger electrode array is most commonly employed ln
survey as it has certain advantages over Wenner electrode array.
u n i tc u t
svity
S are arranged in straight
lline ger electrode arrangement also the electrodes
(10 and AB2 5MN.
A M N B
Fig.10.1B: Schlumberger electrode arraY

and o
Where Aand B are current electrodes, M and N are potential electrodes
1s tre and
centre of the
array
The geometric factor k is given by 90
K=(ABM
MN
(10.5) 80
And apparent resistivity P )(V/) 70

MN
(10.6
In electrical resistivity shrvey currentelectrodesA and B are steelTods
which
are driven in ground few centimetre to make good contact with ground. Cure 60
driven into the ground from storage battery through the current electrodes The 50
potential electrodes consist of porous pots containing copper sulphate solutin
and copper rod dipped in it to serve as electrodes. This arrangement avoid
40
polarisation effect in potential measurement. Porous pots are put in small holes
and part of the pot (few centimetre) is covered with soil to make contact. 30
10.2.2 Types of Measurement
In electrical resistivity survey three types of measurements are made
1. Electrical Resistivity Profiling (ERP) Fig
2. Vertical Electrical Sounding (VES) the
3. Resistivity Imaging
WemaN OARA The bour
10.2.3 Electrical Resistivity Profiling (ERP mokty
ERP is done to map lateral variation in resistivity at shallow depth. The lateral defining wate
variation may be due_toljoint system )or a lineament in hard rock or change of 300
formation in sedimentary rock. The electrode configuration is generally Wenner
but Schlumberger configuration may also be used. The electrode separations are
250
xed (say a=5 m/l0 m/20 m) and measurements are taken by moving all tour
electrodes along the profile. The electrode separation and interval of E
measurement are decided on the basis of expected geological conditions. Ie 200
measurement of V and I is referred to at the centre of the array. In practice
simultaneously measurement with two electrode spacing may be done to expedne 150
the field work-
For eachVJand Lmeasured in the field apparent resistivity pa iscalculated
Data is tabulated, the distance of point of measurement in m or station locao 100
and calculated apparent resistivity in Ohm m is plotted on a linear scale grant
paper with distance on X axis and apparent resistivity on Y axis. Interpretation o 50
ERP data is qualitative but very useful. It brings out clearly buried chane
like Barakar
racture and joints, lineaments in hard rock and geological boundary
Barren Measure and sedimentary/ metamorphic boundary. Figure
In 10.2 below Fig 10.3
rock which may
the low resistivity indicates deeper weathering in granite gneiss
De associated with fracture or joints or lineaments in the rocK.
102.NES4 detect
Vert
VES, VES
configuratid
Geophysical Methods in Ground Water Exploration I 143
90
80
M
teel rods 70 -AB/2 1Om
und. Cume 60
electroðs
lphate so 50
gement
in small 40
ontact. 30
150 200 250
100
50pistance in
e
lineament;
Fig.10.2: Showing/electrical resistivity 150
profile across a
between 110 to m indicates lineament.
the low resistivity zone
of sedimentary and metamorphicrocks

which is important for
Theboundary rise in resistivity Figure 10.3.
defining watershed is
indicated by sudden
The
th. The
Orchang 300
erallyWa
eparaton 250
OVing a l E
intena
200
onditions
y.Inp a S
150
h et oe x p
IS
calu
100 Metamorphic
Sedimentary Rock
tionloa
Rock
TS c a l e 50 150 200
50 100
pretani
Distanceinm
sedimentary/metamorphie
ed
chan
over
resistivity profile
Ike
Ba
Fig.10.3: Showing
3 S h o w i n g electrical
boundary
mainkt
Sehlumlovzer
10.2.4 F> by
Sounding(VES)
are made
investigations
VES i.e., depth
ES detec
detecteCectrical electrode
subsurface
norizontal layer in Wenner or
Schlumberger
VES.
ES. VESS
conducted by
either
always preterrea.
be configuration is
niguration. But Schlumberger electrode
Ontigurati
144
Fundamentals
of Hydrogeology are planted on
all the four

electrodes
current is conneend on a ground on

In Wenner sounding
AM=MN=NB=a.
such that
s o u r c e of current
A
is hected
connected
connected between
between Ween
straight line milli voltmeter) and N M
A and B and a
electrodes The spacing increased ffron ndN
a may be
electrodes and(Vand1 are
measured. a=l m
1n
15 m, 20 m, 30 m, 45 m, 60 m m, 80 m, 100 m
6 m, 8 m, 10 m,
to 2 m, 3 m, 4.5 m, h
calculated for each measurement of V and
measurement
resistivity is T0.0
and so on. Apparent the electrodes is
The spac1ng between
formula p, 2pa (V/I).
co eased
= 20
using the constant. In this
the field curve becomes
of last segment of
10.0
till the slope shifted. All measurement0r

all four
measurement
electrodes have to be s for a 10.0
every
VES are referred to the centre of
electrodes Fig.10.1A. 20.0
the electrodes also are planted 20.0

InSchlumberger sounding (Fig 10.1B) in table 10.1. A of c Tent source
on a
10.0
straight line on the ground as per scheme shown
is connected to the current electrodes(A andB fhrough a(milli ampere meter
and 20.0
20.0
voltmeter is connected to the potential electrodes M
necessary switches. A milli
and N. It is clear from table that the current electrode spacing is increased to a 20.0
new AB/2, but the potential electrodes remain at the same place. V and I are 10.2.5 Cor
measured for each setting of AB/2 and MN/2. When the potential difference i In We
between MN falls below the measurement accuracy, the spacing of MN/2 is also Schlu
increased. Gradually the AB/2 separation is increased till the slope of la
segment is constant. In this case also all measurements are referred to the cente
measu
potenti
of electrode system. Apparent resistivity is calculated for each setting of AB2 genera
and MN/2 using the formula p,=k (V/). in carr
The basis for making a sounding is that as spacing between current electrodes i Schlu
increased, deeper probe is made. However, there is no direct relationship power
between electrode separation and probing depth. i. Stray
measur
Table 10.1 v. The ne=
Schlumberger VES Data Sheet
SOundir-
1. Location (name of can be
3.
place)
Latitude and longitude
2. VES No.
4. Date will see-
5. Direction of orientation 6. Recorded by The Sc
7. Recording Instrument
from e
MN/2 AB/2 in m
from lat
Geometric V in milli Remarks is remow
in m lin milli App.
constant K volt ampere Resistivity the rest
0.5
0.5 2
5
6.2
I1.8
P-k(V/)
Fig.10.4
of the cu
0.5
0.5 5
27.5 there advis r
vi. The
62.8
0.5
0.5
112.3
200.3 produce
0.5
2.0
10 313.3
75.4
constant
Geophysical Methods in Ground Water Exploration | 145
ound
ed bet 2.0
15
173.5
705.7
15 310.9
Mad 0.5
20
703.4
2.0
froma 2.0
30
45
1586.4
2.0 302.2
of V 10.0
45
549.5
is incre 10.0 60
2822.8
60
his case 2.0
80
989.1
10.0
ements fa 100
1555.1
10.0 753.8
100
20.0 1735.7
lanted n 20.0 150
3516.8
ce of cume 10.0 150
200 3110.1
e metea 20.0 4876.4
250
lectrodes 20.0
20.0 300 7035.8
reased
Vand10.2.5
Ia Comparison of
Wenner
and Schlumberger Sounding measurement. In
four clectrodes are moved after each
1 diiei.
diferm In Wenner sounding all after
electrodes are moved when
AN2 isi Schlumberger sounding, (only current
electrodes are moved occasionally
The potential MN is
ope of measurement.
falls below measuring accuracy.
potential between the electrodes
o the cm So more effort is required
kept(AB 2 5MN) In Wenner AB=3MN.
ng of generally than Schlumberger sounding.
in carrying out a Wenner sounding
curves depict greater probing
depth and resolvin8
Schlumberger sounding
tt elec.
electa
c u r v e s for equal AB.
power than Wenner sounding affect
relation current in very long AB,
area and telluric
1. Stray in industrial
currents
measurement with Wenner more

than Schlumberger.
are more likely to affecta Wenner
(surface lateral inhomogenities
T h e near
of lateral inhomogenities
Schlumberger sounding. The effect
SOunding than sounding curve and can
be removed as we
Schlumberger
n be identified on results
will see in section 10.4.4. discontinuous which
curves are often results
Cchlumberger sounding The discontinuities
electrode separation.
enlarging the potential error of measurement. Ihe
errect
and also from downward to fit
with
lateral inhomogenities displaced segment
upward or curve and in
shifting the
o v e d by shows a displaced
Schlumberger
Rem
curve. Fig.10.4A with the rest
:est of the moved downward to fit
has been curve and
. 4 B the Wenner sounding
second segment
in
information is not available
Curve. Such curve.
th the field to
there is no systematic method of smoothening small current is required
vi. The is that of geometic
advantages of Wenner sounding calculation
and
produce casurable
produce meas potential
difference
sounding.
consta K =2pa is simpler than in Schlumberger
Constant
d
E
******
w wyo u ÁuAgsysoy ddy
u wuo u AJAISISAH ddy
Inhomogeneou eneous and isotropic earth the field curve will be a(straight
line
Inhoxis
axis
and p p (true resistivity). Fig.10.5A shows the field curve in
hardly
ered int
arallel
homogeneous
to X
earth and Fig.10.5B
in practice.
shows the geoelectrical section. However no
encountered
ment. T case
is
Such
e spasin
S keepinm
100
s Used f
cation
consist
to deci
Smooth.
he secom 10
10 100
AB/2
potenta earth
Fig.10.5A: Resistivity in homogenious
Surface
PaP
earth model
Fig.10.5B: Homogenious
LastA a e f'Aatble
b)(TwLayer Geoelectrical Section
cases are possible. Either
>
the bottom layer p2
is
in two layer section, two than bottom
is more resistive
layer pi or top layer p
ore resistive than the top
in
section or 2 layer
earth model is shown
geoelectrical
P2. A two layer
Fig.10.6C.
P>p1 Ascending type (Fig.10.6A)
g curve
.P1>p2 Descending type (Fig.10.6B)

Tionat
type curve
2 layer descending
2 layer ising type curve
100 100
10 10 AB/2 100
10
1
10 AB/2 100 curve p 1>p2
descending type
Fig 10.6A: 2layer Fig.10.6B: 2 layer
rising type curve p2>Pl Surface
P1, h
P2
model
Fig.10.6C: 2 layer earth
A
d
vAv A
V V V V
AAV V
s,here
PP2° P3 Pa4 KH type
V.
vi. PiP2 P3> P4 KQ type
natet at
earth m vii. P1 P2° Ps*P4 QH type
vii. P 1 P 2 P 3 P 4 QQ type
Tn appendix IV, a three layer and four layer curve recorded in field with
is shown.
interpreted result
10.2.8 Ouantitative Interpretation
Ouantitative interpretation of the field curve means interpretation of the field
curve for deriving layer parameters e.g. resistivity and thickness of layers (P1, P2.
Da and h1,h2)
in the subsurface. The suftix in p and h refers to the layer number.
Ktype is done with the of master The master curves are
The interpretation help curves.
theoretical sounding curves for different layer parameters. They are generally
available for two and three layer earth models. In three layer master curve, for
each family of curves p Pi. p/pi and pypi (say 1-0.4-5) is given on top ofthe
curves and h/hj is written for each curve.
(a) Interpretation with Three layer Master Curve)
i. Plot the field data on a transparent log-log paper of 62.5 mm modulus and
100
make a smooth curve for interpretation.
<pl1. Select the 3 layer master curve sheet which shows the same general shape as
the field curve.

Q type 11. Select a particular master curve which most closely matches the field curve.
V.
Superpose the field curve over the master curve.
Move the field curve over the master curve keeping the vertical axis parallel
until the field curve matches one of the master curves.
V. Mark on the field curve the origin of the master curve which provides p 1, h.
rom the ratio p2/ pi and h,/h1 given on the master curve calculate p2 and h2.
1.Ps 1s also given on the master curve.
100
layer master curve and auxiliary point

nree Layer interpretation using two
diagram (see Appendix III). a single
is method top two layers are replaced by
of interpretation, the
layer. The steps to be followed are as follows:
fictitious
data from the shape about the type of curve e.g., H, K,
he and identify
Select the corresponding auxiliary point diagram.
ii.
i. Match
Mat layer two master curve by
the left hand portion of the curve with a of
curve. Mark the origin the
prposing the field curve on the master the resistivity ratio
and also note
Curve on the field curve (1" cross)
oP P of the matched curve.
curves,
pose the field curve on to the corresponding auxiliary pont
v. Keeping axes parallel.
el and trace the auxiliary curve with dashed line corresponding to P2 Pi
aas
above on the field curve.
field curve on the two layer master curv T

v. Again superpose the curve. This ume
origin of master curve should move on the traced auxiliary cum time hthe
xiliary curve
hand portion of the field curve is matched with one of themaster and
detined
curves righn Tema

origin ofthe second match on auxiliary curve is marked as 2d croseThe sOunding
oross.
vi. Superpose the field curve once more on the auxiliary diagram. Read t. 4ies
of h/hfor the dashed line on which the 2" cross falls. the value
P r a c
vii. Coordinates of the first cross gives pjand hi. From the p/ pratio layer
fro
note
ained in step
step (i) above calculate p2. From the h/h ratio obtained step (vi) ah
(vi) above |
is obtained as hy is known from the coordinates of 1" cross. M211
vii.Read the value of the coordinates of 2 croSs. The value on

Electrica
ordinats
multiplied by the resistivity ratio of the master curve for the second mateh
hundreds
subsurfae
gives p. Thus all parameters pi P2 and ps and hj and h2 of the field curve an- the earth
interpreted.
normal
10.2.9 Interpretation through Software There ma
Now-a-days interpretation of VES data is carried out through software. Number say 5 m
of softwares are available and mention
may be made of programmes by Philip A TheThe el
e
Davis (1979) and by GRJ Cooper (2000). All such
programmes work on the confngur
configura
linear filter theory. In forward
at various
modelling, from the observed apparent resistivity stored
storeu iin
separations resistivity transform is calculated. Layer parameters eg, switchin
resistivity and thickness of layers is derived from resistivity transform. various
In the inversion of
soundingdata, the observed apparent resistivity values a mixed so
equally spaced data points and a starting model is input to the programme. 1he more tha
programme calculates theoretical apparent resistivity values at equally spaced and b, th
data points for the input model and
compares with the observed
resistivity values. Through successive iteration, attempt is made to apparent econdIs
done in
model parameters to minimise the variation between modify the0ne in
calculated and theoretical section
apparent resistivity. The starting model may be
derived from curve matching nversi
described earlier or from forward modelling. In the inversior
inversion process also anomaly
transform is calculated from the parameters
of starting model and two dim
apparent resistivity is derived which is matched with the observedtheoreticawO dim
resistivity. apparen schemat
Interpretation through software requires that the observed is
gOod quality free from effect of lateral inhomogeneities and resistivity data o
data should be ford
complete curve i.e., the last segment of the curve must attaina
constant slope.
10.2.10 Limitations of Resistivity method
The interpretation of multi-layer sounding curve is not unique i.e., different layet
parameters may produce similar sounaing curve. This is known as problem o
equivalence. We can take a hree layer K type curve as an

of resistivity and thickness of a layer is called Transverseexample. produi
duct
resistano
The
In this
case the transverse resistance for the second layer is T2= p2 h2. There 10r
several values of p2 and h2, the product of which is same. This condition is call may l l e d
20me
equivalence in T.
Geophysical Methods in Ground Water Exploration I 151
curve. This
ary eurve 1e of
In case of H type of curve, the ratio of thickness and resistivity of layer is
master or n
ongitudinal
fined as Lo
definca
ngitudina conductance S, for the second layer S= h»/ p2. If ratio
for different values of thickness and
the
remains
same
resistivity, the shape of
ram. Beadt S
ounding
curve remains the same. This is called equivalence by S and also
curve.
to A ype
appliesactical solution for this type of problem is to obtain thickness of the second
in step vn ab layer from other sources.
S.
0.2.11 Resistivity Imaging
value Onon oElectrical
o resistivity imaging is
a multi electrode profiling technique that records
the secondhundreds of data of subsurface which are used to create an image of the
f the of electrical resistivity or a two dimensional cross section of
ieldfield oue subsurface in terms for resistivity imaging is different from those used for
the earth. The instrument
core cable.
normal protiling. It is a multi-electrode resistivity meter with multi
There may be 24, 48, 72 or 96 electrodes fixed
in the ground at regular interval
instrument through multi-core cable.
OWae. (say 5 m apart). They are connected to the
ammes byby Phi The electrode separation, the sequence of readings and the electrode
ammes defined and
nmes worka configuration (Wenner Schlumberger or dipole-dipole etc.) are pre ensure the
-
apparent resitstored in the memory of the instrument. In the resistivity meter relays
of readings. The
switching of those electrodes according to stored sequence
parameten various combinations of current clectrodes and potential electrodes construct the
ansform. the length of profile for exploration is
resistivity vale mixed sounding and profíling array. When
more than the cable length, after a first set of reading at station 1 with segment
a
e programme
programn take a
b, the operator has to move the first segment a beyond segment b and
at egually sand is
Second set of readings at station 2 as shown in Figure 10.8. i.e. 50% overlap
observed
ohserved ap
recording of the data. From the measured apparent resistivity pseudo
done in a
ade to
ade to modi
dthen Section along the profile may be prepared. The instrument may be provided with
ted Dversion software which provides interpreted resistivity and depth values for the
m curve mato
m anomaly detected along the profile. The output is taken in the form of coloured
10.9 is a
section of the earth along the profile. Figure
p r o c e s s
rsion P
d e l a n dt h e
wo dimensional cross
observeda
Schematic diagram of the imaging output.
Statton 2 Station 3
Station 1
CSIstivityd a
atashoulde
Constantslo
1.e,difiere
Fig.10.8: Progress of Imaging along profile
100- 160 ohm m
Surface
w na sproD
weatherad granite
mple. T h e p 150-200 Ohm m
p
10m p 350-550 Ohm m p = 350-550 Ohm m
SIStance1 massive granite massive granite
2 . There
20m
Fracture
imaging output
Conditio ig.10.9: Schematic diagram of resistivity
Aa
The technique has application in ground water, environment Velocr
engineering and archaeology. In ground
water it may be used for man Vi ATayv
table determination of
fracture zones, fault zone, cavernous zones and water
bE npntnt of
th
0.2.12 Application of resistivity survey and is used very frequently in gro

common technique The
Resistivitysurvey is a und
be listed as follows:
water exploration. The various applications may
1. Mapping bed rockfracture zonesand thickness ot Veathered mantl in hand m e d
b o u n
rock.
in hard rock.
Mapping oflineaments and fault zones
i Tota
11.
111. Mapping of cavernous zone in limestone terrain. Inter
area.
V. rock in sedimentary
Mapping of alluvium cover over bedsaline/brackish water in coastal area.
C 7 t
above the.
V. Mapping of fresh water zone A r

vi. Mapping of buried channels.
and characterizing landfills.
Vii. Mapping of contamination plumes
Crit
viii. Mapping of water table.

vel
10.3 Seismic Survey 10.3.1
on the surface or at shallow depth
In seismic survey, seismic wave is generated
and reflected waves from subsurface interfaces are
When
near the surface and refracted
wave) are used in holeo
hole
recorded along a profile. Generally Pwaves (compressional
four of elastic waves outwa
which has the highest velocity among types
seismic survey
Seismic
survey may be conducted in two modes: norma
(P, S, Love and Raleigh wave).
(petroleum) and (coal SOurce
i.Seismic reflection survey which is widely used for ravel
exploration.
exploration andfor precis
ii. Seismic refraction survey which is used for ground water part
engineering geologicalapplication.
a shot hole, elastc
in trave
When seismic wave is generated by blasting explosive
moves out ward in all directions in the
form of waves. A ray Surta
energy
considered in seismic survey. We will consider prof
perpendicular to the wave front is the
a two layer case in which
the velocity in lower layer V2 is more than velocityn
rOck
upper V1). We will examine the various paths of seismic rays
layer V, (V2> TOck
figure 10.10.
G 10.3
S
Pro
velocity V
in i2
R3 R4 velocity V2
R1 R2
W
Path of Seismic Rays
Fig.10.10:
forronmmarpi
en, Exploration | 153
A ray travel along the surtace (path 1) from source S to detector G with
ination. velocity V
veloriking the
ii. A ray
strikingt interface of thetwo medium
precisely at the critical angle
cidence i path willpartlyget reflected
ently în go towards the surface and part
he energy is retfracted) and travels along the boundary with velocity V2.
S. The ray will again get refracted at critical angle iç and emerge on the surface.
mantlein Trs path will be SR2R4G. It may be noted that waves travelling in upper
enedium will have velocity V1 and only that energy which travels along the
boundary of the two medium will travel along the interface with velocity
ii. Total retlected ray_(pan 5L which is generated when a ray strikes t
interface of the two medium at an angle of incidence i whichis greater than
astal area critical angle ie (11 1). In this case all the energy is reflected back towards
the surface. The path it follows is SR,G.
iv. A ray (path 4) striking the interface at an angle of incidence iless than the
critical angle (isi) will(partly)be reflected back and partly_refracted in the
lowermedium at an angle r away from normal. Where r is a function of
velocity in the two medium and angle of incidence i.
hallow d 10.3.1Principoof Seismic Refraction Survey
When P (compressional wave) is generated by blasting explosive in a shot
nterfacesa wave
hole or by striking hammer on a metal plate on ground, elastic energy moves
are used
curved front. A line drawn
elastic wa outward from the source in a series of waves with elastic
two mode normal to the wave front is a ray path, which the
o mod energy follows from
is considered in seismic prospecting. When the
m) andSource to detector. Ray path interface of two medium with different velocities,
ravelling ray strikes an
back towards surf ce and
andPrecisely at critical angle, part of the energy is reflected
tionand The ray
Pattravel along the interface with velocity of the lower medium. emerge on
hole, ela uavelling along interface will get refracted at critical angle _and laid along the
A DrTace to be detected by series of detectors called geophones)
thickness of
arrival of the refracted event, velocity and
es.
ill
cons
From the time of
are estimated. The velocity of layer is characteristic
of the
naure or
velod e r s
v e l o c i l
in consaUOaed
nic
nic
rays
or
examplefvelocity in unconsolidatedrock is(lowep,than
rock
10.3.2 Conducting Seismic Refraction Survey
channel or across
Seis
cismic
aa line
refraction sur is carried out
rdction survey
acrossa possible buried
are planted on ground along
a
lineament
Profile or along
Oalong dip direction. Geophones br24or48geophones
profile at a fixed separation say 5 m or 10 m. Normally(12 connected to the
XCd
may be planted geophones are of
along the profile. The Small o.
amount
Seismogravemay(the recording
eismoora
Ccording
instrument) through
cable.
hole (say 0.5 m
or 1.0 m depth) called
Aplosive
shot hole)may
sh be
De detonated
at in a shallow
to generate o
seismic wave.
Ahole laid out geophones

seismic
at one end of the to generate
Alternativel
wave. sledge hammer may be struck on a
metal plate
The generated
hammering.
CThe TheSio be made stronger by
signal may be
may
repeated
154 | Fundamentals ofHydrogeology eleva
of the layers with different yel
P wave will get refracted from the interface veloc
geophones planted at the surtae
in the subsurface and will be detected by and
The record is called Seismo
recorded in seismograph (instrument). A The
other end of the geophone spread and
second shot may be blasted at the artii
the midpoint of the spread may

also be tad
may be obtained. A third shot in 7hak
the spread may be advancedf

profile is longer than the geophone spread, further d o n e
and shots may be taken in similar way. n t o
wea
10.3.3 Processing of Data

The seismogram or record showstheshot timeundarrival wave timebf refracted wa Dis
geophone as the wave travelsat th

The refracted waves are to arrive first at the intertace in its path sh
(V2> V,) along the from 2Hapo
velocity of the lower medium are also called nead waves. It can also be Tizme-
to geophone. For this reason they

refracted wave will reach the geophone first. The
theoretically shown that the
repress
like reflection after the first arrival with r fo

seismogram may show other events
are not concerned at this stage.

The first breaks are marked on the
which we reache
the planted geophones in the

record and time of arrival of refracted wave at all Tom
spread is read. cach
shooting is shown in
A table for distance versus time for forward and reverse
Subsu
table below:
Table 10.2 0.3
Picket Forward shooting Reverse shooting_ Midpoint shooting h fig
No. Distance Time in Distance from Time in Distance Time
show
shot
m ms from shot m in ms
from shot m ms
2 0.5 110 17.5 50 segm-
10 1.4 100 16.9 40 CD.
20 2.5 90 15.4 30 ime
4 30 4.5 80 13.5 20 that
40 6.3 70 12 10
horiz
50 8 60 9.9
and t
60 9.9 50 8
70 12 40 6.3 10
80 13.5 30 4.5 20
10 90 15.4 20 2.5 30
1 100 16.9 10 1.4 40
12 110 17.5 2 0.5 50
In nature surface may be uneven and also presence of irregular weather

layer produces error in calculation of depth. Following corrections may
applied to therecorded time.
i. Elevation
Correction
Elevation correction is applied for irregular topography. The simplest me
for correcting for differences in elevation between shot point and geophones
es the
to convert them all to a common datum by subtracting or adding the timeshe
wave would take to travel from the datum to the geophone or shot point.
3
.
9 selnn eels
14
or
Ts
124 OrT
10
M
o r , 7
G
Ti 4 Wher
O1e,
60 70 80 90 100 110 120

20 30 40 B Distance n t
10
G
S
thick. Z
layer 1,vel. Vi, ana
layer2, vel.V2 Thus

slopeo f
case with horizontal interface
Fig.10.11: Showing two layer
o finterf
calculated from time taken by a wave to travel under the

Depth of the interface is
&
from
shot to detector (see fig. 10.10). 10.3.5 T
Time along SR2 + Time along Ra
The total time for the path SR,R4G= In nature
Time along R4G below w-
T=TsSR2 + TR2R4 + TR4G (10.7 Vi

The wave travels with Vi velocity along
SR2, with velocity V2 alone Ra In t
and with velocity V1 along RG. Source
From Snell's law we know T=

sini (10 WE
Sin r
90" and sin r =1 and i =

ic
At critical angle r=
V Tn-
sin ic = and cos ic =
- Z2
Z 1-22 tan ic Z1 (109
TV,cos V2 V cos ic In
explair
10.15
or Tv,22122
cos ic
tan te
V2 msom
Soil an
or T= 22 2Z1 sin le Water :
V cos ic V cos ic Quater
Teriar
or
T V1221-(1-
=
cos ic sin'ic) +
Exploration | 157
or
T-+
orV
or T= 22,/1-h
2 V1
221 V-V?
G of.T V (10.10)
e n T is plotted against A as shown in T-D plot, T-T; (Intercept time) at
x-0 i.e.,on
Y axis. Therefore
120 221 -V?
(10.11)
G T VV2
and1 2 (10.12)
Thus in case of two layers, velocity Vi and V2 will be estimated from the
as explained above and thickness of the first layer or depth
rface slope of the segments
calculated from equation given above. The estimated depth is
of interface will be
ve to travel under the shot point.
10.3.5 Three Layer Case

me along R nature, there may be multiple layers. A 3 layer case is shown in figure 10.12
below with horizontal interface and successive increase of velocity i.e., V, >V,>
(10 V
time T from
y V along In this case i= V,/V3 and Sin i= V/V3 and the total travel
Sin
Durce S to detector G through the path SABCDG (fig.10.12) is given by
(10.13)
T+v)VV-V+( -V
(10 Where x is BC, the distance the wave travels with velocity V3
(10.14)
Ta)-7+ W3V2
)-V}
(10.15)
Za-2)/V3-VE V-V
slope of T-D plot
(10 as
from
velocity is estimated 10.12 &
explaina or 3 layers also, and Z2 from equations
and thickness of layers Z
10.15. Theg u r e thickness is below the shot point. Typical(Pwave velocity
calculated
som r
nin Some
Soil androcks is given below rock <1000 m/sec
unsaturated weathered
Water saturate weathered rock
1200 to 1500
m/secC
m/sec
1750 to 1800
uiaternary
ary
deposits 2650 to 3810
m/sec
shale and sandstone
158
Fundamentals
ofHydrogeology 3385 to 3810 m/sec
sandstone
Gondwana shale and 2200 to 2350 m/sec
Coal 5000 m/sec
Granite
20
18
16
14
10
Slope 1V
Slope=1/V2
Tg t
slope=1/ (Per
Di
2 Inte
0 Inte
50 100Distancee 150 200 250 upo
do-
Anc
layer 1, vel V1, thick Z1
No
layer 2, vel V2. thick Z2

relation
Sir
layer 3, vel Vs The
read frc
Fig.10.12: Three layer case Lo may
Zs
10.3.6 Dipping Bed
In nature the interface of beds may be dipping and the perpendicular disu tanc
and
from shot
and detector to the interface is different figure 10.13. In thisan 10.3.7
of
Innabo
abov-
velocity 2 layer estimated firom slopes of second segment for 1o
reverse shooting will be different due
to effect of dip and will be ap
oparen
ie., V
velocity 2 layer. The intercept time for forward and reverse shoo
of
w i l l
pper
upper
different. The velocity VI of the first
layer will be same for both IOh
d Tefracti
reverse shooting. It is
possible to estimate the dip of the intertaces depth towards
interface under shot and detector and true surface
velocity of second layer
sec Geophysical Methods in Ground Water
Exploration | 159
Sec
Ti T2
Distance
V1
Zo
V2
Dip
Fig.10.13: Showing case of dipping bed
LetPerpendicular distance from shot to interface = Z

Perpendicular distance)from detector to interface Zp,
Dip ofinterface a S
Intercept time for down dip shooting=(T1
Intercepttime for up dip shooting(T.
250 updip slope my = sin(i, - a)/V
downdip slope ma = s i n ( + a)/VV
ie1/2(sin Vjma +V^ma

And dip a =1/2(sin
sin" - Vjm,)
sinVm)
Now V2, the true velocity of second layer, may be calculated fromn
(10.16)
relationship
Sin ic= V,V2
The intercept time for down
dip shooting Tii and up dip shooting T2 may be
read from T-D plot and perpendicular distance to interface at shot Z_ and detector
Lp may be calculated from
following relationship
Zs Ti V,/2 Cos ic
and Zp= Ti2 (10.17)
V1/2 Cos ic (10.18)
diculat10.3.7 Velocity Inversion
In thisca
DOve cases it was assumed that velocity is successively increasing with depin
or forwa
for V3>V2> V1. In case the lower of a layercannot
upper layer, the layer with velocity
ill be is less than the velocity of in the
Aairefractio velocity be detected by seismic
sho0
t hforwa
on survey. The reason is that the refracted ray in such case will move
e normal and will not travel along the interface and will not reach the
4SShown in figure 10.14. It is called a case of velocity inversion.
160 | Fundamentals of
Hydrogeology A C Csun
N
Ti2 1/V4
1/V3
Tin
1V1
S
Distance
gTetsatnon
V
V2 (low vel. layer)

Magnetisator
V3 a down
be
L T g i n e ui
c e l
V4
Fig.10.14: Showing velocity inversion

f thetwo
eainanl
zna9
The figure shows a low velocity layer V2 sand witched between two hi g Magnetic
velocity layers (V1 > V2<V3<V4). In the low velocity layer the seismic rayhas nto
M a g n e t o m e t e
moved towards the normal and has not emerged to the surface. Hence there is ag SuVey.F o r
corresponding segment on the T-D plot. pIcsentgenE
staton of mee
10.3.8 Blind Zone
When a thin bed is sand witched between two layers at depth, the refracted wae 141 Acau
from the thin bed will(not beidentifiable from thefirst break on the seismogan r demarca
There will be no corresponding segment from the thin layer. This is known asa meted or
case of Blind zone. feld is taker
0.3.9 Application of Seismicrefiraction Survey podant
and the obse
In a se
Seismic refraction survey is carried out for ground water exploration with t more magn
following aim and objective Thus in a se
i. (Mapping of buried channel.)The most common application of the techmque
in determination of thickness of sediments over consolidated bed rock TAgnetic s
width of the channel. CaTied out-
ii. Mapping of depth of water table. Seismic refraction survey is carried outu
P wave.The velocity of P wave in water saturated iS
weathered rockthan ni
(1200- 1500 m/sec) than in unsaturated weathered rock (less
m/sec). Thus the depth of water table can be estimated.
ii. Stratigraphic breaks. Stratigraphic breaks may be identifiedfrom dhi
velocity range in unconsolidated or consolidated formation as veloc
rocks depend on nature of rock, water saturation etc.
IGamh to°Tesla
nammCa
0 . 4M a g n e t i cS u r v e y
104Masurvey, intensity of the earth's magnetic field along with the field
s u r v e y , in
gnetic
In magnetic material (rocks) in the earth is measured along
the profiles
p r o d u c e d
a c r o s s a g e o l o
cal1 body or on grid pattern. Measurement of intensity may be of
g i c a l
aCrOSS r vertical compo

component of the magnetic field. The unit of measurement
vertical
or
field g and
and 10
10 gamma = 1 Oersted. 1 gamma is equi'valent tomanoteslin
total
Gamma" g
s
MKS unit.
M ks in earth are magnetise bythe earth's magnetic field depending upon
Rocks in earth
nefic Susceptibility) of rocks. This is nduced Magnetisation. The

induced in rocks (M) 1s given b{M=KH)where K is magnetic
m a g n e t i c
agnetisation
netisation ind field. The susceptibility of rocks
of rock and H is the magnetising
depend on magnetic minerals (like magnetite and pyrhotite)
s u s c e p t i b i l i t
will generally have Remnant

Apart from this, some rocks may
in the rock.
contained
which they acquire during solidification. When
igneous rocks
Magnetisation, from the existing
dowm below Curie temperature, they acquire magnetisation
cool anomalies are combination
field at the time of cooling. Most magnetic
magnetic and the remnant magnetisation. However,
the
the induced
of the two types, dominant in most of the cases of exploration.
be
remnant magnetisation may Generally Fluxgate
en two are taken by Magnetometer.
Magnetic measurements
for magnetic
are used are
Ismic rayMagnetometer) or Proton Precession Magnetometers
Magnetometers used. The
work Optical Absorption
ce
Survey. For very precise are provided
with GPS and location of
of magnetometers
present generation recorded.
station of measurement can be simultaneously
fracted10.4.1 Acquisition of Data like Dolerite dyke profiles are

laid across the
body
SeISmUFor demarcating a geological 10.15. Measurement of magnetic
orientation of the dyke as in figure profile the
known
know expected closer interval along
of 10 or 5 m or at even
interval m
CId is taken at be noted or recorded.
ana the observed magnetic intensity may
and metamorphic basement rocks are
basin, the igneous contain magnetic minerals.
ud sedimentary sedimentary rocks as they
from
T gnetic than the may be determined 1s configuration
Sedimentary basin
the basement magnetic survey
configuration,
t e c h n i g
the basement
urvey. For demarcating
Cd
rod
Care
arTried out on grid pattern say on 500 m
or IKm gria.
e dout
Lhan
Velool
T h e
contigura
P9 h i g hi nbb
P8
OCk
P4
P3 U 5Grs
P2
P1 0S1P
Gravity
Newton
Map of X Area
Scale 1: 20000 detined
of profiles F
Fig.10.15: Showing layout Nevw
Whe
(10.4.2 Processing of Data

to be corrected forDiurnal variatiom
i sa c c e l e
The acquired magnetic data is required No

field is observed at the same station
applying diurnal correction magnetic data is corrected for
changes, for exa
C o n c e n t
base station) repeatedly. The observed

if the observed field at the base station increases during a day, the amout a
1.e.
increase has to be subtracted from all
observed readings.
earth r
value a
10.4.3 Interpretation
The diurnal corrected data along profiles are plotted on a linear scale graph stes on unit
with corrected magnetic field intensity on Y axis and distance along profile alo In
X axis as shown in figure 10.16. The dyke may be demarcated from the magnei change
the dyke may be demarcated on ead
anomaly as shown in fig.10.16. Likewise demarcated. There are method
anothe-
profile and elongation and extent of dyke may be referem

to estimate the depth to the top ofthe dyke and the interested reader is referodt after
any text book of Geophysics. reflect
milliga
Magnetic lntensity along Profile P5 is take
28000 anoma
27600 10.5.2
27200 Norm-
26800 depen
I Km
26400
www.
relate-
26000 base
25600
any
200
0 50 100 150
base
******** Surface
dyke gravi
chang
Fig. 10 16: Showing magnetic anomaly over dyke
instr
Exploration | 163
he correcte
data collected ongrids are contoured. The contours
o n f iu
geurat
CorTeChasement. A high on magnetic field map may be associated
of basement. may show
with
ent configuration assuming uniform magnetisation
sement configu
of the
highi n basement
r o c k .
10.5
Gravity Survey
5.1
0.5.1Principle
ecting is based upon Newton's law of

gravitational attraction and
rea eayity
Gravity prospe
law of motion. Newton's law of

000 n's
second
following relation:
gravitational attraction is
definedbythe
F G m,m>/r*
wton's second law of motion is defined as F= m x a or a=F/m2 (10.20)
Where m is mass of any object which is allowed to fall from a height and a
al variatiom is
aceleration which the mass achieves and F is the force of attraction.
acceleration
ame statio s accelc can combine these two equations considering m as mass of earth
ges, for exa n centrated at its centre and r as radius of the earth.
, the amou a-Gm/r (10.21)
feAcceleration a' is a function of mass of the earth mi and radius of the
..
earth r. In geophysical terature he acceleration "a is denoted by (g)whose

Value at the equator is 978.049 cm/secpr gal. The acceleration 'g' is force acting
cale grapa a on unit mass.
ng profile In gravity survey, total gravitational attraction 'g' is not measured rather
tne mage changes or difference in gravitational attraction is measured from one station to
arcated on a
another. Such measurements are affected by the variation of gravity field over
ere are meti reference spheroid and lateral density variation underneath. The measured value
er is retem after correction for elevation and variation of

gravity on reference spheroid
reflects lateral density variation in rocks underneath. The unit of measurement is
milligal (mgal). (1 gal = lcm/sec)and normally g (gravitation attraction) at equator
taken as 978.049 gal or cm/sec^ and 1
Is
mgal =1/1000 gal. In gravity survey
anomaly few mgal is significant.
of
10.5.2 Data Collection and Reduction
dene the gravity survey is carried out on(grid pattern) The size of the grid
S Upon the size of causative body. For demarcation of basin structure
elate S sufficient. A base station is established and all measurements are
ated to the
base station. In
base station i.e., the survey begins from base station
and cud
large area sub base stations may be set up. The start survey on
start of survey on
any day will
0 baseSe station. begin from a base or sub base station and end on the base or sub
The
ace
Cha
instrume used forare measurement
gravimcter
er. The gravimeters
known gravity n
highly sensitive instrument for measurement or
are as meter or
0.01 mgal. Following

instruments nalattraction with
are used for
measurement:
accuracy better than
i. Worden gravimeter is very compact and has internal

internal temperature
compensation.
11. La Coste and Romberg gravimeter is more accurate than Worden gravi
but requires external heating from a separate box. However it is also portak
111. Scintrex gravimeters are maintained at low temperature and have
high Free
accuracy.
The La Coste and Romberg and Scintrex gravimeters have very
for of their models.
high Sea
accuracy of 0.005 mgal some
10.5.3 Reduction of Data the following:

Themeasured data is corrected for TheB o
1 Drift correction of instrument Bou
When observation at any station is repeated after some time, small differenee correcti
in reading is noted. This is attributed to thermal or mechanical stress on tha

Bou
instrument and is corrected (+ or -) from repeat readings either at base station
105.4.
or any other station.
The co
ii.Latitude correction
The earth is not precisely a sphere and it rotates, so the gravitational attraction and qu:
and qu-
international gravity formula
varies with latitude. The variation is given by
Contou
g- 978.049 (1+0.0052884
sin'Ø- 0.0000059 sins 203) (10.22) format
Where is the angle of latitude. 'g' at the pole is about|5300 mgal more than ore boc
latitude correction is subtracted from the observed gravity. Ifwe d

at theequator. The 2.80 g
(iii. Free air correction
one station may be on a
The elevation of the measuring stations may change, gravita
the distance from centre of the
hillock and another in valley. In such cases uSingi
to correct the variation in
earth 'r changes. Free air çorrection is applied 9
elevation. It is always added) to the observed reading for
stations above sca 9
level. The correction is(0.3086 mgal/mn.

(iv.Bouguer correction d
elevation above sea level
While applying free air correction only the na
station and sea level is
considered and the attraction of rock between the
attracnu
considered.The correction is applied to cancel the effect of
Bouguer
ofrock material This correction is aw
between the station and sea level. projec-
Projec
of rock material is taken
subtractedjfrom the observed reading. If density
2.0 gm/cm, the correction is0.0834 mgal/m.)
(V. Terrain correction the
in elevation tna"
Terrain correction is made for the rock mass higher
ethe
station and also valleys around the station. The

rock mass abo be
measuring
level of the station upward attraction and the valleys havo
exert
correction and subtract
considered fully filled up in computing Bouguer
added to the observed reading.
such Terrain correction always
is
Exploration | 165
Terrain corection for hill & valley
Measuring station
Free air correction
Bouguer correction
S e a l e v e l - - -
Fig.10.17: Showing application of corrections to observed data
10.5.3 Bouguer Anomaly

anomaly is defined as
The Bouguer
all dif Bouguer Anomaly =(observed gravity
after drift correction + Free air
+Terrain correction)- latitude correction. (10.23)
stress
ecorrection-Bouguer correction
used for interpretation.
tbase sa 1s
Bouguer anomaly
10.5.4 Interpretation
plotted and contoured. The interpretation is both qualitative
nol..The corrected data
is
contours surrounded by high value
nal atta A gravity low (low value
a n d quantitative. basement overlain by sedimentary
formui is associated with depression in
contours) with uplifted basement. A
chromite
formation of lower density and gravity high
show positive anomaly i.e., it may be represented by gravity high.
o r e body may of density 3.05 gm/cm' surrounded by rocks of density
VeuguIf we consider a sphere will be positive as shown in figure
10.18. The
2.80 gm/cm', the anomaly calculated at any point on
the surface
the sphere may be
may bt gravitational effect 'g' of
entre d using the following relation: (10.24)
Varatia
g GM/r (Z/r) (10.25)
Z
S abon
g GRp z2 +x2)2
of the sphere
Where z is the depth of centre
R is radius of the sphere
station from
r= vz?+2 of the
is horizontal distance
defined in the figure,
eveli
X 1S
surface and
projection of centre of sphere on 3 . 0 5 - 2 . 8 0 = 0 . 2 5 gm/cm
contrast of rocks =
1sP density
have
. ...
efu u Kewouy AAEJO
eBu u Ájoweue Kuneig
Geophysical Methods in Ground Water Exploration| 167
h the observed anomaly, regional has to be separated from the observed

efieete is done mostly by graphical method by interpolating the regional trend
data. maly. This process is subjective and depends upon the experience of the
i nt h ea n o m a l y .
interpreter.
intereal situation, a geological body or a geological section may prepared be

information and its gravity anomaly may be calculated. The
some known
from some know
attraction of the body or model may be calculated by following
gravitational
Graticules consist of(trapezoidal}compartments prepared

methods:
Ry
i. By
useuse of/graticules)
of/gratic
horizontal lines and
a system
n transparent sheet formed by equally spaced
a way that each line makes equal
on A
lines emanating from origin in such
ofradial line. The attraction of each trapezoid is equal
gravitational
next
angle with the at a station is
iregularly
of an shaped body
and the gravitational attraction
Density of the body must be
calculated by(counting the number of trapezoids. The calculated gravitational
the effect of trapezoid.
e known for calculating of regional. In
with observed data after separation
attraction may be matched to
the model may be modified or density may be changed
ensity case of difference,
be n match the observed anomaly.
bodies
with the help of computer. In this method arbitrary shaped
erdensoi. Modelling bodies of two dimensions may be accurately fitted with polygons.
ty contm or layered are noted. The coordinates
of the vertex of
The coordinates of the polygon
software. The software
and density of the body or layer is input to
polygon the body at different stations on
calculates the gravitational attraction of
be matched with the observed anomaly
surface. The calculated anomaly may to
and if needed the model parameters may be changed
(regional separated)
get a good match. calculated if the
effect of three dimensional bodies can also be
The gravity
to its bounding surface. The body
body is represented by contours of depth contour lines
can be represented by a series of
horizontal lamina bounded by
as best as possible. The gravity
on map. The lamina can be fitted with polygon
efect can be calculated by software. Like
above the calculated effect may be
modification in model parameters
matched with observed and if necessary
may be made.
10.5.5 Ambiguity in
Interpretatio The measurea gravity
a r e certain ambiguities in gravity interpretation.
a y i a function of three unknowns:densityjdepthot the body anasnape
the same
variety of values of these parameters can _produce
An and if the depth of the sphere
n the example we have taken in figure 10.18,
ie will appear flatter than
thoased
densy
keeping other parameters fixed, the anomalyis increased (say
present contrast (3.05-2.80=0.25gm/cm)
to 04gm/cm), If
one. the density
keeping other parameters constant, the anomaly curve wil
t o 04Pml in measured
density of rocks may be
ary
p e r than the present. However,
168 Fundamentals of Hydrogeology J T u i nC
ythisethoc
the lab obtained from density log and shape and depth may be
or
adiuste
marginally based upon available geological control to get a meaningful solutio a
ca
ion. by
1 0 U m wvh-
10.5.6 Application of Gravity survey
k e d
alely. 7TA
In ground water exploration, gravity survey is used for
determiningthicknese erator On
alluvium or sedimentary formation over bed rock provided that there is densin eonposer.F
contrast 1n sedimentary formation and the underlyingbed rock. It can thus
used for demarcating areas of maximum thickness and for n 1 SC x p e c
locating buried
channels. It can also be used for locating uplifted bed rock which s t r u D e n ti s
flow of ground water.

can impede gOund
subsec
It is frequently used in mineral

exploration for
Bauxite etc. and also for locating favourable sitelocating
Chromite ore body. dy. This m
ThIs
of mineral deposition.
Petroleum exploration it is used for reconnaissance. In y
64The VT
10.6Electromagnetic Survey VLF (Ver
10.6.1 Principle gwertulTrad
In
electromagnetic survey, response of the ground to the propagation of
age distance
electromagnetic field is studied. The

electromagnetic field is
composed of an anducting
alternating electric intensity and magnetising
forcePrimaryelectromagnetic field
isproduced by passing alternating current through
Magnetic fiel
loop of wire The primary LF receiver

Tece
electromagnetic field travels from the transmitter coil to a receiver coil via
above aricular
icular fre
the surface and below the surface. If the subsurface is
difference in field above the surface homogeneous there is no Certained b
of a conducting body the
and below the surface. However in presencetained. Tra
magnetic component of the electromagnetic field ansmitter.
penetrating the ground induces alternating currents in the conductor. The amount Thehe tilttilt
of current flow depends on the isis pla
pla
conductivity of the body. The induced currents
generate their own electromagnetic field, the frequency of which is same as
primary field but differs in phase, travels to the surface and picked up by a
D6.5 The
A
The AFMA-
receiver coil. The receiver responds to the resultant of the
arriving primary and
secondary fields so that the response differs in both phase and amplitude taectromagne
00 Hz. TI
primary field. The difference betweenn the transmitted and from the
received
z
xtween
T
the
electromagnetic fields reveals the presence of the conductor and provides the
de absend
informationon its geometry and electrical properties. absenc
Thddepth pf penetration of electromagnetic field depends upon thefrequency ia conduct hogonal td
of electromagnetic field and conductivity of the medium. As frequency increases
the penetration decreases and with TSence
he compoof
the penetration decreases.
increase of(conductivity)of the medium also O
Ambined ou
10.6.2 Field Work
There are many variations in data collection
methodology. Some methods use a
-urface.
66 Appli
fixed primary source and only the receiver moves
transmitter and receiver is moved. In yet another
along a profile. In other bou
type, natural electromagne
field like VLF and AFMAG are used. We discuss below only a few of them.
ectahroaremagc
fve4net ntvaape) oj'th penutvesfon depth
Exploration | 169
10.6.3 Twin Coil System
10.0.ethod transmitter and receiver coils are
n thi a cable
cable which carries a reference about(Imin diameter and are
ithnerghie eis linked by
a
signal. The
nwhich maintains the separation) of the cable has a length okKIOm)
The coils are held transmitter and receiver
horizontal and the transmitter is
AC
accurately.
erator. On
On the receiver side the
output powered by aa
passes
First the equipment is taken to a barren through compensator and
ichgcan ne decomposer.
a
noser. Firs1
d is expected. Here the compensator is adjusted toground where no conducting
give zero output. Next the
omite ore instrument
nstrument is moved
move on the
profile. As primary field is compensated over barren
erOund subsequent readings respond to secondary field produced by
deposta
POsiody. This method provides information about the presence of
only.
conducting
conducting body
method>ISt6 2S KHE)
1064The VLFLow
in VLF (Very Frequency) method the electromagnetic field produced by
powerful (radio' transmitters in the range of (15 to 25 KHzjis used for survey. At
a r g e distance from the source the field is essentially planar and horizontal. A
posed conducting body in subsurface in the direction of transmitter is cut by the
uromagnets magnetic field and theinduced currents produce a secondary magnetic field. The
TC, The pm VLF receiver is a hand held two orthogonal antennas which can be tuned to the
ver coil vaa particular frequency of the transmitter. First the direction of the transmitter is
eneousthee ascertained by rotating the horizontal coil around a vertical axis until a null is
wever in po obtained. Traverses are taken along profiles at right angle to the direction of
tromagneti ransmitter. The instrument is rotated around horizontal axis and tilt is recorded.
etor. The The tilt is plotted against distance along the profile.
inducn0.6.5 The AFMAG method-> (i to io6d Hz)

which 5 he AFMAG (Audio Frequency Magnetic field) method uses the natural
dDickodiectromagnetic fields generated by thunderstorms in the frequency range ofl to
pm
7VIng
prima 00 Hz. The electromagnetic field called sferics propagate around the earth
amplitude betu
ituoeeween the ground and ionosphere. The field also penetrates the subsurface and
edand in
n
the absence of any conducting body it is horizontal. The receiver has two coils
and
t o r andp EOnal to each other and cach making 45° from the horizontal. In the absence
aConductor when there is no secondary field, the output from coils is zero. In
p o nt h a e Cence of a conductor, the resultant field is deflected due to secondary field.
Tequency
7
The Components
compone of the field perpendicular to the two coils are unequal and t
f t h em e d u combined output is not zero. This indicates the presence of the conductor in the
sub-surface.
EApplication
Electroma
which omagnetic
are condu surveys are frequently carried out for locating mineral deposits
and may be
applied in onducting. In ground water this technique has limited use
O n e
m e
rafeleci applied in
following cases:
afèwo
i. For locating(fracture zone in massive hard rock. The fracture . piysica

appear more conducting than the massive hard rock. d recora
i. (Contaminant plumesJmay be located due to different conductivity tha Ahanica/
surroundingrocks. the nlomnati
ii. Fresh water sea water interface may be located as sea water contain: rophysIca
aquifers are far more conducting than fresh water aquifers. ining HOORYa
e in70
10.7 Ground Probing Radar GPK MATeabilir

Ground Probing or Ground Penetrating Radar is an electromagnetic surve
conducted to image the subsurface. This is a non-destructive method andSurvey
use 8IGeop
electromagnetic (e m) radiation in the(microwave band (50 to 500 MHz))It Can A IOdern
be used over soil, rock, ice and pavement etc. hgnhis

y oph
A transmitter coupled to an antenna and a receiver antenna is

kept(Imapart
andis attached to a frame for ease of operation In many system antenna for S u r t a c e
nch A
different frequencies are different. The transmitter and receiver antenna are WInc
SIngleca
moved along a profile and observations are taken at 0.5m or Im interval. The
loggera
ransmittertransmits em wave ofhighfrequency mentioned abovetotheground
throughthe antenna. GPR uses a variety of technology to generate signal such as assembly
impulse type, stepped frequency, frequency modulated continuous wave etc. But lowering
the simplest system sends e m wave of 50 MHz or 100 MHZ or 200 MHz. At this )A Depiun
is attach
high frequency of the electromagnetic wave dielectric constant of the rocks
influence the propagation of the e m wave. When e m wave from the transmitter measuren
hits any object or a boundary with different dielectric constant in the subsurface, Data log
the e m wave is reflected from the interface and is detected by receiver and received
recorded in the instrument. The instrument is also moved with the antennas. The Data rec
received signal is processed on line and the recording at each station along a days the
profile are aligned. Because of short transmitter receiver separation, the during 1-
reflections are almost vertical. The section along profile is immediately available, Compute
with distance on profile along X axis and two way travel time of em wave in
Down hc
nano seconds along Z axis (vertical axis). The principle involved in GPR survey Probes a
is similar to reflection seismology except that in GPR e m energy is used instead with pu
of acoustic energy and reflections
appear at with
boundaries different dielecne Generall
constants instead of acoustic impedance (product of density and velocity). at a cons
The electromagnetic waves have a common property that lower frequeney and the
(50 MHz) will penetrate deeper than the high frequency (200 MHz). But the
resolution of the lower frequency will be less. Another important influencug 08
processis
factor is presence of a thick conducting bed like clay bed below water a o r i
1082 Vari
which will attenuate the e m wave severely and further penetration wil
difficult. In contrast, a highly resistive bed will not create problem in propagau
Yolwateorwiexplong
I e m wave. In spite of these constraints GPR is a very useful and effective to
Self Po
S
for shallow investigation with high resolution.

Sngle
. Natoral
Crarnma
H
Exploration | 171
Geophysical Well Loggin
h0.8
8 well logging is the technique of
ording some physica parameters loweringfprobe/probes
Geophysical
in a borehole
(e.g.
al etc.) which may be interpreted terms electrical, nuclear, acoustic,
COnto peCformation
mecha
tion fluid) The record of the in

property of
of the characteristics ofrocks)
a ical log. The geophysical logs can be rocks with depth jis called a
chemical characteristic of formation interpreted
geophysical
glithologyyand to determine the

and chemical
water. Additionally the
ueinterpreted to provide information on formation logs
can
meability, factor,
bulk density and specific yield of water bearing rocks.
permeability, bulk. porosity.
10.8.1 Geophysical Logger
Amodern geophysical logger or
simply a
logger (the logging
highly sophisticated electronic instrument. It consists of followinginstrument)
is a
antema Surface Unit)

antWinch
enn Assembly with cable and speed controller. The(winch has multi core or
nterval. single core cable wound over it. One end of the cable is connected to the data
the go logger and the other end has a cable head for connecting probe. The winch
gnal su assembly is provided with a motor to turn the winch with speed controller for
"ave ekc lowering and lifting probe into the borehole during logging operation.
MHz A b) ADepth measuring device. The depth measuring device with optical encoder
f the mi attached either to the winch or pulley attached to the tripod for accurate
transm easurement of depth.
subsun c) Data logger. Data logger will supply necessary power to probes, process
receive received signal including calibration and send the same to recorder.
ntenna d) Data recorder. Earlier chart recorders were in use but now are obsolete. Now a
ation a days the log data is recorded in Lap Top computers. The log is displayed
aration during logging operation on the monitor and recorded in memory of the
va
ely avau computer which can be printed.
m wayDown hole Probe.
Probes are attached through cable head and lowered in the borehole. A tripod
GPR
Usediy with pulley over the borehole facilitates lowering and lifting of probe.
enerally the logs are recorded during lifting of the probe. The probe is pulled
aa constant speed. The probes are in two parts. One part contains the sensor
and the other part contains the necessary electronics for power supply,
e r
i n
processing of signal and transmitting the signal up the cable to data logger.
0.8.2 Various Geophysical Logs

H).
i n t i e
WWae
Follov g geophysical logs may be recorded in a borehole drilled for ground
water exploration.
1. Self Potential
(SP) log
.
etän
i.
Single Point Resistance (SPR) and Normal Resistivity log
.
Natural gamma Log
Gamma Gamma
(Density) LOg
Neutron Thermal Neutron Log

vi. Acoustic or Sonic Log
vii. Caliper Log
vii.Flow Meter Log
ix. Temperature Log
For most ground water exploration purposes item i, 11
and ii ares
The remaining logs may be recorded in special cases. Generally
probes are available in combination and several logs like SP, SPR
ficien
resistivity and Natural gamma may be recorded in one run of the probe. normal
10.8.3 Selfpotential log or Spontaneous Potential log or SP
SP logs are record of
Log
(natural potentialJdeveloped between the borehole hfnad
and the surrounding rock mass. The potential in millivolt
between a
(mv) is meae
easured Ele
moving electrode in an open (i.e. uncased) borehole

ground and a
electrode (figure 10.17). SP along with
normal resistivity and natural gamma loe
in a sand and clay sequence is shown for different
thre
quality of formation
formation wateri
water in
figure 10.18 A&B. In one case (figure 10.18 A)
formation water is more saline SP
than mud showing negative SP and in the
is less saline than mud with
other(figure 10.18 B) formation Water
positive SP.
mv
ground electrode
Mud level in BH
(Borehole filled
with mud
BH electrode
Fig.10.19: Showing scheme of SP logging

10.8.3.1 Origin of SP in Borehole
i. Electrochemical Origin
a. Membrane Potential
b. Liquid junction Potential
ii. Electrokinetic Origin_
i. Electrochemical Potential
a. Membrane Potential: Shales or clays are permeable to Naj cation
impermeable to{C1anions. Thus only Na cations are able to move t g
the shalelclay from more concentrated solution to less concentral
ontain
solution,t is assumed that the formation water and also the mud
only NaCl as dissolved solute. This(movement]of charged ions
ela Pevmolle to Nq
Jmpem oble to eA
-Gecme cuent
ric Current_and the force causing to move is potential across the

hale/clay. Thisis called membrane potential)
Shal Junction Potential:) This component of the electrochemical
auid
b. Liquid Junctio
b.ential develops at the junction of the (mudjin the borehole and

ormation water}in permeable formation. Here Na" and Clions can move
mither solution (i.e. formation water and borehole mud) to the other.
SinceChloride)jons have greater mobility than Sodium ion, the net result
of the ion diffusion 1S a flow of chlorid$ ions from more concentrated to
s concentratedsolution. This is equivalent to flow of currentin opposite
direction. This flow of current is caused by an emf called(iquid junction)
is about 1/5 th of
potential. The magnitude of liquid junction potential
hole membrane potential. SP is measured in milli volt (mv).
Measu Electrokinetic Origin | when an electrolyte moves
so Electrokinetic or streaming potential develops
grouni may be
amma through a permeable medium. In water wells, streaming potential
It is of little imp ortance to the
n water
generated in zones gaining or loosing water.
in calculation.
ore salu SP developed in borehole and is generally neglected
tion wa 1 div=5 mv
100 200 Ohm m 100 CPS 200 CPS
SP log Clay N Resistivity log Nat. gamma log
Sand
Shale base line

Clay
Fig.10.20A: Showing negative SP wrt|shale base line & N. Resitivity

and natural gamma logs
1 div-5 mv 200 Ohm m 100 CPS 200 CPS
100
Clay N Resistivity log Nat. gamma log

SP log
Sand
Shale base line

Cattor
Clay
oncen
.20B: Showing positive SP wrt shale base line & N. Resistivity

Ons
and natural gamma log
mul A i s in the bose hola2

TenL,
fwmien nettw in G ev eonble
C .
PR logs are recorded simultaneously. Since resistance of a conductor
of forrmua gnd
oture of the conductor, its length and cross sectional area, the SPR
water wi epenalitative log. The SPR log is recorded simultaneously with the SP log
potental (
he
andt
sanme probe serves the purpose of both the logs. The main uses of SPR 1
aref o l l o w i n g :
los Lithology identification and geological corelation.

i
)and i.
Identification of ractures in resistive bed.
Log) S
0.8.5 Resisivity
focks depends on the following:
of
Resistivity
i. Amount
offluid (water) contained in pore spaces
i. Salinity of fluid
solved sa
are commo
ii Pore geometry 1.e., the way
the pores are interconnected
Resistivity (denoted by R in logging literature) is defined as the resistance
SP as tho by a unit cube of the of current and is a property of the
tofered rock the flow
to
defledOOrock.
cion Mathematically define resistivity
we can as follows:
Nater.and m R=r(A/L)
R is resistivity in Ohm m
(10.27)
Where
A&B ris resistance in Ohm
or ve) A is area of cross section in m
L is length in m
ulate R, Resistivity the electrical resistivity of a known or
logging devices measure
graph betv assumed volume of earth material under the application of an electric current.
The basic resistivity measuring system comprises of twolcurrent electrodes|A and
re.
ationship
B and
fwojpotential electrodes|M
and N. The resistivity R is given by R= K (V).
Current I is maintained at constant value, so Potential difference V is proportional
to resistivity R. The geometric constant K depends upon the relative position of
A,B,M and N. Two types of electrode arrangements are employed for recording
resistivity logs. They are as follows:
neable bed1. Normal resistivity log
ii. Lateral
resistivity log
d forestin
10.8.5.1 Normal Resistivity Log
SoÍvedsoa
electrode arrangement is shown in fig.10.21 The(A)and(M)electrodes are
metallic tube at a specific separation and remains insulated from the
permeaoil I t 1s called resistivity probe. The probe is suspended from cable in the open
oreho placedfar from the A and M electrodes.
havung
The Band Nelectrodes

hebetw
The 4distance
are
restance between A and M is the spacing of the areprobe and its mid point is the
two variations in normal
Tedi point for measurement of depth. There
y n gb e m
Tesistivity logging.
Short Normal (AM =16" or 40 cm)
e eleea i. Long Normal (AM =
64" or 160 cm)
SZant
potan
HN
176 |
Fundamentals
of Hydrogeology Recording Instrument
Lateral
pulley
Surface o nc a s
Fig.10.21: Showing scheme

of Normal Resistivity Logging
The response of normal resistivity log is shown in fig.10.20 along with .
h SP
and natural gamma logs. The normal resistivity log is artected by the thicknes
the bed and its resistivity. In case of resistive bed with thickness more than
time the spacing (thickness 2 6 AM), the measured resistivity of the b
approaches the true resistivity of the bed. Thickness as defined by the log appea
less than the actual. In case of thin bed (thickness < AM), reversal of the normal
curve is recorded. The bed appears as of lower resistivity than the surroundne
beds. Definition of thickness is also not clear.
The depth of investigation or radius of investigation of normal resistivity log 10.8.5.3
IS large, several feet beyond the borechole wall. The depth of investigation of the The met
normal log depends upon the(resistivity explaine
soft formation like alluvium depth of
distribution near electrode A and h M.
investigation is of the order of twice the The

spacing AM. preferab
The normal resistivity log from cla
is used for the following purposes:
1. Determination of(formation water is
resistivity)or true resistivity)of
particularly the long normal logfor its deep penetration sandforbeß
is used tms establis
purpose. Formatie
ii.Lithological identification and geological correlation.
ii. Estimation of water
saturation in permeable beds, and
iv. Estimation of
formation factor and Forr
porosity estimation.
10.8.5.2 Lateral Resistivity Log relation
The lateral
device consists
The fourth electrode B of three electrodes (A, M, N)
is
connected through a long bridle present in the ohe
spacing of the probe A0 is measured to the
pide s Thu
shown in figure 10.22. from A to midpoint of
The f M
M and
and NN electro
elecu sandl
Sa sans
spacing AO of the lateral device does not provide symmetrical ves.
version of 6 (six device is curl 10.8.6 NN

86
feet) and 9' (nine feet)
mainly used to measure the conventionally(18'
are also
8"J
available.
Howevel
The 1ae log
smal
108.6.1
.61
in the borehole. true resistivity of formation
beyond the u
zOe
Nabur
Tock. alT
Exploration | 177
t may
he remembered that electrical
including logs
(SPwith
SPR,)Normal and
teral
It resistiv logs are ecorded in open borehole filled mud or water.
Late horeholes
Iron casedb oreh cannot be logged by electrical probes.
Recording Instrument
Pulley
1 Surface
Armoured cable
ong wil Bridle

thicknes
ore than
of te Spacing AO
M
log a
fthe nom
SurTroun Fig. 10.22: Showing scheme of Lateral Resistivity Logging
esistih 10.8.5.3 Quantitative Analysis of Electrical Logs

gation di he method of estimating quality of formation water in terms of TDS has been
Aand Cxplained in section 10.8.3.2.
The resistivity of sand or sandstone bed of large thickness is estimated
of twie
prelerably from long normal log. free
The resistivity_ofaclean sandstone bed
C a y as read from long normal log when00%saturated with formation
water is designated asRand the resistivity of formation water as Rw. It has been
o stablished experimentally that the ratio R R» is a constant and defined as
Formation Resistivity Factor F.
RR (10.28)
Fis always greater than 1
Omation factor F is roughly related to the effective porosity p by the
relation:
F 0.62/ 1 for sand, and
7t h e
ban F 1/p for compacted formation like limestone.
e prt
A rom electrical logs salinity of formation water and porosity of
Nebny sand/sandstone can be assessed.
0.8.6 Natural Gamma Log (NG LOB
weer
s 10.8.6.1 Origin of Gamma
e lalen Natural gam Rays
ma anirallyoccuming
logis arecord ofmaturallyloccurring
gamma emitting radioactive
(K"), uraniuw
gamma radiations from the
isotopes found in rocks are Potassium
L
(U) and Thorium3 (Th*). Potassium is present in feldspar
178 | Fundamentals ofHydrogeology
and mica which decomposes to clay. The percentage of occurrence o r
prisateontciorpytheae
in Potassium is about 0.02% and is uniform. Since clay minerals are t o
rals are the
constituents of shale, they are generaly radiactive. Clays also conce
heavy radio elements such as(Uand (Th through ion exchle t
adsorption. The energy and number of gamma particles (or gammna
released by potassium, uranium and thorium are characteristic of the radihotons
element. For example 1 gm of K releases 3.4 photons per second
at a fi
energy of 1.46 Mev. Whereas one gm of U" and Th releases 26000 and
photons per second respectively with a spectrum of energy that 120
Mev. averages 0s
Natural gamma log records total gamma rays above a threshold
level fnom
various radioisotopes mentioned above and are not provided with
discriminator and hence type of the source cannot be inferred.
ener
nergy
10.8.6.2 Gamma Ray Logging 1087
Gamma ray log in
borehole is recorded by lowering
a(probe)containing Gamma-
Uamma
scintillation counter for detection of

gamma rays orgamma photons (see figure Ways
10.23). The scintillation counter uses(thallium activated Sodium lodide crystal toi Pain
detect gamma photons. Gamma rays produce tiny flash of light as they fall on
Nal crystal) The flashes of light (scintillations) are converted to electric pulses in Me-
ator
photomultiplier tube and are recorded. Generally the gamma ray log is measured inte
in counts per second
(CPS). Clay on gamma ray log is identified with high i. Cor
gamma counts compared to sand and carbonate rocks which show low gamma
counts. Natural gamma ray log (1.0
against sand, clay sequence is shown in figur the
10.22.
the
Radius of investigation of gamma ray
log depends upon several factors such call
as borehole
diameter, borehole fluid, casing, density of rock and photonwithin
energy Phc
etc. It is expected that 90% of the gamma photons detected come from I
to 30 Cm
0.1
of the borehole wall.
Gamma ray log can be recorded in open hole with or without mud and caSu ene
this
hole In
10.8.6.3 Application of Gamma Ray Log) which
Natural gamma ray
logs are mainly used for(lithological)identification. The Cu plof athe
ce. r
and shale are identified with
high CPS and sand and carbonate rocks
CPS. It is
very useful log for ground water exploration as clays and wiu
a
(mostly sand and gravel) are readily identified with their characteristic non and
demarcated. The gamma ray log is also used Cro
for statigraphic
correlation.
Aensity
n1081.
gamr1
he prod
Ource
40 Recording Instrument
Pulley
entrate Surface
Armoured cable
adioacm
at a n
and D Insulated Cable
erages Natural Gamma Probe

Gamma Detector
level tna
Fig. 10.23: Showing scheme of NG logging
10.8.7Gamma-Gamma(Density) Log)> Recovd elechon density,

different
Dntai
Gammanng rays from a radioactive source may interact with rocks in three
see fin ways.
Y i Pair production takes place at energy of gamma photonsgreater than 1.02
At this energy of the photon, when it approaches the nucleus of the
they fal Mev.
atom converts itself into a pair of electron. This is somewhat complex
ric pulss
1S measunk interaction.
with bh i. Compton scattering takes place at energy of gamma in therange of0.IMeyto
low gam 1.0 MevA gamma photon incident upon an electron in an atom may
cause
the electron to be ejected from its orbit. The photon gives some its energy to
scattered by the interaction. This scattering is
the
electron and photon is
factors
called(Compton scattering and is used in gamma gamma logging.
oton ea Photo electric adsorption takes place at energy of gamma photon less than
m withn ollide/with an electron and giveall its
.I Mev.A gamma ray or photon mayelectron to be from the atom. In
ejected
Gnergy in one collision, causing the
udanda this interaction, the photon disappears.
radioactive source(Cs(Cesium ) is used
gamma gamma logging a
mits gamma ray of 0.65 Mev energy and only Compton Scattering takes
n neCompton scattered radiation is solely a function of thc electron density)
CKand electron density is related to the bulk density as follows:
C kw
s itt
Electron Density =2 (Z/A) Bulk density (10.29)

mdnon
S t iC
c P
Zis Atomic number (Number of protons)
A is Atomic Weight (number of protons and neutrons)
JA for most to bulk
rocks is As such electron density is proportional
(0.5)
TOn
density
density of rocks.
10.8.7.1
In jamma Gamma Logging
the gamma gam logging radioactive
a Cs is attached at the bottom of
source
37
probeprobe tto be 10.24. This radioactive

Source
urce lowered
emits gamma
in the borehole for logging figure
ray of energy 0.65 Mey. At this energy of the gamma ray
180|
M&SNeruron
The
n e u t r o nl o
takes place. The back

Scattered gamma rav ray is detecte #atern ntercc
0.50
only Compton scatteringjplaced at some distance (0.15to 0.50 m
m) on ther s r o
byScintillation counters there may be
detecto
two or three rs
the probe Theneutro
away from the source.

In practice
from the s o u r c e .
The probe is lowered in the borehole laced a a
Hi
different distances to the side of the borehole AmericIum

a n d
and is decentralised Th
p r o b e
hole
bottom of the the effect of enla
the borehole and also
the
minimises the effect of mud in
Decentralisation is done
with the help of a armof
largemer nevtronhasa
arm
caliper arm/is; which
o c h a r g eo n
diameter of the borehole.

activated from surface. The arm
calledçal1per arm)is f energy
b ye l a s
opens up when
contract in the hole thereby
measures the diameter of the hola
and
o f
rocksa r o u
expand or
recorded while pulling up the nrd
keeps probe
decentralised. The log is
shown in figure 10.25.
a probe e n e r g yo c c u r s
log is
constant speed. A typical density
Within a few
When the probe is in surrounding of relatively

high bulk density rock
2.6 gm/cm"), the back scattered gammar
(e.g s l o w e dd o w r
wed do
shale and sandstone, density around rays He'counteror
less in number compared to when in the surroundino

received by detectors is recordedin tk
1.3 to 1.9 gm/cm). The log is recorded
low density rock (e.g. coal, densityis calibrated and presented in terms of bulk densi mud filleu
a rmudfilled
Counts per Second (CPS) and The neut

in gm/cm API calibrati
Cabie 2.6 gm/cc 1.3 gm/cc
4000 6000 8000 CPS porosity othe
2000
L 10 Cm 20 Cm
relative chan-
sandsione
Caliper Arm Density Log

shale
www
Coal Caliper Log

petector
shale
He
Borehole
(Radioactive sandstone
Source
Fig.10.24: Density Probe in Borehole Fig.10.25: Idealised Density Caliper Log
10.8.7.2 Uses of Gamma Gamma Log Neutrom
The gamma gamma density log is used for the
following purposes:
i. Estimation of Porosity (p)
p = Pna (10.30) FiLow
g.10.26:C
PmaP robe. Acla
Where Pma is
grain density obtained from lab measurement of samples
(Pis obtained from gamma gamma log COncentrwitatid
appears
Pr is fluid density and in water wells may be taken as 1
i. For detection gm/cm Neutror
1.3 to
and demarcation of low density minerals such as coal ensilty6
1.9 gm/cm') which occur with shale and sandstone (density 2.
gm/cm).
estheimradioac
atNeutioron.r
k Denal t* ) meMAuveol Aom Y-Y ogt
Geophysical Methods in Ground
Water Explora
s deecte Thermal Neutron Log Ugazan Cantent Exploration | 181
n he pro log responds to thehydrogen content
of the rocks
Boel
utronnected isolated
The
neutron
s placed a or in
water
pores
i ni n t e r c o n n e
or any form be it
i n of a source chemically bound
enole m
e wall. Ti
ron probe
probe consists
The
neutron of neutron
consi
Hilium counter.as neutron detector

water etc.
fitted botton of the
Iitted at the bottom
eBnd AmericiumT
a n da
Berrylium ]and emits fast figure 10.26. The neutron

ararmgementOnhas
Aen
vitih
be
a relative mass of Ualmost neutron

identical to
(greater than
source
100 Kev). The
is fre y n e u t r o a
on i.e.,
it i. it is neutral. When the neutron the mass ofhydrogen)and has
ne hole an no charge
elastic collision.
elasti collision. The neutrons released passes through rock, it loses
by
he prdbe a gergy around from source
nditit and with each collide withnuclei)
collision lose some energy. Maximum
rock
y rock (ea
of
energy occa inlcollision with nucleus of hydrogen
having almost loss)of
few. after few collisions
micro seconds equal mass.
Ramm Within a
Witnu down to level of thermal energy with hydrogen, the neutrons are
garmma ray (0.025
Snter on the probe detects the thermal neutron. Itev)
slowed and are captured. A
rrecorded
Ounding nd is detected,
in the instrument. Neutron log can be recorded in processed and
6pen)orcasedand
recorded
bulk density ormud filled borehole.

dry
The neutron thermal neutron or in short neutron probe may be calibrated at
1.3 gmicc API calibration facility in USA with limestone blocks of 1.9%, 19% and
8000 CPS
porosity otherwise the log may be recorded in CPS. In CPS, the log shows
26 %
relative change in porosity.
Cable
Neutron thermal
clay neutron lo9
sand
He Detector
sandy clay
sad
CaliperLs Borehois
Neutron Source- clay
Fig.10.26:
Neutron Probe in Borehole & ldealised Neutron Thermal Neutron Log
Low CPS ecord means high concentration of water or hydrogen near the
(1030
probe. Aclay bed responds with low CPS record. Ahigh CPS record means low
ncentration of the probe. A sand or sandstone bed
amples
appears with highwater or hydrogen

Ppears near
Neutron log CPS Tecord as shown in figure 10.26.

is used for (i) lithologicalidentification and (i) porosity
CIm
C o a(
ld e p s
SIly25to
estimateutron
ion.
the as well
radioactive well as
as radiations hazardous and the probe containing
gar
adioat e SOurce should be handled by trained personnel.
gamma are
o tavek ime
10.8.9Acousticor Sonic Log>atovd
Sonic logs are record offtravel time of compressional P wave from a trans
to receiver mounted on a probe. The transmitter emits acoustic pulses of aho
out 20
KHz. Theacoustic wavetravelsalong the borehole wall and therefracted waveis
detected by two receivers attachedto the probe one foot apart.Thetransmiter
a (magnetostrictive oscillaton that converts electrical energy into vibratignal
Lonal
energy_and the receivers are piezoelectric devices. The probe is kept centralijsed
in the borehole with the help of centralisers provided with the probe.
The difference in travel time of the acoustic wave from transmitter to the tun Thecalipe
receivers is used to compute an fnterval transit timejn micro seconds. The lops
logs
t c a l i p e
are presented in microsecond/fit or microsecond/m as shown in figure 10.27. The galthnmags

transit time recorded on log can be used to calculate velocity of P wave in any dillingres
layer of rock. al5o S o m e s
n diamet
140u Sec 120 100 80 gamma de

L
IST e c o r d e s
Transit time
Cable coTectth-
sandstone The
Acoustic Log position..
the probe=
shale Receiver2 borehole
borehole
Receiver 1
Follo
Coal
i. Fo
Bow spring fo
1. Fa
shale
Transmitter
10.8.11F
sandstonel - Borehole Flowmete
S relate
Fig.10.27: Idealised Sonic log and Sonic probe in Borehole permeabi

The f
Acoustic log is used for following: vertical a
i. Estimation of velocity of P wave in rocks in subsurface and also to derive TOtation
velocity functions in subsurface. movemer
ii. ldentification of fractures in rocks. TDOVemer
is faster
i. Derivation of physico mechanical properties of rocks in subsurface, and
iv. Estimation of porosity of rocks. The
porosity p is given by hor'vzonta
At log At
PAt liquid -At matrix
matrix
(10.3) ehe Log
well
Where At liquidis transit time in water =189 to 200 microsecond'f the probc
At matrix for different formations are available in
and some for common lithology are
published litera
given below.
rature
OOvemerb
agamst
Atlog is the transit time recorded on log against

a isi
formation.
At matrix in microsecond|ft
ranstrin
Formation
Uinconsolidated sandstone 58.8
52.6
ed wave Consolidated sandstone
167 to 62.5
Shale
"ansmit e Granite 50
vbrCentartaknee Quartz
55.6
108.10CaliperLog
r to
the average tliametep of the borehole either with a three
records the
As. Thet Thecaliper
log
The single arm caliper is attached to
aliper system or a single arm system.
1021. hm gamma density probe figure 10.24(Some weak formations cve during
wavelin i n e resulting into enlargement of the diameter of the borehole. Drilling action
certain formations enlargement
results in caving in borchole. In
lco sometimes of fracture.Caving in borehole affects gamma
n diameter may position
indicate
acoustic log, neutron log and even resistivity log. Caliper
log
density log,
information about(borchole diameteror borehole rugosity to
gamma
is recorded to obtain on above stated logs.
correct the effect of rugosity in closed
in the borehole with caliper arms
The caliper probe is lowered a motor in
At the bottom of the hole, the arms are opened by operating
position. of the
the probe. Once opened, the arms are
free to expand or reduce as the dia
r2 borehole changes. The position of the arm
in the borehole is calibrated to give
borehole diameter in Cm, figure 10.25.
1 Following are the main uses of caliper log: andresistivity logs
1. For applying correction to density) heutron.acoustic
spring 11. for

Foreffect ofcaving.
identification and location of fractures in hard rock.
itter
10.8.11(Flowmeter Log movement of water in a well. The inhole flow
Weter logs record the vertical in head and relative magnitude
of
ehole Telated to well construction, difference
permeability of the aquifers screened in the well.
to rotate around
iowmeter probe is provided with impellers which is free
VerticalaXis. When probe moves up or down in the well, the impeller rotates. The
d per minute).
When
nof the impellers is recorded in rpm (rotation to the vertical
in the opposite direction
o t od e n e
of probe in the well is

M the impeller is faster i.e.,
the rpm
water in the well, the rotation of
is fa I moves upward.
Probe for recording
er than in the case when probe
Ce,and
horizontal ement of water is not available presently. of the probe in
Log is recorded for both upward and lownward movement
the well at be recorded in stationary position

of
the probe constant speed.

spe The rpm may
ant also
flow for downward
of upward
SCCondt The rpm will increase in the zone
rotation of the impeller
ediem movement. In stationary position,
po there may not be any
against blank ipe above the upper aquifer.
10.28. The up and down lo
A sample log is shown in figure
each other at the places of slotted pipe against
flow at that depth.
aquifers indicatinoats
indicatingdeparts
the veriairom
100 20p rpm
Upward movement
Blank pipe of probe 1 . 1R e m a
Remote ssE
Sensingt r a
Zone of upward flow
ofcarth. T
----
aerialp h o t
Slotted pipe Downward movement from sun a

of probe
recorded d
spectrum
Zone of upward flow vapour, CC

spectrum i
travels wi
spectrum
reflected o
Fig.10.28: Well and Idealised Flowmeter
l red and m-
( 10.8.12 Temperature Log Scanner reec
Temperature log is a continuous record of temperature of the borehole fluid in as they rec
borehole and shows the thermal
fluid is left undisturbed for over a
gradient of the borehole fluid. If the borehole microwave
a function of the thermal

day, the temperature of the fluid in borehole microwave
conductivity of rocks. The thermal)conductivity o scattered e
sandstone is more than that of limestone and that of clay is still lower. Typica cloud, TOg
fog
thermal gradient found in boreholes is 1°C
per 100 m. placed at a
Temperature log is recorded by lowering a probe 2 days.
Thermistor is a semi - conductor device having Thermistor on
whose resistance changes precisely
change in temperature. The temperature wu
borehole during downward log is the first log to be
recordea o
calibrated in celsius lowering of the probe. The
probe output is a c Region
withrange of -10°C to 100°C.
a
Name
Following are the main uses of temperature
i. In finding out the log:
Gamma ra.
temperature
ii.
Temperature logs are useful ingradient.
identifying the recharge water whicn may
be Xray
Ultra viole
cooler than borehole .
ii.
fluid.
Temperature logs may also be used in
ulPhot
tra oviolet
grap
into
the ground which identifying liquid waste e
dischag
iv. Point of may bewarmerthan
the normal
borehole fluid. re log
entry of
useful in detecting
gas in borehole
produces log
B
Visilble
it cooling and tempeie Near and
V.
Temperature logs are useful in
higher temperature against the locating cement plugs outside the casing
by infra red
cement plug than the
gs outside
normal graa Thermal
Ted
CHAPTER 11
parts from
he verte Remote Sensing and Aerial Photography
1.1 Remote Sensing

Gensing literally means sensing any object from distance. Remote
ag from space platforms i.e. satellites provide a synoptic view of the surface
sensing
recorded in digital format and unlike the
earth, The most satellite data are
coverage. The electromagnetic energy
wrial photo does not provide stereoscopic earth can be recorded by sensors and the
fom sun after interacting with matter on
recorded data can be image. However, certain wavelengths of the
seen as an
ultraviolet region are absorbed by atmospheric gases like

water
Spectrum in the
Ozone and are not available for sensing. The electromagnetic
vapour, CO, and
varies from nanometre to metre. It
spectrum is continuous and its wavelength
different bands of the
travels with speed of light. Table below shows the
several windows through which
spectrum and their use. The spectrum has near infra
retlected or emitted radiation is recorded. While the data from visible,
scanner, thermal
Td and mid infra red widows are recorded by multi spectral
are Passive scanner
Scanner records the emitted thermal radiation. These scanners
satellites record data in
record the reflected or emitted radiations. Some
sholeflud ney the satellite emits signal in
the boreb
the borehe niCrowave bands also. In this case an active sensor on reflected and back
0.1 to 100 cm range) and the
in borehls
in borehoks ave range (wavelength The emitted microwave signal can pass through
energy is recorded.
nductividod Remote sensing satellite is
,1og and rain and during darkness. The Indian
nductivity
T1
Ower. 1yp
the site every
800 Km from surface and revisits
same
d22 days.at a height of about
Tmistoron
p r e c i s e l yi
Table 11.1
ecordada
put
isdice Region Wave length Comments
Name
Gamma ray <0.03 Absorbed by atmosphere not available
for remote sensing

nanometre(nm)
0.03 to 30 (nm) do
Ultra violet 0.03 Mostly absorbed by
Ozone in the earth's
wtichme to 0.3
atmosphere
Photoviolet
graphic micrometre(jum)_ Available for remote sensing
the earth
dischag2 ultra 0.3 to 0.4 um sensor

Visible with camera and Passive
Near and mid 0.4 to
0.7 um do
peratureP infra red mid 0.7 to 3.0 um do
Therm be
Ted nal infra | 3.5 to 20 um sensing but
e thecasut can
Available for remote
captured by sensors
only
adient
186|
Fundamentals of Hydrogeolog Asily. T h e
Active sensors emitting

Microwave or 0.1 to 100 Cm are required. Micro
rowave signals microwave
fiela detectea.
Radar through cloud, fog, rain and in can pay
images can be taken. ght and
his wavelength Toextract
responds to surface roughness
dielectric property of earth material analysis tec
upontihe ol
Not used for remote sensing
Radio >100 Cm ia
analysis
of images of the sa
images are a series
same
Multi-spectral scanner
in different part of the electromagnetic spectr targe Preprocess

acquired simultaneously
that certain band or combination bandsn
Mhulki P R a d i o
spectral capability has advantage Thermal infrared systems create

prov i Geome
contrast for image interpretation.

better radiant temperature of surfaces. Thermal charac earth ar
by scanning and recording moisture content, differential solar heating Tran ii. Transtc
of material can vary with

unique, them
iv. Georefe
material are
Where thermal characteristicS of
a
topography. ma
to interpret and can be of great help in geologiel In mou
imagery
infrared can be easy remain
study.
Radar is an active remote sensing method in the microwave range a differer
mentioned above and is independent of lighting conditions and cloudiness. The and obt
data of microwave band provides information on surface roughness and dielectri Norma
of rocks. Side-looking airborne radar (SLAR) produces a radar image interpreter
interpreter
properties
of the terrain on one side of the airplane equivalent to low-oblique aerial
I1.1.3 Imas
photography. Radar interferometry is a quickly emerging field of radar remote Satellite deE
sensing. Radar interferometry techniques will detect very small changes nprocessing
topography, such as those caused by landslide movements, fault displacement, i. Someti
erosion, or accretion, and can be mapped remotely over large areas. by atm
11.1.1 Resolution remove
Spatial resolution is the sharpness of the image and the smallest size of obje feature-
that can be distinguished in the image. 1ypically pixel may correspond to suu . Spatial
area from 1 to
1000m. Data of proper resolution should be selected depending Diferent
upon the purpose e.g. for regional mapping low resolution data may suffice.
1.14
11.1.4 Imau
Imag
1
Spectral resolution is the width or wave length range of the part ot Different
f the
spectrum the
dlassificatica
cassificatic Uses
Landsat (USA) has

record
sensor can
and the number of channels sensor
bands including several in the infra red specruu
seven
uiafomatior
informatio
a
and
resolution range from 0.07 2.1 um. to procedure

i. Superv
n the
Radiometric resolution is the number of different intensities of
sensor is able to distinguish. This resolution ranges from 8 TO
radian bis cover
corresponding to 256 levels of grey scale. known
. Unsupe
Temporal resolution is the time interval between successive vIsi
same area by the satellite.
Typically the Indian Remote Sensing Sare icast
r e v i s i s
automa
the same site after 22
days. The feature
like cyclone, flood, landslide etc. changes brought about by any na
any natural
during the
etecd
intervening period ca iofnteclass
rpr-
Remote Sensing and Aerial Photography| 187
xowave
mals can e
pas
The changes
nges in river course and erosion of embankment can also be
in night an detected.
ocessing and Analysis

wavellengengha
ghness .2 Imageaximum
12 information from
the images many
image processing and
naterial. anaBysis
To hniques have developed. The choice of specific technique depends
o abiective of the project. Following are the commonly used procedures
upon the
of remote sensing data.

same targ in
analysis
ctrum. Mu Pre-processing
ands provde
ds provi Radiometric correction for uneven sensor response over the entire image.
reate ima
Cate imap Geometric correction to correct for geometrical distortion due to rotation of
characterisi earth and oblique viewing
heating a
*ating a Transformation of the map to any specific projection system.
ique, them iv. Georeferencing i.e. establishing relationship with topographic maps.
1que, then
n geologiV. In mountainous region some part may be illuminated and other part may
remain dark. As a result reflectivity on illuminated and dark side will be
ave rangea different. Topographic or terrain correction is applied to correct this situation
oudiness I and obtain true reflectivity.
station and
and dielecm Normally the above corrections are carried out by the ground
a radar im interpreter is not required to undertake any correction.
-oblique ae 11.1.3 Image Enhancement
f radar remt Satellite data is recorded in digital format and they are amenable to digital
all changes
all chang processing for improvement of image.
due to scattering of sun light
displaceme
displa ometimes the recorded image may appear hazy level stretching which
Dy atmosphere. The image be enhanced by grey
can
appearance of image
and the contrast between different
OVes the hazy
t size o f o
features improves.
Spond
t os q u s
i . Spatial filtering is required sometimes to enhance edges.
c t e d d e p e n d
.1.4 Image Classification

discriminated using some image
ifferent land
cover types in an image can be
brightness
lassification algorit using spectral features like colour ofandclassification
classificati
a ysuffice
the parta
a sensor
nformatio. in each pixel. There are
two types
Proceddure Contained and unsupervised
classification.
. Supervised supervised
lassification. classification
In this case spectral features of some known land
a spectru
1amely
is compared with
the
o fradiation Cover are taken. Then every pixel in the entire area
.
nown land cover area and classified accordingly.
Unsupervised programme
t o
case the computer

8
Classification. In this basis of spectral
utomecd
7
Satellee
V e visitso
omatically
feature of the grou
nterpret. pixel.
roups the
Each
pixel into
cluster
separate
will then
clusters on the
be assigned a land
to as a
c o v e r by the
Theme and the product

rpreter.
ofClassificos Each class of land cover is referred
natura/
can be
de classificatior is called Thematic Map.
11.1.5 Interpretation Pedin

cover types to the thematic classes
A plausible assignment ofland
OCcur
following table. The accuracy

the thematic map derived
of from Snown
ived from rer shown in
ote sensinthe there
in field.
images should be verified b r i g h
Table 11.2 KPedis
Colour in Land cover type s e m i -
Class
No.
u p o n
map
Clear water
Black Dense forest with closed canopy
shallc
Green pros
Yellow Shrubs&less dense forest redtc
Orange Grass Valle
Bare soil, built up arcas

Cyan dema
Blue Turbid water, bare soil and built up areas

patte
Red Bare soil, built up arcas a n ds
8 White Bare soil, built up arcas

vii. Linea
Substances on earth can be identified from their spectral signature. At some prov
wave length sand reflects more energy than vegetation. However, at move
some other
wavelengths vegetation reflects more cnergy than sand In principle, variou imag
kinds of surfaces can be recognised bascd upon thcir reflectance. Syno
A single band image shows features in various impo
grey tones. A true colour
composite based on using the red. green and bluc portion ot the visible portion
is ines
of the electromagnetic
spectrum. This is the colour which the human eyes wil I1.1.6 Ge
see. If several
images are combined they form colour composite. |When part of AGIS is
thevisible band is combined with other bands it forms a
((FCC).)Combination of visible band with near intra Falsçred isColour Composiz a
about a-
common. Mary
features can be detected easily on FCC. For forms of
in red tone example vegetation in FCC appeas informat
ntormati
as
vegetation reflects much light the near infra red region. 1
in
combinim
Ombinir
basic elements interpretation are (tonc,/texture/
of
slope and (association of features. We give below size,\shapereliet drainag one of th
one of th
features and their identification criteria
on satellite
some
geomorphoiog performin
Structural Hill. Structural hills on imagery. Sensing i
satellite imagerv are interpreted by
green tonal variation and by thick
ii. Denudational Hills. vegetation.
Denudational
hills with resistant rock hills are exposed as a group mass1ve
.2 Aer
o due.
due
differential erosion and
bodies and rounded
peak and are Aerial pr
domal to elliptical weathering. They are identified by therTOrmase si SIZe
fying al-
ii. Residual shape and dark green ce on
on satellite imager about 60
Hill. The residual appearance satci from two
pediplanation which reduces the
hills are the end product
product or the roces
of proc
knolls standing on the original mountain
pediplains. The unit occur
tain into
into aa seri
series o nlowe
o
c a t t e n
pEovide
Sngy, as
altitudes.They ccur as
as isolated
isolatea patches
appear pawith The
Vithradia
drainage pattern.
as isolated patches with dark The
green S import
dso for
Remote Sensing and Aerial Photography | 189
ediments. ediments are usual formed at the foot of a mountain. They

Peu oently undulating plains with moderate slope with outcrops here and
oand
there and
thin cover of soil. The low moisture content of this unit gives it a
signature in the satellite imagery.
bright formed as a result of weathering under arid and
Pediplain.
The pediplains are
. emi-arid
emi-arid conditions
conditions representing the end stage of cyclic erosion. Depending
n the thickness of weathered mantle, they are broadly classified as

shallow (upto Sm), 20m) and deep (> 20m). Ground water
moderate (5 to
nrospect is moderate to good in Pediplain. Pediplains are interpreted by light
red to moderate red colour in the satellite imagery.
Valley fills. Valley fills are areas Occurring between hills. Valley fills are
demarcated on the basis of typical flatness, smooth texture and drainage
dark reddish tone
pattern etc. In the satellite imagery they are identified with
and smooth texture. Ground water prospect is very good in this unit.
vii. Lineaments. Lineament analysis Jof any area from remotely sensed data
At sn provides important information on subsurface fractures that may control the
movement and storage of ground water. Lineament analysis from satellite
Ome ot
Variou imagery data has an advantage in that a regional area can be investigated
synoptically with high accuracy. Lineament analysis in hard rock areas is
important for locating water wells. Lineaments usually appear as straight
ue colr
lines or edges on the image with tonal difference within the surface material.
ole pori
eysi 1.1.6 Geographical Information System (GIS)
enpani A GIS is a database of different layers, where each layer contains information
ompo about a specific aspect of the same area which is used for analysis. Different
on.
on. IOms of imagery such as optical and radar images provide complementary
information about the land cover. More detailed information can be derived by
cembining several different types of images. For example, radar image can form
ZIOn
ue I the layers in combination with the visible and near infrared layers when
holoeeriorming classification. The thematic information derived from the remote
sensing images is often combined with other auxiliary data to form the basis tfor
dby GIS
11.2 Aerial Photography
pnotography consists of taking photograph of land surface from aeroplane
s
flying along a predefined path at
about K0 low height. The entire area is covered with
about 60% area is photographed
from two overlap to provide stereoscopic view.areCommon
viewed under a stereoscope
ameras. When these photographs
provide a three dimensional view of the area. The photographs may be viewed
singly, as mosaic, or as stereoscopic pair.
The primary which
is Dort 0r y objective of aerial photography is geological mapping
alsoimportant
for
for for ground water investigations especially in hard rock areas
gro and
nineral and petroleum exploraion and in engineering geological
of
Hydrogeology on(itholoo
gy And
Onaon
provide i n f o r m a t i o n than 1o
Fundamentals
190 | can and

A e r i a l _ p h o t o g r
areas
a p h s
provide
Sedimentary rocks
more
such
Such as
as
sandstone,
ph otone,
roCkS
investigations. rock
aerial photograpphs
S e d i m e n t a r y
StructureSedimentary
on aerial
areas. apparent
rock
covered
are
more imno
is also important. A
metamorphic moderate dip photograph
aerial relief.
shale having scale of moderate
limestone, The area or

granite. for
homogenous enough
than photograph
is good
scale
:20000
photographs
are the ing
followin
Recognition
of aerial ref
11.2.1 Elementsfor interpretation reflected relative
amount of light
elements for of the
white film. Tow es ard
The basic
2 2
black and
measure
tone: It is
a
human eve
a
recorded o n
1)
(Photographic
actually white also.
white As human
As
As human eyes can
can
by
by an object
object and
and actud hlack
be black and
and
important in geological
geological
but may tone, it1t is
1S important
shades of grey tone,
differentiate
minor change in
great
aerial
photographs.
useful in interpreting t e r
interpretation of photographs may

be more
(ColourColour is very high.

(ii) the cost of colour photographs
within the image and i.s
but tonal change
u t o t o
details frequency of
(Texture:Texture is
the ll to be recognised
too small
be
(ii) of unit features
produced by aggregate of fine lines interpreted as
Thus a network
TaSS1
the photograph. on larger scale

individually on
as network of joints
texture on one
scale may be interpreted
of geological,
photo. Pattern indicates the spatial arrangement
(iv) (Pattern features on photograph. Pattern may 11.2.
topographical and vegetation the photograph. Drainage Meta
and a l1neation on
represent faults, dyke, bedding toliat
photo interpretation.
pattern are important elements in The relation of one feature to its tones
(v) Relationship_ to associated features:}
feature may not be identifiable. For Ieriv
as a
surrounding is important, single
that the associated features are
this a suitable scale photograph is chosen
so
also available on the photo. ara

expression. It is useful in TOck:
(vi) (Shape:) Shape refers to topographical
Tdentification of volcanic cones, sand dunes, river terraces etc. I1.2
(vii) (Size:Relative size is useful in interpretation. Thickness of beds and ofis
along faults may be measured. 1.2
combination of elemens
ents hot
(vin Combination
is used for
of recognition elements: Normally
interpretation like tone, texture, topographic expression c
11.2.2 Identification Criteria
11.2.2.1
of Rock Types
Consolidated Sedimentary Rock
Presence of bedding in most their
identification on aerial sedimentary rock is an important character

photograph. Because of differential erosion Whe
sedimentary rocks, banded pattern is seen on differential ative
relativel ho
dark photographic tone,) fine photograph Shales fino ion
joins Dar
Sandstone shows relatively light textured drainage and closely
spaage
and spaced
relatively widely spaced joints. photographic tone, coarse texturc rain

Remote Sensing and Aerial Photography | 191
Unconsolidated Sedimentary Rock

11.2.2.2
The unconsolid
lidated sedimentary rocks are identified on thebasis of landforms
sandse sand
such as (sand
opographical
cal expression.
dunes,feskers(alluvial fans river terraces)etc. from their
Surficial debris do not show any landform but may be
their
from tone and from
drainage characteristics, photographic
i d e n t i f i e d
analysis ofslope.
Igneous Rock Extrusive

11.2.2.3 form and their
Wing Extrusive
igneous rocks are identified from their diagnostic land
nt relese relationship to associated rocks.
structural
Tones
n eyes 11.2.2.4 Intrusive Igneous
rock
relationship of intrusive igneous rocks to the surrounding rocks is an
geolStructural
geologa
important criterion of
identification on aerial photograph. Dykes appear on aerial
also be
or curved ridges. Their photographic tone may
ing photographs as rectilinear
host rock because of compositional difference or because of
different from the aerial
Sills occurring parallel to bedding may not be identified on
nage and vegetation. Igneous plugs, laccoliths, stocks and batholiths tilt the surrounding
photograph.
recognis rocks which form criteria for their identification. The plutonic rock will have a
erpreteia massive appearance on aerial photograph and in large plutonic rock areas
larer
lar
dendritic drainage pattern develops. Two set of joints perpendicular
to each other
generally is seen on plutonic rocks.

geolopi
attem .2.2.5 Metamorphic Rocks However,
h. Draie Metamorphic rocks are(difficult Bo be identified on aerial photographs.
1. Draing
1Olations in metamorphic rocks can be recognised. Differences in photographic
foliations in metamorphic rocks
re tones offer clue for recognition of bedding or
marble might retain
Cahe derived from thin bedded sedimentary rock. Quartzite and
fiable. like
characteristics of original sedimentary rocks. Topography
featis pnotographic
suggest presence of metamorphic
Teatucs
parallel ndges low areas and intervening may

rocks.
U s e t u
1.2.3
andate
Tdentification Criteria of Structures
1.2.3.1 Flat lying Beds
characteristics are important criteria
of identification
tone and slope
loof
pe
of na phic
f len
Where sedimentary rocks of

of different
horizontal beds.
n
o n
e
photogra:near
e
tone occur, they may be identified as

bands extending along
tOn e
topographic contour.
112.3.2 Dipping beds
Te
t r r
Nhere opographic surface coincide with bedding surface, dip is clearly on seen
Photograngraphs. In of tree fall bedding on

areas of thick vegetation, the crowns
plane.
anz
11.2.3.3 Folds
seen in a single view, identification
If structural arrangements of beds are of
ce
is simple. It can also be recognised where erosio nas exposed a section of slds
ection of
the
structure. (Drainage characteristics) are also neipru in recognition offolds.
fol
are sluggish
and
meandering comnars
Streams flowing in synclinal valley
In case of plunging folds, streameto
flowing in anticlinal valleys. curve
I Introd
streams
DOOeln
around the nose of the fold.
11.2.3.4 Faults
Faults appear as straight lines or gently curving lines on aerial photogranh.
Lines indicating faults may be expressed as alignment of vegetation, strea athenatic
tones on opposite sides of t IOdels
lakes, ponds and spring. Different photographic sides of the straight lino
line and different erosional texture on opposite
T hn
e model
straight lines
are characteristics of fault. Alignments of topography like straight scarps or sbehavio
rectilinear depression are indicative of faults. Faults may also be indicated gTound
by
horizontal and vertical offset of beds. his use
the
11.2.3.5 Joints
Joints appear as linear feature on aerial photographs. Joints may develop in one models
direction or may consist of two sets almost at right angle to cach other. Joints on the
may get widened due to weathering and erosion process and appecar well fi
prominent on aerial photographs. iSome
11.2.3.6 Fracture Trace
water.
Fracture traces and lineaments appear as natural linear features with tonal Ingro
variation on aerial photograph due to alignment of topographic sag or vegetation model
or soil moisture pattern along a line. If the continuous linear feature is more than from
1.5 Km, it is termed lineament and less than 1.5 Km is called fracture trace. agicu
. Some
Fracture trace and lineaments are important for ground water occurrence in hard
rock terrain. geoth
11.2.3.7 Cleavage and Foliation R.Aquif
Cleavage and foliations in metamorphic rocks are difficult to be identified on 2 Ditt
aerial photograph. However, stream and
and gullies may indicate
vegetation pattern and parallel nuge terent
cleavage and foliation.
Offerent
these
11.2.3.8 Unconformity
Unconformities are difficult
m0at hema
12.2.1 Sc
to interpret from aerial
photographs. An
unconformity may be inferred from the discordance of bedding either as,dip.
strike or both at a constant line
across a wide
edwwwrrfionrg
area.
2.22 H
Ses tran
Tiis tyoe
d fresr
n.23 R
yytem
dentificatm
Osed aseshom CHAPTER 12
Ground Water Modelling

fderoldis,ng stroTyy
eang
1 2 . 1 I n t r o d u c t i o n
12.1 may be defined as qSimplified version of a real ground water flow

aerval plaoto
vepPo
A
min
mode
earth
earth that
th approximately simulates the effect of pumping or recharge of
model or
vegettaetion,sides
posi athematical
ystemin
e real system.
the
A moaer may
be a scale model or an electric
model of a ground water aquifer. Now a days most of

situation or
aquifer conditions.
of the straigh models which simulate and predict
Ahe models are computer and
understanding the ground water system
straight soam
l
so be indicata
The model can be used(as a toolfor
and for predicting response
to abstraction and recharge. Application
IDdiits behaviour models are:
water
of ground to
It is used representground water flow ihrough aquifers. It has been applied
i. state flow in aquifer system.
Ground water
the case of regional steady
to abstraction of ground water
1ay develap also be used to predict the effect of
models may in head near a
each other. Je such as effect on cone of influence, changes
on the aquifer wells etc.
and apear t injection well, recharge dewatering
basin and
well field and near
models represent yuality or chemical aspect of ground
ii. Some(ground water
movement of chemicals (solute)
water. These models attempt to(predict)the
models are called solute transport
in ground water in natural scenario. Such intrusion, migration of leachate
atures with model and has been used in case of sea water
hazardous industrial waste and
sag or vege from landfills, contamination from
etc.
agricultural activity such as use of fertilisers and pesticides
t
atureis mor used in
ard heat transport models. )They
are
ed fracture
fracun i. Some ground water models
led
Ccurence geothermal studies and thermal pollution.
with land subsidence.
V.
Aquiferdeformation models which deal
b ei d e n t i f h e d f
12.2 Different Types of Model in the past are as follows. Some
d paralleln Terent types of models which have been used
and have been superseded by
Othese models are of historical importance
Ndnematical models. However a mention of the same is necessar
sediments as
Sand Models. These models are prepared from the (same)
V h s .A na n g
OCcurin in nature and are scaled down in a big tank. These models have been
As ing
phseithernused for study of seepage from the aquifer.
g
12.2. model
ale-Shaw Model. This is also called(Viscous Flow Model.)The
Se
Uses between the sheets.
This
This transparent
type parallel plastic sheets with very small space
such as sea
of model has been used for two water of different density
and fresh
and fresh water and injection of waste water into flow field.
12.2.3 RC Network Model or Electrical Model. Flow of water in a ground water
system analogous
is to flow of electricity through an electric circuit. The
194 Fundamentals of Hydrogeology C buittos
electrical model is made of network of[resistance) andcapacitor) The resistan quivalence
are connected to a common junction and a capacitor is also connected t S Electric
junction and is grounded. it is equivalent to a point or node on the aquifer h stemLe i

aquiter being represented by grid and the properties are defined at the nodes
Sinulat
point of intersection). The partial differential equation for two dimensi
The
thicknes
unsteady flow in aquifer is given by t y 7 ( ) . f the variable h js ectrical pa

defined at discrete points (nodes) on a model, the equation can be written in finit I K e n
o u t A
finite soredin t
difference form as follows (see fig.12.2):
h1t hi-1j + haj+hij1-4 hj = a S/T ( stores c e r t
(12.1) quiferi s r
a's
(h1t+ hi-1j +hia+hy--4 hij)
=
or T (12.2) f current
Where the head at a node is identified by hij and the expression in the bracket To sin
represents heads at four nodes around it as shown in figure 12.3. S and T are 9ater table
storativity and transmissivity of the aquifer and a" is dimension of the grid. The te is sir
rate is Sir
flow of current on a resistance - capacitance network as mentioned above is ransient
given by(Kirchoff's current lawas follows with the h
1/R(V+V+V,+Vs-4V)=C (12.3) time drav

Decline i
3
CRO. The
quickly a
R3 seconds.
R2 R4 The i
2 M- MA
The grap
or the
Re informat
Fig.12.1: R-C network at node

12.3Ma
The ma
Where V2, Vs, V4 and Vs are
indirectl
potentials at the end of resistances R2, R3, Ra, $ processe
and V, is the potential at the junction, C is mathem
capacitance and(is change
potential with time. If equation
12.2 and Theis
equation 12.3 are compared, ana
between aquifer system and electrical
system can be drawn as follows Solutior
T (transmissivity) E
1/R, the inverse of resistance every
models
h (head) = V(voltage)
a"s
(Storativity) = C(capacitance) ranspo-
and Q, the
quantity of water flow = I, the coulombs of electrical curret
Conside
s not rent
Thus flow of currents not

in electrical circuit is equivalent to tlow of compu
oate o solutio-
water
r a t e oi
aquifer, The junction of several resistances and
flow and amount of storage at that capacitor representdels ca space
particular point. Scaled electrical no
solve
Ground Water Modelling | 195
oTmerdeh
he aput be
built to
equivalence
ectrical
given above.
simulate ground water flow system and the features of analogy
model is constructed in a shape similar to that of the actual aquifer

Electrical mo
are the
system
i.e.it is built up on a small scale map of the aquifer. Recharge boundaries
ne varnahe ated by common connection and impermeabl boundaries by open ends.
a r es i m u l a t e
thickness of the aquiter and its properties like T }&S)are represented by

The
lectrical properties, The water table which rises and falls as water is added or
oken out from the aquifer is represented by(changing electrical voltage.)Water
in the aquifer is represented in
ored model by electrical
the which capacitor
stored
stores certain amount of electricity. The flow of water at certain rate in the
stores certain
(p aquifer is represented on the model with resistance which limits the rate of flow
2q
on in the tn of current.
3.S anad To simulate pumping of water from the aquifer which causes decline of
of
of the
the water
gid table, electricity 1s withdrawn from the model i.e. Pumping at a constant
tione r a t e is simulated by introducing a negative pulse at any of the nodes. The
tioned abe. transient response of other nodes is studied by observing their varying potentials
with the help of a CRO (cathode ray oscilloscope) The transients represent the
2time draw down characteristic of the aquifer at the corresponding location.
Decline in water table is shown as decline in voltage which can be seen on a
CRO. The effects of long duration pumping can also be seen on the model very
quickly as time in days of actual pumping can be represented on model in
seconds.
The information obtained from the electrical model is presented in graphs.
The graphmay show the decline of water level at different intervals of pumping
or the effects of pumping closely spaced or widely spaced wells. This
nformation can be used to recommend pattern and rate of pumping.
12.3(Mathematical Modelling
he mathematical model simulates ground water flow or solute transport
ndirectly by a set of governing equations which is expected to represent physical
s
R.POCesses that occur in the system. The preferred method of solution of the
R ,
R , P r O c e g
ChanE
unathematical model of a given problem is the analytical solution like solving
D a r e aa
, n a
CS Cquation. Analytical solution of the mathematical equation gives exact
Oto the_problem, i.e., the unknown variable is solved continuously for
WS
pOint in space (steady-state flow) and time (transient flow). Analytical
s a r e exact solution to a specified, well simplified ground water flow or
nrequation. Because of heterogeneity and irregular boundary of the
onsidered
1S not
area and non analytical form of various functions analytical solution
7Cure possible. A such
solutions are obtained by numerical analysis with
Computer. Numer
Solt.Numerical
solution to the problem,solutiontheofunknown
the mathematical equation gives proximate
sPace
space (steady-stat i.e., variable is solved at discrete points in
solve the more tate flow) and time (transient flow). Numerical models are able to
complex equations of multidimensional ground water flow annd
125
Finite
solute transport. There are two methods mumerical solutions.JThey
of
alled
a Wehavem
(a) Finite Difference method and (b) Finite ElementMethod. In both
oth the
the md b
the flow domain is represented by dividing the area into square
ares or method o f
u n k n o
the dependant variables are ascribed to the nodal points. The polygons and palytical
reliability and usefulness of a model depend on how closely the mathemati applicability, unknown
n
equations approximate the physical system being modelled. Therefore modenatical hod o
method of
Therefore modelling
of ground water flow needs a proper understanding of the squareg r i c
complete
hydrogeological characteristic of the area. nodalpoin
U n k n o w n
12.4Parameters)for Mathematical Modelling squaregriC

The modelling starts with a conceptual model consisting of a set of assumption.
thatverbally describe the systenm composition, the transport processes that tat
place in it, the mechanism that govern them and the relevant medium properties
For calculation by modelling softwares the following data are required:
i. Demarcation of the domain to be modelled.
11. The hydrogeological framework such as aerial extent and thickness
the
aquifers and confining layers over the entire domain to be modelled.
ii
Hvdraulic propertiessuch
and their variation
T (transmissivity)
the domain.
as and S (storativity) of aquifes
over the Similarly permeability and specific
storage of the confining layers and their variation over the domain.
iv. Water table or
potentiometric surface map. Figur
V. Boundary conditions indicate how an aquifer interacts with the environment
outside the model domain. There are
first two are most important. (a)
fourjtypes of boundary the Conditions,
Constant head boundary In this case the
head is known and the source of water has a constant
-
water level at the model

boundary. This condition is used in modelling an aquifer that is in good
interaction with lake, river etc. This is also called Dirichlet boundary. p)
a
Constant flux boundary- This is also known as Neumann's condition and s

used in simulating
(rainfall or (evaporation) and is also used in specityimg
known recharge to the
This type of
aquifer from induced recharge. (c) Mixed boundar!
boundary condition involves combination of head and
specification whereby the rate of flow in and out of the
of the elevation of the stream bed, aquifer is a funcuthe
aquifer and the stream. It is also knownaquifer head and leakage betwen For
No
flux boundary No flow boundaries are asCauchy
Robbins condition allow V2h
h =5 =:
zero flux. They are impermeable boundaries

physical or hydrological barriers which fo asas follo
f
or out flow of water in
the model domain. restrict tnc
vi. Location and amount
of water being pumped from wells their duratio
Similarly the location and amount of artificial
ana uniecio Wh ection
wells, recharge basin and their recharge throug"io

averag verage
duration. The return flow from in
also to be stated. equilib
Ground Water Modelling | 197
te Difference Method
he mel .5 Finntioned above that the numerical methodslgive approximate solution
We hav variable i.e. head) at discrete points in the flow domain unlike the
ap licahalyariable
f un ethodswhich give exact solution of the mathematical equation for
mathenmatse
fore model
he come arid
continuously for every point in space. For finite difference
unknown
d ofmodelling, wnich is more commonly used, the domain is divided into
squaregrid.sSmaller the grids greater is the accuracy.Cormer of the square is th

metho
Sint. Each node is assigned the hydrological parameters like(Tand(S.)

variables like head will be calculated at each node. Figure 12.2 shows
Unknown varia.
for finite difference method.

grid
fas umnytuo
esses that ta
um propenits
square
Nodal point
RepresentA Tas.
ired:
kness of alt
<lled.
ity) of aquitn
ty and speciíi Fig.12.2: Square grid
ain. Figure 12.3 shows the notations of the grids and its nomenclature.
e environne i-1).0-1) i.-1) 01).0-1)

Conditions t
n this case t*
el at the mot
hat is in gau -1)J (i+1)j
boundary
ondition ands
in specih
c dboundan
headandtia (-1).*1) i,0+1) (+1).0+1)
T I Sa funct Fig.12.3: Notation for square grid
e between
ror a steady state horizontal flow, the flow equation can be written as
7ditionl( h 8x7 +8h =0. In the finite difference mode, the equation will be written
rIesthata l
as follows:
ict theint
ni-1hi-1j+hij1thiy-1-4 hj
=
0 (12.4)
(12.5)
Wher1 s heador,athij(h.1j+ hi-1j+ hi-1+hij-1)/4
theirduat
OUgh
injen
the specified location and h at any node equal to the
is
m irrnigaton averag of h at the four surrounding nodes. In of unsteady or non
equlibrium case, case
c a s e , when head changes with time the governing differenial
difference mode this equation
In the finite may
equation is + = ()iA .
follows:
be written as
-4h=G)Sa*N\a) - 12.
h +h ++ h respectively, At is lengthof
Where S and T are storativity and transmissivity
and n
tinme
is nth step.
time step, a is dimension of the grid
12.6 Finite Element Method cells rather than

is divided into polygonal nan
In the finite element model, the aquifer The cells be mosth
models. may
finite difference
square grids as in the is called nodes at which th
intersection of the polygon
triangular. The point of mathematical basis for this method is more
The
(unknown parameteris calculated.
complex and will not be dealt with here.
12.7 Modelling Process

We can represent the modelling process by a simplified flow chart diagram as
shown in figure 12.4. Before start of modelling the purpose of modelling must be
defined such as prediction of flow and flow of solute in the aquifer, effect of
pumping or recharge on head etc. The Conceptual model} means a qualitative Gener
representation of the ground water flow system. It involves definition of aquifer observed
domain, mode of flow (1 dim, 2 dim, 3 dim), quality of water, sources and sinks, ay be
may be ch
ch
the boundary conditions etc. Selection of software like software based on finite heads. Mc
difference method or finite element method is done. n absence of software data such
selection of appropriate flow equation and its conversion to finite difference
mode is done. Model design means design of grid covering the domain
transient -
nodal points of which data will be calculated) the initial

(at the may be ad
on boundary and data of
conditions, the condition n the fiele
hydrological parameters such as T, S and recharge
etc.
1., chan
Same stres
Ground Water
Modelling | 199
may
Conceptual model
26) Select software/select
h of
the governing
equations
Design model
han
stly
the Calibrate model
Ore
Model verification
as
be Present Results
of Fig.12.4: Flow chart of mathematical modelling
ve Generally models are calibrated with steady state heads
(water table maps)
fer observed in the field. In absence of match the
aquifer parameters and recharge
ks, may be changed to obtain a good match between the observed and the calculated
aite heads. Model verification is done by matching the results with a second set of
re, data such as the transient response of the model is compared with the known
ce transient condition in the aquifer. In absence of match, storativity of the aquifer
the nay be adjusted to obtain a reasonable match. Further the model may be verified
on n the field by stressing (pumping) the aquifer and observing the effects of stress
e, change in head) and comparing the same with prediction of the model to the
Same stress.
K a r s t or
teTaind
CHAPTER 13 s under
Miscellaneous Topics emerges
mupt Sputat
13.0 General have not been covered easl:

discuss various topics which and
In this chapterwe
which have been
retained for ease of readino
there are some repetitions
13.1 Springs
water oozes out
from the ground Surface, it is called a n. Joint o
ground
When is a natural soi
natural ground water discharge. spring
meetslc
Springs are points of
and other domestic uses in
fresh ground water for drinking purposes the
area of Kashmir,
Himachal Pradesh, Utarakhand, Sikkim, In. the
Himalayan region,
Himalayan the mountainous aquifers store ground water and discharge on
the surface in the form of springs. In the Tarai belt)in Kashmir, Himacha
Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Sikkim, Bihar and Assam ground water occurs in anto
source of water for the locai
flow conditions_i.e., spring has formed and is a
people. Supply of water from springs is gravitational and no electrical power:
1
required for extraction. 5. Fault S
Based on the local slope of surface and the geological structure, springs are faulted-
classified as depression spring, contact spring, karst spring, and vesicular basalt
spring, fracture spring, fault spring and dyke spring.
alongt
surface
. Depression Spring: When ground surface has a depression as shownm in
figure and water table reaches the surface a spring is formed. Water oozes
out from where the water table cuts the surface.
Surface
Water table_
Spring
Fig.13.1: Depression spring

2. Contact 6. Dyke S
Spring: When an impermeable bed is overlain by a bed
and intercepts
slope of ground, ground water comes out from the permeabIe neable
IS cut
bed forming per
spring. In Satara district, Maharashtra contact of vesicular
with underlying
basalt
n
Grounc
compact basalt has formed spring.
Permeable Spring
mpermeable
Fig.13.2: Contact spring
Miscellaneous Topics 201
orr
Karst o Sinkhole Spring:Water in the
3. dissolve and widen the fractures sinkhole and fractures in limestone
and sinkholes. Water in
teder
is und pressure and when the water is the fractures
emerges out forming spring. intercepted by slope of ground, i
Spring
ier and
Fig.13.3: Sinkhole spring

spring. Toint or Fracture Spring: Water moving along joints and fracture in rocks
4 meet sloping ground and forms spring.
arce of
in the
In the
rge on Spring
achal
i auto
local Fig.13.4: Joint or fracture spring
wer is
5. Fault Spring: When a permeable bed underlain by an impermeable bed is
gs are faulted, spring may be formed. Water in the permeable bed will move up
basalt along the fault plane, which acts as barrier, and water will emerge out from
surface forming spring.
wn in
Spring
o0zes
AE
Permeable
-- Jmpermeable
Fig.13.5: Fault spring

underlain by impermeable bed
e bed Dyke Spring: When a sloping permeable bed water.
a dyke, the dyke behaves as a
barrier to flow of ground
eable Cut by and form spring
basalt u n d water in the permeable bed will flow along the dyke
Spring
-Dyke
Permeable
Impermeable ---
Fig.13.6: Dyke spring
202| Fundamentals of Hydrogeolo8
Land use changes, construction

work and extraction ction aoff ground Unconsc
elsewhere results in decline of discharge or springs. nere is n

There
need forwater aybe n a yb e f o u n
areas of the spring

and artificial recharge
ge the secharged
protection of catchment
as construction of check dams,
contour trenches etc and methods
plantation of trees such T h es e n
be done in the catchment areas in mountainous areas for sustainabilit.es a Rajasthanfo
ity of
for the community. springg vells can b e
waterin thes
13.2 Effect of Geological Structure in Ground Water Movement w e tp e r i o d s
Regional flow of ground water is affected by the (structural and(Stratior Borunda anc
relationshipoftheaquifers. Folding and faulting of sedimentary rocks afte The solution
of ground water. Faults can act either as barrier or a conduit to flow of o circulation.
water. Folds can also affect in several ways. Ound Arid z o n
results in m-
13.2.1Faults
When a fault zone lconsists of fine grained Excess offlu
or
finely grounded rock and clau
the
fault zone may act as barrier to flow of ground water as the hvdranle Evaporatioon
conductivity of the materialin the fault zone may be very low. consequent h
When the displacement along fault plane is small then the
fault is likelv to
develop fracture permeability and can serve as conduit for flow of ground water 13.4 Groune
Formation of spring due to faulting is common.
Incase of reverse 13.4.1 Intrus
faulting, the basement rocks may overlie the water bearing Intrusive ign
younger formation. If there is sufficient recharge to the
younger formation, water permeability
may be extracted from this formation by drilling
through the basement rocks. mantle andin
13.2.2 Folds these rocks
A tight and
deeply plunging fold barry the
aquifer too along the set=
exploitation may be problem. Opposed to deep
economical from the surface and
it a broad and gentle fold. the rock. Pro
FTO
can create relatively shallow CK.
where fractu
confined aquifer may be created.confined aquifer. At the centre of synclines,a actu
If
limestone interbedded with less
manifest wit
limestone may appear. Smaller permeable rocks is folded, outcrops
streams flowing across the
photographa
in the weathe
the upper end and reappear at the lower outcrop. The flow limestonebe
may sin
rocks and dis
channels that are
parallel may along solu ndia ieis cover
to the strike of
the fold India
In areas of
homoclinal folding, resistant and not down the dip.
ground water divide. The softer rocks may form ridges Fracture in thth
flow system. formation may form valleys and wil anu i There rock
in
ha
13.3 Ground Water
Desert areas
in Desert
Areas
AsCracks.
the
normally receive less than 25)cm , forming
Tectonic f
evapotranspiration in desert
and dry areas are
of
rainfall in a
more than rainfall because year. noh
climate.
depth of (water Stillground available in plenty at places. weve 13.4t.e2 ctVolcan-
onic
water is the
levellin
dug wells and
humid regions. The water tube wells is many han the
level may be as
deep as 18
times Deccan trap,
to 20 m. Andhra Prade
eonsolidated aquifers may be found on the base of hills and ground water
ANater Uneend in shallow unconsolidated aquifers. During rain, these aquifers get
our
mayb e
the echarged.
such The semi-consolidated (Mesozoic sandstones Jand (Tertiary sandstones2of.

T hsee m i - c o n s o l i d
may nform good aquifers. They occur in confined conditions. High capacity
rings be constructed in these areas tapping the confined aquifers. The ground
R a j a s t h a n
wellscan
aquifers is expected to be old and was probably recharged during
h e s e aquifers
in
water in
these
t
to these aquifers in the present time. In
nerjods as there is no recharge
wet p e r i o d s
cavernous limestone form aquifer.

phic
lo
Wda and Ransingaon areas in Rajasthan,
he Solution cavity in limestone may not be fully developed owing to lack of
flow
Dund
c i r c u l a t i o n .
Arid zones quality problem. The slow circulation of ground water

face water
TDS of <2000 ppm are reported from many places.
esults in mineralisation. from many places.
Cecess of fluoride which causes decay of teeth is also reported
results in salt deposition with
the
he yaporation of ground water from discharge areas
aulic consequent high salinity in the soil and shallow ground
water.
y to and Metamorphic Rocks Terrain

134 Ground Water in Igneous
ater.
13.-4.1 Intrusive lgneous Rocks
ring Intrusive igneous rocks are generally devoid of primary porosity. The intrinsic
ater
permeability ranges from 10 to 10 darcy. Ground water occurs in weathered
mantle and in openings developed due to fracturing and faulting. The porosity in
these rocks is called secondary porosity. Secondary porosity is concentrated
along the sets of joints in the rock. Fractures may not be distributed uniformly in
and
the rock. Probability of getting good yield in igneous rock terrain is in the areas
fold Where fractures are localised. Fractures are expected along lineaments which
S5, a
manifest with depression on surface and also can be detected on aerial
of photograph and satellite imagery. Ground water occurs in unconfined conditions
u tne weathered mantle and semi-confined conditions in the fractures o f these
k at
tion ks and discharge of wells ranges from 1 to 10 Ips. Large part of peninsular
ndia is covered
by these rocks.
as
u r e in these rocks develops due to the following reasons:
cal
he rock mass shrinks during cooling at depth which results in formation or
i. As
cracks.
the overburden is removed by erosion, the underlying rock expands
ver, forming fractures.
ea to movement and compressional and tensional forces due to regional
tectonic movement cause fractures develop.
the to
ip 8.4.2 Volcanic Rocks
ccan trap, a volcanic rock, is spread over Maharashtra, part of Karnataka,
Andhra Prad
dhra Pravolcanic
esh and northern part of Western Ghat. The volcanic rocks do not
204 Fundamentals of Hydrogeology n1-conso
possess any primary porosity. As volcanic rocks cool and solidify in th
orercdH
which creates joints. Deurtace
environment, they develop shrinkage cracks heveather
of gaseous product from the lava, vesicles develop which may or may cape
not be
be
M i g h e r
p o t e
interconnected. When they are interconnected they are important for str j u n t s ,t r a C a
flow of ground water. Generally the area may consist of several flownd
curencee
intervening gap. The broken surface of the lava flow and intertranna n with
beds
which
deposited during the gaps in lava flows provide storage for ground water
Ground water occurs in unconfined conditions in the upper weathered Sinilarly
jointed portion of the volcanic rock and in confined conditions in and

f o r ma q u i f e
the
intertrappeans at depth. The Transmissivity of Deccan trap down to 150m depth Mappil Mappirn
onfined an
in Maharashtra, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh varies from I to 210 m/day and ned
specific yield from 1 to 3%. The ash beds and intrusive dykes have very qualityof
poor ground wat
hydraulic conductivity.
Waterexpl
13.5 Ground Water in Permafrost Region
In (northern of Alaska, Russia) and in high
Polar area
mountains, the mean annual temperature
part Canada and
may be so low that ground water is also
,8 Coast
13.8
The Coast=
coast
The coasta
below 0"C. If this condition persists known a

for few years the condition is Tertiary an
Permafrost. In summer, wam temperature may cause melting of ice in the upper coastal We
1
to 2m, but below it the ground water remains infrozen condition. The depth at
which the maximum annual soil temperature is o'C 1s called permafrost table.
sandstone
lithofacies.
Permafrost layer acts as a confining layer. Alluvial river valleys are good source Coastal
of ground water in permafrost regions. Alluvial fans at the
margin of mountain ransgressie
ranges may also provide ground water.
aquifers are
found in d
13.6 Ground Water in Sedimentary Terrain
In sedimentary rocks like sandstone, depths of
the pores in the rock and also
ground water is stored and moves
thoughSeveral kile
through fractures in the rock. Gondwana valley
aquifers dis
sandstones, upper Assam tertiary sandstone are
limestone and dolomite, ground water is examples of this class. In too large sca
large sca
initially stored and moves through pore towards inl
spaces, joints and fracture. Due to movement of water
and consequent dissolutio
of the rock, large openings develop in the rock. Karstified limestone has hig5.913.9 Stead
Stead
transmissivity in the range of 200 to 1600 m/day. Gypsum and salt may also
cavernous. ncgraw-
The unconsolidated
members consisting of sand and gravel form lent with time
aquifers and store and transmit exCeu
ground water through its pores. They o ir n
both unconfined and confined
conditions. The aquifers in Indo and condition,
Brahmaputra valley are highly Gange aquifer. A
development, discharge varying from potential. sustain
These aquifers susta
40 to 100 litres
large
Some time
13.7
Importance of
per second.
Techar ge
eptirely frc b
Lithological Mapping
Mapping essential to know
is
aquifers may be with primarywhat types asof inrock
porosity unconsolidated
form alluvu
thearea.
aquifer n
The
aquiForfers. ste
and
n dm
equationsa
Miscellaneous Topics
surface amsolidated sandstones with some | 205
s e m i
ered with igneousand metamorphic rocks secondary porosity. Some areas may be
escape
not be oathered
weathered mantle
and fractures} in the
having secondary porosity in which
rock form the aquifer. Areas with
age and the afentialíty like lineaments in such terrain
/S with racture and faults may be mapped wheremay be demarcated. Likewise
n beds jo nce is better. Some other areas may be
O c c u r r e n c e
potentiality of
covered with basalticground water
hich the weathered basalt near surface and
or trap rocks
ed and rly in limestone terrain,
Similari
intertrappeans fom aquifers.
joints and fractures may be demarcated which
in the form aquifer.
eadepth Toanping can also provide
information about the type of
ned and unconfined and their thicknesses. aquifers viz.,
lay and Potentiality of aquifers and
mality of water contained in the aquifer may also be collected from pre existing
y poor quali
eund water structures. Mapping of structures like fold and fault help in
grou
ground
water exploration.
n high 13.8 Coastal Aquifer

is also The coastal sediments contain Quaternary sediments and may also contain
own as Tertiary and Mesozoic deposits. Aquifers are continental sands (fine sand in
coastal West Bengal and medium to coarse sand in coastal Odisha), gravels and
upper
epth at sandstone or marine sandstone or limestone with alternating and interfingering of
t table. lithofacies.
Source Coastal aquifers have problem of salinity as the sea level was fluctuating and
ountain transgression and regression of sea have occurred in the past. However as deep
aquifers are recharged in inland areas and discharge into sea, fresh water may be
found in deep coastal aquifers. Fresh water is found in confined aquifers at
depths of 300 to 600 m in several parts of coastal Odisha and below 160 m
though sveral kilometres at sea at Ganga Sagar Island in West Bengal. As the deep
valley quifers discharge into the sea, the hydraulic gradient is towards sea side and due
ass. In o large scale development of the aquifer, the fresh - saline interface may shi
gh pore owards inland and pose problem of sea water intrusion or encroachment.
olution
D a l o e n eloes nat chnge wtb ine
as high 13.9 Steady State Flow
f thegraw
rawdownn a pumpedwell or in nearby observation well doesnot change
also be
with oh
1 . e . = 0 ) , the flow is called steady state
Ot
flow. Under steady tlow
cellent
ccur i n
Condition, the radial flow equation reducesto+ =0 for confined
t i ca n d
aquifer. A well aquifer achieve steady state after
large me time when tapping
SOme
eharee the flowleaky confined may
entirely comes from leakage.(A pumping well}near a
Oharge boundary m achieve steady when the discharge comes
state
mhirely from 1
irelyf dary may also
water. This is true for both confined and
unconfined
ca. The ufers. or

arged
aquifers,
Theim's
ANonssteady
and in unconfined
state flow
are applicable. in both confined and
Fundamentals o fH y d r o g e o l o g y
oknc nCcinitya l
p r
Danalonh
206
orheritems ar
State Flow with time /.e., the
thefdrawdown/changes
thedrawdown
13.10 Unsteady
13.10 saup1 sp r e p a
In unsteady
state flow,
is also
equilibrium
called non andhe egu
equation
where w a t e r o
of tha
time. This
with Solution of the equation has
increases
welli s t
?Solution
= waterm a yb e
govening
flow to used in analysis
analysis of been
pumping test of
n a l aa n dr i v e r
commonly
C.V. Theis which is aquifer. hydrological c
given by evaluation ofTandSpfthe
wels and I n t u n n e l l 1
There are
Gaining Stream
13.11 Base Flow andtable is higher than the bottom of the strean
stream, ground
In summer, if water water into the
the stream water
ate
under iareMine
stream, Discharge orground under
devs
Mine dev
may discharge intothe tlow.)The stream is calledo
is called(base
favourable hydraulic gradient AS ground water loOSeS into the stream a o
i Stability
effluent stream (see fig. 2.2). base ii. Environn
there will be less seenao

and consequentiy
flow, the water table will fall duringm
base flow will decrease. The decay of discharge ofstreams follo Based o
stream or
exponential pattern. A gaining stream may become a losing
or influent strea umerical mnc
am
during floods. be visualisec
solute transp-
13.12 Loosing Streamn
If bottom of the stream is higher than the local water table, water may drain from 1314 Baseli
13.14 Baseli-
the stream into the ground. This is a losing stream or influent stream (seefig
During the
2.3). The rate of water loss is a function of the depth of water table and the conditions a-
hydraulic conductivity of the underlying alluvium.
water levels
13.13 Ground Water Problem in Underground Mine and Tunnelling
available grc
In underground mine, the flow of
from mine.
ground water is from the following sources provides a
i. Ground water inflow from
ii. Inflow from confined and
gravity drainage. during conti
semi-confined aquifer. The followi
iil. As a result
of mining due to depressurisation of coal seam, water y be i Geologi
Geologi
released by gravity.
i. Installa
V. Vertical fractures
may develop and water may flow i. Water
V.
When a mine unexpectedly intersects large waterthrough it.
bearing V. Climates
abandoned and water filled boaed
mine, massive inflow of water may ta . Hydrau
Ground water nance of
vi. ydrau
reaching the mine has to be dewatered for (i) maintenai
dry pit floor and underground
Prelimi
in
open pit slopes and working for operation (ii) release of pore nches or pressure
underground underground workings to prevent failure o enches 13.15 Grou

3.15
dewatering ofworkings es and and(iv)
(ii) prevention of
the ore sudden
mineral and waste rock
Sudden flooding is hazardous
or
rock
flooding
being
or
mined.
Haphazard
aphazard
nural water
(Jharia Coalfield vhere zardous and may be unexpomineu in ected as
Chasnala
mi ead to en
unexp eudden inflow
guantity of water. The many people lost their lives subsidenc.
oflarge
An enhanced pumping unexpected entry of water due to int water intru

may be required for ater has to be a nded immso attended
immedia
Sourceo
water may be
required to be sealed. *Oweversafety. In many
However in case many
or abandoned
case of a
the cases,
mines
the
teglation,
water from
v i c i n i t y
nrecautions
all
are
as
per statutes
must be
known
down np
ati
theritems aare
and
gher enared in the estimated in advance. followed to prevent
accident.
uation 15r COllects. It isdeepest
Sunp Is prepared
area of the For
pumped from the underground
dewatering of the mine a
beenn here he utilised for domestic mine or
w h e r e
waterm a y
ter sump to the
surface. opencast
At
mine
est ofof nalaa n d er.An estimate of the purposes and surplus is allowed to surface,
lairological
the
anol data and pumping is quantity of water to be collected is flow into
nnelling, advance drilingplanned
N In tunnellin
and accordingly. made from
There three major issues are sealing by
related to groundgrouting of weak zone is
done.
water water in mining
projects. They
under Mine dewateringrequirements
ing or Stability of pit walls or developments, and
base . Environmental impact on
ground water levels
to the and on
ground water
during mining and post-mining periods. quality
ws an Based on
pre-mining and during
mining data, a 3-D hydrogeological
stream merical model can be built and
impact of mining on flow of
he visualised. Ground water quality ground water can
solute transport model.
can predictions also be done by using a
n from
13.14 Baseline Data for Mining Projects
ee fig. During the stage of exploration and
nd the feasibility studies the hydrogeological
conditions at the proposed mine site is studied
water levels and water including the pre-mining ground
quality. The information is critical for an assessment of
available ground water resources for domestic and
other uses, dewatering rates
from mine. The pre
es mining water levels and water quality is
important as it
provides a bench mark against which the
environmental impact is assessed
during continuation of mining project and to take remedial measures, if
nay be
Ihe
following baseline data may be collected in pre mining conditions: required.
LGeological and structuralmapping
nstallation of monitoring wells and periodic collection of water levels
uch as Water quality monitoring of ground water, spring and river water
ace. mate
, monitoring (rainfall, evaporation, temperature etc.)
anceof
.
ydraulic testing (pumping test for S&T, slug test and packer test)
ssures
Preliminary flow analysis
hes or
hes 1315 Ground
Water Legislation
n d(iv)
Haphazard extraction
ural water sup of ground water resources for agriculture, industrial and
a mine,
dtopply
ad to environt may lead to decline of water levels beyond safe limits and land
may
wetlands and
oflarge
diately.
u r c eo f
dosidience.
water nt Similarly Contamination of ground water from disposal sites and sea
dence nmental problems like drying up of stream,
nay create problems. Hence regulation is required for proper
s in the ation Control of ground
from ntrol, and development
ontamination Central Ground Waterwater
of ground and protection
Authority (CGWA) constituted
208
(Protection) Act, 1986 is playing a
under Environmental
and control of ground water development in the country. CGWA
key role in used
ma
area and take required preventive and

1s em regula Dg
1S
s a n d
a
to notify over exploited

and
remedial CPS
ground measur
water efsor
In urban areas municipal authorities are regulating the use of 1319Neutron
domestic purposes and enforcing adopting rain water harvesting water Theneutron lo
water is a state subject and states have to pass legislation on this an
ct. Awieettol
and thorough legislation is required for planned development of ground wide waterinthe India po
1 o t h e b o t t o m
and safety of ground water resources.

e n e r g yn e u t r o n
of
energy takes
13.16 SP Log neut-
Self potential or SP log is recorded in open boreholes filled with drillino asthat of
range (0.25 ev
water, with one electrode moving in the borehole and the
other ground
Surface. The origin of SP in borehole is due to electrochemical econd
per second (C
(C
On
action Te . withlow CPS
borehole mud/water and formation water have different
(mainly Nacl), there is net flow of cl 1ons from more concentration of sa
chapter 1 0 .
concentrated one which is equivalent to flow of current. concentrated

SP
to lec
permeable bed like sand, gravel etc., and is measured in mvdevelops

with
Acousti
13.20 Acoustie
agains 13.20
is
clay/shale base line.JIn general it is negative but occasionally be
respect to Sonic log 1s a
also. The amplitude of SP against permeable bed can be may positive wave) wave) from
from trtr
resistivity of formation water and TDS (total dissolved solid in used to estimate through
through the
the ba
ba
and fig see chapter 10. For mg/1). details distanc-
cm) ofdistanc
against forma
13.17 Resistivity Log formation wh
Resistivity log is recorded in open borehole filled with identification
mud/water with a probe velocity forma
containing a current
electrode A and
potential electrode M. The separaion rocks and
form=
between A &M defines the spacing of the and estin
esti
long normal probe as short normal
(AM=160 cm). The counterpart of current (AM=40 cm)a
and that of the electrode
B is P
potential electrode N isthe armour of the cable. grounuu
on
Where At
1ogeing devices measure the electrical resistivity in Resistiv
carth
the material of depending upon the spacing AM. In a ohm m of a known
volunc Atlogis
or
For
reaadanc
aa
details
resistivity sand is higher than that of clay. The
sequence of sand ana
lithologicalidentification and correlation, resistivity l0g 1sed
1ivity a0d 13.21 Seismmic
estimation of estimation of formation 521 Seismic
chapter 10. formation factor which is related to resik see SRS is carrie
porosity. For details and ug
shot Carriec
hole or
13.18 Natural
Natural gammaGamma Ray Log
t eated as ar
log is a record below gets Te
presence of K isotope in the of natural radioactivity of rocks mainly due 0 and emerges
mica which
decompose
Natural gamma ray to
rocks. Since
clay, clays show potassium is presCn
tin
present feldspa
in feldspar.
and
istance geop
oint alon;
point to on
higher nts than sanu
ayor casedthans
filled with mud/waterlog engamma
Velloe8cop
counts
may be recorded
recorded in counts per
or dry recorded
hole with a
in
in open
borehole
boreno
ray borehole
ocity off 1
CharSRSacteristic
counter and ¥
second (CPS) probe having scintilla on counter gamma

c.
or
calibrated
ted to
to API scale.
API scale Natural
Tmapping isdeptu
Miscellaneous Topics | 209
egulas. is used mainly for lithological identification; clay and shale showing high
egulation
pow
powered
Sand sand and sandstone low CPS. For details and fig see chapter 10.
C P Sa n d
neasures,for
water I3.19
Neutron Neutron Log or Neutron Log
In n
. In India neutron log responds to the(hydrogen content bfthe rocksinany form be it
The
. A wide or in the pores or chemically bond water. A neutron source (Am-Be) attached
nd water the bottom of the probe releases high energy neutrons. The released high
he
rons loose energy when passing through the rocks, the maximum loss
energy n e u t r
ry takes place when it collides with hydrogen having almost equal mass
drops to thermal
that of neutron. After few collisions the energy of
neutron
counted by a proportional counter and recorded as counts
mud oror
mud ange (0.25 ev) and is
anded on r second
Inded on n eper (CPS) or calibrated in terms of porosity. Clay and shale respond
and
For details fig see
n. If the sith low CPS and sand and sandstonewith high CPS.
of salts chapter 10.
i to less
against 13.20 Acoustic or Sonic Log
travel time or transit time of compressional wave (P
2spect to
spect to Sonic log iS a record of the probe. The wave travels
receivers mounted on
positive wave) from transmitter to one foot (30
borehole wall and travel time in microseconds to travel
estimate through the in microsecond /ft
or details cm) of distance between two receivers is recorded. Travel time
in
against formations may be used to compute P wave velocity (in m/sec)
is used for
formation which is characteristic of formation. The sonic log
characteristic low
identification of fractures in water wells, identif+cation of
mechanical properties of
a a probe velocity formations like coal, assessment of physico
paration
paration rocks and estimation of of porous formations as follows:
porosity
At log- At matrix
-0 cm) or
Porosity PAt
liquid -At matrix
grounded
Where Atliquid is 189-200 microsecond/ft,
esistivity
of
olume of
olume Atlogis read from the log and At matrix is available from lab measurements
For details and fig see chapter 10.
and clay
used for
use d
Ivityand 13.21 Seismic Refraction Survey (SRS)
explosive in a
nd f i g see
carred out by generating compressional P wave by blasting wave
may be
0t hole or
striking hammer on a metal plate. The generated
treated a ray and when incident at critical angle on the interface of a layer
travels along the interface with velocity of lower layer
y due 1o and eme refracted
gets on the and
ground to be detected by geophones planted at regular
ance shot
taken by P wave to travel from
7 s p a ra n d
point toOng the profile. From the time which thickness and
geophones,
h a ns a n d .
aa time distance graph is plotted from

borehole elocity nones,
ity of layers in subsurface is determined. The velocity of layers is
t e randis
rock, compact roa
c. SRS is ic of nature of the layer such as soil, weathered
0SRS stratigraphic
breaks and
in
Dingsed
depth ofinwater
g a m m a
PPing table.buried
mapping For details and figmapping
channels,
see chapter i.
13.22 Surface Resistivity Survey Che

Resistivity survey is carried out in two ways
(VES) and (ii) Resistivity profiling by introducing
as
DC
or low
Electrical
(1) Vertical Electricat
Sounding
frequencynding Colo
the ground with a pair of electrodes (A&B) and measuring the resultin Into
difference with another pair of electrodes (M&N).
The VES is
conduc potential
cted
increasing the spacing of A&B regularly and that of M&N occasjionalby by
detection of horizontal discontinuities and estimation of resistivity and occasionally
for
for pH
with Schlumberger or ess

thickr
of layers in subsurface. The VES is conducted
electrode configuration. The resistivity profiling is carried out
ut with
with fixed enner
fixed A
and M&N spacing by moving the electrodes along a profile to detect verticat
sub vertical discontinuity like fracture zones, buried channels etc.
ertical or
Resistivity survey is ideally suited for ground water exploration as resisti TDS
of rocks in Ohm m is primarily dependant on amount quality of water in
and th
pores of rocks. It is very useful in locating sites for drilling bore well in hard roc
terrain and in demarcating lineaments, buried channels etc. For details and 1g se
chapter 10.
13.23 Wetted Tape and Airline Method

Hardr
This method of measurement of water level is suited when the well
is being
pumped or during recuperation. A one inch diameter airline pipe is lowered in the
well and clamped and rests on the
casing of the well. A steel embossed tape
(graduations are embossed on the tape) is lowered in the well through the airliner. Alkal-
In the lower part of the
tape where water level is expected, chalk is applied. The
is
tape held (called hold) at the edge of airliner at surface. The water
well will make very clear level in the
read very accurately
impression on the applied chalk (called cut) and can be
up to 3" place of decimal.
We take an
example. Let the tape be held at 20.0 m on the edge of airliner
i.e. hold is 20.0 m) and marking of water level
water level is (cut) is at 5.255 m. So depth of
of measuring
(20.0-5.255)=
14.745 m. If height of
edge of airliner i.e., the heig
point over surface is 0.5 m, then depth of water level from surta
is (14.745-0.5)= 14.245 m.
Iron
13.24 Drinking Water
Some Specifications
important characters of water along with risk or effect in case of risca above
acceptable limits, sources of such characters
are given below. In
the last column and treatment as remedial
the nis
along with permissible limit (in acceptable limit as per
per IS10500 15 givd
IS10500
italics) in absence of
alternative source l5 iven. Mang?
Sources Treatment Acceptable limit

Risk o r effect
Character (Permissible limit)

Visible tint,
Tannins, Iron, Copper, Filtration, 5 Hazen unit
nto Colour acceptance
manganese, natural distillation, (15 Hazen unit)
decreases
deposits ozonization
LowpH- natural Increase pH 6.5-8.5

pH corrosion, metallic with soda ash (6.5-8.5)
taste, High pH -
and decrease
ner bitter/soda test, pH with
B deposits vinegar/citric
Or acid
TDS Hardness, scaly Livestock waste, sceptic RO, distillation, 500 m

y deposit, systems, landfills, deionization by
ne (2000 mg/)
sediments, cloudy nature of soil, ion exchange
k coloured water, hazardous waste
salty or bitter landfills, dissolved
taste, corrosions minerals iron and
of pipes & fittings manganese
Hardness Scale in utensils Dissolved Ca and Mg Water softener, 200 mg/l

and hot water from soil and
g aquifer ionexchange, (600 mg/)
system, soap minerals containing RO
scums Limestone & dolomite
e
Alkalinity Low alkalinity

Pipes, landfills,
(ie high hazardous waste
Neutralising 200 mg/l
agent (600 mg/)
acidity)causes landfills
deterioration of
plumbing and
increases the
chance for many
heavy metals in
water are present
in pipes, solder or
plumbing fixtures
Iron Brownish colour, Leaching of cast iron
rusty sediment, pipes in distribution
Oxidizing 0.3mg/l
bitter or metallic filters, green (0.3 mg/)
system, natural sand
taste, brown green
stains, iron mechanical
bacteria ilters
Manganese Brownish colour, Landfills, deposits in lon exchange,

black stains on rock and soil 0.1 mg/
laundry and chlorination, (0.1 mg/)
fixtures at 0.2 Oxidizing
mg/1, bitter taste filters, green
sand
mechanical
filters
Treatment Acceptable limit Charac
Character
Risk or effect
Sources
Ion exchange,
rmissible limi
200 mg/l Cyanide
Animal sewage, septic
Sulphate
Bitter medicinal
system, sewage by
distillation, RO (400 mg/)
taste, scaly mining
deposit, corrosion, product of coal
industrial waste, natural Lead
laxative effect, deposits or salts

rotten egg odour
from HS gas
formation Ton exchange, 45 mg/
Livestock facilities,
Blue baby disease distillation, RO (45 mg/)
|Nitrate sceptic system, m a n u r e
in infants
lagoons, fertilizers,
household waste water,
natural deposits 250 mg/l
Fertilizers, industrial RO, distillation,
Chloride High BP, salty wastes, minerals, sea activated (1000 mg/1)
taste, corroded
carbon Mercury
pipes, blackening water
of stainless
Activated 1.0 mgl
Brownish Industrial waste,
Fluoride (1.5 mg/)
discolouration of geological alumina,
teeth, bone
distillation, RO,
ion exchange
damage Activated
Arsenic Weight loss, Improper waste disposal
depression, lack of or product storage of alumina
energy, skin and glass or electronics, filtration, RO,
nervous system mining, rocks distillation, Zinc
toxicity chemical
precipitation,
ion exchange,
lime softening Total co
Copper Anaemia, Leaching from copper lon exchange, 0.05 mg/l form
digestive water pipes and tubing, RO, distillation (1.5 mg/) bacteria
disturbances, liver algae treatment,
and kidney industrial and mining
damage, gastro- waste, wood
intestinal preservative, natural 13.25 T
irritation, bitter deposits The equ
and metallic taste,
was sol-
blue green stains
on metallic
fixtures
Chromiumn Skin iritation, skin
and nasal ulcer,
Septic system, lon exchange, 0.05 mg/l He
lung tumor,
industrial discharge, RO, distillation (0.05 mgl) well (ecz
mining sites, geological
gastrointestinal
effects, damage to
non-eq
the nervous system
and circulatory
system, Or,
accumulates in the
spleen, bones,
kidney and iver
Sources
nit Risk or effect
Treatment
Character
Fertilizer, electronics, Acceptable limit
Cyanide
Thyroid, n e r v o u s
system damage steel, mining

lon exchange, (Permissible
0.05 mg/l
limit)
RO,
(0.05 mg/l)
Lead Mental Paint, diesel fuel chlorination
lon Exchange,
retardation, combustion 0.01 mgl
interference with Pipes and solder, Activated
kidney and Carbon, RO (0.01 mg/)
discarded batteries,
neurological paint, leaded gasoline Distillation
functions, hearing Natural deposits
loss, blood
disorders,
hypertension,
death at high
levels
Mercury Loss of vision and
hearing, Fungicides, RO, distillation 0.001mg/l
Batteries, mining,
intellectual electrical equipment, (0.001 mg/)
deterioration, plant, paper and vinyl
kidney chloride
and nervous
Natural deposits
system disorders,
death at high
levels
Zinc Metallic taste
Leaching of galvanized| lon Exchange 5.0 mg/l
pipes and fittings,
Water (15.0 mg/)
paints, dyes, Softeners, RO,
Total coli Natural deposits Distillation
Gastrointestinal Livestock facilities,
form illness septic systems, manure
Chlorination, Shall not be detectable
bacteria
lagoons Household
Ultraviolet, in any 100 ml
sample
waste water,
Distillation, (same as above)
lodination
Naturally occurring
13.25 Theis Equation
The
equation for unsteady radial flow given by equation (5.11) and shown below
was solved
by Theis.
ah 18h S Oh
He gave the
Or2 rôr T Ot
following
solution for drawdown at a distancer
well (equation 5.12). This eaquation is known as Theis equation for rom pumping
unsteady state
non-equilibrium) flow of ground water in confined aquifer.
u2 u3 u
ho- h =
-0.5772 loge u +u -
2.2!3.3! 4.4!
or,
ho-h =4TT
W(u)
r2s and
Where, (ho-h) is the drawdown and u = 4Tt and the
infinite series in t
the infinite seriesi 13.3
bracket represented by W(u) is called the well function. A plot ofW(u. the Dupu
on a double log paper is known as type curve and the observed drawdown and ASStu
oTh
f
time plot is matched with the type curve to evaluate the aquifer parametersT
S. This is the standard method offevaluating aquifer parameters.) e v a
13.3
13.26 Jacob Straight Line Method

Whe
Jacob's method is based on approximation of Theis solution given above
section 5.6). He truncated the infinite series after the second term and gav see SOur
graphical solution by plotting drawdown (Y axis on linear scale) and time (Y

on log scale) on a semi -
log graph paper to evaluate T and S. The methad is

popular because of its simplicity. i.
il.
v.
13.27 Theis Recovery Method
In this method, the recovery of the potentiometric surface after the pumpino i
s
stopped is recorded by considering a negative discharge 1.e. recharge in a sense
(see section 5.7). A plot of residual draw down (on Y axis on linear scale) a 13.3
ratio of time since pumping started and time when pumping stopped (i.e. tit)nd .
used to evaluate T of aquifers. In absence of observation well this method is
useful for evaluating T.
13.28 Hantush - Jacob Formula 2.

The flow equation for a leaky confined aquifer has been solved by Hatush and
Jacob and they have expressed the drawdown in an observation well at a distance
ras a function of
q/4rT and well function for leaky confined aquifer; 3.
ho-h W(4)
13.29 Cooper- Bredehoeft-
In low
Papadopulos Method
permeability formation Slug test is conducted by pouring or withdrawing
small quantity of water
water level is observed.
instantaneously into the well. The rate of rise or fall
curve to evaluate T and S Cooper-Bredehoeft-Papadopulos
from slug test data.
have developed y
13.30 Theim's Method

Theim's method is for is
steady state radial flow in confined aquifers. Theaquifer
aq valu
assumed to be non leaky confined
for transmissivity, T but aquifer. It gives fairly accurd
Ccurate
requires minimum two observation wells for eva

of T.
jes in te 13.31
oiven solution for(steady state flow
Dupuit has given in unconfined
and dDupun
lh for it is also known as Dupuit assumptions, Hydraulicaquifer and theK
conductivity
asS fer can be derived and minimum two observation wells are needed for
ers I and ofthea
evaluation ofK.
1812 Source of Water in a Well in Confined Aquifer

boveWhen a well in a confined aquifer is pumped water is derived from following
bove (se
nd gavet a\ sources:
Waterflowing towards the well under normal potentiometric gradient from

ne (X:
recharge to discharge area
method s i. Compaction of the aquifer due to reduction of pore spaces
i. Expansion of water due to reduced pressure in the aquifer
iv. Leakage from leaky confining layers when hydraulic head in the aquifer is
reduced and is favourable for leakage.
pumping s
in
13.33 Analysis of Decline in Discharge of Wells
scale) and 1. One of the foremost reasons is that due to excessive pumping the water level
i.e. th) declines and the storage also declines. The pumping is more than recharge.
method i
The remedial measures are increased spacing of new wells, artificial recharge
andchange of rate of pumpingand spatial pattern of pumping.
2 ncrease of well loss resulting from blockage of screen by rock particles or
Hatush an
deposition of carbonate or iron compounds may reduce discharge of the well.
The corrective measures are redevelopment of the well and acid treatment to
a ta distanxe
dissolve encrustation.
he impellers of the
may have been damaged or motor of the pump
pump
may not be working with full efficiency. Under such conditions the pumpset
Should either be
thoroughly repaired or replaced.
withdrane
7Seor
filla
Veloped
Ihe
aquie
lorevalu
CCurate
CHAPTER 14 Cha
Solved P r o b l e m s Whar
A n s
SoS
The
Chapter 2 evaporation from Lon
month of June ofa year the pan
I. Question: During the evaporation) is 0.l1Om and the pan coe
4
m e a s u r e m e n t of Ano
(an instrumentfor a swimming pool of
dimension 10mr
0.8 calculate the evaporation from 1Om rOCk
is
during this period. Ans
x 0.8 0.Im
pool 10m x 10m
= x
Answer: evaporation from swimming = 8.0 m'
Nots
in a district Jor eight years is given below
low.
2. Question: The average rainfall
Calculate the arithmetic and geometric
mean rainfall of the district.
Sam
S. No. Year Rainfall in metre

2007 1.03 a
2008 1.035 San
2009 1.04
San
2010 1.02
2011 1.055 San
1.05 Ans
6 2012
2013 1.015
Sa
2014 .05
8 Sam
Answer: Arithmetic mean of rainfall =
Com
(1.03+1.035+1.04+1.02+1.055+1.05+1.015+1.05)/8 Sar
= 8.295/8 = 1.0368 m= 1036.8 mm
For calculating geometrical mean, log to the base e of rainfall has to e
may
calculated as follows: 6.
Wat
S.No. Year Rainfall in metre Ln(rainfall) 300
2007 1.03 0.0295 Ans
20081.035 0.0344 Hei
2009 1.04 0.0392
2010 1.02
Thes
0.0198
2011 1.055 0.0535
6 2012 1.05 0.0487
is 3
2013
1.015 0.0148 Ang
2014 1.05 0.0487 and
Sum
0.2886
Sum/8
|0.2886/8 =0.036075 Che
8.
Exp (0.036075) =
1.0367 m= 1036.7 mm
Geometric mean = 1.0367 m Pac
Arithmetic mean = 1.0368 m into
Pipe
Chapter 3
estion: The porosity a rock sample is 30% and specific
of
of
The porosi a ro
3
is the specific
retention? yield is 20%
whal
whar
Porosity of rock (n) -Specific yield(Sy)
+Specific retention (S,)
retention (S,) 30-20 10%.
A n s w e r :
=
Specific
So retention is 10%.
m Land The specific
n coejjicde tion: Sample A
of rock has 50% porosity andspecific
ec
yield ofon2%)
amDle B has 40% porosity and specific yield of 20%. Comment the
rock type.
Answer: Sample A is fine grained rock possibly clay
Sample B is coarse grained rock possibly sand or gravel
Nate: As the grain size decreases, specific retention increases.
given belon
Ouestion: Porosity and intrinsic permeability of three
5.
unconsolidated rock
samples are given below. Indicate the nature of samples.
Porosity Intrinsic permeability
Sample
Sample 1 45% 10 darcy
Answer:
intrinsic permeability and may be clay.
Sample 1 has high porosity and low
higher intrinsic permeability
Sample 2 has high porosity and comparativelysand.
silt or silty
compared to sample I and may be and
+1.05)8 but has high intrinsic permeability
Sample 3 has relatively lower porosity
may be sand or gravel.
in a well in which the depth
all hasto to
height of
Calculate the table water
6. Question: level is
of the well is 6.Sm. RL of ground
water level measured from andparapet level.
above mean sea level height ofparapet is 1.2m above ground
3UUm =6.3m- 1.2m= S.mn
Answer: Depth of water level from ground 300m-5.3m 294.7m amsl =
eght of water level above mean sea level=

The water table in the well is at 294.7m
two samples Sl and S2 of sediments
estion: The uniformity coefficient Cu of
and 8.5respectively. Comment on theirsorting.
< 4) and is
well sorted
coefficient of Sample
S1 is 3 (Cu
er:The uniformity and is poorly sorted.
e Sample 2 is 8.5 (Cu>4)
uniformity coefficient of
Chapter
8.
4 inclined hollow pipe of length
T0m
Water is flowing through an

head atihe eniy
ckedon: litres/hour. The
hydraulic section of
the
Packed with dana
sand at the rate of 100
the "
into the
into
at
Sm. f the of area
cross
nd at exit from pipe

PEEIIs 05 m, calculate hydraulic conductiviIy N.
P s
0,5
TTTKY7
218| of Hydrogeology
Fundamentals
=(100
KIA
Answer: Use Darcy's law q
=
o =1
I (10-5)/10
100litres/hr =0.1 m'/hr and
=
a ,h = 0
O.1 K (10-5/10 x 0.5

=
A l l
t e r n
0.04m/hr
K 0.1/(0.5)x(0.5) =0.1/2.5 Outo ft
Question: calculate the Darcian flux velocity (or specific discharge) nd elevatior
an aquifer if followinda theev
the
9.
waterflowing through g data is
average linear velocity Jof energy
given
K= 0.01m/hr, hydraulic gradient ()
=
0.05 and effective porosity =
12%
x 0.05 .0005 m/hr
Darcian flux velocity = q/A =K I= 0.01
= channets
And average linear velocity = q/{Axettective porosity) .0005/0.12 0.0041 4

t h ea r e a
0417
m/hr Q u a n t i t
10. Question: An aquifer is composed of sand particles of average I mm 4.13)

grain Here
size. Given the density of water is 1.0 gm/cm and the vISCOSity of water as 1.2, HereK=
K
10 Pa-sec, calculate Reynolds no. for velocity (a) 0.Im/sec and (b) 1.0 se q=0.8
and comment on validity of Darcy's law in each case. 24 m
Answer: p 1 . 0 gm/cm' = 1.0x10* kg/m' and ju = 1.2 x 10 Pa-sec = 1.2 x 10
N-sec/m and Imm= 0.001m 14. Que=
Reynold No. R is given by R = p Vpd/p thefollo
Part a i.
R= (1x 10'x 0.1 x
0.001/1.2x10s =
83.3 for Vp= 0.1m/sec ii.
Reynold No. is 83.3 which is greater than 10 and hence
Darcy's law is not valid ii.
Partb Determi-
R= (1x 10'x 1.0 x 0.001)/1.2x10= 833.3 for Vp= 1.0m/sec Answer:
Reynold No. R is 833.3 which is
greater than 10 and hence 20 and b
valid Darcy's law 1S not
Fatis
Equatior
11. Question: In the above
question find out the widthi.
Darcy's Law is valid. highest velocity for which
aquifer,
2quifer,
Answer: Darcy's Law is valid to R Therefor
up =
10
R=p Vpd/u Or, q=
10=(lx 10 x Vpx 0.001)/ 1.2x103 I= 1080
Or, Vp (10 x
And K=
=
1.2x10*Y(1 x 10° x 0.001) 0.012 m/sec

=
12. Question: Find out

the fluid
the total
mechanical energy per unit
(water) in an aquifer, the weight contan
ed in 15.Ques
conductr
Sm and
fluid pressure is 1000 N/m height of which above a
reference
and density of fluid is 1.00 aan cmlsec.
flowing with a velocity of gm/cm ana
separately.
Answer: The total
10 *m/sec. Describe each
component of tne energy seepage
mechanical energy per unit
by equation 4.1(chapter Here K
h=PY +V/2g+Z4.1(chapter 4)4) acas 8 weight contained in a fluia
fluid ioisgiven
g5 potential
density pw 1.00gm/cm' =1.00 x
g 9.8 m/sec. 10*
If we substitute the kg/m and specific weight Y= P»X
values in E
whe
Ssdbsitu
above equation
{(0:
Miscellaneous TopicsI 219
h-(1000 N/m(1x 10kg/m?x 9.8m/sec) + ( 10 "}/2 x 9.80 m/sec?+5m

1/9.80 + 10 /19.6 + 5
or, h =
10-+5
0.102 +0.5 x
h
dhorge p All or,
terms in
above equation reduces to m.
pressure and 5 is contribution of
ovwg Out of
ation
the total energy, 0.102 is contribution
and 0.5 x 10
elevation and is due to velocity
of
of fluid which is far less than other
energy
flowing through flow net having 6 flow
13. Ouestion: Calculate the
water a
aifference behween upstream and downstream is 10m and

channels, if the head
the area is divided into 20 equipotentials. Hydraulic conductivity is 0.8 mday.
age Imm Quantity of water flowing through a flow net is given by q -KHN/N (see eqn.
owater u 4.13)
Here K=0.8m/day, H=10m,
nd o)(b) 10 NF6 and N20
0.8 (10m x 6)/20
2.4 m day/m
sec=1l at the rate of 75000 pm,
14. Question: From flow net analysis of well, pumping
a
the following data was obtained.

i No. offlow channels 20
contour 3m
ii. head drop between successive potentiometric
ii. thickness of aquifer 20m
law 1is not vil Determine the Transmissivity and Hydraulic Conductivity of the aquifer.
Answer: In this problem H/Na= Ah 3m, q- 75000 Ipm
= =
108000 m/day, Nf=
20 and b= 20m
arcy's lawiss
Equation q =K H N/Na gives flow through the aquifer as discharge/unit
of
widthi.e. m°/day/m).. In this problem the third dimension, the thickness
locity for aquifer, is known (say b).
Therefore q-KHN/Nga x bm°/day as T= K x bb Ah kH Ngyb
Or, q Tx Nx H/Na= Tx N^x Ah or T q/ Ngx
= =
T=108000/(20 x 3) = 1800 mi/day

And K = T/ b = 1800/20m =90 m/day
1D.Question: An earthen dam is 50m long, the horizontal and vertical hydraulic
Conductivity of the permeable layer is Kj 4x10 cm/sec and K, 2x 10*
= =
iht
V E r e n e
d a n
cm/sec. H=10m, Nf-6 and Nd=20 as in the earlier problem. Calculate the
seepage through the dam.
K 4x10 cm/sec= 0.345 m/day and K, = 2 x 10 cm/sec = 0.172 m/day
Here K 2
H= the head difference the dam 10m, no. of
=
=
(K, K) ,
across
Cnlial drops Ng is 20 and no. of flow channels Ng is 6 and length of dam 1s

na
tauidsg
S0m.
ubstituting in eqn. q =K x length of dam
Y=1
90.345x0.172)2x 10 x6}/20] x50m
220|
Fundamentals
ofHydrogeology AnSn
x50
{(0.243 x
10x 6)/20} m length of
dam
entire 50
=
for the thickness of 30

3 6 . 4 5 m/day
In a n
unconfined
aquifer of uniform
are 10m nd
and 1Sm
15m
n,
bela"epth
belo w groundto
depth
level. The ground surface is flat 100m
and apart conductivity of a a
hydraulic eveluati2Sm,
o
16. Question: wells
mlday. Calculate
w a t e r level
observation
nductivity
in two(i) discharge per unit width (ii) elevation of aquifematch
of water isis 22.0of
elevation of water leve
(ii) comment on
n
observation
well ana
SOm and 75m from

the first line.
with observed phreatic
water level
computed
unit width (see chapter 4, eqn. 4.28)
) Discharge per
{h,-h2
=K/2L
Answer: q
h 3 0 - 1 0 20m
=
here
h 30-15= 15m
=
K 2.0m/day
L 100mn Her
Substitute the values in above equation

2/200 [ 400 -225]
2.0/2 x 100 [20*-15*] = are
=0.01 x 175 =1.75 m'day

Elevation of water level
Thu
(i) from the first observation well is
The elevation of water level h at a distance x 45T
given by the eqn.
h[b-(h-h:0x/L)]" (see chapter 4, eqn. 4.29) Ch
in the first part of the problem and x=25m 18.
18
Here hi, h2 and L is as given
substituting in above equation dur
2
100
h [20-(20-15) (25/100)1
or, h = 18.8m at x = 25m pur
Similarly h =17.67m at x =
50m and aq
h= 16.39m at x = 75m.
A
(iii) Comparison of computed and observed water levels W
We can join a line through the computed elevation of water level (fromdatum
show the computed water table and n
compare with actually observed water lau
The computed water table will be below
the actual water table because or upuit Du Su
assumptions.
17. Question: A
confined aquifer of 30n thickness and 5 km wiain tWO as
observation wells located I km head
in the first well hl is apart in the direction of flow of water The 19

50m and that in the h2i 40m
4tm
above datum. The second observation" ta

the following: hydraulic conductivity K of aquifer is 0.002)
m/sec. Calculae Calcula dr
Cuos re
i. Flow of water/ unit width
ii. daily flow through the of aquifer
ii. head at a distance aquifer and
of 500m from observation well nl.
cm/sec
=
0.000025 m/sec =
0.000025 x 60 x 60 x24 =
2.16
.0025
er:K=
(50m-40m)/1km =(50m-40m)/1000m=10/1000 0.01
=
m d a y =
dh/dx of aquifer W= 5km 5000m =
30m and width

b unit width
Pomd
fer is 20 ) Flow q
q'=-Kbdh/dx
through
above equation
(see chapter 4,eqn 4.22)
Substituting in
x 30 x 0.01 0.648 m/day/unit
width
match g' 2.16
flow q through the entire width
) Daily
q=qx width of aquifer
w
28) q 0.648 x S000 =

3240 m°/day
distance of 500m from hl observation well
i Head at a is given
From equation 4.24 we know that head h' at a distance of x
h-9'x/Kb
byh'
=
50m (the head in first or hl observation well), q' 0.648 m/day/unit

=
Lere h =
2.16 m/day and b= 30m (x1, K and b

above, X1
=
500m, K =
width as calculated
are given
in the problem)
h' 50m(0.648 x 500)/2.16 30m =
=
x 50-5 =45m
between two observation wells is
the head at a distance of 50Om, midway
Thus
1on wells45m above datum.
Chapter 5
A fully penetrating well in confined aquifer is pumped for long
nd x-l5m l8. Question: rate is
state flow was achieved. The pumping
duration and near steady
at 30m and 50mfrom
in two observation wells situated
000r day. Drawdown Calculate the Transmissivity the of
well is 2.Sm and 3.Om respectively.
Puping
aquiferusing Theim's method.
Answer: Transmissivity T is given by T=zt(t-h, ni
nere qs constant rate of discharge 1000m/day 2.5m and
=
h2 3.0m
a hj are drawdowns in observation wells; hj 30m and n= S0m
=
atum
m datum)
Sand T are distance from pumping well;x r13.14 (3-2.5)}] In (50/30)

Water
tahlk =
Se
ofDuput
substituting
n g in in above
above equation T =[1000/{2 x
T (1000/3.14) x 0.5108
adhhasa
T 162.6 m/day
he hr
19 water
uestion: In an
an well penetrates 50m below the The
unconfined aquifer a
able The wellIn mlday.
is pumped for long duration with a discharge of2500
j awdown in twopumpec
drawdell
wells at 20m and 50m
1.0m
are 2.Om and
respect O observation
Answer:ivel Determine the transmissivity of the aquifer.
Kisggiven by cquation
here K is 5.10 as K rn(C) =
draulic conductivity
222 | D r a wd o
h and h are head in observation

thickness of aquifer
wells; h2
=
(50-1)= 49m and h
50-2)= 48
=(50.21
Siubstitut
s=(S000
5Om is the saturated SUm and ri= 20m, Sit.
and r are distance
the values in eqn.

5.10
of observation
wells; T2
uting Thus
day
o
the
of
diy p
fu
pu
In (50/20) )]
K 2500/[3.14 x (49-48
7.5 m/day
2 u e s
(2500/304.58) x 0.916 OStant

m/day
T Kxb= 7.5 x 50m =375 confined aguit.
w e l
a t
in a well tapping a
was conducted
20. Question: Pumping test uifer ae
potea
at a constant discharge of 10 m
30m thickness. The well was pumped well at a distance of s d lacob
s.
observed in an observation fr
draw down was
was plotted and matched with
pumping well. The data,
draw down and time, vith type
Answer:
data:
curve. The match point gave following chapter
W(u) =
2.9, Iu =
10 T+2.3q
1000 m =0. 694 days

Draw downs 2.50 m, Time t
=
=
Hereq
Apply Theis method to obtain T, K and S. (Please note that the data asgiven
imaginary,) i n t e r s e c t
Answer: pumping
From Theis equation s= (q/47|) Wu) or T=qW(u)/4T s

24 m/day= 2400 m'/day and W(u) =
2.9 and draw downs 3.5
9100m/hr =100 x Substitu
2.5m. Substituting T=(2.3
T (2400 x 2.9)/4 x 3.14 x 2.5
Or T 221.65 m/day Or, T
Again su
K=T/b=221.65/30
S- (2.2
K=7.39 m/day Or, S=
u=r S/4Tt or S = u 4Tt/r
Here r= 50 m and u = 10-3
23. Que
S (0.001 x 4x 221.65 x 0.694)/ 50 x 50 down w=
S=0.00024 2.4 x 104
pumping
21. Question: A well located in a confined aquifer of 30m thickness and is being recuper
pumped at a constant rate of S000 m' lday. Hydraulic conductivity of the aquijer data by
is 1Om/day and T
The ma
storativity
is 0.00025. Calculate the draw down at a distance o
50m from the well after one day
of pumping.
Answer: Here q =5000m°/day ,
and t 1 day
=
b=30m, K 10m/day, S 0.00025, r= 50m =
=
T Kxb= 10 x 30 =
300 m/day and res
u=r S/4 Tt
to illast
u 50 x 0.00025/ 4x 300 x 1
o r u = 0.00052 = 5.2 x 10
From type from table

curve or
AnSwer
As =2.
of W(u) vs u, find out value for W(u)
corresponding tou =5.2 x 10
Wu) comes to 7.02
T-23
Here a
Subsit t
Miscellaneous Topics| 223
(q/4r T) W(u) Theis equation

downs=
values of q, T and W(u) in this equation
Draw
bstituting
7.02/4 x 3.14 x 300) =9.31m
tin
s
(5000 x
( 5 0 0 0 .
50m distance from pumping well will be 9.31m after 1

ting Thus the
s the drawdown
awdown.at
day ofpumping.
2 Ouestion: A fjully penetrating well

in confined aquifer is being pumped at a
n t rate of 500m /day and drawdown is being observed in an observation

SUm jrom the pumping well. The time drawdown data is
const
of well at a distance of as shown in 5.4. Calculate T and S using

nlotted on semi-lo8 papera figure
and line method.
om Jacob's straight
ype Answer: By Jacobs method T and S are given by following relationship (see
chapter 5)
T-2.3q/4TAs and S Tto /r2 = 2.25
As 7.0m is drawdown per log cycle
Here q 500m/day (constant discharge),
=
is
as given in figure 5.4, to=
3.5 minute is time the straight line through t he data
intersects zero drawdown axis and r 50m, the distance of observation well from
=
pumping well.
2.4 0.0024 days 10* days
t 3.5 minute x
= =
n s
Substituting values in T=2.3q/4tAs
T=(2.3 x 500)/4 x 3.14 x 7.0
Or, T 1150/87.92 = 130.8 m/day
Again substituting in equation S = 2.25 Tto /r2
S=(2.25 x 130.8 x 2.4 x 10*)/50 x 50

Or, S (706.32 x 10 /2500 =2.8 x 10*
23. Question: A well was pumped at a constant rate of500m/day for 1day. Draw
down was observed in an observation well located at 50m distance from the
pumping well and T and S were evaluated. After pumping was stopped,
ng recuperation data was recorded in observation well. Evaluate T from recover

data by Theis recovery method and compare the results of two methods.
fer The match point for Theis method are
of
Wu) = 5.4
u = 6 x 10-3
s = 0.32m
t 0.2 days
und residual drawdown As'= 0.15m /log cycle. (All data is imaginary and gven
to illustrate the
methodology)
Answer: Recovery Method
As' =2.3 q/47T
T 2.3 T q/4 As
ere q 500 m'/day and As' 0.1 5m/log cycle =
Substituting in above equation
HHY
T 2.3 x S00/4 x 3.14x 0.15 Cations
T 610.4 m/day
S cannot be estimated by this method.
Theis Method
) T=qW(u)4 Ts
Substituting in above equation the values of W(u) and s and q
problem given in the
T 500 x 5.4/4 x 3.14x 0.32 Total
T=671.7 m/day
(i) S=4Ttu/ harara
Substituting in above equation value of T calculated above, t, u and.

given in the problem as A n s w e
S= (4x671.7 x 0.2 x 6x 10-

50 andM
S 3224 x 10 /2500
Here,
S=1.28 x10 TCH=
The transmissivity values calculated by two methods differ.
difference is acceptable. However such
ch
Altern
LOncer
Chapter 6 TCH
24. Question: The chemical =(4
Process the data for
analysis of a water sSample has been received 23
preparation of Pie diagram and Bar diagram. Non
+Con
Results of Chemical Analyses of water sample of site X Whers
Constituents Concentration in Remarks NCH
Colour <5 hazen unit
pH 6.4 Physical character
Ec 530 micro mhos/cm Physical character Total
or micro Siemens /cm
Ca
80 mg/litre Physical character
Mg 9 mg/litre Chemical constituent
Na
24mg/litre Chemical constituent Com
K
5 mg/litre Chemical constituent ) T
HCO 235 mg/litre Chemical constituent
CO 20mg/litre Chemical constituent
CI 40 mg/litre Chemical constiuent
SO 15mg/litre Chemical constituen
Answer: For | Chemical constituent )E
preparation
of Pie, Bar
SCnoeller
semi-log diagram the data in diagram and also for Stiff' s
polygon and
a
concentrationin mg/l has to mg/l has to be converted to me/l.
iS shown in
be divided
by the equivalent weight Fori This
6.
table. of the
o Comm
Answ
Equivalent Conc.in Anions Conc. Equivalent Conc.in

Conc. me/l=conc. in in
C a t i o n s
weight weight me/l-conc. in
(mg/l)/equivalent mg/l (mg/1/equivale
mg/l weight nt weight
20 4.0 HCO3 235 61 3.85
80 0.74 CO 20 30 0.66
9 12.2
Mg 24
23 1.04 CI 40 35.5 1.12
0.13 SO4 15 48 0.25
en n te Na 39.1
5.91 5.88
K
Total
Calculate the Total Carbonate Hardness and Non Carbonate
stion:
25.
Hardness
and the Total Hardness ofthe water sample from the analyses report of
and t a
and problem.
Comment on quality ofwater Where Ca
revious
Answer: Total.Carbonate
Hardness (TCH) 2.497 Ca +4.115 Mg
Total
e
nwer: is in mg/1
concentration
and Mg and Mg=9 mg/l
Here, Ca80mg/l 9 199.76 + 37.03 236.79 mg/l =237 mg/1
TCH 2.497 x 80 +4.115x
=
Hardness also be calculated from

Carbonate
may
thee
ver such Alternatively the Total
concentrationin me/l data as converted the
in table.
in me/l + concentration of Mg in me/1) x 50.
TCH (concentration of Ca
4+0.74) x 50
= 237 mg/l1
receved (NCH) =
[(conc. of Ca + conc. of Mg) -
(conc. of CO3
Non Carbonate Hardness
+conc. of HCO3)] x 50
Where all concentrations are in me/l
NCH of the [(4.0 +0.74)- (0.66 +3.85)] x 50
sample =
0.23 x 50 11.5 mg/l

= =
racter
Total Harness (TH) =Carbonate Hardness + Non Carbonate Hardness
racter
Ucier
TH 237+11.5 = 248.5 mg/1
stituen
IStiluem Comments
h e Total Hardness of the water sample is 248.5 mg/l and is mildly hard as
Stuent
within
nstituen limit for total hardness is(200 mg/1.)However, It s still
ceptable
7 S I U u e m
permissible limit in absence of alternative source. limit 1s

Nstituem
ne pH of sample is 6.4 i.e. it is very mildly acidic as acceptable

from 6.5 to 8.5.
is about 530 X
h e sample is 530 micro mhos/cm i.e. the TDS
water
s t i t u e n
ygon a
0.61 323 mg/l and water is fresh.
L F a ths
r
26. Question: From the data given in problem 24,
analysis
calculate SAR and
COmmen
comment on its
use for agriculture purposes.
Answer: SAR is given by SAR = - Na where Na, Ca and Mg are expressed
Ca +Mg
An mell.
lon Conc. in mg/l Equivalent weight conc. in me/l

Na 24 23 1.04
Ca 80 20 4.0
Mg 9 12.2 0.74
Na *
SAR 1.04/(2.37) =
1.04/1.539 =
0.674
=
2
SAR = 0.674 and Ec is 530 micro mhos/cm. From US salinity diagram
6.7, the water can be classified as good water for agricultural use. figure
27. From the analysis data given in problem 24, calculate TDS of
the sample
Answer: TDS is given by sum of the concentrations of ions in mg/1. In this
TDS is given by conc. of Ca + conc. of Mg+ conc. of Na + conc. case
of + K Conc
HCO X 0.49 + conc.CO, + conc. of Cl + conc. of SO
TDS 80 +9+24+5+ 235 x 0.49 + 20+40 + 15
308 mg/
The TDS estimated from Ec is 323
mg/l and is close to the above value.
28. Question: Water samples were collected
from two(dug wells)and (wo tube)
wells in coastal area and electrical
conductivity of the samptes measured in the
field are shown below. Comment on quality of water 0. Latit-
Dug well1 Electrical conductivity Ec = 1500 micro mhos/cm monitorir
Dug well 2 Electrical conductivity Ec = 1900 micro mhos/cm
Suitable
Tube well 1 Electrical conductivity Ec 4000 micro
mhos/cm
=
water.
Tube well 2 Electrical
conductivity Ec 17000 micro mhos/cm
=
Monitora
Answer: The measured electrical
TDS (Total dissolved Solid)
conductivity has to be converted to approximate well N
by multiplying Ec with 0.61.
Water sample Ec in micromhos/cm TDS =Ec 0.61
Dug well 1500 915 mg/1
x
C Comment
Dug well 2 Water is fresh
1900
Tube well 1 4000
1159 mg/1 Water is brackish
Tube well2 17000 2440 mg/1 Water is brackish
10370 mg/l Water is saline
Chapter 7
29. Question: Note: th
Descriptive lithololog of a borehole drilled in given
below. Make a
graphical alluvium
litholog of the borehole on 1:500 scale. ( 1:501s g
lcm 500cm or lcm
=
5m)=
0 to Sm-Soil
S to
20m-Sandy clay
20 to 50m-
clay.grey, sticky
to 75m-sand, coarse grained
75 to 85m-
clay, grey, sticky
Borehole closed at 85m depth.
Miscellaneous Topics| 227
Scale Lithology
25m
50m
75m
85mEE
Fig.14.1: Graphical Litholog
be
ne
30. Latitude, departure, depth level and RL of some ground water
to water
monitoring wells are given below in table. Plot the location of the wells on
Suitable scale and draw water table contours and indicate
the direction offlow of
water.
ate
Monitoring Latitude m | Departure Depth to WL RL m Height of WTm
well No.
m amsl =RL-DTWL)
10 10 50 45
10 60 10 60 50
10 110 60 55
60 10 10 50
60 60 50
60 110 60
110 10 15 50
110 60 10 50 10
l10 110 5 50 45
te: the data is
imaginary and fictitious)
contours are drawn in
Answer: Data is plotted and water table
below 50m
shown
50m 45
4 5 m
AnSK
55 6
3
Direction of
flow
40m
50m 40m
HEl
AnS
45m 40m 35
Scale: Arbitrary
Fig.14.2: Water table map

(b)
Vol
31. Question: A well is pumped at 20000 litres per hour for 1 hour anda
drawdown of 12.5m is observed in the well. What is the specific capacity of the
well?
Answer: Specific capacity of a well = constant discharge rate/ drawdown = Ple
mu
20000 Iph/12.m =1600 litres/hr/m
Vie
The specific capacity of the well is 1600 litres /hour per metre of drawdown.
5.
Chapter 88
32. Question: Calculate recharge through rainfall in an area 100 km,
of 20% U
which is covered by metamorphic rocks and the rest
by sedimentary rocks
Average annual rainfall being 1500mm and the infiltration coefficient 9 as
sedimentary and metamorphic rocks is 13% and 8% respectively.
Answer:Recharge area x rainfall x infiltration coefficient
=
Area 100 km 100 x 1000 x 1000 m 10 m

=
= h
Rainfall = 1500 mm = 1.5 m and ca
Infiltration coefficient of 13 % is 0.13 and 8% is 0.08

Total recharge =
recharge in sed. area + recharge in met. area

Total recharge =
(10" x 0.8
x 1.5 x 0.13)+ (10 x 0.2 x 1.5 x 0.08).
=
(0.156 10) +(0.024 x 10)
x
= 0.18 x 10° m
an unconfined aquifer spread over 100 km', the average annual

In e
33.
Question:
fhuctuation
water table is 5m. Calculate the dynamic reserve of the aquifer if
o fwater
yield
is 20%
specific
spec dynamic
reserve
Area x Fluctuation of WT x Specific Yield
= 10 m x 5 mx0.20
= 10* m
is spread over 100 km area. The water level in wells

s1estion: An aquifer
summer. Calculate the amount
Om 34. to Sm above mean sea level during
n from
from 20m
two cases (a) the aquifer is unconfined and specific
xtraction in following is 0.00005.
dis 15% and (b) the aquifer is confined and storativity
Answer:
Case of
Unconfined aquifer
(a)
of water extracted= Area x Specific yield x Fluctuation of water level
Volume 0.15 x (20-5)m
100 km* x
= 10 m x 0.15 x 15m
2.25 x 10" m*
confined aquifer
(b) Case of Fluctuation of water level
Volume of water
Area
extracted= x Storativity x
= 100 km x 0.00005 x (20-5)m
ur and a
10 m*x 0.00005 x 1 Sm
city ofte 7.5 x 10" m
available for the same decline of head is
Please note that the volume of water
confined aquifer because specific
n= much larger in case of unconfined aquifer than
confined aquifer.
yieldof unconfined aquifer is much larger than storativity of
OWD 35. Question: A confined aquifer of 40m thickness is spread over 100 km. Top of
This aquifer lies at a shallow depth of 20m from surface. The potentiometric
the
Suace originally
was 15m above top of aquifer. During heavy pumping,
20%4
20%4 volume of water pumped
rodpolentiometric surface dropped by 2Om. Calculate the
rOC
Assume storativity S J
iont
Ciem buming no recharge took place during pumping period.
aquifer as 0.0005 and specific yield S, of 15%
below
Swer: Note that when potentiometric surface of confined aquifer drops In this
o
ca
f the confined aquifer, it will behave as an unconfined aquifer.confined
the top of the
potentiometric surface has dropped 5m below
aquifer.
Water pum (Area x Sx drop in potentiometric surface +
Area x S, x drop
in waterunped=
level)
(10m x 0.0005 x 15m +

10 m x 0.15 x im)
=
10'
m(0.0075m +0.75m)
0.7575 x 10 m
-
7.575 x 10' m
of Hydrogeology
orh =
Fundamentals
230| of
t h i c k n e s s having porosity
spread over 100 km area. aquifer
Duringof 50m
pumping the potentiometric etric surface
)x 10°
surface % 20%Nintfis annual
dro
A confined PPed
36. Question:
and water a r e 2.0
aquifer
modulus ofelasticity ofthe o water
volumepumped 39
Proble
TOm. 1hebulk Calculate
by
N/nt respectively.
and 2.2 x I10' potentiometric surface develo
Areax drop in Answe

the data given in the Drok
=
Answer: Volume of water pumped calculated from blem

aquifer has to be
chapter 3, equation 3.9)
rag
S of the confined (
S t a g e
S =b p»g(at n5) 1 e .the

using the following relationship of wate
thickness of aquifer in m, pw density
Where S is storativity,
b is of aquifer material in N/m
of bulk modulus of elasticity in N/m? 40.
kg/m, a is reciprocal modulus of elasticity of water receiv
is porosity and Bis reciprocal of bulk

Substituting in above equation x 10*) +0.20
x 1/(2.2x 10*1 ii-
50m x 1000kg/m'x 9.8 m/secI(1/(2.0
S
S 2.49 x 10-3 10
10.0mx 2.49 x
100 km* x
of water pumped
=
Volume
10.0m 2.49 x 10
=
10'm x
2.49 x 10"m
v
water contribute to the total
37. Question: How much does the expansion of Hect
storativity in the above question?
Answ
Answer:
The contribution of expansion of water = b p»g (nß) The1
= 50 x 1000 x 9.8 [0.2 x 1/(2.2 x 10 )]
= 0.044 x 10
total
of
Le. it is about 1.7 %the storativity
The contribution of compression of aquifer [=b p.g(a)] is 100 - 1.7 = 98.3%
38. Question: In a sub basin 10 tube wells are being pumped for 6 hours per day
at the rate of 10000 litres per hour for irrigation purposes. For domestie
purposes the daily withdrawal from tube wells and dug wells is 20000 litres per
day. Calculate the annual drafifrom ground water reservoir. f the area of
Incre
sub basin is 250000 m and specific yield is 20%, indicate how much waterleve
will be lowered in the sub basin assuming no inflow of water takes place n
Wate
basin from outside.
Inflo-
(R+E
Answer: R-
10000 litres per hour =
10 m'/hr and 20000 litres per day =
20 m/day TR
Rec
Annual withdrawal for 10
tube well=219000 m irrigation purposes 10 m'/hr x 6 hours x 365 0a 41.
Annual withdrawal
for domestic purposes 20 m/day x 365 3 giver
Total
withdrawal or draft annually days=7300 m
250000 mx Sy x loss in 219000+7300
=
226300 m/annun
water level,h 226300
250000 x 0.2 xh 226300 m =
y of 20%
ce dropped Miscellaneous Topics | 231

x 10 NIm or h4.526m i.e. the water level
=
in the area will be
d. annual pumping. lowered by 4.526m due to
39. Question: The gross annual replenishable reserve

rface xS
the proble
problem has been estimated at 150000 m. of the area in above
Indicate the stage
development. of ground water
n3.9) Answer:
of watern Stage of ground water development 226300/150000

1.50
l in Wateri.e.
Nm,a the stage of
development is 150% and ground water is being over exploited.
Nim "
N/m 40. Ouestion: calculate recharge from rainfall in a 2000 ha
receiving 1200 mm rainfall annually with (Hectare) area
i. return flow from following given data
irigated field
ii. Inflow into boundary 50 ha m
and tube wells 80 ha m
=
=
ii. Outflow from boundary 60 ha m =
iv. Evapotranspiration 20 ha m =
v. Drafi = 2 0 0 ha mn
vi. Water level fluctuation =

1.9m
vii. Specific yield = 15%
to the total
Hectare is a unit of area; 1 Hectare =
100mx 100m
Answer:
The inflow component are
2.2x 10°)] a. Recharge through rainfall (R)
b. Return flow from irrigated fields and tube wells =
80 ha m
C. Inflow from boundary 50 ha m =
The outflow components are

98.3%
a. Outflow from
Dursperdg
boundary 60 ha n =
b.
Evapotranspiration 20 ha m =
o rd o m e s t e
c. Draft from tube wells = 200 ha
0 litre
O litres uICTease in storage = Area x rise in water level x specific yield
areaoftk
2000 ha x 1.9m x 0.15 = 570 ha m
7 water
ee
p l a c ei n
th
oWater balance equation will be
ntlow- outflow Increase in storage
(R+80+50)-(60+20+200)
R- 150 570
=570
OrR= 720 ha m
Omday
Recharge
41
through rainfall is 720 ha m.
5 daysr data
given: estion: Calculate evapotranspiration from
Riven a basin if following
7300
m
Recharge from rainfall 1800 ha m
turn flow from irrigated fields 75 ha m
COutflowfrom basin 600 ha m
u m
T o t a l
through tube wells 400 ha m

d.
d. Drafi of ground water N e ta r
e.
e. Area of basin 5000 ha m and anual rainfall 1200mm Surph
Fluctuation of water level during a year 1.2m Draft
Answer: Inflow components = recharge from rainfall +return flow

1800+ 75 = 1875 ha m
Outflow components= Evapotranspiration f outtlow from basin+ dr
E+ 500+ 4 0 0 E + 900 draft Qhuestic

Increase in storage = area x rise in water level x specific yield
5000 x 1.2 x 0.15 hat

aepth
= 900 ha m
SUmner
Water balance equation; Inflow components outflow component = chanee calCulatea
in
storage
1875 (E+ 900) 900 Answer:
Or E 75 ha m. Dynamic
42. Question: Prepare a ground water balance report jor a mining project whose
buffer zone is spread over 400 km' out of which 390 km* is covered by
sedimentary rocks and the rest by metamorphic rocks. Average annual rainfall is isThis is repl
15
1500 mm over the area and
projected population till the end of the project is ay
may be pur
D
250000. Static resern
Answer:
specific yie
Recharge component
(a) For sedimentary area the infiltration coefficient is 0.13 as per norm
390 km* x 1.5m x 0.13 76.05 x 10"
m
-
(b) For metamorphic area the infiltration coefficient is

0.08 as per norm Static grou
10 km x 1.5m x 0.08 1.2 x
10°m
=
Total recharge =
(a +b)
(76.05+ 1.2) x 10 m' 77.25 x 10° m'
=
=
=
77.25 Chapter 16
million m
44. Questic
Natural discharge and other losses 15%
Net annual
of above 11.587 Mm =
results are
recharge from rainfall =
77.25 -
11.587 =
65.663 M m
Draft component
(c) For irrigation purpose assume 200 km* to be agricultural land
Area x 145 m
per Hectare/year (200 x 100 Ha) x =
20% of 2.9 Mm' will return to

ground
1452.9 Mm
water 0.58 Mm =
90
Total draft for
(d) Draft for the
irrigation purposes= 2.9 0.58 2.32 Mm -
Describe (i.
rom resisti
projected population including mine workers, cattle
etc. populaution
Population 250000 x 70 litres/day x Aaswer. (y
6387500 m' =
For cattle 10% of above

6.387 Mm
365 days =
6387500000 litres= enoted th
Total draft for
0.6387
human cattle
and
(e) Estimated pumping from mine
=
population =6.387+0.6387= 7.02 Mm

VES1
80% of 10
=
10 Mm'
Mm will return to
ground water system =8 Mm
effective pumping from mine Mm

=
10-8 2
Total
annual
draft = d +e =: c + 2.32+7.0257+2.0 11.3457 Mm
Net ground water available for recharge -=Recharge component
Surplus of
D r a f t c o m p o n e n t
65.663 Mm
-
11.3457 Mm
cubic metre
in +drait - 54.3137 Million
sub basin thick bed is overlain by 15m1
Question:
n a
sedimentary a
is
clay
Water level
of
reveals
43.
silt up to surface. The. flat.
surface monitoring
nand and.
water varies from 3.5m during rainy season to 7.5m during
that epth to the sub basin is S00 sq km and specific yield is 20%
r1f
Summer. f the area of
and Static r e s e r v e ofthe sub basin.
calculate dynamic
Answer:
=
area x water level fluctuation x specific yield
Dunamic Reserve = 500 km x (7.5 - 3.5)m x 0.20
500 x 10 mx 4.0mx 0.20

ject whose = 400 x 10° m' = 400 Million cubic metre
overed by which is expected to be recharged every year and
Irainfallis
rainfali This is replenishable reserve
project is may be pumped safely.
thickness of aquifer below zone of fluctuation
x
Static reserve areax
specific yield
500 kmx (15.0 7.5)m x 0.20
500 x 10 mx 7.5m x 0.20
m = 750 x 10° m* = 750 Million cubic metre
Static ground water reserve may be used on restricted basis.
rm
= 77.25 Chapter 10
hard rock area two VES have been conducted and
interpreted
.uestion: In thickness in m.
T s are shown below. Resistivity p of layers are in Ohm-m and
VES 1 VES 2
P
180 90 350
P2 P3 h h Pi P2 P3
10.0
T7.55|
350 1.2 120 500
15.5 80 170 1.5
Describe
t h e number oflayers in VES I and VES 2 (ii) identify
nature of rock*
om
populanon resistivity of.layers and (ii) identify type ofcurve.
5wer: (i) VES 1 detected 4 layers. It may
be ected 3 layers and VES 2 has
has detecte
noted that thick
nckness of the last layer is infinite and is
customarily not
written.
s i) VES 1
1st layer
resistivity 180 Ohm-m Soil
weathered rock
2 layer resistivity 90 Ohm-m
0257
M
3Td layer resistivity 350 Ohm-m Compact rock
234| Fundamentals of Hydrogeology hieagansK
VES 2 1" layer resistivity 80 Ohm-m Soil
resiwDVa
2nd layer resistivity 170 Ohm-m weathered/fractured rock A n s w e r :w
3Td layer resistivity 120 Ohm-m weathered/ fractured rock WhereRn
4th layer resistivity 500 Ohm-m compact rock Here,SP=
(ii) VES 1 is H type (3 layer) curve and VES 2 is KH type (4 layer) curve
Orlog/0RR
45. Question: For selection of a drilling site three VES were condtucted in a hard T a k i n g
a n t i
rock area covered by soil. The collected data is plotted and interpreted for layer
parameters by Master Curves. The layer parameters are given in the table below Resistivity
sist
We
can
co/n
Resistivity of layers are in Ohm-m and thickness in metre.
TDS=610e
VES 3
VES 1 VES 2
P P 2540
Ph h,PPPahh PP2|Pa h
110 1.2 7.2 180
180 110 450| 1.5 20.5 170 120 390 | 1.7| 125 borehole
permeable
Explain which of the VES site you will recommend for drilling and why? And eme
b o t h m e a s
also identify the curve type.

Answer: The site of VES 2 is recommended for drilling as the thickness of resistviy s
sisv
weathered and fractured layer (h.) is highest of the three 20.5m compared to tiepermea
1.2m in VESl and 12.5m in VES 3. Moreover the resistivity of the second layer Answer
Answer
is on higher side in VES 1. 0 Upper

SP=.
VES1 A type three layer

VES 2 H type three layer equatio-
VES 3 H type three layer

TDS
46. Question: Interpreted VES data from marginal alluvial area and hard rock Wateri
area is given below. ldentify the nature
of rock and indicate the location (area) ()Lower
of VES. Resistivity p is expressed in Ohm-m and thickness h in m. SP = +
VES 1 VES 2 equatio

PL
180
P2
120
P3
550
|h
1.3
h
10.5
PL P2 P3 h 10
13 8.5 1.5 45.0 TDS =
Answer: VES 1 is located in hard rock area
and VES 2 is in Water 12is
area as evident from the marginal alluvial deT
VESI Hard rock area
resistivity ranges of layers. m) The upp
ayerresistivity 180 Ohm-m Soil
2 layer resistivity 120 ohm-m Weathered/fractured rock 49. uestio
sealing
3 layer resistivity 550 Ohm-m Compact rock
VES 2 Marginal s layer ormal resi.
Alluvial area resistivity 13 Ohm-m Soil has been re
2 layer resistivity 8.5 Ohm-m Alluvium
47.
3Td layer
Question: borehole in alluvial terrain was
A
resistivity infinity Bed rock ForAnSwermat.ionWJ
long normal resistivity and
gamma logs
geophysically logged ana t0
were recorded in the \aTnatiom (
jig. 10.20A). The SP
log shows a deflection of- 12 mv with borehole (rejerbase
respect clay v
to
Tomationt
permeable
bed. Ifresistivity of mud is 10 Ohm-m, calculate the
againstthe water
line and TDS ofJormation
r e s i s t i v i t y
that SP
= -
K log (equation 10.26)

We know
R
water
A n s w e r :
of mud and Rw is resistivity of formation

is resistivity
R
Where
10Ohm-m and the constant K 71 =
mv, R»
=
SP=- 12
Here,
12 7 1 log 10/Rw
hard log10/Rw=
12/71 =
0.169
ayer Or
Or 6.8 Ohm-m
=
Rw10/1.475
oTaking antilogFormation wateT Rw is 6.8 Ohm-m.
elow Resistivity of follows:
formation water to TDS as
We.can convertresistivity ofThus formation water is fresh.
6100/R» 7 897 mg/l. have been encountered in
a
DS coastal area two permeable zones
8. Question: In 1 0 mv deflection against the upper

125
borehole. The recorded SP log showS zone
and a SP deflection of
+10 against the lower permeable mv
And
Andpermeable zone
with respect to shale base line (refer

to figure 10.20 A&B). If
bothmeasured water in both
calculate the quality of formation
SS ofresistivity
SS of of mud is 6 Ohm-m, o n design of well assembly.
zones and comment
ed bthe permeable
layer Answer:
) Upper permeable zone 71; Substituting in
K =
SP=-10 mv, Rm =
6.0 Ohm-m and constant
Ohm-m and
10 =-71 log (6/R,) or Rw 4.3
=
equation SP = -
K log Rw -
TDS 6100/4.3 1418 mg/l.

Water is brackish in upper permeable zone.
root
() Lower permeable zone
areal
SP=+ 10 mv, Rm =
6.0 Ohm-m and constant K =
71; substituting in
Rm
equation SP =- K lo8 R
w
+10=-71 log (6/Rwor Ry =

8.29 Ohm-m and
450 TDS =6100/8.29 735 mg/l.
Water is fresh in lower permeable zone.
with cement
aquifer has brackish water and has to provided
Iuvna
be
upper
Sealing to stop flow of brackish water in the well.
49. Question: In the. above borehole, resistivity log was also recorded by a long
normal resistivity 180 Ohm-m resistrviy
and against the permeable bed
has beenresistivity probe Calculae
recorded. R,
ecorded. 6.8 Ohm-m as calculated in above problem.
=
Formationj
Answer: factor and porosity of the permeable bed. related to resistivity of the
We know that the Formation factor F is
formation Ro
lormation
K O ) and the resistivity of formation water Rw as follows
(equation 10.28)
Formation factor F is roughlyF related

R R
tothe effective porosity
F by the
relation
F 0.62/F1 for sand, and

180/6.8= 26.47. Substituting in canation
180 Ohm-m and F
=
Here Ro
F 0.62/F25 and solving
Porosity F =
0.22 or 22%
Is required to be cOnd..
S0. Question: Which type of geophysical survey cted f

Cted
trace locating water wells?
for
demarcating lineament or fracture minimum two separations has to be
with
Answer: Resistivity profiling
lineament or fracture
trace
along several profiles a
as show
ducted
across the expected and P1
lineament P9 are
through P9a
below. Dashed line shows expected will show with lo stvit,
and is water bearing it low vith
profiles. If lineament exists
as shown in figure
10.2. resistivit
compared to surrounding
Expectedlineament
p9
P6
P5
P2 P3
p4
p1
Map of XArea
Scale1:20000
Layout of Profiles
Appendix I
Table
1/u= 5.88 x
of W(u) for various values of 1/u (Example When
102; W(u)= 5.80
1/u
1/u 10 7.69 5.88 5.00 4.00 3.33 2.86
10 0.135 2.5 2.5 2.00
10 0.219 0.075 0.025 1.67 1.43 1.25 1.11
0.049 0.013 0.002
1 1.82 1.59 1.36 0.0070.004|0.002 | 0.001| 0.000
0.001 0.000
1.22 1.04 0.91 0.79 0.70
0.000
0.000 0.000 0.000
0.000 0.000
10 4.04 3.78 0.63 0.56 0.37
| 3.51 3.35 3.14 0.45 0.31 0.26
2.96 2.81 2.68 2.57
10 6.33 6.07 5.80 2.47 2.30 2.03
5.64 5.42 5.23 2.15 1.92
10 8.63 8.37 5.08 4.95 4.83 4.73 4.54 4.39
8.10 7.94 7.72 4.26 4.14
10 10.94 7.53 7.38 7.25 7.13 7.02 6.84
10 10.67 10.41 10.24 6.69 6.55
10.02 9.84 9.68 6.44
10 13.24 9.55 9.43 9.33 9.14 8.99 8.86
10 12.98 12.71 12.55 12.32 9.33 9.14 8.99 8.86 8.74
8.74
10 15.54 15.28 15.01 | 14.85
12.14 11.9911.85 11.73 11.63
11.63 11.45 11.29
14.62 11.45 11.29 11.16
11.16 11.04
11.04
10 17.84 17.58
14.44 | 14.29 14.15 14.04 13.93 | 13.75 13.46
10 17.84 17.31 17.15 16.93 16.74 16.59 13.60 13.34
16.46 16.34 16.23 16.05
108
108 20.15 19.88 19.62 19.45 16.23
16.05 15.90 15.76
15.90 15.76 15.65
10 19.23 19.05|18.89 18.76 18.64 15.65
10 22.4522.19 21.92 21.76 21.53 18.20
18.54 18.35
18.20 18.07 17.95
21.35
21.20 18.07|17.95
100
10 24.75 24.49 20.94
21.0620.94 20.84 | 20.66
24.22 | 24.06 23.83 23.65
20.84 20.66 20.5020.50 20.37 20.25
20.37 20.25
10 27.05 23.50 23.36 23.25 23.14
10 26.79 26.52 26.36 26.14 | 25.96 25.80 25.67 22.96 22.81 22.67 22.55
102 25.55 25.44 25.26
25.26 25.11
25.11 |24.97 24.86
24.97 24.86
103
29.36 29.0928.83 28.66 28.44 28.26 28.10 27.97
10 31.66 31.40 31.13 27.85 27.75 27.56 27.41
27.56 27.41 27.28 27.28
1014 29.87
27.16
33.96 33.70 30.9730.7430.5630.4130.2730.1530.05
33.43 33.27 33.05 32.86 32.71 32.58 32.4632.35 29.71 29.58
29.7129.58 29.46
29.46
Source: Ralph C. Heath, Basic Ground-Water Hydrology, US |
Geological Survey WSP 2220
32.17 32.02 31.88 31.76
Appendix II
Length
I metre= 100 cm =
1000 mm= 3.281 feet
1 mm 10 m
0.3048 m=1 feet
1 km = 1000 m 10 m = 0.621 mile
Area
1 Hectare (Ha) =100 mx 100 m= 10* m 2.471 acre
=
1 km* = 1 km x lkm= 1000 mx 1000 m = 10" m' = 100 Ha
1 km = 247.1 acre
Volume
I m' = 1000 litre
1 Ha m 10' m x I m= 10 m -2.471 x 3.281 acre ft= 8.107 acre ft
1 km' = 1 km x 1 km x 1 km = 1000 mx 1000 mx 1000 m = 10 m
4.546 litre =
1 Impgallon
3.79 litre =1US gallon
I m pgallon = 1.2 US gallon
Intrinsic Permeability
1 darcy 9.87 x 10 cm
=
Hydraulic Conductivity
I cm/sec 864 m/day
=
I m/sec 86400 m/day

=
8.64 10" m/day
=
x
I cm/sec = 2835 ft/day
1 m/day
=0.0011574 cm/sec =
1.16 x 10 m/sec
Transmissivity
I
m/day 1.1574 x10 m/sec
=
Im/sec 8.64 x 10" m

=
day
Density 'p
p=1.000 gm/cm' =
1.000 x 10' kg/m
Specific Weight
y=pxg= 1.000 x 10 kg/m' x
9.81 m/sec
g=981 cm/sec =9.81 m/sec
=
9.81 x 10 Newton/m
Appendix| 239
1000gm= 10gm
Mass
1000
100 kg
=
guintal
tonne= 1000kg
Dynamic viscosity
I p o i s e 1 g m / s e c - c m
Use
geful multiples (SI prefixes) with symbols
yotta 10 deci
zetta 10 centi
exa 10 milli
Peta P 10 micro
terra 10 nano
giga G 10-12
pico
10 T3
mega M femto
18
kilo K 10 atto
hecto h 10-2
24
zepto
da 10 yocto
10 deca
I million
=
10
1billion=10
1lakh 10 m/sec =
2.99792458 Km/sec
299792458
Velocity of light
=
Appendix III
Appendix IM
Two layer Master Curve
p2> pl
(Based on Orellana & Mooney, 1966) Inf
40
40
20
15 15
10 10
3.5 3.5
2.5- 25
2.0 2.0
15 1.5
1.25
100
Appendix IILA
Two layer Master Curve
p2 p
(Based on Orellana & Mooney. 1966)
100
0.8 0.8
0.65 0.65
0.5
0.4 0.4
0.3 0.3
0.2 0.2
0.15- 0.15
0.10 0.1
0.07- 007
0.05 0.05
0.025 0 025
Appendix | 241
Auxllilary Diagram Appendix IIVI

A Type
(Besed on Orellana &
Mooney, 19%6)
0.1 0.5 1
2 15 20 2530 40 50
1.25- ha/hi
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.5
10
15
B0
40
50
75
p2/p
100
Appendix III/TV
Auxilliary Diagram
H Type
(Bused on Orelkana & Mooney, 1966)
210 f00
ha010.20.5
0.8
0.5
-0.4
0.23
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.07
0.05
0.035
0.025
0.01
g.0
242 |
Appendix I
Auxiliary Diagnam
K Type
(Hased on Oretlana & Mooney, 1966)
10 12 15 20 25 30
0.1 he/h
20
2s
3.5
LL
40
50
75
pr/pl00
Auxiliary Diagram
Q Type
(Based on Orellana & Mooey. 1966)
he/hi 0.2 0.50.71.0 1.5 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 10 20 50 100

0.8
0.6
0.3
0.4
0.3
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.
0.07
0.05
0.035
- 0.025
0.015
Appendix IV
Layer
p1-240 parameter
p2-120
ohm-MJ|hi=1.2m
H type
APp ohm-ms |he=11.0m
p3-Infinity curve
Rho
10 10
10
10
AB/2
10
App Layer Paromete KH

Rho pi-200 ohm-mj h11.4m type curve
p2-325 ohm-m; he=1.5m
p3 120 ohm-m;h3=8.5m
p4 infinity
T TTT
10 10
AB/2
Appendix V
Discharge through Orifice
Pipe dia 6" Pipe dia 6" Pipe dia 6"
Pipe dia 4"
Orifice dia 3" Orifice dia 3" Orifice dia 4" Orifice dia 5
Head Head
Discharge in
inches cm
Discharge in Discharge in
LPM
Discharge in
LPM LPM LPM
288 549 1060
12.7 379
409 310 606 1154
6 15.2
435 333 651 1241
17.8
7 356 700 1325
8 20.3 462
375 738 1408
9 22.9 484
25.4 503 394 776 1488
10
530 413 814 1559
27.9
30.5 553 431 852 1628
12
13 33.0 572 447 886 1696
14 35.6 594 466 920 1760
15 38.1 613 484 946 1817
16 40.6 632 500 973 1874
17 43.2 651 515 999 1930

8 45.7 674 530 1026 1983
19 48.3 693 545 1052 2029
20 50.8 708 560 1079 2074
21 53.3 727 575 1105 2120
22 55.9 746 590 1132 2165

23 58.4 761 606 1154 2210
24 61.0 776 621 1173 2256
25 63.5 795 632 1200 2301
26 66.0 810 647 1223 2347
27 68.6 829 659 1245 2392
28 71.1 840 670 1268 2438
29 73.7 855 681 1287 2483
30 76.2 871 693 1310 2528
31 78.7 889 704 1329 2574
32 81.3 905 715 1351 2619
33 83.8 916 727 1374 2661

34 86.4 931 738 1397 2706
35 88.9 946 746 1419 2748
36 91.4 961 757 1438 2790
Glossary
6" Alluvial Fans -
When
a5 mouneountain onto low land, because of
a
heavily loaded stream
ein he shape of fan
th at the change in gradient, emerges
point of emergence. These are
from
it deposits
hills or
Aquifer- Any soil or rock formation called alluvial alluviumfans.

in
f supplying ground water for human that stores ground water and is capable
of this unit is greater than(10 darcy.use is called aquifer. Intrinsic permeability
Artesian Aquifer (Confined
laver is confined aquifer. The Aquifer) aquifer overlain a
an -
ground water in an artesian by confining

pressure. aquifer is under
Aquiclude A low permeability formation of intrinsic
-
10, that forms upper or lower boundary of permeability less than

confining layer that restricts movement of water.ground water flow system. It is a
Aquitard It is a low permeability formation that can store and transmit

-
ground water slowly from one aquifer to another. It is also called leaky
confining layer. Intrinsic permeability of this unit ranges 10 **
to 10* darcy.
Aquifuge - It is an absolutely impermeable bed that will neither store nor
transmit water.
Aquifer Unconfined -
An aquifer in which the water table forms the

upper
boundary is known as unconfined aquifer. The unconfined aquifers are
susceptible to contamination from activities occurring at the land's surface.
Artificial Recharge The process of recharging unconfined aquifers by
-
checking runoff by constructing check dams, spreading water etc., and also
injecting water through wells to recharge confined aquifers is artificial recharge
in contrast to natural recharge.
Base Flow - The part of (stream discharge that comes from seepage af
ground water is called base flow. This happens when the water table slopes
towards the stream and the hydraulic gradient of the aquifer is towards the
stream.
in the
Capillary Fringe Just above the water table, water is drawn upward
-
lt is
e of aeration by capillary forces. This zone is called capillary fringe.
gner in fine grained soil than in coarse grained sol.
is water level
ConeDepression When a well is pumped, the ground
of -
cone or
well and is called
red in a roughly circular area around theactual
PSS1On. In an unconfined aquifer, this is an depression of the warer
in n c
the of depression indicates a reduction
ree Confined aquifer, cone
Pressure head surrounding the pumped well.
Hydrogeology
of
|
Fundamentals
sion. When water is

When
246
-This is inverse of
cone
of depression.
ised in aa circular
raised circular
well is
Cone of Impression
the water level
around the
image well a
a well,
A recharging
injected in is called
cone of
impression.
of pumping well near
well and solve problem
near a
around the introduced to
cone of
impression is
of low hydral:
recharge boundary.
Impermeable
soil or rock layers ulic
o r below an aquifer
Confining Layer
-
above
movement. It may lie
restrict water
conductivity that quantity
relationship between
establishes
Darcy's Law
-
Darcy's law conductivity (K), hydranli

aquifer of hydraulic
section (A) of the aquifer ie
an
water flowing through
and the area of cross
gradient () in the aquifer
9=KIA.
Volume of water flowing through a stream or discharge pipe in
Discharge
-
metre per day or m'/hour)

is called discharge.
unittime (cubic unconfined aquifer) or
well water table (in
Drawdown Near a pumping lowered. The amount of lowering
potentiometric surface (in confined aquifer) is of water level at any
minus height
i.., the height of non pumping water level
at that time.
time during pumping is drawdown to the natural
to an aquifer is equal
Dynamic Equilibrium When recharge
-
equilibrium.
discharge, the aquifer is said to be dynamic
in
head }on a surface is same
Equipotential Surface If the (hydraulic
surface. It is defined in 3D ground
everywhere, the surface is called equipotential
water flow, equipotential line is defined
water flow system. In case of 2D ground
as the line over which the hydraulic head
is same at all points. Equipotential lines
are used in flow net analysis.
Flow Net - Flow net is a graphical representation of two dimensional steady
solution to flow
state ground water flow through aquifers. It is an approximate of
problem when analytical solutions are difficult. A flow net consists of two sets
the
orthogonal lines which may be curved. The first is the flow lines which showlines
direction of ground water flow and the second is the equipotential lines, the
of constant head which shows the distribution of potential energy.
Flux- It is the rate of flow of ground water through an aquifer.
Fracture Trace - The surface manifestation of fracture zone in the
subsurface is fracture trace. Fracture traces and lineaments appear iral

as
nau
inear features with tonal variation on aerial photograph due to alignment o
topographic sag or vegetation or soil moisture pattern along a line.
continuous linear feature is more than 1.5 Km, it is termed Lineament and
than 1.5 Km is called fracture trace. Fracture trace and
I
lineaments are sites
ground water occurrence in hard rock.
GroundWater -Water contained in inter-connected el
ow
water table is called ground water. pores of rocks D

Glossary I 247
is
Ground Water Mining If ground water is
r
pumped at higher rate than
Tea
area recharge, it amounts to ground water mining.
with Ground Water Discharge- When ground water flows to the
rait is ground water discharge. In the area of ground surface
a
discharge water table will intercepts
the ground surface and water will escape in stream or wetland or
evaporate.
lic Ground Water Recharge Ground water recharge is the
oround water by intiltration or seepage of precipitation or surfacereplenishment
-
of
runoff.
Ghyben - Herzberg Principle states that the depth to which fresh waterT
of
alic extends below sea level is approximately 40 times the height of water table above
.e. sea level.
Hydraulic Conductivity - Hydraulic conductivity (K) is defined as the rate
in at which water can move through a porous medium. Its unit is metre/sec or
metre day.(Kis a function of both the properties of theporous medium and the
or uid flowing throughi . It is coefficient of proportionality in Darcy'sequation.
ng (Hydraulic DiffusivityIt is defined as ratio of transmissivity and storativity
ny i..,
T7S and its unit is m/dayy
Hydraulic Head - It is the sum of the pressure head and elevation head at a
ral given point in the aquifer, the velocity head being negligible is not considered.
Hydrogeomorphology The term designates the study of landforms caused
me by action of water.
nd Hydrograph It is a continuous record or graph of water level in a
ed monitoring well with time or flow of water in a stream with time.
es Induced Recharge - When the cone of depression created by a pumping
well captures surface water body like lake, pond or stream, the surface water will
dy infiltrate to the aquifer and recharge the aquifer provided the aquifer has
w hydraulic connection with the surface water body.
of Infiltration - Infiltration is the process by which water on the ground
he
surface moves downward and enters the soil.
es
Intermediate Zone - It is a part of the unsaturated zone lying between
capillary fringe and soil moisture zone. Pressure in this zone is less than
he atmospheric pressure.
Intrinsic Permeability - Intrinsic Permeability (K) is a property of the
ral
of porous medium and describes how easily a fluid can move through the porous
media. Its unit of measurement is m)or darcy. It is related to connectedness of
he
vO1ds and grain size of the rock.
sS
amount or
of Leachate -(Water seeping through landfills Jcontaining high
dissolved solid is called leachate.
obtained from
w Ltholog A depthwise record of description of rock type
drilling of borehole is called litholog or lithological log.
TTKTKIZK
248
Pollution that originates over widesr

Non-point Source Pollution
-
areas such as agricultural field in which fertilizer and pesticides have pread
have been
applied aerially.
Observation Well A non-pumping well in the vicinity of a pumping
tapping the same aquifer as that in pumping well and is meant for obser well
water level during pumping or during recuperation. ving
(Pediment } A plain eroded bed rock, which may or may not be coveredhy
thin veneer of alluvium, in an arid region developed between mountain and basin
n
areas.
(Pediplains Pediplains are the result of|coalescence of pediments
S,
predominantly occupying large area.
Peneplain9The end product of the cycle of erosion in humid climates.
(Piedmont)- A series of alluvial fans in course of time may coalesce to form
an
extensive piedmont alluvial plain.
Phreatic Water Water contained in pores of rock in the zone of saturation
is phreatic water.
Piezometer It is also a
-
nonpumping well of small diameter meant for

measurement of water level for deciding height of water table or
surface.
potentiometric
Point Source Pollution When the sources of contamination are
-
bounded and localised such as landfills for municipal aerially

waste, sewage lagoons for
liquid municipal waste, chemical landfills for industrial waste etc, they are called
point source of pollution or contamination.
Porosity-It is the ratio of the volume of void spaces in a rock to the volume
of the rock. It indicates
capacity of soil or rock to hold water.
Porosity Effective -
It is the ratio of volume of the

interconnected vo1d
spaces to the
total volume of rock mass. As all
rock mass, the effective pores arenot inter-connected ima
porosity is always less than porosity of rock.
Porosity Primary Porosity of sedimentary rocks is
-
develops at the time of deposition. primary poroSity.

Porosity Secondary Porosity due to
-
secondary porosity. Porosity in igneous rocks weathering and fracturing of rock

and carbonate rocks is
porosity. secou
Potentiometric Surface The surface
will rise ina
well representing the level to whieu le
is equivalent to tapping confined aquifer potentiometric surface. w a able
is
potentiometric surface for unconfined surface.
Glossary 249
Pumping Test A test conducted in wells by
-
ahserving drawdown in adjacent surrounding wells pumping it for some time and
to know
characters (T& S) of aquifers. It is also called Aquifer Performance hydrological
test.
Radial Flow The flow of water in an aquifer towards a well
is termed
radial flow.
Safe Yield The amount of water that can be extracted from an
aquifer on
sustained basis without damaging quality of water and without having adverse
effect on environment is called safe or perennial yield.
Saturated Zone - A subsurface zone below water table in which all pores in
a soil or rock formation are filled with water. The pressure in the zone is more
than atmospheric pressure. It is also called phreatic zone.
Slug Test- In low permeability area, aquifer test to know T and Sof aquifer
by pouring or withdrawing small quantity of water instantaneously from the well.
Specific Capacity } Specific capacity of a well is given by dischargedivided
bydrawdown. It indicates capacity of the well to provide water.
-K dh/dl, the term q/A is
Specific Discharge - In Darcy's equation q/A
=
It is an apparent velocity of
called Darcian flux velocity or specific discharge.
flow of water in an aquifer as if the aquifer is an open conduit.
volume of water released by an aquifer by
Specific Yield It is the ratio of
-
to its total volume. It is defined

for unconfined aquifer. All
gravity drainage volume of water retained
are not released, the
water contained in the pores retention.
to the total volume of the rock is specific
against gravity the rock and is equal to
Weight It is the weight per unit volume of
Specific Its unit is Newton/m'. Its
of density and acceleration due to gravity.
the product 10*N/m'.
value for water of density
1.0 gm/cm° is 9.81 x
releases or takes in storage per
The volume of water an aquifer
Storativity is storativity or
the aquifer for unit decline or rise in head
unit surtace area of to 1000 times
defined for confined aquifer and is 100
coefficient. It is
storage unconfined aquitfer.
smaller than specific yield of is
Elastic Storage Coefficient Specific storage (S) is
Specific Storage or formation that
water per unit
volume of a saturated of the
defined as the amount of mineral skeleton
compressibility of
stored or from storage due to
expelled
unit change of head.
aquifer and pore water per or snowmelt that accumulares
and
Surface Water Water from precipitation
-
reservoirs,
wetlands,
and rivers, lakes, ponds,

above ground in streams
transmitted
Oceans is known as surface water. be

the volume canoe hydraulic
ter that
of water
can
under a nyuru
ur
Transmissivity -
It is defined as
uifer under a or e
aquifer thickness
saturated thickness of the
horizontally by the full capability of
entire
O It defines the
transmission
I unity.
aaquifer and is given by T=Kb.
250 |
Unsaturated Zone - A soil or rock zone above the water table and ew
xten
the pore spaces are only partially filled withng
to the land surtace in which
Pressure in the zone is less than atmospheric pressure. It is also called z
e of
aeration and vadose zone.
Water Table - The top of the saturated zone in an unconfined aquifer wh
the pressure of pore water is equal to the atmospheric pressure is known where
water
table.
T. References
of
Aggarwal, Pradeep K., Klaus,
e
Isotopes in Ground Water Sudies,Froehlich, Kulkarni,
Ground water VolKshitij M, Environmental
Support System, EOLSS (available at II, Encyclopedia of
tife
Agrawal, CS and Garg, PK, 2000, http://www.eolss.net).
Text Book on
ife
Resources Monitoring and Management, Wheeler Remote Sensing in Natural
3 Alley, WM, Reilly, TE,_Franke, OE, 1999, Publishing, pp.213.
Resources, US Geological Survey Circular 1186, Sustainability of Ground Water
Bennett, Gordon D, Reilly, Thomas Denver, Colorado.
E and
Hill,
Notes in Ground Water Hydrology Radial Mary C, 1990, Technical
Flow, US Geological SurveyTrainin
Water
Resource Investigation report 89-4134.
5. Back, W and Hanshaw, BB, 1965, Chemical
Hydroscience, Vol 2, edited by VT Chow, AcademicGeohydrology,
Press, New York.In Advances
6. Bear, Jacob, Beljin, Milovan S, Ross, Randall R, 1992, Fundamentals
of Ground
Water modelling, Ground Water Issue, USEPA.
7. Carleton, Glen B, Welty, Claire and Buxton, Herbert T, Design and analysis of
Tracer Tests to Determine Effective porosity and Dispersivity in Fractured
sedimentary Rocks, Newark Basin, New Jersey, US Geological Survey Water
Investigation Report 98-4126 A.
8. Cooper Jr, HH, 1964, Circulation of Fresh and Saline Ground Water at a Zone of
Diffusion in a Coastal Aquifer, US Geological Survey Circular 1613-C.
9. Davis, SN, DeWiest, RJM, 1970, Hydrology, John Wiley and Sons Inc., New York.
10. Das, Braja M, 2008, Advanced Soil Mechanics, 3 edition, Taylor and Francis, New
York.
11. Dobrin, MB, 1976, Introduction to Geophysical Prospecting, McGraw Hill, New
York.
12. Douglas, Alissa A, 2004, Radio Carbon Dating as a tool for Hydrogeological
Investigation in the Palouse Basin, M.Sc. Thesis, college of Graduate Studies,
University of Idaho.
13. Driscoll, Fletcher G, Ground Water and Wells, Edward E. Johnsons, St Paul,
Minnesota.
14. Drinking Water Specification IS10500, 2012, 2d revision, Bureau of Indian
Standard, New Delhi.
1. Ferris, JG, Knowles, DB, Brown, RH and Stallman, RW, 1962, Theory of Aquifer
ests, US geological Survey Water supply Paper 1536E. New

CW, Applied Hydrogeology, 2000, CBS Publishers and Distributors,
Fetter,
Delhi, India. or
Ground Water Board, Govt.
und Water Scenario of States of India, Central
India available at
8. http://www.cgwb.gov.in
Water Hydrology, US geological
Survey wal
Kalph C, 1983, Basic Ground
S
Supply Paper 2220, US Geological Survey, Virginia.
252 |
in Ground Water1
Uhegbu, C Amos, Fundamental Approach 40
19. Igboekwe, MU, Michael 0O
using the Finite Difference Method, Dkpara
and Solute Transport Modelling
University, Umudike, Nigeria. Ground Water Resourcea
Towards Better Management of es :
in 41
20 Jha, BM and Sinha, SK,
India.
India, Central Ground Water Board, Engineesi
21. Jorgensen, Donald D., 1980,
Relationship between Basic Soils 4
US geological
Water flow Equations, Survey Wat
Equations and Basic Ground ater
supply Paper 2064.
1986, Fundamentals of Historical Geology and Stratigraphy f ac
43
22. Kumar, Ravindra,
India, Wiley Eastern Limited, India.
23. kumar, CP, Introduction to Ground Water Modelling, National Institute of
Hydrology, Roorkee, India.(http://www.angelfire.com/nh/cpkumar/hydrology.htm
24. Kruseman, GP and DeRidder, NA, 1970, Analysis and Evaluation of Pumping Taos
Data, bulletin 11, International Institute for Land Reclamation and Improvement
Wegeningen, Netherland.
25. Kearey, Philip, Brooks, Michael and Hill, lan, 2002, An Introduction to Geophvsical
Exploration, BlackWell Science Ltd., UK.

26. Keys, W Scot, MacCarry, LK, 1971, Application of Borehole Geophysicsto water
Resource Investigation, Techniques of Water Resource Investigation of the Us
Geological Survey, Chapter El.
27. Lynch, EJ, 1962, Formation Evaluation, Harper and Row Publishers, New York.
28. Log Review 1, Dresser Atlas Division, Dresser Industries Inc., 1974.
29. Meyboom, P, 1961, Estimating Ground Water Recharge from Stream Hydrograph,
Journal of Geophysical Research, Vol. 66.
30. Mooney, Harold M, Hand Book of Engineering Geophysics, Vol. 2, Electrical
Resistivity, Bison Instruments, Inc., USA.
31. Muir, K.S., Coplen, Tyler B, 1981, Tracing Ground Water Movement by using
Stable Isotopes of Oxygen and Hydrogen, Upper Penitentia Creck Alluvial Fan,
Santa Clara Valley, California, US Geological Survey Water Supply Paper 2075.
32. Orellana, Ernesto, Mooney, Harold M, 1966, Master Table and Curves for Vertical
Electrical Sounding over Layered Structure, Interciencia, Madrid.
33. Raghunath, HM, 1990, Ground Water (2 edition), Wiley Eastern Limited, India.
34. Rao, DP, 2002, Remote
Sensing Application in Geomorphology, International
Society for Tropical Ecology.
35. Ray, Richard G, 1960, Aerial
US
Photographs in Geologic Interpretation and Mappmg
geological Survey Professional Paper 373, Washington, USA.
36. Report of the Ground Water Resource Estimation
Resource Estimation Committee, Ground Water
India.
Methodology, 1997, Ministry of Water Resources, Govt.
37. Robinove, Charles, J, 1962, Ground Water
Studies and Analog Models, US
Geological Survey Circular No.468,
38. Sabins Jr., Floyd F, Washington, USA.
1997,
edition, WH Freeman, New Remote Sensing Principles and Interpretauo n, 3
39.
York.
Sethupathi, AS, Lakshmi
Narsimhan, C, Vasanthamohan, V, 2012, Evaluation
Hydrogeomorphic Landforms and Lineaments Evaunsig
Techniques in Bargur - Mathur using GIS and Remote
International Journal of Subwatersheds, Ponnaiyar River pa
Geomatics and
India
Geosciences, Vol. 3, No.1.

Reference | 253
Morrissey,
wwres (ProcedureWB,
A0Toebes, C, Shorter, Hendy, M,l969, Hand Book of Hydrological
R,
No. 8), Base Flow Recession
Curves, Library of w&s
Science Centre, MWD BOx no 14/0,Christchurch, New Zealand. (Available on net)
A1 Walton, WC, 1970, Ground water Resources Evaluation, McGraw
New York, USA.
Hill Book Co,
42. Wenzel, L.K., 1942, Methods for Determining Permeability of Water Bearing
Materials with special reterence to Discharging Well Methods,
Geological
US
Supply
Survey Water Paper 887, 192.
43, Zohdy, AAR, Eaton, GP and Mabey, DR, 1984, Application of Surface Geophysics
to Ground Water Investigation, Techniques of Water Resource Investigation of the
US Geological Survey, Chapter DI.

Fundamentals of Hydrogeology-Akhauri

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Fundamentals of Hydrogeology-Akhauri

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Fundamentals

Chapter 1 Ground Water Resources

Chapter2 Precipitation, Evaporation, Baseflow 19

Chapter 3 Hydrological Properties of Rocks

Classification of Subsurface Water 29

Ground Water Flow

Chapter 6 Ground Water Chemistry

Chapter 7 Ground Water Exploration

Chapter 10 Geophysical Methods in Ground Water Exploration

13.17 Resistivity Log 208

area of cross section in m

At log the transit time recorded on log against any formation.

Ground Water Resources

1.2 Scope of Hydrogeology

1.3 The Hydrological Cycle

Ground Water Qcean

Fig.1.1: Hydrological Cycle

1.5 Status of Ground Water Development in India

1.6 Ground Water Regions of India

Fig.1.2: Ground Water Regions of India

I.6.1 Criteria for Ground Water Regions

broad categories which

1.6.2.3 Narmada and Tapti Valley

1.6.2.6 Hard Rocks south of Indo Gangetic

1.7 Age of Ground Water

about 1/15 of those of shallow

phi States of India

features and provide water to the population.

depletion isitsfover-exploitation Bo meet theincreasing demands ofagriculture

1.8.11 Assam the Bhabar belt

ndin 1.8.15 Madhya Pradesh

running basins, Gondwana rocks are

ock 1.8.19 Meghalaya

upto 170 m3/hr.

Quatzites, Shales and limeston es and

in the hard rocks. The sedimentary fonnations consist ~f sandstone, Lirnestoll

Precipitation, Evaporation and Baseflow

2.1 Preci itation

= and in parts of Punjjlb, H ana northern a weste rn Rajas than and

2.2 infiltrationl d surfa ce enter s the

Fig.2.1: Inflltration Capacity of Soil

than rainfal1,(Qyerland flow)and8will result. The decay of infilt~ation with

. with 2.4 Transpiration

2.6 Gaining and Loosing Stream .

Fig.2.2: Gaining or Effluent Stream

--- ---- -------------- -------.,._

Precipitation, Evaporation and Baseflow

temporarily become a losing stream

100 equaq tion of line

D Durin g recession, the outflo w is a funct ion of the hydr

The equation 2.5 ~s comparable to base flow recession equation 2.2. It

Fig.2.6: Baseflow recession for two years

Vt1 and V I are given by the following relationship

Hydrological properties of earth material vary widely. Based upon hydrological

f\\-Vv\ 'F ➔)l

Based on hydrological properties, the aquifers are classified as:

•. u., t..&n(P~ ➔ ·P~~ v-)c...!--Vv"' p ~ ~~c p ,

This type of aquifers is also called artesian aquifer. The hydraulic

(Jn.... thunconfined aguiferlshown in Fig · 3•4 •is not over l · b fimino

Fig.3.4: Showing unconfined aquifer

b Aquifer Coarse sand/gravel

3.6 Classification of Subsurface Water

::. -.:!re ssure of water equal

z.o,.. of saturation Ground wate r