JOURNAL OF MATHEMATICAL ANALYSIS AND APPLICATIONS 222, 79]91 Ž1998.

ARTICLE NO. AY975903

Solutions of Linear Difference Equations with

Variable Coefficients
Ranjan K. Mallik*

Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Indian Institute of

Technology, Institution of Engineers Building, Panbazar, Guwahati 781001, India

Submitted by Richard A. Duke

Received May 5, 1997

The explicit solution of a linear difference equation of unbounded order with

variable coefficients is presented. As special cases, the solutions of nonhomoge-
neous and homogeneous linear difference equations of order N with variable
coefficients are obtained. From these solutions, we also get expressions for the
product of companion matrices, and the power of a companion matrix. Q 1998
Academic Press
Key Words: Linear difference equation; variable coefficients; explicit solution;
companion matrices.

1. INTRODUCTION

Linear difference equations or linear recurrences play a significant role

in different areas of science and engineering. Pioneering work on the
asymptotics of linear difference equations was done by Poincare ´ w1x.
Asymptotics of solutions of linear recurrences with coefficients having
series representations have also been studied by Adams w2x, Birkhoff w3x,
Trjitzinsky w4]6x, Culmer, Harris w7x, Sibuya w8x, Immink w9x, Wimp, and
Zeilberger w10x. Further work on convergence properties of linear recur-
rence sequences has been presented by Kooman and Tijdeman w11x. A
survey of the literature on explicit solutions of linear recurrences reveals
that in the case of linear recurrences with constant coefficients, the explicit
solutions in terms of coefficients are well known. That is no longer the
case when the coefficients vary with the index w12x. A method of solving
linear matrix difference equations with constant coefficients by using

*E-mail: rkmallik@iitg.ernet.in.

79
0022-247Xr98 $25.00
Copyright Q 1998 by Academic Press
All rights of reproduction in any form reserved.
80 RANJAN K. MALLIK

operator identities has been presented by Verde-Star w13x. For equations

with variable coefficients, the closed-form solution of the first-order equa-
tion is known w14]16x. If N y 1 linearly independent solutions of a
homogeneous equation of order N are known, then any other linearly
independent solution can be obtained explicitly in terms of the known
solutions by using the Casoratian ŽWronskian in discrete domain.
w14, 15, 17, 18x. For a second-order linear homogeneous difference equation
with variable coefficients, explicit solutions in terms of coefficients have
been presented by Buchberger w19x and in w20x through different ap-
proaches. Solutions of linear difference equations of unbounded order and
of order N with variable coefficients have been represented in terms of
determinants of submatrices of a single solution matrix by Kittappa w21x.
Work on the existence and construction of closed-form solutions of linear
recurrences with polynomial and rational coefficients has been done by
ˇ w22, 23x. But, in the available open literature, there are no
Petkovsek
expressions in terms of coefficients for the complete solution of a linear
difference equation with varying coefficients when the order is 3 or more,
except for cases in which the coefficients have some special properties.
This paper presents explicit solutions in terms of coefficients of linear
difference equations with variable coefficients, for both the unbounded
order case and the Nth-order case.

2. LINEAR DIFFERENCE EQUATION OF

UNBOUNDED ORDER

Consider the linear difference equation

ky1
yk s Ý b k , i yi q x k , kG1 Ž 1.
is1

of unbounded order, with integral index k, variable complex coefficients

bk, 1 , . . . , bk, ky1 , and complex forcing term x k . The solution of this equa-
tion, which is an expression for y k , k G 1 in terms of only coefficients and
forcing terms, is given by the proposition that follows.
PROPOSITION 1. The solution of difference equation Ž1. is gi¨ en by

ky1
yk s Ý ck , i x i q x k , k G 1, Ž 2.
is1
 LINEAR DIFFERENCE EQUATIONS 81

where

kyi j
c k , i s bk , i q Ý Ý bk , kyl 1 Ł bkyÝ my 1 m
ns 1 l n , kyÝ ns 1 l n
Ž 3.
js2 Ž l1 , . . . , l j . ms2
l1 , . . . , l jG1
l1ql 2q ??? ql jskyi

for i s 1, . . . , k y 1, k G 2.
Proof. From the difference equation Ž1., it is clear that its solution is of
the form Ž2.. Substituting Ž2. in Ž1., we obtain, for i s 1, . . . , k y 1, k G 2,

ky1 ky1 iy1

yk s Ý bk , i x i q Ý Ý bk , i c i , r x r q x k
is1 is2 rs1
ky1 ky2 ky1
s Ý bk , i x i q Ý Ý bk , i c i , r x r q x k
is1 rs1 isrq1
ky2 ky1
s Ý bk , i q Ý bk , r c r , i x i q bk , ky1 x ky1 q x k . Ž 4.
is1 rsiq1

Comparing Ž4. with Ž2., we get

ky1
c k , i y bk , i s Ý bk , r c r , i for i s 1, . . . , k y 1, k G 2. Ž 5.
rsiq1

If we can show that c k, i given by Ž3. satisfies Ž5., then the proposition will
be proved.
Now using Ž3., the right-hand side of Ž5. can be expressed as

ky1 ky1
Ý bk , r c r , i s bk , iq1 biq1, i q Ý bk , r br , i
rsiq1 rsiq2
kyiy1 ky1
q Ý Ý Ý bk , r br , ryl 1
js2 rsiqj Ž l1 , . . . , l j .
l 1 , . . . , l jG1
l1ql 2q ??? ql jsryi

j
= Ł bryÝ my 1 m
ns 1 l n , ryÝ ns 1 l n
. Ž 6.
ms2
82 RANJAN K. MALLIK

Substituting l 1 s k y r and replacing the index j by j y 1 in Ž6., we get

ky1
Ý bk , r c r , i
rsiq1
kyiy2
s bk , kyŽ kyiy1. bkyŽ kyiy1., kyŽ kyiy1.y1 q Ý bk , kyl1 bkyl1 , kyl1yŽ kyl 1yi.
l1s1

kyi kyiy Ž jy1 . j

q Ý Ý Ý bk , kyl 1 Ł bkyÝ my 1 m
ns 1 l n , kyÝ ns 1 l n
js3 l 1s1 Ž l2 , . . . , l j. ms2
l 2 , . . . , l jG1
l 2q ??? ql jskyiyl 1

kyi j
s Ý Ý bk , kyl 1 Ł bkyÝ my 1 m
ns 1 l n , kyÝ ns 1 l n
js2 Ž l1 , . . . , l j . ms2
l1 , . . . , l jG1
l 1ql 2q ??? ql jskyi

s c k , i y bk , i Ž 7.

for i s 1, . . . , k y 1, k G 2, from Ž3.. Therefore we conclude that the

expression for c k, i given by Ž3. obeys Ž5., which proves the proposition.

3. LINEAR DIFFERENCE EQUATION OF ORDER N

We consider the linear difference equation

N
y kq N s Ý a k , j y kqNyj q x kqN , kG1 Ž 8.
js1

of order N Ž N G 2. with variable complex coefficients a k, j , j s 1, . . . , N,

complex forcing term x kq N , and complex initial values y 1 , . . . , yN . The
solution of this equation, which is an expression for y kq N , k G 1 in terms
of only coefficients, initial values, and forcing terms, is given by the
following proposition.
PROPOSITION 2. The solution of difference equation Ž8. with initial ¨ alues
y 1 , . . . , yN is gi¨ en by

N 0
y kq N s Ý d k , j yNq1yj q Ý d k , j x Nq1yj q x kqN , k G 1, Ž 9a .
js1 js2yk
 LINEAR DIFFERENCE EQUATIONS 83

where

kqjy1 r
dk , j s Ý Ý Ł a kql m yÝ mns 1 l n , l m Ž 9b .
rs1 Ž l1 , . . . , l r . ms1
1Fl 1 , . . . , l rFN
l rGj
l 1ql 2q ??? ql rskqjy1

for j s 2 y k, . . . , N, k G 1.
Proof. Difference equation Ž8. with initial values y 1 , . . . , yN can be
treated as a special case of Ž1. in which

yk s x k for 1 F k F N,
bk , i s 0 for i s 1, . . . , k y 1, 1 F k F N,
Ž 10 .
bk , i s 0 for i s 1, . . . , k y N y 1, k G N q 2,
bk , i s a kyN , kyi for i s k y N, . . . , k y 1, k G N q 1.

Now the solution of Ž8. with initial values y 1 , . . . , yN is given by Proposi-

tion 1, with the expression for c k, i given by Ž3. having the additional
constraints on bk, i in Ž10.. The solution can therefore be expressed by
using Ž10. as

N ky1
yk s Ý c k , i yi q Ý ck , i x i q x k , k G N q 1, or
is1 isNq1

N
y kq N s Ý c kqN , Nq1yj yj Ž 11 .
js1

0
q Ý c kq N , Nq1yj x Nq1yj q x kqN , k G 1.
js2yk

Since Ž3. can be rewritten as

kyi j
ck , i s Ý Ý Ł bkql m yÝ mns 1 l n , kyÝ mns 1 l n Ž 12 .
js1 Ž l1 , . . . , l j . ms1
l 1 , . . . , l jG1
l1ql 2q ??? ql jskyi
84 RANJAN K. MALLIK

for i s 1, . . . , k y 1, k G 2, it is clear from Ž10. that for each term of the

summation on the right-hand side of Ž12. to be nontrivial, the conditions
j
1 F l 1 , . . . , l j F N, k q lj y Ý ln s i q l j G N q 1
ns1

for j s 1, . . . , k y i Ž 13 .
need to be satisfied. Therefore we get
kyi j
ck , i s Ý Ý Ł bkql m yÝ mns 1 l n , kyÝ mns 1 l n Ž 14 .
js1 Ž l1 , . . . , l j . ms1
1Fl 1 , . . . , l jFN
l jGNq1yi
l1ql 2q ??? ql jskyi

for i s 1, . . . , k y 1, k G N q 1. Substituting
d k , j s c kqN , Nq1yj and a k , j s bkqN , kqNyj Ž 15 .
in Ž11. and Ž14. respectively, and combining the two results, we obtain the
proposition.
Note that difference equation Ž8. with initial values y 1 , . . . , yN can be
expressed in vector form as

y kq N ak , 1 ak , 2 ak , 3 ??? a k , Ny1 ak , N
y kq Ny1 1 0 0 ??? 0 0
.. s 0 1 0 ??? 0 0
.. .. .. .. ..
. . . . . .
y kq 1
0 0 0 ??? 1 0
y kq Ny1 x kqN
y kq Ny2 0
= .. q .. , k G 1, Ž 16 .
. .
yk 0
where the N = N matrix on the right-hand side of Ž16. is the companion
matrix for index k. Defining
yk J w y kqNy1 , y kqNy2 , . . . , y k x , x k J w x kqN , 0, . . . , 0 x , Ž 17a .
T T

ak , 1 ak , 2 ak , 3 ??? a k , Ny1 ak , N
1 0 0 ??? 0 0
Ak J 0 1 0 ??? 0 0 Ž 17b .
.. .. .. .. ..
. . . . .
0 0 0 ??? 1 0
 LINEAR DIFFERENCE EQUATIONS 85

for k G 1, we can rewrite Ž16. as

ykq 1 s A k yk q x k , k G 1, Ž 18 .

where y1 s w yN , yNy1 , . . . , y 1 xT is the initial value vector. The solution of

Ž18. with initial value vector y1 can then be given in matrix form by

ky1
ykq 1 s A k A ky1 ??? A 1 y1 q Ý A k A ky1 ??? A lq1 x l q x k , k G 1. Ž 19 .
ls1

3.1. Product of Companion Matrices

Consider the homogeneous case of difference equation Ž8. with initial

values y 1 , . . . , yN , in which x kqN s 0 for k G 1. The solution of this
homogeneous equation can be expressed, using Ž9a., as

N
y kq N s Ý d k , j yNq1yj , k G 1, Ž 20 .
js1

where d k, j , j s 1, . . . , N are given by Ž9b..

Extending the definition of d k, j to k s yŽ N y 1., . . . , 0, we can express
the solution Ž20. as

N
y kq N s Ý d k , j yNq1yj , k G y Ž N y 1. , Ž 21 .
js1

where d k, 1 , . . . , d k, N are given by Ž9b. for k G 1, and by

d 0, 1 d 0, 2 ??? d 0, N
dy1 , 1 dy1, 2 ??? dy1, N
.. .. .. s IN , Ž 22 .
. . .
dyŽ Ny1., 1 dyŽ Ny1., 2 ??? dyŽ Ny1., N

where I N is the N = N identity matrix, for k s yŽ N y 1., . . . , 0. How-

ever, Ž19. implies that the matrix form of the homogeneous solution is

ykq 1 s A k A ky1 ??? A 1 y1 , k G 1, Ž 23 .

where yk and A k are defined in Ž17..

86 RANJAN K. MALLIK

Comparing Ž17., Ž21., and Ž23., we find that the product of companion
matrices can be expressed as

A k A ky1 ??? A 1
dk , 1 dk , 2 ??? d k , Ny1 dk , N
d ky 1, 1 d ky1, 2 ??? d ky1, Ny1 d ky1, N
s .. .. .. .. ,
. . . .
d ky Nq1, 1 d kyNq1, 2 ??? d kyNq1, Ny1 d kyNq1, N

k G 1, Ž 24 .

where A k Ž k G 1. is defined by Ž17b., and d kyiq1, j , the entry in the ith row
and the jth column Ž1 F i, j F N . of the product A k A ky1 ??? A 1 , which is
obtained from Ž9b. and Ž22., is given by

kyiqj r
d ky iq1, j s Ý Ý Ł a kyiq1ql m yÝ mns 1 l n , l m
rs1 Ž l1 , . . . , l r . ms1
1Fl 1 , . . . , l rFN
l rGj
l 1ql 2q ??? ql rskyiqj

if i F min Ž k, N . , Ž 25a .
s1 if j s i , i ) k , k - N, Ž 25b .
s0 if j / i , i ) k , k - N. Ž 25c .

It can easily be shown that the characteristic equation of A k is given by

N
det Ž A k y lI N . s Ž y1 .
N
½ ln y Ý
js1
5
a k , j l Nyj , Ž 26 .

which implies
Nq 1
det Ž A k . s Ž y1 . ak , N . Ž 27 .

Based on this result, we have the following proposition for linearly inde-
pendent solutions of the homogeneous version of difference equation Ž8.,
that is, the equation

N
y kq N s Ý a k , j y kqNyj , k G 1. Ž 28 .
js1
 LINEAR DIFFERENCE EQUATIONS 87

PROPOSITION 3. Difference equation Ž28. with a k, N / 0, k G 1, has N

linearly independent solutions expressed as y kq N s d k, j , j s 1, . . . , N for
k G yŽ N y 1., where d k, 1 , . . . , d k, N are gi¨ en by Ž9b . and Ž22..
Proof. If is clear from Ž21. that y kq N s d k, j , j s 1, . . . , N, are N
solutions of difference equation Ž28. for k G yŽ N y 1.. The Casoratian of
the N sequences  d k, j 4k GyŽ Ny1. , j s 1, . . . , N is given by the determinant

dk , 1 ??? dk , N
d kq 1, 1 ??? d kq2, N
.. ..
. .
d kq Ny1, 1 ??? d kqNy1, N

d kq Ny1, 1 ??? d kqNy1, N

? N2 @
d kq Ny2, 1 ??? d kqNy2, N
s Ž y1 . .. ..
. .
dk , 1 ??? dk , N

¡Ž y1. ? N2 @
for k s y Ž N y 1 .
s~ kqNy1

¢Ž y1. ? N2 @
Ł Ž y1. Nq1 ai , N
is1
for k G y Ž N y 2 .

/ 0, Ž 29 .
using Ž22., Ž24., Ž27., and the fact that a i, N / 0, i s 1, . . . , k q N y 1,
k G yŽ N y 2.. Therefore  d k, j 4k GyŽ Ny1. , j s 1, . . . , N, are linearly inde-
pendent sequences, which implies that y kq N s d k, j , j s 1, . . . , N, are N
linearly independent solutions of the difference equation for k G y
Ž N y 1..

3.1.1. Power of the Companion Matrix for the Constant Coefficient Case
Consider the case of the homogeneous Nth-order difference equation
Ž28. with initial values y 1 , . . . , yN in which a k, j s a j for all k G 1, j s
1, . . . , N, that is, the equation
N
y kq N s Ý a j y kqNyj , kG1 Ž 30 .
js1

with initial values y 1 , . . . , yN . We can rewrite Ž30. as

ykq 1 s Ayk , k G 1, Ž 31 .
88 RANJAN K. MALLIK

where yk is defined in Ž17a., A is defined in Ž17b. with a k, j replaced by a j ,

and y1 is the initial value vector. From Ž23., the matrix form of the solution
to Ž31. with initial value vector y1 is given by

ykq 1 s Ak y1 , k G 1. Ž 32 .
Thus the kth power of the N = N companion matrix A gives the solutions
for y kq 1 , . . . , y kqN of the Nth-order homogeneous linear difference equa-
tion Ž30. with constant coefficients a1 , . . . , a N and initial values y 1 , . . . , yN .
Using the result in Ž24. and Ž25. for the product of companion matrices,
we obtain

dk , 1 dk , 2 ??? d k , Ny1 dk , N
d ky 1, 1 d ky1, 2 ??? d ky1, Ny1 d ky1, N
Ak s .. .. .. .. ,
. . . .
d ky Nq1, 1 d kyNq1, 2 ??? d kyNq1, Ny1 d kyNq1, N

k G 1, Ž 33 .
where d ky iq1, j , the entry in the ith row and the jth column of Ak , is
expressed as
d ky iq1, j
kyiqj r
s Ý Ý Ł al m if i F min Ž k, N . , Ž 34a .
rs1 Ž l1 , . . . , l r . ms1
1Fl 1 , . . . , l rFN
l rGj
l1ql 2q ??? ql rskyiqj

s1 if j s i , i ) k, k - N, Ž 34b .
s0 if j / i , i ) k, k - N. Ž 34c .
Our aim is to obtain an alternative expression for d ky iq1, j when i F
minŽ k, N . in terms of powers of the coefficients a1 , . . . , a N .
Now Ž34a. can be rewritten as

¡ ¦
s Ý~ Ý .¥a
N kyiqj
d ky iq1 , j Ž al1 ??? al ry 1 Ž 35 .
¢ §
Ý ¨
¨ sj rs1 Ž l 1 , . . . , l ry1 .
1Fl 1 , . . . , l ry1 FN
l 1ql 2q ??? ql ry1 skyiqjy¨

for i F minŽ k, N .. The sum of a l 1 ??? a l ry 1 over all l 1 , . . . , l ry1 satisfying

1 F l 1 , . . . , l ry1 F N, l 1 q l 2 q ??? ql ry1 s k y i q j y ¨
 LINEAR DIFFERENCE EQUATIONS 89

where r s 1, . . . , k y i q j is the same as the sum of

t 1 q t 2 q ??? qt N t
a11 ??? a Nt N
ž t1 , . . . , t N /
over all t 1 , . . . , t N satisfying

t 1 , . . . , t N G 0, t 1 q 2 t 2 q ??? qNt N s k y i q j y ¨ .

Therefore Ž35. implies, for i F minŽ k, N .,

d ky iq1, j

¡ ¦
s Ý~ ¥a .
N t 1 q t 2 q ??? qt N N

¢ ¨ sj
Ý
Ž t1 , . . . , t N .
t1 , . . . , t N G0
ž t1 , . . . , t N / Ł
ms1
tm
am
§ ¨

t1q2 t 2q ??? qNt N skyiqjy¨

Ž 36 .

Replacing t¨ by t¨ y 1 in Ž36., we get

t j q t jq1 q ??? qt N
d ky iq1, j s Ý
Ž t1 , . . . , t N . t 1 q t 2 q ??? qt N
t1 , . . . , t N G0
t1q2 t 2q ??? qNt N skyiqj

t 1 q t 2 q ??? qt N N
=
ž t1 , . . . , t N / Ł
ms1
tm
am Ž 37 .

for i s 1, . . . , minŽ k, N ., j s 1, . . . , N, k G 1. This is an alternative way of

expressing Ž34a. in terms of the coefficients a1 , . . . , a N of the companion
matrix A. The result is consistent with the expression for the combinatorial
power of the companion matrix presented by Chen and Louck w24, Theo-
rem 3.1x, obtained by using the concept of a digraph to represent a matrix.

4. CONCLUSION

The explicit solutions of the linear difference equations presented here

utilize the combinatorial properties of the indices of the coefficients. The
90 RANJAN K. MALLIK

solution of the difference equation of unbounded order results in the

solution of the Nth-order equation, which, in turn, provides expressions
for the product of companion matrices and the positive integral powers of
a companion matrix.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The author thanks his colleague Dr. S. Ponnusamy of the Department of Mathematics,
Indian Institute of Technology, Guwahati, for his valuable suggestions. He also expresses his
gratitude to the anonymous referee for hisrher constructive comments.

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