CHAPTER 2

2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

This chapter focuses on the review of related literatures on the area of parking lot. This

also review the study area and terms associated with parking lot system.

2.1 TYPES OF PARKING

2.1.1 ON STREET PARKING

This system of parking considers vehicles parked along the kerb. Parking along the kerb

can be that of parallel or angular. The angular parking consists of 90 0,600,450 and 300 as

the case may be. Angular parking although is more convenient to owners but it causes

more obstructions to through traffic. Considering the different angles 45 0 is considered

to be the best among other types of angle parking. The parallel parking is mostly

applied when the width of the road is limited while angle parking is applied when the

width of the road is wide.

2.1.2 OFF STREET PARKING

This system of parking considers vehicles parked in lots when the parking space is

provided away from the road. This type of parking is the most desirable as it does not

influence the capacity of the road but generally placed at a large distance and the

owners required walking through the distance before reaching their destination. This

type of parking includes:

 Surface car parking.

 Multi-storey car parking.
 Underground car parking.
In Nigeria Universities, the most common type of parking lot is the off-street parking lot

where the drivers are allowed to park in a space allocated for parking at their own risk.

The capacity of parking lots and safe movement of pedestrians are to be considered in

carrying out the parking lot design in order to maximize the total number of parking

spaces.

2.2 EMPIRICAL STUDY OF PARKING PROBLEM ON UNIVERSITY CAMPUS

Shang et al (2007) carried out empirical study of parking problem on university campus.

The article presented a case study of the campus parking, taking the Beijing University

of Aeronautics and Astronauts as an example and campus inflow and outflow of

vehicles, the location and use of parking lots as well as drivers parking behaviour were

surveyed and analysed. This resulted to the average parking duration and uses

turnovers of parking lots computation. The surveyed method divided the BUAA

campus occupying about 1km2 into four areas according to their function and they

include: the household zone, teaching zone, student do- minatory zone and public

activity zone. The public activity zone was considered which include all office building,

refectories, shops, play grounds, gymnasiums, banks, post offices, affiliated hospital,

kindergarten, primary school and middle school.

Surveyors were arranged to count the entering and exiting vehicles according to the

“in” and “out” directions at the two gates. For each vehicle, the entry and exit times are

recorded together with the last three numbers shown on its license plate. Through

comparing the licensed numbers of vehicles, all vehicles were identified and their
parking time span on the campus was obtained, that is the exit time minus the entry

time to avoid the repetition of the vehicle.

It was observed that the number of vehicles that parked in the public activity zone is

large during the daytime and small during the night-time. Also a lot of vehicles not

owed by the university run through the campus everyday which further burdens the

campus traffic. The campus from observation was concluded to lack parking berths.

2.3 ATTITUDES AND BEHAVIOURAL RESPONSES TO PARKING MEASURES

Peter et al (2006) studied the attitudes and behavioural response of drivers to planned

parking measure at the campus of the Eindhoven University of Technology,

Netherlands. This study was carried out through on street questionnaire and car drivers

were asked for opinion about restricting the access to the campus area for cars of non-

university car drivers through a barrier, proper identification when entering the

campus area and payment. Multi normal logic analysis was established to analyse the

responses from more 700 car drivers and it was noted that most car drivers indicated to

continue driving to the university by car, about half of the drivers indicated that they

will change their travel behaviour should they have to pay for entering the campus area

by changing transport mode or parking their cars outside the campus area.

It was noted that, the quality of parking at the campus of the Endhoven University of

Technology has become worse in recent years due to major changes in the general

layout of the campus area and changes in downtown and the surroundings of the

railway station. New office building and new traffic regulations in these areas have
caused increase in the demand for public parking while the number of available

parking space has decreased and thus resulting to improper parking and dangerous

situation in the campus.

Research questions such as how will car drivers react if the university campus is closed

for certain groups of car drivers by constructing a barrier requiring identification and

what means of identification and what means of payment do car drivers prefer if a

barrier is used? Pretty (1994) studied the effect of introduction of parking charges on

university campuses on mode switching behaviour of car drivers and find that parking

charges led to a greater use of other mode of transport and a greater use of parking

facilities outside the campus by commuters.

The study in general and consistent with behaviour research conducted in other cities

and countries indicate that the majority of car drivers will not change their travel

behaviour when they do not have to pay for entering the campus area.

2.4 CHALLENGES OF CAR PARK DESIGN IN NIGERIA

Anthony et al (2015) presented the design of multi- storey car park for the mitigation of

traffic challenges in public areas using Canaan Land, Ota Nigeria. Canaan land the seat

of Faith Tabernacle in Ota Ogun state of Nigeria is used as a case study because of the

amount of vehicles that compete for parking space on Sunday or other days of events.

This challenges were as a result of people that arrive early for church service but end up

entering the church late due to the problem of finding a space for their vehicles and

thus to overcome this challenge, minimum consumption of space and land, orderliness

and addition of beauty to the environment were considered feasible by providing multi-
storey car park facility. The architectural drawing of the multi-storey car park was

executed with AutoCAD and Orion for performing the structural analysis.

In the design of this multi-storey car park, numerous configurations featuring different

arrangement of deck and ramps were considered and also planning dimensions such as

the bay width, aisle width, ramp dimensions, planning grid, alignment paths to exit

barriers, means of escape distances, travel distances from the car to their destination,

security visibility, space allowances, lift provisions and payment system were also

considered.

The research proposed the design of multi-storey car park and its analysis and thus

when constructed will help mitigate traffic challenge parking spaces in public areas and

add aesthetic value to the environment in which it will be placed.

2.5 BEHAVIOURAL CHARACTERISTICS OF CAR PARKING DEMAND: A CASE

STUDY OF KOLKATA

Sandip et al (2010) carried out research to look into the behavioural characteristics of

parking demand for various kinds of trips at various locations with varied urban

order /hierarchy. The research was aimed at analysing the behavioural characteristics

of automobile parking demand by identifying different parameters influencing parking

demand, analysing and measuring the influence of each parameter on parking demand

and finally deriving demand functions based on these analyses. Parallel studies were

conducted in order to derive mode choice functions, an attempt to ascertain the various

parameters influencing the mode choice of motorist with respect to shopping as well as

work trips in the city of Kolkata, surveys were being conducted at six strategic
locations. Primary survey was design to suitably and correctly reveal the motorist

parking characteristics, the parameters influencing parking demand at the selected

destinations and their relative influence on mode choice of the motorist. The surveyed

include ‘parker behavioural survey’ and ‘mode choice survey’ and both were ‘revealed

preference questionnaire survey’ conducted at the identified ‘first’ and ‘second’ order

destinations within the city of Kolkata.

The research highlights the parameter which influences the parking demand of an

automobile owning household and it was observed that each parameter has varied level

of influence on parking demand for various locations. Thus, varied policy tools need to

be adopted for parking demand management at various locations and the mode choice

function derived from the research revealed that parking supply characteristics can play

a significance role in reducing automobile dependency.

2.6 PARKING GUIDANCE INFORMATION SYSTEM

This system contributes to the reduction of parking search time by propagating

dynamic parking information to the users and it operates based on the combination of

various traffic monitoring and communication technologies. The first implementation of

the system was successful in Aachen, Germany in early 1970’s based on displaying

parking information on variable message signs (VMS). To determine the optimal

display of Parking Guidance Information (PGI) signs and minimize queue length and

vehicle kilometres of travel, Thompson et al (2001) developed a mathematical program

based on simple Genetic Algorithm (GA).

Caicedo (2010) used GA to investigate the possibility of finding the optimum

information conditions that can be translated into lower emissions of toxic greenhouse

gases and consequently lower search time. Another study by Caicedo (2009) proposed

two different strategies to manage availability information in parking facilities and

found around 16 % potential parking guidance algorithm, considering different factors

such as driving distance to the guided parking, walking distance to the final destination

and parking cost. The aim was to maximize the utilization of space resources of the city

and reduce the traffic congestion due to parking search process.

2.7 PARKING POLICIES AND ACTIVITY SCHEDULES

The key factors that influence the travel and activity schedule of trip-makers include

parking system parameters such as utilization ratio, price, type and location while

activity schedule an important to factor to travel mode and destination choice is critical

to parking choice and duration of drivers.

Hess et al (2004) used stated preferences data to model traveller’s response to changes

in parking attributes and concluded that journey purposes have a strong impact on

parking choice. Washbrook et al. (2006) used simulated data to model parking

behaviour and found that trip purpose has a significant effect on different elements of

parking choice. Riggs (2014) conducted a study at the University of Berkley, one of the

largest regional employers in the San Francisco Bay area, to assess the participant’s

responsiveness to changes in pricing and information to reveal how a campus

population can search less for parking, drive fewer days per week and switch modes
entirely. Result indicates that social factors and incentives can have a strong pull on

driving behaviour.

2.8 CAMPUS PARKING MANAGEMENT

Researches have been carried out to investigate the efficiency of parking management

policies on university campuses. Mcintyre (1990) conducted a comprehensive survey in

several colleges in California and suggested some measures to improve the efficiency of

campus parking system. Carl and Davis (2001) investigated the performance of

different parking policies by developing a mathematical model. Leng et al (2003)

proposed an approach to improve the parking system in Tongil University, China. Song

and Wang (2004) conducted several relevant surveys in Chinese Universities. Shang et

al. (2001) conducted a statistical analysis on parking related parameters in Beijing

University and made some suggestions to increase the efficiency of campus system.

2.9 CASE STUDY ON SUPPLY AND DEMAND FOR UNIVERSITY PARKING

FACILITIES IN COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING UNITEN

This presents study on supply and demand parking in Universiti Tenaga Nasional

(UNITEN) main campus. This study focuses on the supply and demand car-parking

facilities for students in college of Engineering (COE), UNITEN. The study consists

parking inventory, parking usage survey using license plate number method and

parking interview for determining the current parking supply in COE. The next five

years’ future parking demand was estimated by study and information from the

administration data, questionnaire and parking space zoning regulation and generation

from the current result data.

The parking area in College of Engineering was divided to five areas for the analysis of

the research and it was noted that the total parking spaces of those parking are 321

parking spaces and the total areas are 1443.56m2. The characteristics of parking supply

in College of Engineering were analysed by accumulation (total parking supply),

duration distribution, violations (improper parking) and parking turnover rates. The

total parking supply was measured in terms of hour many vehicles can be parked

during the period of interest within the study area. It was noted that the capability of

the 321 parking spaces from the calculation can receives 908 vehicles in one day (11

hours) and the total improper parking in one day is 271 cars. From the questionnaire

data, the users claimed to have parking problem because they really search for free

parking spaces and also the 271 improper parking in one day proves that the parking

areas are not always fully occupied but the attitudes of the users who are in hurry not

really searching the empty parking spaces.

From the analysis and calculations, 1325 parking spaces was projected to be provided in

five years and recommended building of new parking area that is costlier in terms of

quality and capacity.

2.10 ADEQUACY OF OFF-PARKING FACILITIES IN FEDERAL UNIVERSITY OF

TECHNOLOGY, AKURE, ONDO STATE, NIGERIA

Adeniran et al (2016) conducted a research to determine the adequacy of off-parking

facilities in Federal University of Technology, Akure, Ondo State, Nigeria. The building

covered in this study that are the Entrepreneurship Building, CERAD Annex Office,

School of Agriculture Building, School of Engineering Building, Senate Building, Old

Student Affairs, School of Postgraduate, School of Management Technology, School of

Earth and Mineral Science and School of Science. From their findings, the majority of

the car parks are not adequate. From their survey, it was revealed that the percentage

(%), parking index for the School of Management Technology is 100% and thus shows

that all the parking bays were occupied as at the time of survey.

The primary data for this study were obtained from well-structured questionnaires and

personal interview and as well as physical observation of the areas covered by the

parking facilities under focus. These questionnaires were administered to teaching staff,

non-teaching staff and postgraduate student within the study focus. The information

collected includes their demographic variables such as the category they belong

(teaching staff, non-teaching staff, postgraduate student) and strength in meeting the

demand for parking space in the study areas. The data was analyzed with the use of

descriptive statistics and chi square test.

From their analysis and assessment of the off-street parking facilities, it was noted that

the Entrepreneurship School Building, School of Management Technology and CERAD

Annex office off-street parking facilities are adequate while the School of Engineering

Building, Senate Building, Old Student Affairs Building and School of Earth and

Mineral Science Building off-street parking facilities are not adequate.

2.11 PARKING SEARCH MODEL

For many years, researchers have used aggregated approaches to model the parking

search process. However, in the recent decades, activity-based models have gain high

popularity in parking studies. Activity-based simulation approaches have high

temporal and spatial resolution where individual drivers are at the core of the

simulation. They can potentially simulate in detail the change by a policy measure both

from the driver's perspective (e.g. change in search time, walk distance, cost) or from

the overall systems perspective (e.g. change in travel mode, parking revenue or traffic

counts). Studies carried out by Young (1986) for parking search inside parking lots and

Axhausen (1990) for an activity-based parking model including parking type choice and

search were early efforts in this area.

PARKAGENT developed by Benenson et al. (2008) can be considered as the first

complex and detailed activity-based parking search model. It was applied to residential

parking considering different groups of drivers (e.g. residential and visitors). The

destinations of the drivers were fixed at the beginning of the simulation. The model was

able to estimate the parking utilization by tracking each individual driver and following

his/her decision to park.

In this model, the main modeling factor to select a parking facility was considered as its

distance to the final destination. If the driver does not find any parking after reaching

the destination, it continues driving and just takes any parking it can get. If the search

time is more than 10minutes, driver will select the closest paid off-street parking to the

destination. The model was applied to a neighborhood in Tel Aviv with severe parking

shortage and where the impact of additional one/several parking facilities is

investigated.

The second activity-based parking model was developed by Spitaels et al. (2009) called

SUSTAPARK. It was applied to the city Centre of Leuven, Belgium containing 14000

drivers. The model is more complex than PARKAGENT due to the ability to simulate

the traffic network. A multinomial logic (MNL) model was defined to simulate

switching between parking types. Furthermore, the model is able to differentiate

between visitors and local commuters who have prior knowledge about the parking

availability.

Previously described activity-based models lack the capability of feedback to the traffic

simulation and are therefore incapable of simulating parking policies, which might

affect mode choice or location choice. More recently, Waraich and Axhausen (2012)

developed more powerful activity-based parking search model using an existing

activity-based traffic simulation called MATSim. Comparing to SUSTAPARK and

PARKAGENT, the model has many advantages as it can consider different parking

strategies, travel mode choice, and change in travel time through the modeling process.
2.12 PARKING PRICING AND ACCESS RESTRICTION

According to the literature, majority of parking studies have been focused on pricing

strategies to mitigate the demand for single occupancy vehicles and encourage travelers

to use other transportation modes. Teknomo et al (1997) carried out a research to model

the mode choice behavior of travelers encountering different levels of parking pricing,

in Surabaya, Indonesia. A similar case study was performed in the Central Business

District (CBD) of Athens by Tsamboulas (2001) to analyze drivers' parking behavior

when confronting various parking prices policies. Developed model was able to

investigate the change in private car usage due to the increase in parking price.

Finding the optimum price level is a key to the efficiency of parking pricing strategies.

Anderson et al (2004) developed a parking congestion model to assess the effect of

parking pricing policy on the overall market equilibrium. The research showed that

without an appropriate and competitive pricing pattern, the congestion resulted from

cruising for parking will substantially reduce the benefits from pricing strategies. The

research by D'Acierno et al. (2006) is a good example of finding an optimum parking

price. They developed an optimization approach with three different objective

functions; System Optimum; Accessibility Optimum and Social Optimum, as well as

various mode-specific and mode-abstract variables.

Logic models have been commonly used to analyze the parking choice behavior. Van

der Waerden et al. (2006) used Multinomial Logic analysis to assess the attitudes and

behavioral responses of Eindhoven campus commuters to parking measures such as

pricing and access restriction. Another Logic model developed by Aflaki et al. (2010)

considers the effect of various

Parameters on the travel mode choice of Tehran central business district travelers. They

found that the parking price has a significant effect on the traveler’s behavior and there

is a parking fare threshold above which all passengers will select the transit modes.

Parking demand affects the traffic network from different perspectives. An effective

parking policy such as pricing results not only in efficient usage of existing parking

supply, but also helps to mitigate the traffic by redistribution of existing demand.

Recently, Qian and Rajagopal (2014) assessed the effect of dynamic pricing and

information provision on the morning commutes. They formulated the parking choices

under the User Equilibrium (UE) conditions using the Variational Inequality (VI)

approach and showed that any optimal flow pattern can be achieved by charging

parking prices in each area that only depend on the time or occupancy, regardless of

origins and destinations of users of this area.

2.13 ASSESSMENT OF PARKING SPACE DEMAND IN UNIVERSITY OF

IBADAN, IBADAN, NIGERIA- A CASE STUDY OF FACULTIES OF SOCIAL

SCIENCES, LAW AND EDUCATION

Olugbenga et al (2015) conducted a study to assess the parking space demand in

University of Ibadan. Their study assessed the demand for parking spaces in selected

faculties in the University of Ibadan through investigative parking utilization indices

survey and the parking facilities users’ behavioral survey. This research was carried out

using the parking beat method which involved patrolling around the study area and
taking of vehicular counts at regular interval of 30minutes and also administering of

questionnaire. From their findings, a mixture of inadequacy of designated parking

facilities for staff and students was revealed and the under-utilization of some other

parking provisions. From their analysis, faculty of the Social Science with parking

capacity of 44 number vehicles peak and average occupancy ratios are 111% and 84%,

faculty of Law main parking area with capacity of 28 vehicles peak and average

occupancy ratios are 60.7% and 32.0% and faculty of Education with capacity of 66

vehicles peak and average occupancy are 108% and 66.7% respectively.

their study portends the need (as recommendations) for more parking supply for staff,

students and visitors based on the current parking demand excesses over the existing

parking supply and the parking generation capabilities of the faculty activities and thus

recommends that improvement on existing parking facilities and the planning and

construction of new parking facilities be given due consideration capture to a large

extent, the convenience, comfort and ease of parking for the major users and finally

recommends that effective parking management strategy should be put in place to

forestall future burst in demand for parking in the event of space limitation for parking.
2.14 THE STUDY AREA

Generally, the campus is built up with structures and facilities including seven faculties.

Vehicles parking activities at destinations on campus are exercised in a number of

designated parking lots and at open spaces around the campus buildings. Some others

parked at locations and spots particularly under tree shades in the university

environment.

This research is about a study on the supply and demand of car-parking facilities in

Faculty of Engineering of Rivers State University (RSU). The objectives include the

study of the current supply and demand parking facilities of the faculty as the study

area and redesigning. As a result of identifying the current parking supply, the parking

problem of the case study area was also determined.

Most of the designated lots in the RSU Engineering faculty as the study area are tagged

as academic staff car parks such as Dean’s, HOD’s and also designated lots for other

types of users.

2.15 DEFINITIONS OF TERMS ASSOCIATED WITH PARKING LOT

2.15.1 Access driveway

A roadway extending from the edge of the frontage roadway to the property boundary

to connect with the first ramp, circulation roadway, parking aisle or domestic driveway

encountered and carrying one- or two-way traffic.

2.15.2 Accessible entrance

The entrance to facility or establishment served by the car park, suitable for pedestrian

or wheel-chair use by people with disabilities

2.15.3 Accessible travel path

An uninterrupted path of travel to or within a building providing pedestrian or wheel-

chair access for people with disabilities from a parking space to all required facilities

2.15.4 Standard vehicle

The design motor car whose physical dimensions are taken to represent the 85th

percentile class of all cars on the parking lot

2.15.5 Circulation clearance

The clearance required in addition to manoeuvering clearances, when a vehicle is

moving at speed greater than those applicable to manoeuvering.

2.15.6 Circulation roadway

A roadway within an off-street car park which is used solely for circulation and to gain

access to parking aisles, and on which there is no parking.

2.15.7 Control point

A point at or near the entrance to or exit from a car park at which the flow of traffic is

retarded by the existence of a boom barrier, with or without ticket or cashier operation,

or the location of the first of any spaces on a parking aisle at which parking or un-

parking may cause traffic flow to be retarded.

2.15.8 Parking aisle

A roadway or an area of pavement used by vehicles to gain access to, and to manoeuvre

into and out of parking spaces

2.15.9 Parking module

A parking aisle together with a single row of parking spaces on one or both sides but

excluding any ramps or circulation roadways which take off within the module

2.15.10 Parking space

The area of pavement required to park one vehicle.

2.15.11 Queuing area

The area of a circulation roadway between the property boundary and the vehicle

control point, available for the queuing of vehicles.

2.15.12 Ramp

A circulation roadway which connects an access driveway to an off-street car park on a

substantially different level, or which connects two levels in a multi-level car park

2.15.13 Roadway

Any one part of the width of a public road or a vehicular traffic path in an off-street car

park devoted particularly to the use of vehicles, inclusive of shoulders and auxiliary

lanes, but exclusive of parking spaces

2.15.14 parking accumulation

This is the number of vehicles parked at a given instant of time. This is express by

accumulation curve. The accumulation curve is obtained by plotting the number of bays

occupied with respect to time.

2.15.15 Parking Volume

This is the total number of vehicles parked at a given duration of time. This does not

account for the repetition of vehicles.

2.15.16 Parking Load

This gives the area under the accumulation curve.

2.15.17 Average parking duration

This is the ratio of total vehicles hours to the number of vehicles parked.

2.15.18 Parking Index

This is the occupancy or efficiency of the parking lot. It is defined as the ratio of number

of bays occupied in time duration to the total space available.