2.838 4.

Article

Possibilities of Improving Water

Quality of Degraded Lake Affected
by Nutrient Overloading from
Agricultural Sources by the Multi-
Point Aeration Technique

Michał Łopata, Jolanta Katarzyna Grochowska, Renata Augustyniak-Tunowska and Renata Tandyrak

Special Issue
Water and Wastewater Management in Agriculture
Edited by
Prof. Dr. Wojciech Janczukowicz and Prof. Dr. Joanna Rodziewicz

https://doi.org/10.3390/app13052861
 applied
sciences
Article
Possibilities of Improving Water Quality of Degraded Lake
Affected by Nutrient Overloading from Agricultural Sources
by the Multi-Point Aeration Technique
Michał Łopata * , Jolanta Katarzyna Grochowska
Citation: Łopata, M.; Grochowska, J.K.;
Augustyniak-Tunowska, R.;
Tandyrak, R. Possibilities of Improving
Water Quality of Degraded Lake
Affected by Nutrient Overloading
from Agricultural Sources by the
Multi-Point Aeration Technique. Appl.
Sci. 2023, 13, 2861. https://doi.org/
10.3390/app13052861
Academic Editor: José Miguel Molina
Martínez
Received: 22 December 2022
Revised: 11 February 2023
Accepted: 21 February 2023
Published: 23 February 2023
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 2861. https://doi.org/10.3390/app13052861
, Renata Augustyniak-Tunowska and Renata Tandyrak
Department of Water Protection Engineering and Environmental Microbiology, Institute of Engineering
and Environmental Protection, Faculty of Geoengineering, University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn,
Prawocheńskiego St. 1, 10-720 Olsztyn, Poland
* Correspondence: michal.lopata@uwm.edu.pl
Abstract: This research concerns the restoration of the strongly eutrophied Lake Łajskie (Masurian
Lake District, Poland) that received pollutants from the agricultural catchment. It is a shallow (max
depth 7.4 m) and small (area 48 ha) reservoir with a wide profundal zone characterized by complete
deoxidation in summer. Due to its important natural and social role, the lake has undergone a
restoration process. Artificial oxygenation is the main method of improving water quality. Due
to unfavorable morphometric conditions, the necessity to use multi-point aeration was assumed.
An experimental installation based on eight reactors selectively oxygenating only the over-bottom
waters was launched in 2019. In 2021, spatial studies of the effectiveness of aerators’ work were
carried out at 96 measuring points grouped into 12-test fields around each reactor. The investigations
were performed three times during the summer season. It was shown that, in the water of the
deepest layers of Lake Łajskie, the oxygen concentration around all reactors increased to an average
level of 1–2 mg L−1 . The oxygenation efficiency was varied and related to the distance from the
aerator and the location in relation to the direction of oxygenated water outflow. The results of the
research indicate the legitimacy of designing multi-point oxygenation systems in the restoration of
waterbodies degraded as a result of the impact of agriculturally transformed catchments.
Keywords: eutrophication; agricultural runoff; lake restoration; morphometry; artificial aeration; oxygen
1. Introduction
Of all types of inland surface waters, lakes are the most sensitive to eutrophication.
Occupying the lowest place in the field, they are predisposed to capture nutrients and
organic compounds flowing from catchment areas. Even in flow-through lakes, the hy-
draulic retention time resulting from horizontal water exchange is usually sufficient for
lakes to have an advantage of accumulation of pollutants over their neutralization. These
relationships have been described by the precursors of modern limnology since the middle
of the last century [1–3], when lake ecosystems were called ephemerides on a geological
scale. Despite the well-known causes of lake degradation, economic development in most
countries intensifies anthropopressure on these ecosystems. The result is the ever-increasing
problem of their eutrophication [4].
The main factors determining the rate of lake degradation are the supply of nutrients
and the morphometric features of the lake basin. One of the most serious sources of
eutrophication of surface waters is agriculture [5–8]. The catchments, transformed by
cultivation and breeding, become efficient suppliers of biogenic and organic matter to
the lakes [9]. The rate of nutrient inflow depends on the hydrological situation in the
catchment [10,11]. The denser the river and drainage network, the faster pollutants reach
water reservoirs. Non-flow lakes located in agricultural landscape resist degradation for
the longest time. In lake districts with a temperate climate, deep lakes—thus stratified
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/applsci
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 2861 2 of 16

in summer—generally undergo eutrophication more slowly than shallow lakes. Due to

the restriction of trophogenic processes to the surface layers (usually the epilimnion),
they can withdraw some of the indigenous matter through sedimentation to the deeper
layers of water. In this way, they reduce the symptoms of eutrophication as the growing
season progresses. Shallow lakes, especially polymictic ones, are characterized by greater
dynamics of matter circulation and greater productivity. Nutrient resources deposited in
the bottom layers and in the sediment are more accessible to primary producers [8].
The possibility of periodic retraction of matter to deeper water layers facilitates the
self-purification of surface waters, but also affects the risk of deoxidation of the water. This
leads to the activation of the phenomenon of “internal supply” of phosphorus and nitrogen
mobilized from bottom sediments in conditions of reduced redox potential [8,12,13]. The
impact of these processes on the ecosystem is so strong, it may negate the effect of protective
measures taken in catchments and accelerate eutrophication, despite the elimination of
external sources of pollution [14]. Therefore, the key goal of the restoration of water
reservoirs is to improve the oxygen balance. One of the most commonly used restoration
methods is artificial aeration [15,16].
Artificial aeration is carried out in two ways: (I) with thermal destratification (complete
mixing); and (II) without destruction of thermal layers (hypolimnion oxygenation). The
first group of methods is aimed at eliminating the thermocline separating the warm waters
of the epilimnion from the cold, stagnant layers of the hypolimnion, which consequently
unifies the physical and chemical conditions in the entire water column. Destratification of
water can be achieved by various methods, but the simplest and least energy-intensive is to
discharge compressed air above the bottom in the deepest part of the lake. This method
has been used in many lakes around the world [16]. The mechanism of destratification
consists of repeated pushing of the bottom waters to the surface by compressed air bubbles.
This, in turn, results in temperature equalization and mechanical mixing of the entire mass
of water. Air is mainly a transport factor here—the effectiveness of oxygen diffusion into
water during the rise of the generated air bubbles is estimated at only a few percent. The
basic installation of the aeration system consists of a compressor located in a room located
on the lake shore, a transmission line, and an air discharge system, e.g., a diffuser.
Restoration carried out in this way changes the conditions both in the waters of the
surface layers (lowering temperature and pH of the water, reducing biomass of phytoplank-
ton, and lowering over-oxygenation) and deeper waters (water oxygenation, reducing the
amount of organic matter and nutrients, while significantly increasing water temperature).
Avoiding the mixing of water masses (hypolimnion oxygenation) requires the use of
special devices and systems preventing the destruction of thermal layers [15–17]. This is
achieved by a mechanical aeration system (a system with a pulverization unit placed on
the shore), with partial water lift (Limnox aerator) or with total water lift (e.g., “ekoflox”
and “stratiflox” tubular aerators, pulverization aerator). Modern constructions enable the
simultaneous introduction of a phosphorus-binding coagulant, which can improve the
efficiency of the method. The simplest aerators consist of two coaxially mounted pipes—the
inner one, to which compressed air is supplied from the compressor located on the shore;
and the outer one, reaching above the water table. The water pushed out by the inner tube
undergoes partial oxygenation and returns to the hypolimnion by the outer tube.
The technique of artificial aeration without destroying thermal layers is less invasive
than destratification systems. However, it should be remembered that this technique only
affects the bottom zone. Therefore, the improvement of the lake condition is achieved
gradually—over the years, the release of nutrients from bottom sediments to water is
successively inhibited during periods of water stagnation.
Most of the case studies of lakes restoration using artificial aeration described in
the literature concern lakes with a clearly conical basin. Typically, aeration is based on
the operation of one device located above the deepest part of the lake [15]. Especially
in the aeration technique with destratification of thermal layers, the spatial efficiency of
aeration significantly improves in lakes with a low depth factor (average depth/maximum
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 2861 3 of 16

depth). However, the efficiency of oxygenation, regardless of the technique used, is

often unsatisfactory, even in lakes with favorable morphometry [18–20]. This may be
caused by the insufficient intensity of the unit processes within the aerator, as well as
the difficulty in underwater oxygen distribution beyond the immediate impact zone of
the aerator [21]. Even more difficult conditions for effective oxygenation of tropholytic
zones are in moderately deep lakes with a relatively flat bottom, with partial stratification
or a residual, shallow hypolimnion. They are deep enough to show oxygen deficits at
the bottom, but the unfavorable morphometry limits the spatial effectiveness of classic
treatments based on single-point aeration.
One of such lakes is the hypertrophic Lake Łajskie (area 48 ha, maximum depth 7.4 m).
Improving the quality of water in this lake is crucial for maintaining the welfare of one of
the most valuable water reserves in the Warmia and Masuria region (Poland), located lower
in the catchment area. Hence, a water restoration program has been implemented since
2019, including an innovative multi-point oxygenation system. The purpose of the program
is to improve the oxygen conditions over the vide, flat area of the lake bottom. The aim of
the work is a preliminary assessment of the effectiveness of oxygenation of the lower layers
of the hypolimnion of Lake Łajskie by a network of aerators powered by pure oxygen.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Lake Łajskie
Lake Łajskie is a typical example of a reservoir degraded by inappropriate human
management. It is a relatively small and shallow lake (Table 1), hydrologically open, and
fed by three tributaries. The lake’s catchment area has a great influence on this reservoir.
It is used mainly for agriculture, which increases the supply of nutrients. The research
carried out in the catchment area of this lake in 2008–2020 shows that watercourses draining
agricultural catchment areas (about 18 km2 ) provide an annual load of pollutants at the level
of 250–650 kg of phosphorus and 2600–12500 kg of nitrogen. Until recently, an additional
problem was the discharge of insufficiently treated domestic and economic sewage to one
of the lake’s tributaries. Historical and contemporary studies [22–25] have shown strong
eutrophication of this reservoir. A characteristic feature of the lake is the fact that, despite
its insignificant depth, it suffered from long-term strong oxygen deficits during periods of
summer water stagnation and hydrogen sulfide was present in the waters near the bottom.

Table 1. Basic morphometric indicators of Lake Łajskie, based on contemporary measurements [26].

Bathymetric Surfaces
Parameter Unit Value
Isobath Area [ha] Between Area [ha] Area [%]
surface area ha 47.84 0m 47.84 0–1 m 4.39 9.18
volume thou. m3 1592.2 1m 43.45 1–2 m 7.70 16.09
max depth m 7.4 2m 35.75 2–3 m 11.62 24.28
mean depth m 3.3 3m 24.13 3–4 m 8.75 18.29
relative depth - 0.01 4m 15.37 4–5 m 5.44 11.37
depth indicator - 0.44 5m 9.94 5–6 m 3.87 8.09
Max length m 987.7 6m 6.07 6–7 m 4.56 9.53
Max width m 723.3 7m 1.51 within 7 m 1.51 3.16
shoreline m 3283
Shoreline development m/ha 68.6

Due to the fact that the outflow from Lake Łajskie supplies other, very valuable water
ecosystems (nature reserve—Lake Kośno, area 550 ha, max depth 45 m), achieving water
quality improvement has become a key problem for local authorities and communities.
Lake Łajskie has been included in the protection and restoration program since 2019.
Apart from activities related to the reduction of external pollution loads (arrangement of
water and sewage management in the catchment area by the local self-government, filtration
zones on tributaries), a multifaceted restoration was also started. To reduce the supply of
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 2861 4 of 16

phosphorus in the water, the method of phosphorus inactivation using an aqueous solution
of iron chloride was used (first stage 2019–2020, several applications each year), as well as
artificial aeration (oxygenation) of the lake (from 2019). In addition, an intensive program
of fishing biomanipulation was launched—restocking predatory fish (pike and zander) and
eliminating the excess of small cyprinids. Each of these activities is ultimately aimed at
limiting the primary production in the lake and eliminating strong cyanobacterial blooms,
which so far, occur practically throughout the summer season. A multi-threaded, holistic
set of activities brings results—the quality of water in Lake Łajskie improves year by year.
The entity implementing the restoration is the local ecological association.

2.2. Oxygenation System

One of the mentioned methods of improving the water quality of Lake Łajskie is
artificial oxygenation. The oxygenation system was developed individually to meet the
needs of the lake’s morphometry. According to the developed rehabilitation concept, the
use of several aerators (specifically, oxygenation reactors) was proposed to improve the
oxygen conditions in the lake. Eight devices of this type were located in the central, deepest
part of the lake, so that their range of impact could cover the area from a depth of 5–6 m to
the bottom, which corresponds to the range of the lake’s hypolimnion. The system supplies
oxygen to the bottom layers of the lake to a depth of about 0.5 m above the bottom. Oxygen
is distributed through the underwater main line connecting the central aerator platform
(reactor no. 7—Figure 1) with the oxygen store located on the eastern shore of the lake.
Supply hoses were led from the central platform to the remaining reactors.

5 7.0m
6.0m
5.0m

6
4.0m

4 8
3.0m

7 1
2.0m

3
1.0m

100 m

Figure 1. Location of the oxygenation system in Lake Łajskie.

Ł

Each reactor consists of a column system and a mixing container (Figure 2). Water is
taken from the bottom of the lake, and the movement of water inside the reactor’s pipe
system is forced by the difference in the density of oxygenated and drawn water. After
oxygenation, the water returns to the bottom by one of the reactor pipes and is further
distributed through three outlets of an underwater grate with a span of 13 m, suspended
0.5 m above the sediment. The columns and the reactor container are thermally insulated

water table
 Ł

Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 2861 5 of 16

to prevent heating of the bottom waters during the oxygenation process. In fact, the
developed aerators are a modification of the previously known solutions based on a total
air lift system [15]. However, the factor improving the redox conditions in the over-bottom
water is pure oxygen, not compressed air.

water table

EPILIMNION
thermal
shield

METALIMNION

diffuser
inlet of oxygen HYPOLIMNION
inflow of raw water
oxygenated water outflow to
ballast the underwater three-way grate

bottom sediments

Ł
Figure 2. Functional diagram of oxygen reactors used during the restoration of Lake Łajskie.

The grates discharging oxygenated water are oriented in a way that facilitates the
creation of an all-round movement of water within the deep water (Figure 1). It was
assumed that such a system would facilitate the distribution of oxygenated over-bottom
water over a larger area. At the current stage of the project, the oxygenation efficiency is
being tested with a consumption of approximately 50 tons of oxygen per season.

2.3. Methods
The analysis of changes in the water quality of the Łajskie Lake tropholytic zone
subjected to experimental oxygenation was carried out in 2021, during the summer thermal
stratification of waters. It was the third season of the system’s operation, which was built
and launched in 2019.
Three measurement campaigns were carried out in May, June, and August 2021. The
first measurement was made before the oxygenation system was launched, and the second
and third were made during the operation of the system in 2021 growing season. The lower
layers of the lake’s tropholytic zone (0.5 and 1.0 m above the bottom level) were tested.
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 2861 6 of 16

For the purposes of assessing the operation of the lake restoration system, it was
assumed that each of the 8 oxygenation reactors would be the focal point of an individual
set of 12 measuring stations (Figure 3). They were located in two transects: latitudinal
(points 1–6) and meridian (points 7–12). The span of the transects was 100 m, which means
that evenly spaced points on each transect were separated by a distance of 20 m. The
distance of the oxygenation reactor column from the central points in a given research area
(points 3, 4, 9, and 10) was about 6–8 m. The grid of points, planned in this way, allowed
researchers to maintain the assumed accuracy of the measurement methodology and to
standardize the method of testing each field object.

Figure 3. Bathymetry and layout scheme of measurement stations in Lake Łajskie. Ł

The field work consisted of marking out previously designed points and determining
their depth (Garmin echoMAP 50 s echosounder with a built-in GPS receiver, verification of
the correctness of indications with a plate depth gauge). Positioning accuracy was 2–5 m on
average. Then, at the measuring points, the oxygen content of the above-bottom water was
Ł
tested (0.5 m and 1.0 m above the bottom level) using the YSI Exo 2 multi-parameter probe.
To ensure the best accuracy of readings, the calibration process of the multi-parameter probe
was based on own standards prepared each time before field tests. They were prepared

−
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 2861 7 of 16

from lake water using the classic Winkler method [27]. The deoxygenated water standard
was obtained by incubating the sample in a sealed glass vessel until oxygen depletion,
without the use of reducing reagents.
The Statistica 13.5 software (StatSoft, Inc., Tulsa, OK, USA) was used to compare the
water oxygenation levels around the individual reactors. The multiple regression analysis
was performed for the identification of location factors, which are significantly connected
to oxygen concentration. That analysis allowed to obtain linear models of type:

Y = B0 ± B1 X1 ± B2 X2 ± · · · ± Bi Xi + Eij

where:
Y—dependent variable (oxygen concentration);
B0 —constant (intercept);
B1 . . . Bi —regression coefficients;
X1 . . . Xi —independent variables;
Eij —residual component;
R—multiple correlation coefficient;
R2 —multiple determination coefficient.
Before analysis, data were subjected to log transformation (oxygen values were
log (x + 1) transformed) in order to approximate to the normal distribution.
Two independent variables were tested: distance from reactor (Di ) and direction in
which reactor released oxygen (Dr ).

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Changes in Oxygen Distribution in Near-Bottom Waters during the Research Period
The results of the research on oxygenation in the tropholytic zone in Lake Łajskie,
carried out around the devices of the oxygenation system, are presented in Tables 2 and 3
and Figures 4 and 5.
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 2861 8 of 16

Table 2. Oxygen concentrations [mg/L] at measuring points 0.5 m above the bottom level. Roman
numerals indicate months of research.

Reactor 1 Reactor 2 Reactor 3 Reactor 4

Point No.
V VI VIII V VI VIII V VI VIII V VI VIII
1 0.00 0.18 0.22 0.11 0.24 0.22 0.14 0.24 0.24 0.21 0.20 0.23
2 0.06 0.63 0.49 0.11 0.50 0.55 0.11 0.51 0.56 0.14 0.21 0.21
3 0.07 5.48 6.02 0.09 3.93 5.26 0.09 2.92 5.75 0.11 0.33 0.41
4 0.19 0.53 0.47 0.09 0.41 0.47 0.08 0.44 0.38 0.11 4.56 5.53
5 0.89 0.55 0.41 0.09 0.24 0.14 0.06 0.22 0.23 0.07 0.53 0.47
6 2.89 1.32 0.59 0.20 0.32 0.25 0.00 0.01 0.14 0.02 0.24 0.26
7 0.09 0.27 0.27 0.00 0.23 0.22 0.04 0.2 0.23 0.09 0.24 0.18
8 0.09 0.23 0.16 0.06 0.55 0.63 0.05 0.51 0.66 0.09 0.47 0.54
9 0.11 0.42 0.48 0.10 4.25 5.53 0.09 4.70 6.18 0.11 4.92 5.26
10 0.18 4.96 5.84 0.11 0.38 0.35 0.09 0.33 0.36 0.11 0.42 0.43
11 0.86 0.95 1.06 0.21 0.32 0.24 0.10 0.20 0.18 0.12 0.20 0.20
12 3.34 1.28 1.14 0.74 0.66 0.23 0.12 0.23 0.20 0.12 0.21 0.14
Reactor 5 Reactor 6 Reactor 7 Reactor 8
Point No.
V VI VIII V VI VIII V VI VIII V VI VIII
1 0.13 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.13 0.14 0.00 0.14 0.14 0.05 0.44 0.47
2 0.12 0.00 0.06 0.00 0.12 0.14 0.00 0.36 0.51 0.02 0.22 0.31
3 0.12 0.31 0.38 0.00 0.31 0.45 0.00 5.10 6.35 0.00 5.38 5.74
4 0.10 5.33 6.35 0.00 5.02 6.26 0.00 0.40 0.52 0.00 0.36 0.41
5 0.10 0.58 0.70 0.08 0.58 0.53 0.00 0.18 0.26 0.00 0.00 0.00
6 0.11 0.26 0.20 0.10 0.22 0.16 0.04 0.48 0.48 0.00 0.00 0.00
7 0.64 0.32 0.14 0.10 0.09 0.08 0.00 0.03 0.08 0.00 0.26 0.38
8 0.20 0.20 0.14 0.05 0.14 0.14 0.00 0.31 0.28 0.00 0.43 0.47
9 0.11 0.33 0.37 0.00 0.33 0.32 0.00 4.02 5.20 0.00 5.36 5.43
10 0.10 5.18 5.56 0.00 5.31 5.86 0.00 0.35 0.38 0.00 0.41 0.57
11 0.06 0.63 0.69 0.00 0.57 0.63 0.00 0.03 0.06 0.00 0.06 0.22
12 0.00 0.26 0.41 0.00 0.14 0.20 0.03 0.00 0.06 0.00 0.08 0.14

Table 3. Oxygen concentrations [mg/L] at measuring points 1.0 m above the bottom level. Roman
numerals indicate months of research.

Reactor 1 Reactor 2 Reactor 3 Reactor 4

Point No.
V VI VIII V VI VIII V VI VIII V VI VIII
1 0.03 0.27 0.36 0.16 0.56 0.50 0.20 0.39 0.40 0.34 0.26 0.26
2 0.10 0.80 0.78 0.16 0.78 0.89 0.12 1.02 1.17 0.21 0.27 0.28
3 0.11 6.22 6.89 0.18 5.14 6.88 0.23 5.17 7.04 0.20 0.53 0.61
4 0.23 0.79 0.82 0.14 0.69 0.72 0.19 0.79 0.73 0.19 5.62 7.14
5 0.94 0.67 0.80 0.13 0.49 0.39 0.13 0.64 0.70 0.16 1.12 1.27
6 3.16 1.68 1.06 0.27 0.99 0.85 0.06 0.17 0.42 0.10 0.44 0.50
7 0.17 0.35 0.41 0.06 0.43 0.48 0.14 0.47 0.61 0.16 0.38 0.29
8 0.13 0.35 0.40 0.10 1.02 1.17 0.17 1.19 1.43 0.17 0.89 1.16
9 0.14 0.69 0.69 0.13 6.57 8.02 0.16 5.56 7.02 0.20 6.01 7.33
10 0.22 6.20 7.11 0.19 0.69 0.93 0.16 0.58 0.70 0.18 0.66 0.70
11 0.96 2.16 1.56 0.30 0.73 0.70 0.16 0.49 0.43 0.20 0.42 0.40
12 3.68 2.21 1.43 1.23 1.21 1.02 0.18 0.51 0.44 0.17 0.44 0.37
Reactor 5 Reactor 6 Reactor 7 Reactor 8
Point No.
V VI VIII V VI VIII V VI VIII V VI VIII
1 0.21 0.14 0.10 0.00 0.33 0.49 0.06 0.34 0.37 0.08 0.89 0.96
2 0.24 0.14 0.12 0.00 0.37 0.44 0.02 0.56 0.78 0.06 0.68 0.73
3 0.23 0.56 0.66 0.00 0.69 0.88 0.00 5.89 6.99 0.00 6.12 6.49
4 0.19 6.21 7.84 0.09 6.24 7.54 0.00 0.72 0.80 0.00 0.63 0.72
5 0.17 1.23 1.32 0.17 1.12 1.21 0.00 0.29 0.34 0.00 0.22 0.28
6 0.17 0.48 0.39 0.21 0.48 0.39 0.08 0.72 0.72 0.00 0.11 0.18
7 1.08 0.64 0.28 0.20 0.37 0.39 0.00 0.19 0.28 0.00 0.66 0.84
8 0.42 0.40 0.30 0.17 0.39 0.37 0.00 0.44 0.59 0.00 0.89 1.12
9 0.21 0.56 0.79 0.12 0.56 0.66 0.00 5.32 6.24 0.00 6.14 6.51
10 0.21 6.24 7.11 0.07 6.29 6.74 0.00 0.59 0.66 0.00 0.60 0.89
11 0.16 1.14 1.34 0.00 0.99 1.14 0.02 0.11 0.28 0.00 0.34 0.52
12 0.06 0.68 0.87 0.00 0.36 0.54 0.08 0.10 0.24 0.00 0.33 0.38
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 2861 9 of 16

mean mean ± st.d. min - max median

9

a
8

-1
5

mg O2 L
4

0
V VI VIII V VI VIII V VI VIII V VI VIII V VI VIII V VI VIII V VI VIII V VI VIII

Reactor 1 Reactor 2 Reactor 3 Reactor 4 Reactor 5 Reactor 6 Reactor 7 Reactor 8

mean mean ± st.d. min - max median

9

b
8

6
-1

5
mg O2 L

0
V VI VIII V VI VIII V VI VIII V VI VIII V VI VIII V VI VIII V VI VIII V VI VIII

Reactor 1 Reactor 2 Reactor 3 Reactor 4 Reactor 5 Reactor 6 Reactor 7 Reactor 8

Figure 4. Changes in oxygenation of the waters of Lake Łajskie at Ł

a depth of 0.5 m (a) and 1.0 m
(b) above the bottom level.
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 2861 10 of 16

5 7.0m
6.0m

8 6
5.0m

Oxygen content 7 1
[mg L-1]
<0.10 3
0.10 - 0.25

0.25 - 0.50
2
0.50 - 1.00

> 1.00

100 m
Figure 5. Oxygen content around the application devices, in the near-bottom water (0.5 m above
the sediment).

In the period preceding the launch of oxygen dosing, in May 2021, clear deoxidation
of the water was already noted in the bottom layers. Most of the measuring stations were
characterized by the oxygen content not exceeding 0.1–0.2 mg L−1 , and virtually no oxygen
was found around the deepest fragments of the bottom (Tables 1 and 2). The area to the
south-east of reactor no. one, located in the shallowest location, i.e., on the border of the
6 m isobath in the place of the fastest shallowing of the bottom (Figure 3), was characterized
by slightly better conditions. The average oxygen content in the water for this area was
0.73 and 0.82 mg L−1 , respectively, 0.5 and 1.0 m above the bottom.
By starting the oxygenation process in the lake, the oxygen content around all aerators
was increased. On average, the average oxygenation was at a level of 1–1.5 mg L−1 in the
layer 0.5 m above the bottom and 1.5–2.0 mg L−1 at a distance of 1 m from the bottom
sediment level (Figure 4). The highest average concentrations in both analyzed layers
were also obtained around the shallowest reactor no. one. A more detailed analysis of
the obtained results shows that the differences in oxygen concentrations at individual
12 measurement points around each device were high (Tables 2 and 3). The highest values
were found, without exception, at the stands closest to the aerator, but these were always
stands opposite the oxygenated water outlets. At the points closest to the aerator, but
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 2861 11 of 16

opposite to the water intake, the oxygen content did not increase so rapidly, which is
confirmed by the mechanism of oxygen transport along with the moving water masses.
This was in accordance with the assumed directions of water discharge outlets indicated
in Figure 1.
The results of the statistical analysis confirm these observations. Both tested variables
(distance from reactor and direction in which reactor released oxygen) were highly signifi-
cant (p < 0.000000). The assessed model showed good fit to experimental data (R2 = 0.821,
R = 0.675, n = 96). The obtained regression equation was as follows:

Y = 1.21 − 0.92 Dr − 0.60 Di + Eij

It means that both tested factors have influence on oxygen concentration in restored
area of lake. Oxygenation decreased with distance from aerator, as well as direction of
oxygen releasing shaped oxygen conditions.
For a more complete picture of the mosaic of oxygen conditions in the water of the
lower layers in the tropholytic zone of the lake, a graphic summary of the results of research
works in the peak period of the summer season was prepared (Figure 5).
The comparison of changes in the oxygen content at individual stations after the start of
oxygenation (June) and after about 2 months of system operation made it possible to obtain
valuable information about the changes taking place in the experimented environment.
The general tendency was an increase in the average oxygen content around individual
aerators in August (Figure 4); however, it was not a phenomenon accompanying the entire
research area. The analysis of individual measuring points showed that in water at test
stands located usually on the edge of the oxygenation area (e.g., stands 5–6, 11–12 around
aerators no. 1 and no. 2, stands 7–8 around aerator no. 5), after the initial increase in
oxygen concentration in June, deterioration of oxygenation conditions was noted in August.
This indicates a reduction in system efficiency in areas remote from the aerator assembly
and confirms their horizontally limited effectiveness. This effect was already predicted for
deep-level aerators in previous studies [28,29]. The fact that, in most of the central stations,
there was an improvement in oxygenation during the summer season seems to confirm the
correct range of impact assumed during the design of the reactor foundation sites.

3.2. Multi-Point Aeration—Strengths and Weaknesses of Restoraation in Unfavorable

Morphometry Conditions
The contemporary philosophy of lake restoration is based on a thorough diagnosis
of the conditions for the functioning of the ecosystem and the selection of techniques and
activities to suit the nature of the lake, primarily its hydrological system, morphometry, and
water chemistry. Increasingly, rehabilitation programs are based on not one, but several
complementary methods [30–33]. A holistic approach, not only taking into account the
change in the water chemistry in the lake, but also the living conditions of biocenoses
and strengthening the natural mechanisms of self-purification, gives the best results in
counteracting eutrophication [34].
Artificial aeration is crucial for the success of both accompanying methods of restora-
tion of Lake Łajskie, i.e., inactivation of phosphorus with iron coagulants and biomanip-
ulation. The improvement of redox conditions supports the stability and durability of
iron–phosphorus connections [35–37], thus increasing and extending the efficiency of phos-
phorus inactivation in the deeper zones of iron coagulant application. Increasing the range
of oxygenated waters improves the living conditions of the population of settled predatory
fish, especially zander, which prefer the penetration of deeper waters [38].
The choice of oxygenation technique is critical to the lake rehabilitation process. It is
generally recognized that the method of water mass destratification is more effective [15,16].
However, it leads to the elimination of thermal stratification, which may be unfavorable for
sensitive organisms (e.g., fish of the genus Coregonidae). Aeration with thermal stratification
is usually more expensive and more difficult to implement. This is due to the need to
use systems that isolate the over-bottom water during the oxygenation process, including
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 2861 12 of 16

column aerators, pulverization tanks and chambers, water supply lines, etc. [16,29]. Specific
morphometric conditions determined the choice of the Lake Łajskie aeration method. The
wide and flat area of profundal sediments posed a risk of a negative impact of increased
temperature of bottom waters on the metabolism of sediments in the water mass destratifi-
cation scenario. Hence, it was decided to use a method that preserves thermal stratification,
while forecasting the need to use at least several oxygenation reactors.
Multi-point aeration is a solution that has already been used for lake renewal; however,
scientific reports on this subject are scarce. Most often, one aerator is used in lakes, in the
central deep, or only a few located in lake sub-basins. Such a solution was used e.g., in the
Trzesiecko lake in Poland (three aerators) and in the Brno reservoir in the Czech Republic
(five aerators) [39]. In Lake Tegel, in Berlin (400 ha, maximum depth of 16 m, with an
extensive profundal with depth index of 0.4), a system of 15 deep-water aerators improved
the oxygenation of the bottom waters on the surface of the central basin with an area of
approximately 80 ha. It was assumed that this installation was not supposed to lead to the
summer destratification of waters; however, in practice, it contributed to the destabilization
of thermal stratification due to the types of limnox aerators used. These devices have an
underwater gas exchange reactor and excess air escapes above the body in the form of a
stream of bubbles, which favors the ascending movements of the hypolimnion waters and
the mixing of thermal layers [40]. Contrary to the limnox deep-water aerators, column
aerators were used in the reclamation project of Lake Łajskie. In this project, the reactor
chamber is located near the surface and does not require degassing of the underwater
installation components. Technical and economic possibilities made it possible to build
eight such devices (Figure 1).
The choice of pure oxygen as a medium to improve the balance of this element in
the lake was not accidental. Although compressed air is usually the cheapest carrier of
oxygen, the restoration of Lake Łajskie, due to the morphometric determinants described
above, presupposed the need to obtain the maximum possible efficiency of the devices
due to the selection of techniques that do not cause thermal destratification of the lake
in summer periods. The most effective gas exchange within a single reactor, with a short
retention time in relatively low columns, was expected to ensure the greatest individual
impact on a given fragment of the lake. The air only contains 21% of oxygen, and the
gas exchange using this medium is dominated by nitrogen, which has been confirmed by
previous studies [28,41,42]. Its migration to lake waters in gaseous form is not beneficial
from the point of view of restoration goals [8]. In fact, the proposed solution is therefore
not a technique of artificial aeration, but rather, oxygenation of a degraded lake. The
greater environmental efficiency of using pure oxygen compensates for its higher cost
compared to compressed air. The estimated cost of the project during the first three years of
implementation was approximately EUR 200,000, with annual operating costs (purchase of
technical oxygen) amounting to approximately EUR 15–20,000. It should be noted, however,
that unlike artificial aeration systems using air compressors, the described installation is
independent of electricity sources. This is a definite advantage of a system based on pure
oxygen in the absence of power grids near lakes located among agricultural areas that
require restoration.
The decision to locate oxygenation devices in a larger area of research was the result of
collecting empirical experiences during previous experiments. In these experiments, it was
assumed that the improvement of the environmental conditions of the tropholytic zone
was done by redirecting the oxygenated waters of one of the tributaries to the bottom of
the lake [43]. This concept was implemented in 2014–2018. The research carried out during
that experiment showed the limited spatial effectiveness of the adopted solution [44]. The
water of the watercourse with a higher temperature than that of the metalimnion and the
vestigial hypolimnion of Lake Łajskie, flowing just above the bottom, obtained a lower
specific gravity compared to the lake water which they fed. As a result, the stream of
oxygenated waters was floating, and it was difficult to obtain an even distribution of
oxygen in the over-sediment water. The phenomenon of loss of the original temperature
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 2861 13 of 16

of water exposed to aerators often accompanies deep-water aeration systems [40,45,46]

and is mentioned as one of the most important reasons for reducing the efficiency of
oxygenation. In the installation on Lake Łajskie, the problem of heating water drawn
from above the bottom in the described reactors was minimized by isolating columns and
averaging tanks. Nevertheless, an increase in the heat of the drained water was observed,
usually by 0.4–0.7 ◦ C. This was one of the reasons for the differentiation of the obtained
oxygenation results at the depths of 0.5 and 1.0 m.
Despite the location of individual aerators in a fairly even manner and the orientation
of the water outflow so as to support the even distribution of oxygen along with the
movement of water, it was not possible to ensure satisfactory oxygen concentration in the
entire experimental area. In three sub-reservoirs, apart from reactors five, seven, and eight,
the water of the layers directly in contact with the sediments (0.5 m above the bottom) was
characterized by only trace amounts (<0.1 mg L−1 ) of this element. The indicated locations
are not directly exposed to the outflow of oxygenated water from the reactors. Therefore, in
subsequent seasons of the system’s operation, it is reasonable to test larger doses of oxygen
to central aerators, add additional distribution points, or modify the direction of water
outflow from the aerators closest to the blind spots of the oxygenation area. Regardless
of the encountered difficulties and limitations of the tested system, the obtained results
indicate the correct assumption of the necessity to use multi-point oxygenation in the lake.

3.3. Environmental Benefits

Environmental monitoring studies conducted in recent years have the effectiveness
of the restoration process [24,25]. The successive improvement of the oxygen balance
observed since 2019 has enabled positive changes in the quality of the lake water. First of
all, the process of internal release of nutrients from sediments to water has been limited.
Before restoration, the content of total phosphorus in the interstitial waters of the upper
sediment layer (0–10 cm) reached very high values, averaging 4.0–8.5 mg L−1 . The high
concentration gradient between the sediment layer and the water column favored the
migration of nutrients from the bottom sediments to the water. The observed concentrations
of phosphorus in the near-bottom water (10 cm layer of water-bottom sediment interphase)
during the summer stratification reached 3.5–5.0 mg L−1 ; in the waters 1 m above the
bottom, we recorded values of 2.5–3.0 mg L−1 ; surface water was characterized by the
richness of this element at the level of 0.3–0.4 mg L−1 . During the period of operation
of oxygen reactors (2020 and 2021), phosphorus compounds were present in much lower
amounts. The water column was characterized by the concentration of this nutrient at
the level not exceeding 0.2 mg L−1 (surface water); the over-bottom water contained
phosphorus in an amount that did not excel 0.5 mg L−1 ; the interphase waters, just above
the sediment, had a phosphorus concentration below 1 mg L−1 The slowdown of the
phenomenon of nutrients internal loading from sediments was also evidenced by the
reduction of phosphorus concentration in interstitial waters (a decrease of concentrations
by about two-fold, to a level not exceeding 2 mg L−1 ). Reducing the supply of phosphorus
in the ecosystem caused a number of beneficial changes—the biological productivity of the
lake was reduced, phytoplankton biomass decreased, the process of rebuilding submerged
macrophytes began, and water transparency increased [25]. The year 2021 was the first year
in the history of contemporary research on Lake Łajskie in which the presence of hydrogen
sulfide was not observed in the bottom layers of water.

4. Conclusions
The innovative renaturation technique presented in this article does not require the
use of electrical devices and can be used for the restoration of lakes located in agricultural
landscape away from energy sources necessary for mechanical aeration.
The research carried out during the restoration of Lake Łajskie confirmed that obtain-
ing uniform oxygenation of the over-bottom water with the use of aerators with maintain
thermal stratification of the waters is difficult in conditions of unfavorable morphometry.
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 2861 14 of 16

The large area of the tropholytic zone at a relatively shallow depth determines the unfa-
vorable ratio of vertical to horizontal dimensions of the reservoir and practically excludes
the achievement of sufficient oxygenation of the bottom waters by means of a single-point
injection of this element. The concept of multi-point oxygenation with a controlled out-
flow direction of oxygenated water, implemented in the lake under study, turned out to
be effective in obtaining spatial improvement in oxygen conditions. At the same time,
weaknesses of the system were demonstrated, including the possibility of the formation of
zones with reactors that have an influence that is too weak, on key fragments of the lake
profundal. In the first years of operation of the multi-point aeration system, it is reasonable
to conduct a thorough monitoring of the efficiency of aerators. The analysis of spatial data
makes it possible to adjust the functioning of the system to the actual lake conditions. In the
case of the oxygenation system of Lake Łajskie, a recommendation that does not generate
additional operating costs is to rotate the axis of some of the aerators.
The authors hope that this work will be a useful collection of guidelines for research
teams dealing with the issues of reversing the effects of agriculture on surface waters.
Especially when combining several techniques of lake restoration, considering the spatial
efficiency of oxygenation as the guiding method can facilitate the planning process of the
entire ecosystem recovery.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, M.Ł.; methodology, M.Ł., R.A.-T. and J.K.G.; software,
M.Ł. and R.A.-T.; validation, M.Ł. and R.T.; formal analysis, M.Ł.; investigation, M.Ł., R.A.-T. and
J.K.G.; writing—original draft preparation, M.Ł.; writing—review and editing, R.T. All authors have
read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was financially co-supported by the Minister of Science and Higher Education
according to decision number 6722/IA/SP/2017. Project financially co-supported by Minister of
Science and Higher Education in the range of the program entitled “Regional Initiative of Excellence”
for the years 2019–2023, Project No. 010/RID/2018/19, amount of funding 12,000,000 PLN.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Acknowledgments: We would like to thank the members of the “Łajs 2000” Ecological Association
for field work assistance.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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