Topic 6: Human health and physiology

Key facts
Digestion
1. Food ingested must be digested in order to be useful to the organism. Without
digestion the food particles are too large to be absorbed through the villi of the small
intestine to enter the bloodstream.
2. Large macromolecules of food go through hydrolysis allowing the organism to obtain
necessary building blocks for assimilation. This hydrolysis is also necessary so that ATP
formation from the food is possible.
3. Assimilation is the process by which the products of food digestion become part of the
organism’s body.
4. Enzymes greatly aid the digestive process by causing it to proceed more rapidly.
5. Specific enzymes are produced at particular locations of the digestive system. These
enzymes act on certain substrates to bring about digestion.
6. Digestive areas of particular activity involving enzymes include the mouth, the
stomach and the small intestine.
7. Enzymes which are active in the stomach must have optimum pH values which are
quite acidic. Enzymes working in the small intestine must be able to work in a more
alkaline environment.
8. The mouth’s major enzyme producing glands are the salivary glands. The mouth has
a pH of near 7.
9. The salivary glands produce salivary amylase which allows hydrolysis of starch into
maltose.
10. The wall of the stomach produces the enzyme pepsin which breaks proteins down
into small polypeptides. The stomach has a pH of near 1.5.
11. The pancreas may function as an endocrine and as an exocrine gland. When it
functions as an exocrine gland it produces several enzymes. One is pancreatic lipase,
which is transported to the small intestine where it catalyzes the breakdown of
triglycerides (fats or oils) into fatty acids and glycerol. The pH of the small intestine is 7
or higher (slightly alkaline).
12. Digestion of proteins begins in the stomach. Also, the extremely acidic environment
of the stomach serves to destroy any incoming bacteria with the food.
13. Most of the digestion of food actually occurs in the small intestine. Enzymes active
in small intestine come from the pancreas and the walls of the structure itself.
14. Once digestion in the small intestine is finished, the smaller food products are
absorbed through millions of villi lining the interior of the small intestine. This
absorption occurs as a result of diffusion, facilitated diffusion, or active transport.
15. Villi bring about the process of absorption. They are small finger-like projections
from the small intestine wall. They are effective in food absorption due to their extreme
numbers, large surface area due to microvilli, capillaries near their surface and a centrally
located lacteal which allows absorption of fat digestion.
16. The indigestible parts of food mixed with large amounts of water pass to the large
intestine.
17. In the large intestine water is absorbed and indigestible parts of the food are passed as
feces through the anus.
18. The parts of the digestive system that food passes through are the mouth, esophagus,
stomach, small intestine, large intestine and anus. The liver, pancreas and gall bladder
are ancillary structures involved in the digestive process.
The transport system
19. The coronary arteries supply heart muscle with oxygen and nutrients. These arteries
receive their blood from a very early branching from the aorta. The coronary arteries
branch into numerous capillaries allowing adequate flow of nutrients and oxygen to the
hard-working cardiac muscle.
20. The upper chambers of the heart are the atria and they collect the blood from the
veins. The lower heart chambers are the ventricles and they pump blood out of the heart.
21. When the walls of the atria contract, they push blood through the atrioventricular
valves into the ventricles. These valves prevent blood from coming back into the atrium
when the ventricle contracts.
22. When the ventricular walls contract the atrioventricular valves close thus directing
blood out of the ventricles through the semilunar valves and into the arteries. At this
same time the atria are refilling with blood from the veins.
23. The right ventricle pumps blood through the pulmonary valve into the pulmonary
artery which carries the blood to the lungs for oxygenation and release of carbon dioxide.
24. The left ventricle pumps blood through the aortic valve into the aorta which carries
the blood throughout the body.
25. The heart is actually two separate pumps, right and left sides, working together.
26. When the ventricles stop contracting, the pressure within them falls and this allows
the atrioventricular valves to open and the ventricles refill.
27. The left ventricular wall is thicker than the right ventricular wall because it pumps
blood a greater distance thus generating more force.
28. The walls of the atria are quite thin since it takes very little force to force blood into
the ventricles.
29. The vena cava is of two parts, the superior and the inferior, and it brings oxygen
deficient blood from the body back to the heart.
30. The pulmonary artery is the only artery of the body that carries blood which is low in
oxygen.
31. The pulmonary veins bring blood back to the heart from the lungs. These veins are
the only ones of the body that are high in oxygen.
32. The walls of the heart are composed of cardiac muscle. The walls of the heart are
myogenic which means they can contract on their own. However, they are most always
under the control of nerves coming from the medulla oblongata. One nerve causes the
heart muscle to speed its contractions, while another nerve causes the contractions to
slow down. Chemicals such as epinephrine (adrenalin) also will increase the rate of heart
contraction.
33. The region of the heart responsible for generating the heart’s contraction is the S-A
node or what is known as the pacemaker. This is the region affected by adrenalin and the
nerves which come to the heart.
34. The three major blood vessels are the arteries, veins, and the capillaries.
35. The arteries have a thick wall to withstand the high pressures that are present. They
have a thick outer layer of longitudinal collagen and elastic fibers to avoid bulges and
leaks. Also present are thick layers of circular elastic and muscle fibers to help pump the
blood on after each heart beat. Arteries typically have a narrow lumen which helps to
maintain the high pressures (blood pressure).
36. Veins are composed of thin layers with a few circular elastic and muscular fibers.
There is very little strength in the walls of veins; this strength is not needed since veins
do not help to pump blood. Most veins have a wide lumen allowing the accommodation
of large amounts of blood. Blood flows through the veins slowly. The outer layer of the
vein is thin because there is little danger of bursting.
37. The major feature of veins is the presence of valves to maintain blood flow in one
direction. Veins are the only vessels to have valves.
38. Capillaries consist of walls that are a single layer of thin cells. This allows materials,
including oxygen, carbon dioxide, nutrients, food wastes, etc., to easily pass through.
There are even pores between the cells and this allows some of the plasma to leak out and
form fluids within the tissues. Phagocytes, important for immune functions, also may
move out of the capillaries through these pores. Capillaries are quite small with very
narrow lumen. Even though capillaries are extremely small, because they occur in such
huge numbers they allow for an adequate exchange of materials between blood and body
tissues.
Defense against infectious disease
39. A pathogen is an organism or virus that causes a disease.
40. Antibiotics are ineffective against viruses since viruses do not have their own
metabolic pathways.
41. Antibiotics are effective against bacteria because they block the bacterium’s
metabolic pathways.
42. Because human cells are different from bacterial cells, antibiotics do not harm human
cells.
43. The skin and mucous membranes provide a barrier against pathogens.
44. Skin has sebaceous glands that secrete lactic acid and fatty acids. These secretions
make the surface of the skin acidic, thereby controlling the growth of most pathogens.
45. Mucous membranes occur in the soft areas of the skin including the nose, trachea,
vagina, and urethra. Mucous membranes produce an enzyme called lysozyme that kills
many bacteria.
46. Some mucous membranes produce so much sticky mucus that they trap pathogens.
47. The blood contains white blood cells, some of which are called phagocytes.
Phagocytes are able to identify pathogens and ingest them by phagocytosis.
48. Once the pathogens are inside the phagocytes, lysosomes release enzymes that kill
and hydrolyze them.
49. Phagocytes are able to squeeze out of the capillaries to attack pathogens at the site of
infection.
50. Antigens are foreign substances that do not belong in the body and thus stimulate the
production of antibodies.
51. Antibodies are proteins that recognize and bind to antigens, thus destroying them.
52. Antibodies are quite specific. Since there are large numbers of different antigens,
there are large numbers of different antibodies.
53. Antibodies are produced by a specific type of white blood cell called lymphocytes.
Lymphocytes are quite specific so there is a different lymphocyte for every antibody
produced.
54. Each type of lymphocyte puts some of its antibody on its plasma membrane. These
lymphocytes have antigen-combining sites on their surface. When a pathogen enters the
body, its antigens bind to the antibody specific for it which is on the surface of a
circulating lymphocyte.
55. When the antigen binds to the antibody the lymphocyte is stimulated to produce
copies of clones of it. These clones of cells produce large amounts of the specific
antibody necessary to disable the incoming pathogen.
56. AIDS is known as a syndrome because it consists of a set of symptoms that are bound
together. Ultimately AIDS decreases the ability of one’s immune system to function,
thus weakening the body and eventually causing death.
57. HIV or human immunodeficiency virus is the pathogen that causes AIDS. This virus
specifically attacks a lymphocyte known as a T-lymphocyte to cause the syndrome.
Weakening and death is due to the death of the lymphocytes with the resulting inability to
produce antibodies.
58. HIV can only survive very briefly outside the body and cannot easily pass through the
skin.
59. Its transmission involves the transfer of body fluids from one infected person to an
uninfected person. Means of transmission include skin breaks or cuts in the vagina,
penis, mouth or intestine during vaginal, anal or oral sex.
60. HIV may also be transmitted via blood on hypodermic needles that are shared. It may
also be transmitted via blood transfusions.
61. HIV may cross the placenta from mother to baby. It may also pass to the baby from
mother during breast-feeding.
62. Social implications of AIDS include
 Grief suffering by family and friends
 Financial stress
 Difficulty of AIDS patients in getting employment, housing, etc
 Affecting sexual activity due to fear of the disease
63. Most feel there is a moral obligation of those with technology and financial resources
to help those without such whom are suffering from AIDS. Africa, especially the
southern region is highly affected by the disease.
Gas Exchange
64. Cell respiration happens in the cytoplasm and mitochondria and involves the release
of energy in the form of ATP for the cell to carry out the life processes.
65. In humans oxygen is used for cell respiration and carbon dioxide is given off.
66. Gas exchange is the process of swapping one gas for another. In the human this
involves exchanging oxygen for carbon dioxide.
67. Gas exchange occurs in the alveoli of human lungs. Oxygen diffuses from the air in
the alveoli to the blood in the capillaries. Carbon dioxide moves in the opposite
direction.
68. This gas exchange involves diffusion because concentration gradients drive the
process.
69. Ventilation is the process of bringing fresh air into the alveoli and removing stale air.
The fresh air coming in includes high concentrations of oxygen and the stale air going out
contains high concentrations of carbon dioxide. This exchange allows concentration
gradients of these two gases to remain so that capillary blood will receive oxygen and
give off carbon dioxide.
70. The alveoli have many features that allow them to carry out gas exchange in the
lungs. They include: 1) a large total surface area, 2) a wall consisting of a single layer of
flattened cells, 3) a moistened surface, and 4) a dense network of capillaries. It is also
important to remember that the alveoli occur in the hundred of millions in number. This
huge number also allows adequate gas exchange.
71. The thin walls of the alveoli allow diffusion of gases from the air sacs to the
capillaries.
72. The capillaries surrounding the walls of the alveoli are low in oxygen and high in
carbon dioxide. This is opposite to the air in the alveoli which is high in oxygen and low
in carbon dioxide.
73. The moist surface of the alveolar wall allows gases to dissolve for easier exchange.
The fluid also contains a natural detergent which prevents the sides of the alveoli from
sticking together.
74.
Inhalation Exhalation
External intercostal muscles contract thus Internal intercostal muscles contract thus
moving the ribcage up and out, increases moving the ribcage down and in,
volume decreasing volume
Diaphragm contracts, flattens and moves Abdominal muscles contract pushing the
down, increases volume diaphragm up and decreasing thoracic
volume
Due to the volume increase pressure in the Due to the volume decrease pressure in the
thoracic cavity decreases below thoracic cavity increases above
atmospheric or surrounding pressure atmospheric or surrounding pressure
This decreased pressure results in air from This increased pressure results in air from
outside the lungs moving inward the lungs moving outside the lungs

75. The process of ventilation is totally dependent on air pressure within the lungs.
Muscle action raises and lowers the pressure inside the lungs to allow ventilation.
76. Air flows inward via this pathway: nose/mouth, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, alveoli.
It is exhaled by the reverse route.
Nerves, hormones and homeostasis
77. The nervous system consists of two major divisions: the central nervous system (brain
and spinal cord) and the peripheral nervous system (nerves outside the CNS).
78. The nervous system is made up of specialized cells called neurons. There are also
supporting cells called neuroglia.
79. Neurons include the following parts: dendrites, axons and cell bodies. Dendrites
receive impulse or stimuli, cell bodies process these impulses, and the axons conduct the
impulses to the next structure (nerve or muscle).
80. Sensory neurons carry nerve impulses from receptors or sensory cells to the CNS.
81. Motor neurons carry impulses from the CNS to effectors (either muscles or gland
cells).
82. There is also relay or associative neurons in the CNS that carry impulses from one
neuron to another.
83. Receptors----sensory neurons-----relay neurons (CNS) ------motor neurons------
effector
84. Synapses are junctions between two neurons. The plasma membranes of these two
neurons are separated by a fluid filled gap called the synaptic cleft. Impulses may
traverse this cleft via neurotransmitters. The neurotransmitters always pass from the pre-
synaptic neuron to the post-synaptic neuron.
85. Nerves impulses require depolarization if they are going to be transmitted by a
neuron.
86. Neurons that are not conducting an impulse are said to show resting potential.
87. During resting potential the neuron is actively pumping sodium out of the neuron.
This allows the maintenance of a negative charge inside the neuron when it is not
conducting an impulse. The negative charge inside is due to the fact that there are more
positive ions outside the neuron than inside the neuron.
88. During depolarization (resting potential is converted to an action potential) the
following occurs: action potential causes sodium ions to diffuse into the neuron thus
causes a shift from a negative internal charge to a positive charge. This diffusion occurs
very rapidly due to sodium channels opening and diffusion.
89. After depolarization repolarization occurs: potassium channels open in the neuron
membrane and potassium ions diffuse out of the neuron (passively). This exit of
potassium ions causes the interior of the neuron to develop a net negative charge. This
negative charge is further reinforced by the actions of the sodium-potassium pump that
gets the original concentration of sodium and potassium ions to their original
concentrations. This allows repolarization and the neuron would then be free again to
depolarize.
90. If the impulse is to travel from one neuron to the next, a synapse must be bridged.
91. Synaptic transmission:
 Impulse reaches the end of the pre-synaptic neuron
 Depolarization of pre-synaptic neuron membrane causes calcium channels to open
and calcium moves into the pre-synaptic neuron
 Influx of calcium causes neurotransmitter vescicles to move to and fuse with the
pre-synaptic membrane
 Neurotransmitter is released into synaptic cleft by exocytosis
 Neurotransmitter binds to receptors on the post-synaptic membrane
 Bound receptors are ion channels which open and allow sodium and other
positively charged ions to move into post-synaptic neuron
 This causes depolarization of the post-synaptic neuron and passes through the
post-synaptic neuron as an action potential
 The neurotransmitter in the synaptic cleft is rapidly broken down by an enzyme to
prevent continual synaptic transmission
 Calcium ions are pumped out of the pre-synaptic neuron
92. Acetylcholine is a common synaptic neurotransmitter and it is broken down by
acetylcholinesterase.
93. Homeostasis involves maintaining the internal environment between limits,
maintenance of a steady state. The nervous system and the endocrine system are both
involved in the process of homeostasis.
94. The endocrine system consists of glands which release hormones that are transported
by the blood.
95. The following must be maintained by homeostasis: blood pH, carbon dioxide
concentration, blood glucose concentration, body temperature, and water balance.
96. Homeostasis involves monitoring levels of the above and correcting changes in their
levels by negative feedback mechanisms.
97. Feedback systems involve the level of a product to control the rate of its own
production.
98. In negative feedback systems a change in a level causes an opposite change.
Examples would include a rise in body temperature would trigger the system to lower the
temperature. Another example is a decrease in blood glucose levels would trigger the
system to raise glucose levels.
99. Control of body temperature
Overheating Chilling
Skin arterioles become wider, increasing Skin arterioles become narrower,
blood flow decreasing blood flow
Body muscles remain relaxed and resting so Body muscles carry out small contractions
they do not generate heat to generate heat (shivering)
Sweat glands secrete sweat invoking Sweat glands do not secrete sweat
evaporation to bring about cooling

100. Control of blood glucose

High glucose levels Low glucose levels
Beta cells in pancreas secrete Alpha cells in pancreas secrete glucagon
insulin
Insulin stimulates liver and Glucose is not absorbed
muscle cells to absorb glucose
Glucose is not released by the Glucagon stimulates liver cells to break glycogen
liver down into glucose and release the glucose into the
blood
Lowers blood glucose levels Raises blood glucose levels
101. Diabetes mellitis is a medical condition in which there are problems with the body
controlling blood glucose levels. There are recognized two forms of this condition:
Type I diabetes Type II diabetes
Onset is usually during childhood Onset is usually after childhood
Beta cells produce insufficient insulin Target cells become insensitive to insulin
Insulin injections are used to control Insulin injections are not usually needed
glucose levels
Diet cannot by itself control the condition Low carbohydrate diets may control the
condition
Reproduction
102. In the female reproductive system, be able to produce a drawing and label the
following parts: ovary, oviduct (fallopian tubes), uterus, urinary bladder, urethra, cervix,
vagina, and vulva.
103. In the male reproductive system, be able to produce a drawing and label the
following parts: urinary bladder, seminal vesicle, prostate gland, vas deferens,
epididymus, testis, scrotum, and penis.
104. During reproduction a sperm (male gamete) from the testes unites with an ovum
(female gamete) from the ovaries to produce a zygote which develops into an embryo.
105. Over time the embryo develops into a fetus before the birth of a baby occurs.
106. Functions of the male sex hormone testosterone:
a. causes male genitalia, including a penis, to develop in the fetus
b. increased testosterone during puberty causes pubic hair, an enlarged penis, and
growth of skeletal muscles
c. during adulthood it maintains the sex drive
d. stimulates sperm production in the male
107. Female sex hormones include FSH, LH, estrogen, and progesterone.
108. FSH and LH are produced in the pituitary gland under control of the hypothalamus.
109. Estrogen and progesterone are produced by the ovaries.
110. The major function of FSH is to stimulate the development of follicles (fluid filled
sacs that contain an egg cell) in the ovary.
111. LH stimulates follicles to become mature. Once mature the follicles release their
egg (ovulation) into the oviducts (fallopian tubes).
112. After the matured follicle releases its egg it is called a corpus luteum.
113. Estrogen and progesterone stimulate the development of female secondary sex
characteristics at puberty. They also stimulate the development of the uterus lining so
that it may support the embryo if fertilization occurs.
114. The hypothalamus controls FSH and LH release from the pituitary through GnRH
(gonadotrophin releasing hormone).
115. The menstrual cycle of the female occurs between puberty and menopause. This
cycle is controlled by the four female sex hormones listed above.
116. Key points about the menstrual cycle:
a. the average length is 28 days
b. ovulation occurs midway through the cycle (day 14)
c. menstruation, the release of the uterine wall, occurs during the first 3-5 days of
the menstrual cycle
d. after ovulation the corpus luteum secretes large amounts of progesterone that
causes the uterine lining to prepare for an embryo
e. a spike in LH at day 14 causes ovulation
f. FSH rises and causes follicle development in the early part of the cycle
g. LH causes the follicle cells to secrete less estrogen and more progesterone
h. after ovulation LH causes the follicle to develop into the corpus luteum
i. estrogen stimulates development of the uterine lining during the first 14 days of
the cycle
j. if a pregnancy does not occur, the levels of estrogen and progesterone fall and
this allows the release of FSH and LH
117. The lining of the uterus is called the endometrium.
118. The first day of menstruation is used to designate the first day of the menstrual
cycle.
119. If intercourse occurs during the mid part of the menstrual cycle a pregnancy may
occur as at this time egg and sperm would be close together.
120. When pregnancy does not occur during this time, infertility is said to occur.
Infertility may be temporary or permanent.
121. About 1 in 6 couples have temporary or permanent infertility.
122. IVF (in vitro fertilization) is one way infertile couples may be helped.
123. Process of IVF:
a. a drug is injected each day for 3 weeks to stop the woman’s menstrual cycle
b. large doses of FSH are injected each day for 10-12 days to stimulate follicle
development
c. HCG (human chorionic gonadotropin – pregnancy hormone) is injected 36
hours before egg collection to loosen the egg in the follicles and to cause their
maturation
d. sperm from the man is processed to increased to allow concentration of healthy
gametes
e. eggs are extracted from the ovaries via a tube inserted through the vagina wall
f. each egg is mixed with sperm in a dish and they are placed in an incubator
overnight
g. dishes are checked for fertilization
h. two or more embryos are selected and placed into the uterus by a long tube
i. a pregnancy test is done (check for HCG) to see if any embryos implanted in the
uterine wall
j. pregnancy is closely monitored
124. Ethical arguments for IVF:
a. enables infertile couples to have children
b. abnormal embryos can be eliminated from consideration for implantation
c. genetic screening is possible on embryos before implantation to eliminate the
chance of passing on genetic diseases
d. the technology may lead to further benefits in reproductive biology
e. any embryos killed do not yet have a nervous system and do not have pain
125. Ethical arguments against IVF:
a. inherited forms of infertility may be passed on to children
b. more embryos are usually produced than used and are killed, denying them the
chance of life
c. humans are deciding which embryos survive
d. it is an unnatural process and is in contrast to natural conception
e. infertility should be accepted as the will of God
DRAW ASSESSMENT STATEMENTS
1. Draw and label a diagram of the digestive system. Include the following structures:
mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, anus, liver, pancreas, and gall
bladder.

2. Draw and label a diagram of the heart showing the four chambers, associated blood
vessels, valves and the route of blood through the heart. Be certain to show relative wall
thicknesses of the four chambers.

3. Draw and label a diagram of the ventilation system, including trachea, lungs, bronchi,
bronchioles, and alveoli. Draw the alveoli in an insert diagram at a higher magnification.
4. Draw and label a diagram of the structure of a motor neuron. Include dendrites, cell
body with nucleus, axon, myelin sheath, nodes of Ranvier and motor end plates.

5. Draw and label a diagram of the female reproductive system. Include the following:
bladder, urethra, ovary, oviduct, uterus, cervix, vagina, and vulva.

6. Draw and label a diagram of the male reproductive system. Include the following:
bladder, urethra, penis, testis, scrotum, vas deferens, epididymus, prostate gland, and
seminal vesicle.