Evolution and Prehistory The Human Challenge 10th Edition

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CHAPTER 6 – FROM FIRST PRIMATES TO FIRST BIPEDS

MULTIPLE CHOICE

1. Which of the following is not correct with regard to the Eocene epoch?
a. Primates lived mainly in North America, Europe, and Asia.
b. A few primates lived in Africa.
c. All primates disappeared from North America by the end of this epoch.
d. The primates initially spread widely and then almost disappeared toward the end of
the Eocene.
e. Primates first became established in Australia during this time.
ANS: E DIF: Applied REF: Primate Origins
OBJ: 1 MSC: Pickup

2. During which epoch did anthropoid fossils diversify and expand their range, and prosimian
fossil forms became far less prominent?
a. Oligocene
b. Eocene
c. Miocene
d. Pliocene
e. Pleistocene
ANS: A DIF: Factual REF: Primate Origins
OBJ: 1 MSC: New

3. This primate was a diurnal quadruped with a mixture of money and ape features: its lower
molars had five cusps like an ape; its skull had forward-facing eye sockets protected by a
bony wall; an endocast of the cranium reveals that it had a visual cortex larger than that found
in Prosimians, but the brain was smaller than that of more recent anthropoids; and it had
marked sexual dimorphism and was no bigger than a modern house cat. It is a
a. Dryopithecus.
b. Ardipithecus.
c. Homo habilis.
d. Aegyptopithecus.
e. Australopithecus afarensis.
ANS: D DIF: Applied REF: Miocene Apes and Human Origins
OBJ: 1 MSC: New
4. Today, scientists agree that the divergence between humans and the chimpanzees/gorillas
occurred between
a. 1-2 million years ago.
b. 3-4 million years ago.
c. 4-5 million years ago.
d. 5-8 million years ago.
e. 6-9 million years ago.
ANS: D DIF: Factual REF: Miocene Apes and Human Origins
OBJ: 1 MSC: New

5. Which of the following is considered essential for a fossil to be included in the human
evolutionary line?
a. Color vision
b. Single birth
c. Bipedalism
d. Large brain
e. Arborealism
ANS: C DIF: Conceptual REF: Miocene Apes and Human Origins
OBJ: 2 MSC: New

6. In which theory for primate evolution does Matt Cartmill argue that hunting behavior in
tree-dwelling primates was responsible for their enhanced visual and manual abilities?
a. Visual predation theory
b. Arboreal hypothesis
c. Bipedal arborealism
d. Postorbital bar theory
e. Mitochondrial DNA theory
ANS: A DIF: Factual REF: Primate Origins
OBJ: 1 MSC: New

7. Which of the following did not contribute to the development of bipedalism among Miocene
apes?
a. The ability to increase the food supply by getting more seeds, leaves, and pods
from spiny thorn bushes
b. Improved ability to carry offspring
c. Improved ability to spot predators on the savannah
d. Improved ability to carry food from the savannah to the safety of the trees
e. Improved ability to run faster
ANS: E DIF: Conceptual REF: Environment, Diet, and Origins of the Human Line
OBJ: 2 MSC: Pickup

8. Bipedalism can be inferred from the position of the

a. fovea centralis.
b. foramen magnum.
c. masseter muscle.
d. femora and tibia.
e. feet.
 ANS: B DIF: Applied REF: The Anatomy of Bipedalism
OBJ: 2 MSC: New

9. All of the following are altered to accommodate bipedalism in the human skeleton except:
a. pelvis.
b. feet.
c. spinal column.
d. forelimbs.
e. skull.
ANS: D DIF: Applied REF: The Anatomy of Bipedalism
OBJ: 2 MSC: New

10. The position of the human big toe is described as being

a. adducted.
b. adduced.
c. abducted.
d. opposable.
e. prehensiled.
ANS: A DIF: Factual REF: The Anatomy of Bipedalism
OBJ: 2 MSC: New

11. Why do human femora (thighbones) angle toward each other from the hip to the knee
(“knee-in”)?
a. The femora are angled so that foot stance of humans can be wider than the pelvis
width
b. They structurally orient the body from a wider pelvis to more narrowly spaced feet
c. They shift support of the upper body onto the knees
d. They shift the weight of the upper body onto the arched feet
e. The femora do not angle toward each other; they are vertically straight and the
tibia are angled
ANS: B DIF: Conceptual REF: The Anatomy of Bipedalism
OBJ: 2 MSC: New

12. Which site has dramatic affirmation of the early origins of bipedalism among hominins?
a. Lake Tanganika, Tanzania
b. Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania
c. Laetoli, Tanzania
d. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
e. Altamira Cave, Spain
ANS: C DIF: Factual REF: The Anatomy of Bipedalism
 OBJ: 2 MSC: New

13. Which of the following is not associated with the career of Louis Leakey?
a. Discovery of a late Miocene ape at Fort Ternan, Kenya
b. Worked at Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania
c. Was instrumental in setting up some of the earliest primatological research studies
d. Worked with A.T. Hopwood to discover the first Miocene ape fossil named
Proconsul
e. Was the first scientist to uncover a Neanderthal fossil
ANS: E DIF: Applied REF: Miocene Apes and Human Origins, Ardipithecus
OBJ: 2 MSC: New

14. Mary Leakey is most known for

a. her discovery of Ardipithecus ramidus.
b. her study of Oldowan tools.
c. her work as an assistant to Louis Leakey.
d. her studies of chimpanzees.
e. proving the existence of the molecular clock in human origins.
ANS: B DIF: Applied REF: Ardipithecus
OBJ: 2 MSC: New

15. What is distinct about the bipedalism of Ardipithecus ramidus?

a. The spinal column does not curve
b. The pelvis is not as wide as the spacing between the feet
c. The foot has a grasping big toe like a chimpanzee
d. The fovea centralis is not downward, but toward the middle of the skull
e. Ardipithecus was both a biped and a quadruped
ANS: C DIF: Conceptual REF: Ardipithecus
OBJ: 5 MSC: New

16. The first Australopithecine was found by Raymond Dart in 1924 and was nicknamed
a. Java Man.
b. Taung Child.
c. Piltdown Man.
d. “ape-man of the lake.”
e. Eastern Star.
ANS: B DIF: Factual REF: Australopithecus
OBJ: 5 MSC: New
17. Why were scientists initially biased against accepting Australopithecus africanus as a
hominin?
a. It was not bipedal
b. It did not have a large brain
c. It was not found associated with tools
d. It was found in Africa
e. It was too young
ANS: B DIF: Applied REF: Australopithecus
OBJ: 5 MSC: New

18. All of the following are reasons for the widespread acceptance of Dawson’s Dawn Man (or
Piltdown Man) as the missing link between apes and humans except:
a. desire to uncover the unknown missing link.
b. understanding based in Darwin’s theory that the missing link would be half-ape
and half-human in anatomical traits.
c. desire to include England in the story of early human evolution.
d. expectation that the defining characteristic of humans was the large brain.
e. knowledge that early fossilization was common in certain parts of England.
ANS: E DIF: Conceptual REF: Australopithecus
OBJ: 5 MSC: New

19. Which dating technique was used to solve the Piltdown Man hoax?
a. Radiocarbon dating
b. Fluorine absorption analysis
c. Potassium-argon dating
d. Electron spin resonance
e. Stratigraphy
ANS: B DIF: Factual REF: The Pliocene Environment and Hominin Diversity
OBJ: 5 MSC: New

20. During which epoch did rifting begin to occur to the African landmass eventually resulting in
the creation of the Great Rift Valley system?
a. Paleocene
b. Eocene
c. Oligocene
d. Miocene
e. Pliocene
ANS: D DIF: Factual REF: The Pliocene Environment and Hominin Diversity
OBJ: 1 MSC: New

21. Australopithecus is a genus that includes as many as eight species. Which of the following is
not a proposed Australopithecine species?
a. A. ramidus
b. A. garhi
c. A. boisei
d. A. bahrelghazali
e. A. robustus
 ANS: A DIF: Applied REF: The Pliocene Environment and Hominin Diversity
OBJ: 6 MSC: New

22. Which of the following characteristics of A. anamensis is considered most ape-like?

a. Bipedalism
b. Thick enamel on the molar teeth
c. A lower premolar tooth shaped to hone the upper canine
d. Lowered fovea centralis
e. Arched feet
ANS: C DIF: Conceptual REF: The Pliocene Environment and Hominin Diversity
OBJ: 6 MSC: New

23. Of the following species of Australopithecus, which is the earliest (the first one)?
a. A. garhi
b. A. anamensis
c. A. afarensis
d. A. africanus
e. A. sediba
ANS: B DIF: Applied REF: The Pliocene Environment and Hominin Diversity
OBJ: 6 MSC: New

24. The famous fossil “Lucy” is which type of Australopithecus?

a. A. sediba
b. A. anamensis
c. A. garhi
d. A. robustus
e. A. afarensis
ANS: E DIF: Applied REF: The Pliocene Environment and Hominin Diversity
OBJ: 6 MSC: New

25. Which of the following statements about chimpanzee climbing is correct?

a. They habitually flex their ankles to grasp the tree as they climb.
b. They have no foot inversion while climbing.
c. Dorsification is not evident while climbing.
d. They normally grasp a tree with long arms and pull themselves up, making little
use of their feet and ankles.
e. Chimpanzees do not climb trees.
ANS: A DIF: Conceptual REF: The Pliocene Environment and Hominin Diversity
OBJ: 2 MSC: New

26. In what geographical region did scientists first find remains of A. bahrelghazali?
 a. Southern Africa
b. Eastern Africa
c. Central Africa
d. Western Africa
e. Northern Africa
ANS: C DIF: Factual REF: The Pliocene Environment and Hominin Diversity
OBJ: 6 MSC: New

27. Which species of australopithecines was known as the “gracile” species?

a. A. sediba
b. A. africanus
c. A. anamensis
d. A. boisei
e. A. afarensis
ANS: B DIF: Factual REF: The Pliocene Environment and Hominin Diversity
OBJ: 6 MSC: New

28. All of the following are characteristics of the “robust” australopithecines except:
a. large chewing apparatus.
b. existence of a marked sagittal crest.
c. powerful jaws.
d. large cheek teeth.
e. balanced front and back teeth.
ANS: E DIF: Applied REF: The Pliocene Environment and Hominin Diversity
OBJ: 6 MSC: New

29. Which of the following anatomical features is marked with the greatest amount of difference
between gracile and robust australopithecines?
a. Brain size
b. Height
c. Length of femora
d. Flexibility of ankles
e. Chewing apparatus
ANS: E DIF: Applied REF: The Pliocene Environment and Hominin Diversity
OBJ: 6 MSC: New

30. What is meant by the “law of competitive exclusion”?

a. When one species successfully dominates an ecological niche, it will subdue all
other species in the area
b. When two or more species cohabit in the same area, they will each tend to
specialize in a subset of foods to allow peaceful coexistence
c. When two closely related species compete for the same niche, one will bring about
the other’s extinction
d. In a balanced ecological niche, there will be no competition between species
e. Species that begin competing for food supplies will eventually begin to compete
for each other’s mates as well; competition spreads
 ANS: C DIF: Conceptual REF: The Pliocene Environment and Hominin Diversity
OBJ: 6 MSC: New

31. Which of the following australopithecine species do scientists not believe to be ancestral to
the Homo line?
a. A. sediba
b. A. anamensis
c. A. africanus
d. A. robustus
e. A. garhi
ANS: D DIF: Applied REF: The Pliocene Environment and Hominin Diversity
OBJ: 6 MSC: New

32. Dated between 1.97 and 1.98 million years ago and including a variety of derived traits in the
hand, forearm, and pelvis that appear in line with the later characteristics of Homo is the
a. A. garhi.
b. A. boisei.
c. A. robustus.
d. A. anamensis.
e. A. sediba.
ANS: E DIF: Applied REF: The Pliocene Environment and Hominin Diversity
OBJ: 6 MSC: New

33. In which type of environment do most scientists agree that early human forbears lived?
a. Tropical lowland environment
b. Heavily forested environment
c. A mixed forest and savanna environment
d. Large, open grassy savanna environment
e. Arid, desert environment
ANS: C DIF: Conceptual REF: Humans Stand on Their Own Two Feet
OBJ: 7 MSC: New

34. Which of the following is first associated with tool-making in the archaeological record?
a. A. garhi
b. A. boisei
c. A. africanus
d. A. anamensis
e. H. habilis
ANS: E DIF: Factual REF: Humans Stand on Their Own Two Feet
OBJ: 7 MSC: New

35. All of the following are considered negative consequences of bipedalism except:
 a. slower ability to run.
b. difficulty changing directions while running.
c. exposed soft underbelly.
d. ability to stand and see predators.
e. greater visibility to predators.
ANS: D DIF: Applied REF: Humans Stand on Their Own Two Feet
OBJ: 2 MSC: New

36. The idea that bipedalism developed so that males could provide food to their female pair and
offspring is considered culture bound because of all of the following reasons except:
a. pair bonding is not found frequently among terrestrial primates.
b. males of all species routinely gather excess to provision females whether or not
they need it.
c. female primates routinely forage for food while carrying offspring.
d. early pair bonding is not evident in the genus Homo.
e. females are not usually highly restricted because of the dependence of offspring.
ANS: B DIF: Applied REF: Humans Stand on Their Own Two Feet
OBJ: 3 MSC: New

37. How is the understanding of the human birth process in the U.S. potentially a culture-bound
perspective?
a. Human birth is a highly cultural event and is not seen as inherently difficult and
risky in all cultures
b. The human birth process is natural and occurs the same worldwide
c. The cultural understanding of birth in the U.S. is not as well understood as it in in
European countries
d. In the U.S., we have a good understanding of the biology of birth but no cultural
context in which the make sense of it
e. Different ethnic groups have differently sized brains, so birth varies across cultures
ANS: A DIF: Conceptual REF: Humans Stand on Their Own Two Feet
OBJ: 3 MSC: New

38. Which of the following statements is not correct?

a. Bipedalism preceded the growth explosion of the human brain
b. Human evolution has taken place at a steady pace
c. Stabilizing selection affects bipedalism
d. There has been little change in the bipedal mechanism in at least a few million
years
e. Bipedalism likely occurred as a sudden shift
ANS: B DIF: Conceptual REF: Humans Stand on Their Own Two Feet
OBJ: 2 MSC: New

39. The first fragments of Homo habilis were found at

a. Olduvai Gorge.
b. Laetoli.
c. Afar region.
d. Swartkrans.
e. Lake Tanganika.
 ANS: A DIF: Factual REF: Early Representatives of the Genus Homo
OBJ: 4 MSC: New

40. Those scientists who focus on the variation in the fossil record, interpreting minor differences
as evidence of distinct biological species, are known as
a. lumpers.
b. casters.
c. splitters.
d. separators.
e. divergences.
ANS: C DIF: Factual REF: Early Representatives of the Genus Homo
OBJ: 4 MSC: New

TRUE/FALSE

1. The arboreal theory for primate evolution argues that primate visual and grasping abilities
were associated with hunting for insects by sight.

ANS: F REF: Primate Origins OBJ: 1

MSC: New

2. During the Eocene, the primates diversified and expanded their geographical range.

ANS: F REF: Primate Origins OBJ: 1

MSC: New

3. New World monkeys most likely emerged during the Oligocene epoch.

ANS: T REF: Primate Origins OBJ: 1

MSC: New

4. Proconsul was the first bipedal primate.

ANS: F REF: Miocene Apes and Human Origins OBJ: 1

MSC: New

5. Bipedalism is the one trait that is necessary for a new species to be admitted into the human
evolutionary line.

ANS: T REF: Miocene Apes and Human Origins OBJ: 2

MSC: New

6. Orrorin tugenesis has now been accepted as a member of the human line.

ANS: F REF: The Anatomy of Bipedalism OBJ: 2

 MSC: New

7. In bipedal humans, the shape of the spinal column follows a single, graceful curve.

ANS: F REF: The Anatomy of Bipedalism OBJ: 2

MSC: New

8. Mary Leakey was an authority on Oldowan tools.

ANS: F REF: Ardipithecus OBJ: 2

MSC: New

9. The size and shape of the brain and teeth of Ardipithecus ramidus is similar to a chimpanzee.

ANS: T REF: Ardipithecus OBJ: 5

MSC: New

10. Tools made by prehistoric peoples were often found in Europe.

ANS: T REF: Australopithecus OBJ: 5

MSC: New

11. The fossil Lucy was better adapted to tree climbing than more recent human ancestors.

ANS: T REF: The Pliocene Environment and Hominin Diversity

OBJ: 6 MSC: New

12. The earliest Australopithecines were found in southern and western Africa.

ANS: F REF: The Pliocene Environment and Hominin Diversity

OBJ: 6 MSC: New

13. Chimpanzees and humans use their ankles in much the same way while climbing.

ANS: F REF: The Pliocene Environment and Hominin Diversity

OBJ: 2 MSC: New

14. Early hominins likely had to lose some of their climbing abilities in order to obtain efficient
bipedality.

ANS: T REF: The Pliocene Environment and Hominin Diversity

OBJ: 2 MSC: New

15. The first specimen of A. robustus was discovered by Mary Leakey in 1894.

ANS: F REF: The Pliocene Environment and Hominin Diversity

OBJ: 6 MSC: New

16. Many scientists believe that the robust australopithecines changed their diets to avoid
competing with the genus Homo.
 ANS: T REF: The Pliocene Environment and Hominin Diversity
OBJ: 6 MSC: New

17. Bipedalism likely developed because of the need for males to bring food to nursing females.

ANS: F REF: Humans Stand on Their Own Two Feet

OBJ: 3 MSC: New

18. Human birth is always considered extremely difficult because of paleoanthropological

evidence.

ANS: F REF: Humans Stand on Their Own Two Feet

OBJ: 3 MSC: New

19. Bipedalism may have served to protect the developing human brain from direct sun radiation.

ANS: T REF: Humans Stand on Their Own Two Feet

OBJ: 7 MSC: New

20. With the appearance of the genus Homo, there developed a feedback loop between biological
characteristics and cultural innovations in the human line.

ANS: T REF: Early Representatives of the Genus Homo

OBJ: 7 MSC: New

SHORT ANSWER

1. Compare and contrast the arboreal hypothesis and the visual predation hypothesis as theories
for primate evolution.

ANS: Will vary REF: Primate Origins MSC: New

2. Describe the Eocene environment for early primates.

ANS: Will vary REF: Primate Origins MSC: New

3. During the Oligocene, what type of primates existed? Describe the environment and their
characteristics.

ANS: Will vary REF: Miocene Apes and Human Origins MSC: New

4. Compare and contrast bipedalism with quadrupedalism.

ANS: Will vary REF: Miocene Apes and Human Origins MSC: New

5. Name four anatomical changes that occurred in the human species to accommodate
bipedalism. In other words, how is it “written on our skeletal bodies”?

ANS: Will vary REF: The Anatomy of Bipedalism MSC: New

 6. Distinguish between an abducted and adducted big toe in primates.

ANS: Will vary REF: The Anatomy of Bipedalism MSC: New

7. What is unique and interesting about human evolution at the Laetoli, Tanzania, site?

ANS: Will vary REF: The Anatomy of Bipedalism MSC: New

8. Who were Louis Leakey and Mary Leakey, and what were their contributions to our
understanding of human evolution?

ANS: Will vary REF: Ardipithecus MSC: New

9. Describe the anatomical characteristics of Ardipithecus ramidus.

ANS: Will vary REF: Ardipithecus MSC: New

10. Who was “Dawson’s Dawn Man,” and what was its role in human evolution?

ANS: Will vary REF: Australopithecus MSC: New

11. The genus Australopithecus is filled with diversity among its species. Identify at least two of
the species, and discuss the differences between them.

ANS: Will vary REF: The Pliocene Environment and Hominin Diversity MSC: New

12. Why was the discovery of Lucy such a significant scientific event?

ANS: Will vary REF: The Pliocene Environment and Hominin Diversity MSC: New

13. How is chimpanzee climbing different from that in humans?

ANS: Will vary REF: The Pliocene Environment and Hominin Diversity MSC: New

14. Why do scientists not have a better understanding of the brain-to-body-size comparison for
australopithecines?

ANS: Will vary REF: The Pliocene Environment and Hominin Diversity MSC: New

15. What is the diastema?

ANS: Will vary REF: The Pliocene Environment and Hominin Diversity MSC: New

16. Distinguish between the chewing apparatus of gracile and robust australopithecines.

ANS: Will vary REF: The Pliocene Environment and Hominin Diversity MSC: New

17. What is the law of competitive exclusion, and what role did it play in early human evolution?

ANS: Will vary REF: The Pliocene Environment and Hominin Diversity MSC: New
 18. What are the potential negative consequences of bipedalism?

ANS: Will vary REF: Humans Stand on Their Own Two Feet MSC: New

19. Why is our concept of human birth so varied from place to place?

ANS: Will vary REF: Humans Stand on Their Own Two Feet MSC: New

20. Distinguish between “lumpers” and “splitters.”

ANS: Will vary REF: Early Representatives of the Genus Homo MSC: New

ESSAY

1. What is the relationship between climate shifts and the emergence of the earliest primates?
Present each of the epochs (Paleocene, Eocene, Oligocene, and Miocene), and explain the
evolution of the primates from a reptilian beginning to the emergence of the first apes.

ANS: Will vary MSC: New

2. Human origins can be most recently connected to the Miocene epoch and the emergence of
the apes. What anatomical characteristics marking the earliest apes were instrumental in the
development of the human species?

ANS: Will vary MSC: New

3. Bipedalism is the most important characteristic of the early human species. Compare and
contrast bipedalism and quadrupedalism anatomically and environmentally. What specific
affordances did bipedalism provide to humans that allowed them to emerge and radiate so
dominantly over the world?

ANS: Will vary MSC: New

4. Bipedalism is “written on our bodies.” What does this statement mean? Provide evidence for
your answer and then discuss the importance of bipedalism in the evolution of the human
species.

ANS: Will vary MSC: New

5. Paleoanthropology is a field in which there have been many strong and “flamboyant”
personalities (see discussion of Leakey on p. 140). In your discussion of the field of
paleoanthropology, explain how it may or may not be different from other areas of
anthropological inquiry as far as the type of scientist that is drawn to this work. Use the
examples of the scientist Louis Leakey and the fraudulent Charles Dawson in your discussion
of this area of anthropology.

ANS: Will vary MSC: New

 6. What was the Piltdown Man controversy? Using this evidence, discuss the popular view and
importance of the science of evolution in society then and now. Why is this scientific question
sometimes considered differently than other areas of inquiry?

ANS: Will vary MSC: New

7. Discuss the diversity that is part of the genus Australopithecus. Compare and contrast the
fossil evidence and anatomical difference we have for the different species.

ANS: Will vary MSC: New

8. The human species emerged from an arboreal lifestyle, but as it developed into fine-tuned
bipeds, it began to lose some of the climbing abilities it once had. Using what you have
learned about the anatomy of bipedalism and the differences between chimpanzee and human
climbing, discuss how bipedalism changed our adaptation to the environment.

ANS: Will vary MSC: New

9. Teeth are considered one of the primary ways of distinguishing between closely related
groups. Using the evidence that you have learned in this chapter, discuss how teeth are
different between the various australopithecine species.

ANS: Will vary MSC: New

10. How and why did the robust and gracile australopithecine species vary? Discuss the
anatomical and potential ecological niche issues that separate these groups.

ANS: Will vary MSC: New

11. What derived features do we find that australopithecines share with Homo? What is
significant about these similarities?

ANS: Will vary MSC: New

12. Bipedalism is an engineering enigma. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages associated
with this type of locomotion in the environment in which early humans developed.

ANS: Will vary MSC: New

13. Discuss various ways that cultural understandings can affect the way scientists read the fossil
record and the story of human evolution.

ANS: Will vary MSC: New

14. One of the earliest Homo habilis finds was at an area where there were tools and also fossil
evidence of another hominin, the australopithecines. Discuss various possible explanations
for a site with two or more human species and tools.

ANS: Will vary MSC: New

15. The authors of the text argue that with the emergence of the genus Homo there began to
develop a feedback loop between biological characteristics and cultural innovations in the
human line. Discuss this and provide evidence.

ANS: Will vary MSC: New