Science and Engineering of Materials 7th Edition Askeland Solutions Manual 1

Science and Engineering of
Materials 7th Edition Askeland

Solutions Manual
Full download at link: https://testbankpack.com/p/solution-

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Chapter 5: Atom and Ion Movements in Materials
5-10 Atoms are found to move from one lattice position to another at the rate of 5 × 105
jumps/s at 400°C when the activation energy for their movement is 30,000 cal/mol.
Calculate the jump rate at 750°C.
Solution:
5105 c exp[ − 30, 000/(1.987)/(673)]
Rate = = o
= exp( − 22.434 +14.759)
x co exp[ − 30, 000/(1.987)/(1023)]
510J5
= exp( − 7.675) = 4.6410−4
x
5105
x= −4 = 1.0810 jumps/s
9
4.6410
5-11 The number of vacancies in a material is related to temperature by an Arrhenius

equation. If the fraction of lattice points containing vacancies is 8 × 10–5 at 600°C,
determine the fraction of lattice points containing vacancies at 1000°C.
Solution: 8 × 10–5 = exp[–Q/(1.987)/(873)] Q = 16,364 cal/mol
f = nv/n = exp[–16,364/(1.987)/(1273)] = 0.00155
5-12 The Arrhenius equation was originally developed for comparing rates of chemical
reactions. Compare the rates of a chemical reaction at 20 and 100°C by calculating the
ratio of the chemical reaction rates. Assume that the activation energy for liquids in
which the chemical reaction is conducted is 10 kJ/mol and that the reaction is limited by
diffusion.
Solution:
An Arrhenius relationship gives the rate of a process or reaction as a function of
temperature. In general, for an Arrhenius relationship,
97
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 Q 
Rate = c0 exp  − 
 RT  ,
where c 0 is a constant, Q is the activation energy, R is the universal gas constant, and T
is the absolute temperature. Taking the ratio of the rates of two reactions:
 Q  1010 3 J/mol
c0 exp−  exp− 
 
Rate 20˚C  R ( 293 K )  8.314 J/( molK )( 293 K )
= = = 0.41
Rate100˚C  Q  1010 3J/mol

c exp−  xp − 
R ( 373 K ) 8.314 J/ ( mol  K )( 373 K )
0
5-14 (a) Compare interstitial and vacancy atomic mechanisms for diffusion and (b) cite two
reasons why interstitial diffusion is normally more rapid than vacancy diffusion.
98
Solution:
(a) Interstitial diffusion is generally limited to the atom movements of C, H, O and N
from interstitial site to interstitial site. This diffusion mechanism, with lower activation
energies, is comparatively faster than vacancy diffusion. Vacancy diffusion is limited to
the availability of lattice vacancies. Solute atoms can diffuse if a vacancy occupies a
neighboring lattice position. Thus, vacancy diffusion requires much higher activation
energies and occurs much more slowly. (b) More interstitial sites than vacancy sites
exist in lattice structures and lower activation energies.
5-17 Compare the diffusion coefficients of carbon in BCC and FCC iron at the allotropic
transformation temperature of 912°C and explain the reason for the difference in their
values.
Solution: DBCC = 0.011 exp[–20,900/(1.987)/(1185)] = 1.51 × 10–6 cm2/s
–7 2
DFCC = 0.23 exp [–32,900/(1.987)/(1185)] = 1.92 × 10 cm /s
The packing factor of the BCC lattice (0.68) is less than that of the FCC lattice (0,74);
consequently, atoms are expected to be able to diffuse more rapidly in the BCC iron at
the same temperature.
5-18 Compare the diffusion coefficients for hydrogen and nitrogen in FCC iron at 1000°C and
explain the reason for the difference in their values.
Solution: DH in FCC = 0.0063 exp [–10,300/(1.987)/(1273)] = 1.074 × 10–4 cm2/s
DN in FCC = 0.0034 exp [–34,600/(1.987)/(1273)] = 3.898 × 10–9 cm2/s
Nitrogen atoms have a larger atomic radius (0.71 Å) compared with that of hydrogen
atoms (0.46 Å); the smaller hydrogen ions are expected to diffuse more rapidly.
5-19 Activation energy is sometimes expressed as (eV/atom), (e.g., as shown in Figure 5-15,
which illustrates the diffusion coefficients of ions in different oxides). Convert eV/atom
to J/mole.
Solution:
Using the appropriate conversion factors:
1 eV 1.602176610 −19J 6.02214110 23atoms

* * = 96, 485 J/mole
atom 1 eV 1 mole
5-20 In order to produce a certain semiconductor, a process called doping is performed in

which phosphorus is diffused into germanium. If D0 = 2.0 cm2/s and the activation
energy is 57,500 cal/mol, determine the diffusivity of P in Ge at 800°C.
99
Solution:
5-21 The activation energy for the diffusion of copper into silver is 193,000 J/mol. Calculate
the diffusion coefficient at 1200 K given that D at 1000 K is 1.0 × 10-14 m2/s.
Solution:
100
5-22 Determine the diffusion coefficient D for the diffusion of hydrogen into FCC iron at
800°C.
Solution:
5-23 The diffusion coefficient for Cr3+ in Cr2O3 is 6 × 10–15 cm2/s at 727°C and 1 × 10–9 cm2/s at
1400°C. Calculate (a) the activation energy; and (b) the constant D0.
Solution: 6 10−15 D exp[−Q/(1.987)/(1000)]
= 0
110 −9 D0 exp[−Q/(1.987)/(1673)]
6 × 10–6 = exp[–Q(0.00050327 – 0.00030082)] = exp[–0.00020245 Q]

–12.0238 = −0.00020245 Q or Q = 59,390 cal/mol
1 × 10–9 = D0 exp[–59,390/(1.987)/(1673)]
D0 = 0.057 cm 2 /s
5-24 The diffusion coefficient for O2- in Cr2O3 is 4 × 10–15 cm2/s at 1150°C and 6 × 10–11 cm2/s
at 1715°C. Calculate (a) the activation energy; and (b) the constant D0.
Solution: 410 −15 D exp[−Q/(1.987)/(1423)]
= 0
610 −11 D0 exp[−Q/(1.987)/(1988)]
6.67 × 10–5 = exp[–0.0001005 Q]

–9.615 = –0.0001005 or Q = 95, 700 cal/mol
Q
4 × 10–15 = D0 exp[–95,700/(1.987)/(1423)] = D0(2.02 × 10–15)

D0 = 1.98 cm2/s
5-28 Determine the maximum allowable temperature that will produce a flux of less than
2000 H atoms/(cm2·s) through a BCC iron foil when the concentration gradient is –5 ×
1016 atoms/(cm3·cm). (Note the negative sign for the flux.)
Solution:
2000 H atoms/(cm2·s) = –0.0012 exp[–3600/(1.987T)][–5 × 1016 atoms/(cm3·cm)]
ln(3.33 × 10–11) = –3600/(1.987T)
T = –3600/[(–24.12)(1.987)] = 75 K = –198°C
100
5-29 Calculate the diffusion coefficients for the diffusion of hydrogen through BCC iron
and FCC aluminum at room temperature (25°C). For the diffusion of H into Al,
D0 = 0.11 cm2 / s and Q = 9780 cal/mol . Based on your calculations,
which material would be better suited as the material for a high-pressure

hydrogen storage tank?
Solution:
5-30 How would the internal pressure of hydrogen in a storage tank affect the rate of
diffusion? Explain.
Solution:
The concentration of the number of H atoms at the inside surface of the metal increases
as the pressure increases. Assuming that the external concentration remains the same,
the concentration gradient must increase leading to an increased net flux or increased
rate of diffusion.
5-31 A 1-mm-thick BCC iron foil is used to separate a region of high nitrogen gas
concentration of 0.1 at% from a region of low nitrogen gas concentration at 650°C. If the
flux of nitrogen through the foil is 1012 atoms/(cm2 · s), what is the nitrogen
concentration in the low concentration region?
Solution: The flux J is given by
c
J = −D ,
x
where D is the diffusion coefficient, c is concentration, and x is position. The term ∆c/∆x
is the concentration gradient. The diffusion coefficient D is given by
 Q 
D = D0 exp  − ,
 RT 
where D0 is the pre–exponential term, Q is the activation energy, R is the gas constant,
and T is the absolute temperature. From Table 5–1, the activation energy is 18,300
cal/mol, and is 0.0047 cm2/s. Thus,
 Q  c
J = −D0 exp  −  .
 RT  x
101
The concentration is given in at% and must be converted to a per unit volume basis.
For BCC iron, there are two atoms per unit cell with an axial length of 2.866 × 10–8
 18,300   clow −0.1  2
cm. Substituting, 1012 = −0.0047 exp  −    ,
1.987  923 0.1 (2.86610−8 )3
  
and solving for the low concentration of atoms clow:
clow = 0.099995 at%.
5-32 A 0.2-mm-thick wafer of silicon is treated so that a uniform concentration gradient of

antimony is produced. One surface contains 1 Sb atom per 108 Si atoms and the other
surface contains 500 Sb atoms per 108 Si atoms. The lattice parameter for Si is 5.4307 Å
(Appendix A). Calculate the concentration gradient in (a) at % per cm; and (b) Sb
atoms/(cm3 · cm).
Solution: (1/108 − 500/108 )
c/x = 100% = −0.02495 at %/cm
0.02 cm
a0 = 5.4307Å Vunit cell = 160.1610−24 cm3
(8 Si atoms/unit cell)(1 Sb/108 Si)

c1 = = 0.049951016 Sb atoms/cm 3
160.16 10 −24 cm 3 /unit cell
8
(8 Si atoms/unit cell)(500 Sb/10 Si)
c2 = −24
= 24.975 1016 Sb atoms/cm 3
160.16 10 cm /unit cell
3
(0.04995−24.975)101J6
c/x = = −1.2461019 Sb atoms/(cm3  cm)
0.02 cm
5-33 When a Cu-Zn alloy solidifies, one portion of the structure contains 25 at% zinc and
another portion 0.025 mm away contains 20 at% zinc. The lattice parameter for the FCC
alloy is 3.63 × 10–8 cm. Determine the concentration gradient in (a) at% Zn per cm; (b)
wt% Zn per cm; and (c) Zn atoms/(cm3 · cm).
Solution:
Note that either positive or negative values for the answers are acceptable here.
dc 20 at.% − 25 at.%
(a) = = −2000 at% Zn / cm
dx 0.0025 cm
(b)
 65.38 g Zn   65.38 g Zn 
0.20 mol Zn
  0.25 mol Zn  
 mol Zn   mol Zn 
−
 65.38 g Zn   63.54 g Cu   65.38 g Zn   63.54 g Cu 
0.20 mol Zn
  + 0.80 mol Cu   0.25 mol Zn   + 0.75 mol Cu  
dc  mol Zn   mol Cu   mol Zn   mol Cu 
=
100
102
dx 0.0025 cm
103
dc
= −2031 wt% Zn/cm
dx
   
 4 atoms  unit cell   4 atoms  unit cell 
0.20
24
  3 − 0.25  
 unit cell  ( 3.63 10 −8 cm )  unit cell  ( 3.6310 −8 cm ) 3 


(c) dc     1.6710 Zn
= =−
atoms
dx 0.0025 cm cm 3  cm
5-34 A 0.001 in. BCC iron foil is used to separate a high hydrogen content gas from a low
hydrogen content gas at 650°C. 5 × 108 H atoms/cm3 are in equilibrium on one side of
the foil, and 2 × 103 H atoms/cm3 are in equilibrium on the other side. Determine (a) the
concentration gradient of hydrogen; and (b) the flux of hydrogen through the foil.
Solution:
210 −510
3 8
c/x = = −1.969 1011 H atoms/(cm3  cm)

(0.001 in.) (2.54 cm/in.)
J = −D(c/x) = −0.0012 exp[ − 3600/(1.987)/(923)]( −1969 108 )
J = 3.3107 H atoms/(cm 2  s)
5-35 Compute the number of kilograms of hydrogen that pass per hour through a 5-mm-thick
sheet of palladium having an area of 0.20m2 at 500°C. Assume a diffusion coefficient of
1.0 × 10-8 m2/s and that the concentrations at the high and low pressure sides of the
plate are 2.4 and 0.6 kg of hydrogen per m3 of palladium. Assume steady state
conditions.
Solution:
The flux J is the number of atoms being transported per unit area per unit time.
Therefore, the flux J must be calculated and multiplied by the area of the sheet. The flux
J is given by
dc
J = −D ,
dx
where D is the diffusion coefficient and dc /dx is the concentration gradient. The
diffusion coefficient is given in the problem statement. The concentration gradient is
calculated as
 (0.6 −2.4 kg H ) 
 
 
3
dc m Pd
= .
104
dx 0.005 m
Therefore,
105
 (0.6 −2.4 kg H ) 
 
2 
m3 Pd   3600 s 
= −(10 −8 m /s)(0.2 m )
dc
JA = −DA 2
  = 2.59  10 −3 kg/hr
dx 0.005 m  hr 
5-36 A 1-mm-thick sheet of FCC iron is used to contain nitrogen in a heat exchanger at
1200°C. The concentration of N at one surface is 0.04 at% and the concentration at the
second surface is 0.005 at%. Determine the flux of nitrogen through the foil in N
atoms/(cm2·s).
Solution: (0.00005 − 0.0004) (4 atoms per cell)/(3.58910−8cm)3
c/x =
(1 mm)(0.1cm/mm)
= −3.031020 N atoms/(cm3  cm)
J = −D(c/x) = −0.0034 exp[ − 334,600/(1.987)/(1473)]( −
3.0310 20 )
= 7.57 1012 N atom/(cm 2 s)
5-37 A 4-cm-diameter, 0.5-mm-thick spherical container made of BCC iron holds nitrogen at
700°C. The concentration at the inner surface is 0.05 at% and at the outer surface is
0.002 at%. Calculate the number of grams of nitrogen that are lost from the container
per hour.
Solution: [0.00002 − 0.0005](4 atoms/cell)/(2.86610−8 cm)3
c/x =
(0.5 mm)(0.1cm/mm)
= −8.161020 N/(cm3  cm)
J = −0.0047 exp[ −18,300/(1.987)/(973)][ − 8.16 10 20 ]
= 2.97 1014 N atoms(cm 2  s)
Asphere = 4 r2 = 4 (2 cm)2 = (50.27 cm2 )
t = 3600 s/h
14 19
N atoms/h = (2.97 × 10 ) (50.27) (3600) = 5.37 × 10 N atoms/h
(5.3710J atoms) (14.007 g/mol)
19
N loss = 23
= 1.2510−3g/h
(6.02210 atoms/mol)
5-38 A BCC iron structure is to be manufactured that will allow no more than 50 g of
hydrogen to be lost per year through each square centimeter of the iron at 400°C. If the
concentration of hydrogen at one surface is 0.05 H atom per unit cell and 0.001 H atom
per unit cell at the second surface, determine the minimum thickness of the iron.
–8 3 19 3
Solution: c1 = 0.05 H/(2.866 × 10 cm) = 212.4 × 10 H atoms/cm
c2 = 0.001 H/(2.866 × 10–8 cm)3 = 4.25 × 1019 H atoms/cm3
4.251019 − 212.41019 −2.081021
c/x = =
x x
2 23
106
(50 g/cm /y) (6.0210 atoms/mol)
J= 6
= 9.47 1017 H atoms/(cm 2  s)
(1.00797 g/mol)(31.53610 s/y)
107
J = 9.47 1017 H atoms/(cm 2 ·s)
= (−2.081021 /x)(0.0012) exp[−3600/1.987/673]
x = 0.179 cm
5-39 Determine the maximum allowable temperature that will produce a flux of less than
2000 H atoms/(cm2·s) through a BCC iron foil when the concentration gradient is –5 ×
1016 atoms/(cm3·cm). (Note the negative sign for the flux.)
Solution:
2000 H atoms/(cm2·s) = –0.0012 exp[–3600/(1.987T)][–5 × 1016 atoms/(cm3·cm)]
ln(3.33 × 10–11) = –3600/(1.987T)
T = –3600/[(–24.12)(1.987)] = 75 K = –198°C
5-44 Use the diffusion data in the table below for atoms in iron to answer the questions that
follow. Assume metastable equilibrium conditions and trace amounts of C in Fe. The gas
constant in SI units is 8.314 J/(mol · K).
DiffusionCouple DiffusionMechanism Q (J/mol) D0 (m2/s)

C in FCC Iron Interstitial 1.38 × 105 2.3 × 10–5
C in BCC Iron Interstitial 8.74 × 104 1.1 × 10–6
Fe in FCC Iron Vacancy 2.79 × 105 6.5 × 10–5
Fe in BCC Iron Vacancy 2.46 × 105 4.1 × 10–4
(a) Plot the diffusion coefficient as a function of inverse temperature (1/T) showing all
four diffusion couples in the table.
(b) Recall the temperatures for phase transitions in iron, and for each case, indicate on
the graph the temperature range over which the diffusion data is valid.
(c) Why is the activation energy for Fe diffusion higher than that for C diffusion in iron?
(d) Why is the activation energy for diffusion higher in FCC iron when compared to BCC
iron?
(e) Does C diffuse faster in FCC Fe than in BCC Fe? Support your answer with a
numerical calculation and state any assumptions made.
108
Solution:
(a) The diffusion coefficient D is plotted as a function of 1/T according to
 Q 
D = D0 exp  −  , where D0 is the pre–exponential term, Q is the activation
 RT 
energy, R is the gas constant, and T is the absolute temperature.
(b) The temperature at which BCC iron transforms to FCC iron is 912°C (1185 K),
and the temperature at which FCC iron transforms to  -iron is 1394°C (1667 K). The
graph in (a) shows the lines for each diffusion couple over the temperature ranges for
which the diffusion data is valid.
(c) C diffuses by interstitial diffusion and Fe by vacancy diffusion. The C atom is
smaller than the Fe atom, and there are more interstitial sites available than vacancies,
making interstitial diffusion easier than vacancy diffusion. This is reflected in the lower
activation energy for C diffusion in Fe when compared to Fe diffusion in Fe.
(d) FCC Fe has a higher packing fraction than BCC Fe; hence, the activation energy is
expected to be higher for diffusion in FCC Fe.
(e) We can calculate the value of D at 912°C for interstitial diffusion of C in both FCC
and BCC Fe according to
 Q 
D = D0 exp  − .
 RT 
We know the activation energies Q and diffusion coefficients D0 from the table.
DC in FCC Fe = 2.3 × 10–5 exp[–1.38 × 105/(8.314 × 1183)] = 1.85 × 10–11 m2/s
DC in BCC Fe = 1.1 × 10–6 exp[–8.74 × 104/(8.314 × 1183)] = 1.52 × 10–10 m2/s
At the transition temperature from BCC to FCC iron (912°C), C diffuses faster in BCC Fe
than in FCC Fe as evidenced by the higher diffusivity for C in BCC Fe compared to FCC Fe.
5-45 The plot below has three lines representing grain boundary, surface, and volume self-
diffusion in a metal. Match the lines labeled A, B, and C with the type of diffusion. Justify
your answer by calculating the activation energy for diffusion for each case.
109
Solution: The expression for the diffusion coefficient D is given by
 Q 
D = D0 exp  − ,
 RT 
where D0 is the pre–exponential term, Q is the activation energy, R is the gas
constant, and T is the absolute temperature. Taking the natural logarithm of
both sides,
ln(D) = ln(D0) – (Q/R)(1/T).
The activation energy can be determined from the slope of a ln(D) versus (1/T)
graph.
Slope = –(Q/R) = [ln(D2) – ln(D1)] / [(1/T2) – (1/T1)].
From the graph, the values for the diffusion coefficient and (1000/T) can be
determined. The table below shows these values for the end points of each line
in the graph and calculates the slopes and activation energies for each line.
1000/T (K– ln(D)
Line Diffusivity(m2/s) 1
) (m2/s) 1/T (K) Q/R (K) Q (J/mol)
–12
A 10 0.8 –27.631 0.0008
A 10–15 1.0 –34.539 0.0010 34,539 2.87 × 105
–10
B 10 1.1 –23.026 0.0011
–12
B 5 × 10 1.4 –26.022 0.0014 9,986 8.30 × 104
–8
C 10 1.5 –18.421 0.0015
C 10–9 1.8 –20.723 0.0018 7,675 6.38 × 104
We know that surface diffusion has the least constraints and hence is expected
to have the lowest activation energy. In this case, line C has the lowest
activation energy and represents surface diffusion. Line A has the highest
activation energy and hence represents volume diffusion, and line B with the
intermediate value of activation energy represents grain boundary diffusion.
5-49 Pure zinc is to be diffused into the copper by dipping copper into molten zinc at 450°C.
Calculate how long it would take to obtain 10 wt% zinc depth of 0.5 mm beneath the
copper surface. Is this commercially feasible? What practical problems might arise if we
raise the temperature to 1000°C? Use Table 5-4 for error function values as needed. At
450°C, the diffusion coefficient D = 6.3 × 10-13 cm2/s.
110
Solution:
 
100−10  0.05 cm 
= erf  
100 − 0
2 ( 6.310 −13
cm 2 /s) ( t ) 
7.334 108 s = 23.3 years

This process would not be feasible at this temperature because it takes too long for
commercial use. At 1000°C, diffusion would be faster, but copper melts at 1080°C
resulting in the possibility of copper diffusing into the molten zinc.
5-50 Nitriding is a process in which nitrogen is allowed to diffuse into the surface of steel for
the purpose of increasing the surface hardness of a component. It has been determined
that a satisfactory nitrogen case depth is produced in BCC iron after 1 hour at 700°C.
How much time is required to produce a satisfactory case depth if nitriding is carried out
at 600°C?
111
Solution:
5-51 Determine the carburizing time necessary to achieve a carbon concentration of 0.30 wt%
at a position 4-mm into a steel alloy that initially contains 0.10 wt% carbon. The surface
concentration is to be maintained at 0.90 wt% carbon and the treatment is to be
conducted at 1100°C. Use the diffusion data for FCC iron and the error function values in
Table 5-4 as needed.
Solution:
For a constant surface concentration condition, we can use Equation 5-7:
cs −cx  x 
= erf  ,
cs − c0  2 Dt 
where cs is a constant concentration of the diffusing atoms at the surface of the

material, c0 is the initial uniform concentration of the diffusing atoms in the material,
and cx is the concentration of the diffusing atom at location x below the surface after
time t. Equation 5-7 becomes
0.9−0.3  0.4 cm 
= erf  
0.9 − 0.1  2 Dt 
DC in FCC = 0.23 exp [–32,900/(1.987)/(1373)] = 1.332 × 10–6 cm2/s and solving for t,
t = 45, 400 s = 12.6 hours
112
5-52 One method of fabricating complex aerospace components is diffusion bonding. We
wish to join a nickel sheet, intended to rapidly transfer lightning strike data away from
critical locations, to an FCC iron (stainless steel) plate. We find that we can accomplish a
good bond in 8 hours when the two metals are joined at 800°C. How long will it take to
obtain an equally good bond if we decide to perform the bonding at 600°C? (Assume
that the quality of the bond is determined by the rate of diffusion into the FCC iron).
Solution:
5-53 Determine the carburizing time necessary to achieve a carbon concentration of 0.45
wt% at a position 2-mm into a steel alloy that initially contains 0.20 wt% carbon. The
surface concentration is to be maintained at 1.30 wt% at 1000°C. Use Table 5-4 for error
function values as needed.
Solution:
cs c x  x 
= erf  
cs c0  2 Dt  ,
110
1.3−0.45  0.2 cm 
= erf  
1.3− 0.2  2 Dt 
t = 26, 568 s = 7.4 hours
5-54 Nitrogen from a gaseous phase is to be diffused into pure iron (BCC) at 700°C. If the
surface concentration is maintained at 0.10 wt% N, what will the concentration 1 mm
from the surface be after 10 hrs? Use Table 5-4 for error function values as needed.
Solution:
cs −cx  x 
= erf  
cs − c0  2 Dt  ,

0.1− c  0.1 cm 
= erf 
x

0.1− 0  2 Dt 
DN in BCC = 0.0047 exp [–18,300/(1.987)/(973)] = 3.642 × 10–7 cm2/s and solving for
cx ,
cx = 0.054
5-55 The surface of 0.10 wt% carbon steel is to be strengthened by carburizing. The steel is
placed in an atmosphere that provides a maximum of 1.2 wt% carbon at the surface of
the steel at a high temperature. Carbon then diffuses 0.2 cm into the surface of the steel
Solution:
cs c x  x 
= erf  
cs c0  2 Dt  ,
111
giving a carbon concentration of 0.45 wt% carbon at that depth. How long will the
process of carburizing take if the diffusion coefficient is 2 × 10-7 cm2/s? Use Table 5-4 for
error function values as needed.
Solution:
cs c x  x 
= erf  
cs c0  2 Dt  ,
112
 
1.2−0.45  0.2 cm 
= erf  
1.2 − 0.1 2
 ( 2 10 −7
)
cm 2 / s t 
t = 100,361 s = 27.9 hours
5-56 Transistors are made by doping single crystal silicon with different types of impurities to
generate n- and p-type regions. Phosphorus and boron are typical n- and p-type dopant
species, respectively. Assuming that a thermal treatment at 1100°C for 1 h is used to
cause diffusion of the dopants, calculate the constant surface concentration of P and B
needed to achieve a concentration of 1018 atoms/cm3 at a depth of 0.1 mm from the
surface for both n- and p-type regions. The diffusion coefficients of P and B in single
crystal silicon at 1100°C are 6.5 × 10–13 cm2/s and 6.1 × 10–13 cm2/s, respectively.
Solution: For a constant surface concentration condition, we can use
Equation 5-7:
c s −c x  x 
= erf  ,
cs − c0  2 Dt 
where cs is a constant concentration of the diffusing atoms at the

surface of the material, c0 is the initial uniform concentration of the
diffusing atoms in the material, and cx is the concentration of the
diffusing atom at location x below the surface after time t.
For P,
c −1018 cm −3  0.110−4 cm 
s
= erf  .
cs − 0 −13
 2 6.510 cm /s  3600 s 
2
Solving for cs:

1018
1− = 0.1162
cs
cs = 1.1 × 1018 cm–3
For B,
c −1018 cm −3  0.110−4 cm 
s
= erf  .
cs − 0  2 6.110 −13
cm 2
/s  3600 s 
Solving for cs:
1018
1− = 0.1199
cs
cs = 1.1 × 1018 cm–3
112
5-57 Consider a 2-mm-thick silicon wafer to be doped using antimony. Assume that the
dopant source (gas mixture of antimony chloride and other gases) provides a constant
concentration of 1022 atoms/m3. We need a dopant profile such that the concentration
of Sb at a depth of 1 micrometer is 5 × 1021 atoms/m3. What is the required time for the
diffusion heat treatment? Assume that the silicon wafer initially contains no impurities
or dopants. Assume that the activation energy for diffusion of Sb into silicon is 380
kJ/mole and D0 for Sb diffusion into Si is 1.3 × 10-3 m2/s. Assume T = 1250°C.
Solution:
cs −cx  x 
= erf  ,
cs − c0  2 Dt 

time t. The diffusion is calculated as
 380103 J/mol 
D = 1.310 −3 m 2 /s * exp−  = 1.20 10 −16 m 2 /s
8.314 J/ ( mol  K)(1523 K)
Thus,
 
10 22 −510 21  110 −6 m 
= erf
 2 
10 22 − 0 (1.20 10 −16
m 2 /s) ( t )
and solving for t,
t = 9130 s = 2.5 hours
5-58 Consider doping of silicon with gallium. Assume that the diffusion coefficient of gallium
in Si at 1100°C is 7 × 10-13 cm2/s. Calculate the concentration of Ga at a depth of 2.0
micrometer if the surface concentration of Ga is 1023 atoms/cm3. The diffusion times are
1, 2, and 3 hours.
Solution:
For t = 1 hour,
 
10 23 −c x  210 −4 cm 
= erf
2 
10 23 − 0
 ( 7 10 −13
cm 2 /s) (1* 3600 s)
  
113 20


23  210J4 cm 
cx = 10 * 1− erf = 4.84 10
 

 2 ( 7 10 −13
cm 2 /s) (1* 3600 s) 
For t = 2 hours,
114
  

23  210J4 cm  21
cx = 10 * 1− erf = 4.64 10
 

 2 ( 7 10 −13
cm 2 /s) ( 2 * 3600 s) 

For t = 3 hours,
  

23  210J4 cm 
cx = 10 * 1− erf = 1.04 10
 
( 7 10 cm 2 /s) (3* 3600 s) 
22
 2
−13
 
5-59 Compare the rate at which oxygen ions diffuse in alumina (Al2O3) with the rate at which
aluminum ions diffuse in Al2O3 at 1500°C. Explain the difference.
Solution: DO–2 = 1900 exp[–152,000/(1.987)/(1773)] = 3.47 × 10 –16 cm2/s
DAl+3 = 28 exp[–114,000/(1.987)/(1773)] = 2.48 × 10–13 cm2/s

The ionic radius of the oxygen ion is 1.32 Å, compared with the aluminum
ionic radius of 0.51 Å; consequently it is much easier for the smaller
aluminum ion to diffuse in the ceramic.
5-60 A carburizing process is carried out on a 0.10% C steel by introducing 1.0% C at the
surface at 980°C, where the iron is FCC. Calculate the carbon content at 0.01 cm, 0.05
cm, and 0.10 cm beneath the surface after 1 h.
Solution: D = 0.23 exp[–32,900/(1.987)/(1253)] = 42 × 10–8 cm2/s
1−cx
= erf [x/2 (4210−8 )(3600)] = erf [x/0.0778]
1− 0.1
(1– cx )
x = 0.10 : erf [0.10/0.0778] = erf (0.285) = = cx = 0.87% C
0.144
0.9
c = 0.43% C
(1– cx )
x = 0.05 : erf [0.05/0.0778] = erf (0.643) = =
0.636
x
0.9
(1– cx )
x = 0.01: erf [0.01/0.0778] = erf (1.1285) = = cx = 0.16% C
0.914
0.9
115
116
5-61 Iron containing 0.05% C is heated to 912°C in an atmosphere that produces 1.20% C at
the surface and is held for 24 h. Calculate the carbon content at 0.05 cm beneath the
surface if (a) the iron is BCC; and (b) the iron is FCC. Explain the difference.
Solution: t = (24 h)(3600 s/h) = 86,400 s
DBCC = 0.011 exp[–20,900/(1.987)/(1185)] = 1.54 × 10–6 cm2/s
DFCC = 0.23 exp[–32,900/(1.987)/(1185)] = 1.97 × 10–7 cm2/s
1.2−cx
BCC : = erf [0.05/(2 (1.5410 −6 )(86, 400))] = erf [0.0685] = 0.077
1.2 − 0.05
cx = 1.11% C
1.2−cx
FCC : = erf [0.05/(2 (1.97 10−7 )(86, 400) )] = erf [0.192] = 0.2139
1.2 − 0.05
cx = 0.95% C
Faster diffusion occurs in the more loosely packed BCC structure, leading to the higher
carbon content at point “x”.
5-62 What temperature is required to obtain 0.50% C at a distance of 0.5 mm beneath the
surface of a 0.20% C steel in 2 h, when 1.10% C is present at the surface? Assume that
the iron is FCC.
Solution: 1.1−0.5
= 0.667 = erf [0.05/(2 Dt )]
1.1− 0.2
0.05/(2 Dt ) = 0.685 or Dt = 0.0365 or Dt = 0.00133
t = (2 h)(3600 s/h) = 7200 s

D = 0.00133/7200 = 1.85 × 10 −7 = 0.23 exp[ − 32,900/(1.987T )]
exp( −16,558/T) = 8.043 × 10 −7
T = 1180K = 907°C
5-63 A 0.15% C steel is to be carburized at 1100o C, giving 0.35% C at a distance of 1 mm

beneath the surface. If the surface composition is maintained at 0.90% C, what time is
required?
Solution: 0.9−0.35
= 0.733 = erf[0.1/(2 Dt )]
0.9 − 0.15
0.1/(2 Dt ) = 0.786 or Dt = 0.0636 or Dt = 0.00405
D = 0.23 exp[–32,900/(1.987)/(1373)] = 1.332 × 10–6 cm2/s

t = 0.00405/1.332 × 10–6 = 3040 s = 51 min
5-64 A 0.02% C steel is to be carburized at 1200°C in 4 h, with the carbon content 0.6 mm
beneath the surface reaching 0.45% C. Calculate the carbon content required at the
surface of the steel.
Solution:
117
cs −0.45
= Dt )]
erf
[0.06/(2
cs − 0.02
118
D = 0.23 exp[–32,900/(1.987)/(1473)] = 3.019 × 10–6 cm2/s
t = (4 h)(3600) = 14,400 s
Dt = (3.019 10−6 )(14, 400) = 0.2085
erf[0.06/((2)(0.2085))] = erf(0.144) = 0.161

cs −0.45
= 0.161 or cs = 0.53% C
cs − 0.02
5-65 A 1.2% C tool steel held at 1150°C is exposed to oxygen for 48 h. The carbon content at
the steel surface is zero. To what depth will the steel be decarburized to less than 0.20%
C?
Solution: 0−0.2
= 0.1667  x/(2 Dt ) = 0.149
0 −1.2
D = 0.23 exp[–32,900/(1.987)/(1423)] = 2.034 × 10–6 cm2/s

t = (48 h)(3600 s/h) = 17.28 × 104 s
Dt = 0.5929
Then from above, x = (0.149)(2)(0.5929) = 0.177 cm
5-66 A 0.80% C steel must operate at 950°C in an oxidizing environment for which the carbon
content at the steel surface is zero. Only the outermost 0.02 cm of the steel part can fall
below 0.75% C. What is the maximum time that the steel part can operate?
Solution: 0−0.75
= 0.9375 = erf [x/(2 Dt )]  x/(2 Dt ) = 1.317
0 − 0.8
0.02/(2 Dt ) = 1.317 or Dt = 0.00759 or Dt = 5.7610−5
D = 0.23 exp[–32,900/(1.987)/(1223)] = 3.03 × 10–7 cm2/s

t = 5.76 × 10–5 / (3.03 × 10–7) = 190 s
5-67 A steel with the BCC crystal structure containing 0.001% N is nitrided at 550°C for 5 h. If
the nitrogen content at the steel surface is 0.08%, determine the nitrogen content at
0.25 mm from the surface.
Solution: 0.08−cx
= erf [0.025/(2 Dt )] t = (5 h)(3600 s/h) = 1.810 4 s
0.08 − 0.001
D = 0.0047 exp[–18,300/(1.987)/(823)]
= 6.48810 –8 cm 2 /s
Dt = 0.0342
erf[0.025/((2)(0.0342))] = erf(0.3655) = 0.394
0.08−cx
= 0.394 or cx = 0.049% N
0.079
119
5-68 What time is required to nitride a 0.002% N steel to obtain 0.12% N at a distance of
0.002 in. beneath the surface at 625°C? The nitrogen content at the surface is 0.15%.
120
Solution: 0.15−0.12
= 0.2027 = erf Dt )]  x/(2 Dt ) = 0.1816
0.15 − 0.002 [x/(2
D = 0.0047 exp[–18,300/(1.987)/(898)] = 1.652 × 10–7 cm2/s

x = 0.002 in. = 0.00508 cm
0.00508
= 0.1816
2 (1.65210−7 )t
Dt = 1.956 × 10–4 or t = 1.956 × 10–4/(1.652 × 10–7) = 1184 s
5-69 We can successfully perform a carburizing heat treatment at 1200°C in 1 h. In an effort

to reduce the cost of the brick lining in our furnace, we propose to reduce the
carburizing temperature to 950°C. What time will be required to give us a similar
carburizing treatment?
Solution: D1200 = 0.23 exp[–32,900/(1.987)/(1473)] = 3.019 × 10–6 cm2/s
D950 = 0.23 exp[–32,900/(1.987)/(1223)] = 3.034 × 10–7 cm2/s
t1200 = 1 h
(3.01910−6 )(1)
t950 = D1200t1200 /D950 = = 9.95 h
3.03410−7
5-70 During freezing of a Cu-Zn alloy, we find that the composition is nonuniform. By heating
the alloy to 600°C for 3 hours, diffusion of zinc helps to make the composition more
uniform. What temperature would be required if we wished to perform this
homogenization treatment in 30 minutes?
Solution: D600 = 0.78 exp[–43,900/(1.987)/(873)] = 7.9636 × 10–12
t600 = 3 h
tx = 0.5 h
–12
Dx = D600 t600/tx = (7.9636 × 10 )(3)/0.5
Dx = 4.778 × 10–11 = 0.78 exp[–43,900/(1.987T)]
ln (6.1258 × 10–11) = –23.516 = –43,900/(1.987 T)
T = 940 K = 667°C
121
5-71 To control junction depth in transistors, precise quantities of impurities are introduced
at relatively shallow depths by ion implantation and diffused into the silicon substrate in
a subsequent thermal treatment. This can be approximated as a finite source diffusion
problem. Applying the appropriate boundary conditions, the solution to Fick’s second
law under these conditions is
Q  −x 2 
c(x, t) = exp  
 Dt  4Dt 
where Q is the initial surface concentration with units of atoms/cm2. Assume that we
implant 1014 atoms/cm2 of phosphorus at the surface of a silicon wafer with a
background boron concentration of 1016 atoms/cm3 and this wafer is subsequently
annealed at 1100°C. The diffusion coefficient (D) of phosphorus in silicon at 1100°C is
6.5 × 10–13 cm2/s.
(a) Plot a graph of the concentration c (atoms/cm3) versus x (cm) for anneal times of 5
minutes, 10 minutes, and 15 minutes.
(b) What is the anneal time required for the phosphorus concentration to equal the
boron concentration at a depth of 1μm?
Solution:
(a) Using Q = 1014 atoms/cm2 and D = 6.5 × 10–13 cm2/s in the equation above, the
concentration c for t = 5 min, 10 min, and 15 min can be calculated using a series of
values for “x”. A graph of c versus x can be made with most standard spreadsheet
software.
(b) From the graph, the time for the P concentration to match the background B
concentration is slightly more than 10 minutes. Software packages are available that
can solve this equation, but we can also find the solution by substituting t values
close to 10 minutes. Rearranging the equation above and taking the natural
logarithm of each side,
ln(c) = ln[Q/(πDt)] – x2/(4Dt)
c = 1016 atoms/cm3, and the values of Q and D are known.
For t = 650 s, x = 0.974 μm, which is too small.
For t = 700 s, x = 1.008 μm, which is too large.
For t = 689 s, x = 1 μm.
122
5-72 Arrange the following materials in increasing order of self-diffusion coefficient: Ar gas,
water, single crystal aluminum, and liquid aluminum at 700°C.
Solution:
In increasing order from the lowest to high self-diffusion coefficient, the answer is single
crystal aluminum, water, liquid aluminum at 700°C, and argon gas. We expect higher
diffusion coefficients in gases compared to solids. Since the diffusion coefficient
depends exponentially on temperature, we expect the self-diffusion coefficient in liquid
aluminum at 700°C to be higher than the self-diffusion coefficient of water at
(presumably) room temperature.
5-77 A ceramic part made of MgO is sintered successfully at 1700°C in 90 minutes. To

minimize thermal stresses during the process, we plan to reduce the temperature to
1500°C. Which of the following will limit the rate at which sintering can be performed:
diffusion of magnesium ions or diffusion of oxygen ions? What time will be required at
the lower temperature?
Solution: Diffusion of oxygen is the slower of the two, due to the larger ionic radius
of the oxygen.
D1700 = 0.000043 exp[–82,100/(1.987)/(1973)] = 3.455 × 10–14 cm2/s
D1500 = 0.000043 exp[–82,100/(1.987)/(1773)] = 3.255 × 10–15 cm2/s
(3.4551014 )(90)
t1500 = D1700t1700 /D1500 = = 955 min = 15.9 h
3.25510−15
5–78 A Cu-Zn alloy has an initial grain diameter of 0.01 mm. The alloy is then heated to
various temperatures, permitting grain growth to occur. The times required for the
grains to grow to a diameter of 0.30 mm are shown below.
Temperature(°C) Time(min)
500 80,000
600 3,000
700 120
800 10
850 3
Determine the activation energy for grain growth. Does this correlate with the diffusion
of zinc in copper? (Hint: Note that rate is the reciprocal of time.)
Solution: Temperature 1/T Time Rate
(°C) (K) (K–1) (min) (min–1)
500 773 0.00129 80,000 1.25 × 10–5
600 873 0.00115 3,000 3.33 × 10–4
700 973 0.001028 120 8.33 × 10–3
800 1073 0.000932 10 0.100
850 1123 0.000890 3 0.333
A plot of the natural logarithm of the rate versus the inverse of the absolute
temperature is shown below with a linear fit. The slope is equal to –Q/R. For a slope of
25,409 K, the activation energy Q is Q = 25,409 K × 1.987 cal/(mol–K) = 50,488 cal/mol.
123
5-80 A sheet of gold is diffusion-bonded to a sheet of silver in 1 h at 700°C. At 500°C, 440 h
are required to obtain the same degree of bonding, and at 300°C, bonding requires 1530
years. What is the activation energy for the diffusion bonding process? Does it appear
that diffusion of gold or diffusion of silver controls the bonding rate? (Hint: Note that
rate is the reciprocal of time.)
Solution: Temperature 1/T Time Rate
–1 –1
(°C) (K) (K ) (s) (s )
700 973 0.001007 3600 0.278 × 10–3
500 773 0.001294 1.584 × 106 0.631 × 10–6
300 573 0.001745 4.825 × 1010 0.207 × 10–10
0.27810−3 exp[−Q/(1.987)/(973)] exp[−0.0005172Q]

−10 = =
0.207 10 exp[−Q/(1.987) / (573)] exp[−0.0008783Q]
ln(1.343 × 107) = 16.413 = 0.0003611 Q

Q = 45,450 cal/mol.
The activation energy for the diffusion of gold in silver is 45,500 cal/mole; thus, the
diffusion of gold appears to control the bonding rate.
120

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Science and Engineering of Materials 7th Edition Askeland Solutions Manual 1

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Materials 7th Edition Askeland

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Chapter 5: Atom and Ion Movements in Materials

5-11 The number of vacancies in a material is related to temperature by an Arrhenius

Rate100˚C  Q  1010 3J/mol

1 eV 1.602176610 −19J 6.02214110 23atoms

5-20 In order to produce a certain semiconductor, a process called doping is performed in

6 × 10–6 = exp[–Q(0.00050327 – 0.00030082)] = exp[–0.00020245 Q]

6.67 × 10–5 = exp[–0.0001005 Q]

4 × 10–15 = D0 exp[–95,700/(1.987)/(1423)] = D0(2.02 × 10–15)

which material would be better suited as the material for a high-pressure

5-32 A 0.2-mm-thick wafer of silicon is treated so that a uniform concentration gradient of

(8 Si atoms/unit cell)(1 Sb/108 Si)

 unit cell  ( 3.63 10 −8 cm )  unit cell  ( 3.6310 −8 cm ) 3 

c/x = = −1.969 1011 H atoms/(cm3  cm)

DiffusionCouple DiffusionMechanism Q (J/mol) D0 (m2/s)

7.334 108 s = 23.3 years

where cs is a constant concentration of the diffusing atoms at the surface of the

where cs is a constant concentration of the diffusing atoms at the surface of the

where cs is a constant concentration of the diffusing atoms at the

Solving for cs:

where cs is a constant concentration of the diffusing atoms at the surface of the

and solving for t,

t = 9130 s = 2.5 hours

DAl+3 = 28 exp[–114,000/(1.987)/(1773)] = 2.48 × 10–13 cm2/s

0.05/(2 Dt ) = 0.685 or Dt = 0.0365 or Dt = 0.00133

t = (2 h)(3600 s/h) = 7200 s

5-63 A 0.15% C steel is to be carburized at 1100o C, giving 0.35% C at a distance of 1 mm

0.1/(2 Dt ) = 0.786 or Dt = 0.0636 or Dt = 0.00405

D = 0.23 exp[–32,900/(1.987)/(1373)] = 1.332 × 10–6 cm2/s

erf[0.06/((2)(0.2085))] = erf(0.144) = 0.161

D = 0.23 exp[–32,900/(1.987)/(1423)] = 2.034 × 10–6 cm2/s

0.02/(2 Dt ) = 1.317 or Dt = 0.00759 or Dt = 5.7610−5

D = 0.23 exp[–32,900/(1.987)/(1223)] = 3.03 × 10–7 cm2/s

D = 0.0047 exp[–18,300/(1.987)/(898)] = 1.652 × 10–7 cm2/s

5-69 We can successfully perform a carburizing heat treatment at 1200°C in 1 h. In an effort

5-77 A ceramic part made of MgO is sintered successfully at 1700°C in 90 minutes. To

0.27810−3 exp[−Q/(1.987)/(973)] exp[−0.0005172Q]

ln(1.343 × 107) = 16.413 = 0.0003611 Q

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