Theories in The Learning of Numeracy in Early Grade Combined

THEORIES IN THE LEARNING OF
NUMERACY IN EARLY GRADE

THEORIES IN THE LEARNING OF NUMERACY
IN EARLY GRADE
Written by:
Justice Enu, PhD.

Daniel Kofi Nkum, MPhil.
Edited by:
Michael E. Ampiah, MPhil
College for Distance and e-Learning

University of Education, Winneba
© CODeL- UEW
All rights reserved including translation. No part of this publication

may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means,
electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording or
duplication in any information storage or retrieval system, without
prior permission in writing from the Director, CODeL
University of Education, P. O. Box 25, Winneba.
THEORIES IN THE LEARNING OF NUMERACY IN EARLY GRADE

Published 2022 by
The College for Distance and e-Learning
University of Education
P O Box 25
Winneba
Tel: (0)3323 22 046
Fax: (0)3323 22 497
Email: idel@uew.edu.gh
© College for Distance and e-Learning, 2022

ISBN xxxxxxx
Credits
Graphic Design and Layout:

Jacob Asare
Pancras Kwamena Tenteh
Samuel Sebastian Impraim
Charles Addae
Printed in Ghana
U NI T
C
1 WHY DO WE TEACH MATHEMATICS IN SCHOOL?
ON S
TENT
INTRODUCTION 12
SECTION 1 EARLY NUMBER SYSTEM AND SYMBOLS 14

Babylonian Numerals 14
The Roman numeral 16
Uses of the Hindu –Arabic numerals 17
Future of mathematics 18
SECTION 2 WHAT IS MATHEMATICS? WHY LEARN AND TEACH

MATHEMATICS 20
What is Mathematics? 20
Teaching and learning mathematics is important because: 20
SECTION 3 WHAT DOES IT MEAN TO LEARN AND TEACH

MATHEMATICS? 22
Developing mathematical concepts in young children 22
Learning and teaching mathematics include the following 23
SECTION 4 BELIEFS, ATTITUDE, AND VALUES IN MATHEMATICS TEACHING

AND LEARNING 26
Definition of Belief 26
Mathematical belief? 26
Types of attitudes 28
What are Values? 29
Relationship between Emotions, Attitudes, and Beliefs 30
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U NI T
BELIEFS UNDERLYING THE CURRENT EARLY GRADE
OFFICIAL CURRICULUM AND INCLUSIVE
C
2
ON S
TENT
INTRODUCTION 34
SECTION 1 NATURE OF EARLY GRADE MATHEMATICS CURRICULUM AND

IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTICE 36
What is Philosophy of Education? 38
General Aim of the early grade curriculum 43
Implications for teaching and Learning 46
SECTION 2 TEACHER BELIEFS AND PRACTICE AND DEVELOPING

MATHEMATICAL TASK 48
Meaning of Inclusion and Equity 49
SECTION 3 UNDERLYING ASSUMPTIONS OF BELIEFS, ATTITUDES, AND

VALUES WITHIN THE CONTEXT OF TEACHING AND LEARNING
MATHEMATICS 53
What is an Assumption? 54
SECTION 4 CONNECTION BETWEEN TEACHER'S BELIEFS, PRACTICE, AND

HOW LEARNERS LEARN MATHEMATICS 58
Learning disability (LD) in mathematics 59
Characteristics associated with learning disabilities 61
UEW/CoDeL 3
U NI T MAJOR THEORIES OF LEARNING IN EARLY GRADE
C
3 MATHEMATICS IN INCLUSIVE CLASSROOMS
ON S
TENT
INTRODUCTION 64
SECTION 1 LEARNING AND BEHAVIOURISTS' THEORIES OF LEARNING 66

What is learning? 66
Characteristics of Learning 67
Types of Learning 68
SECTION 2 THEORIES OF LEARNING 70

Definition of theory of learning 71
Types of Theories of Learning 72
SECTION 3 COGNITIVE, CONSTRUCTIVISM, AND BEHAVIOURISM

THEORIES 78
Assumptions of the cognitive perspective 79
Principles / Believes of Cognitivist 78
Characteristics of Constructivism 79
Teacher's role in the constructivist teaching environment 84
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U NI T
CHILDREN AND MATHEMATICS
C
4
ON S
TENT
INTRODUCTION 86
SECTION 1 UNDERSTANDING SHAPE, SIZE, AND PATTERNS 92

Sorting or Classifying Objects 92
What is meant by Patterns in mathematics? 94
Development of Verbal Counting 95
Tips for Counting 97
SECTION 2 CHARACTERISTICS OF CHILDREN'S DEVELOPMENTAL

STAGES 102
Development: What does it mean? 102
Stages of child development 102
Developmental Characteristics and Interest of School-Age Children 103
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U NI T
C
5 MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCE
ON S
TENT
INTRODUCTION 108
SECTION 1 MEANING AND PRINCIPLES OF MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCE (MI) 114

What is multiple intelligence? 114
The Foundations of Multiple Intelligence 114
SECTION 2 GARDNER'S THEORY OF MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCE 116

Gardner's eight categories of intelligences 116
Multiple Intelligence versus learning styles? 118
SECTION 3 MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCE THEORY AND PERSONAL

DEVELOPMENT 120
Measuring Intelligence 120
Developing your Multiple Intelligence 121
Implications for teaching 122
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U NI T
FACTORS THAT AFFECT TEACHING AND LEARNING OF
NUMERACY
C
6
ON S
TENT
INTRODUCTION 126
SECTION 1 GUIDING PRINCIPLES FOR SCHOOL MATHEMATICS 128

Principles underpinning teaching and learning of mathematics 128
SECTION 2 LEARNER – TEACHER RATIO 130

Factors that affect learning of mathematics 131
Teachers-based and Instructional factors 131
SECTION 3 SOCIO-CULTURAL FACTORS 134

What are socio- cultural factors? 134
Mathematics Anxiety 136
SECTION 4 THE CONCEPT OF SOCIO AND EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE 138

What is emotional intelligence? 138
Validating feelings of students 140
Examples of validating statement 141
UEW/CoDeL 7
THEORIES IN THE LEARNING
OF NUMERACY COURSE INTRODUCTION
The more we know about learning, the better we can design courses that
leads children to learn, and our learners would be more developed.
Theories in the Learning of Mathematics is one of the courses developed in
strict adherence to the new Bachelor of Education (B.Ed) programme.
You will find in this book a lively discussion about teaching and learning
numeracy, particularly about how people think about mathematics and how
children's understanding of mathematics develops. It will provide an
overview of the philosophies of mathematics and how to teach
mathematics in the early grades. It seeks to prepare student teachers to
explore the underlying conception about mathematics in the official
mathematics curriculum and current views that support children's active
participation in classroom instruction and assessment practices. It also
covers a discussion of theoretical perspectives of how children learn
mathematics and factors that influence learning.
In presenting the material in this book, we have tried to be as simple,

straightforward and clear as possible. We are hopeful that we shall succeed
in getting you understand all that we have discussed in this course. If a
section or parts of it are not clear, the only thing you have to do is to re-
read the material or you can ask for clarification during in-person
interactions with your lecturers. Be informed that, it is not only from this
book that you will obtain all the pieces of information you need. We,
therefore, advise you to read any other books about what we have
presented in this course book.
On successful completion of this course, you should be able to:

O — demonstrate knowledge and understanding about how young children
S
UT E
C OM grow, develop and learn mathematics in early grade (professional
values, knowledge & practice)
— demonstrate knowledge of early year's pedagogical knowledge and
pedagogical content knowledge to deliver the ECE curriculum.
— demonstrate competencies in using differentiated instructional
strategies, with a focus on a thematic approach and which promotes
play-based learning to cater for the needs of all children in the early
years` classroom, including those with SEN.
8 UEW/CoDeL
This page is left blank for your notes OF NUMERACY
UEW/CoDeL 9
OF NUMERACY COURSE PLANNER
You may use this page as your course planner. Write the dates that
you expect to complete each unit in this course. When you actually
complete a unit, write the date you completed it. This will help you to
keep track of your work and monitor your progress throughout this
course.
Planned completion date Actual completion date

Unit1: Why do we teach
mathematics in school?
Unit 2: Beliefs underlying the

current early grade official
curriculum and inclusive
Unit 3: Major theories of learning

in early grade
mathematics in inclusive
classrooms
Unit 4: Children and

mathematics
Unit 5: Multiple intelligence
Unit 6: Factors that affect

teaching and learning of
numeracy
10 UEW/CoDeL
U NI T THEORIES IN THE LEARNING
C
1 OF NUMERACY
ON S
TENT
WHY DO WE TEACH MATHEMATICS IN

SCHOOL?
SECTION 1 EARLY NUMBER SYSTEM AND SYMBOLS 14
SECTION 2 WHAT IS MATHEMATICS? WHY LEARN AND TEACH MATHEMATICS 20
SECTION 3 WHAT DOES IT MEAN TO LEARN AND TEACH MATHEMATICS? 22
SECTION 4 BELIEFS, ATTITUDE, AND VALUES IN MATHEMATICS TEACHING AND 26

LEARNING
the adinkra symbol used in the UEW crest

Mate masie I have heard what you have said
UEW/CoDeL 11
XXXXXXX
UNIT 1
Unit X, section
WHY DO X: XXXXXXX
WE TEACH MATHEMATICS IN SCHOOL?
Dear learner, welcome to unit 1 of this course entitled why we teach

mathematics in school. We are sure at this stage you already have some idea
about why this area is important. Did you mention that, mathematics
introduces children to concepts, skills and thinking strategies that are
essential in everyday life or mathematics helps children make sense of
numbers, patterns and shapes they see in the world around them.
Congratulations if you had some of the points correct.
Unit Organisation
The unit is divided into four sections. Section one discusses the history of
mathematics by looking at the number system specifically. Section Two
looks at definition and importance of mathematics and how it relates to the
society. The third section discusses what it means to learn and teach
mathematics. Section four discusses beliefs, values, and attitudes in
mathematics teaching and learning and the relationship between beliefs,
attitudes and emotions.
Learning outcomes
By the end of this unit, you will be able to:
• demonstrate knowledge of the definition and importance of
mathematics to the early grade teacher.
• demonstrate knowledge and understanding of how mathematics relate
to society.
• demonstrate understanding of what it means to learn and teach
mathematics
• demonstrate knowledge and understanding of different perspectives
(beliefs and values) of mathematics
• demonstrate an understanding of relevant professional values and
attitudes in teaching early grade mathematics
Learning Indicators
• Outline and analyse different perspective on the development of the
ancient number system.
• Explain the influence of a teacher’s values and philosophies of
mathematics in students learning.
Read on …
12 UEW/CODeL
UEW/CODeL 13
UNIT 1 SECTION
OF NUMERACY 1
Unit 1, section
EARLY1:NUMBER
Early number systemAND
SYSTEM and symbols
SYMBOLS
Hello! Learner, we welcome you to Section 1 of unit 1, where you will learn
about the early number system and how mathematics was used by various
generations and how it has been used to solve problems in different parts of
the world today.
learning By the time you complete this section, you should be able to:
outcomes
• explain the ancient number system
• how mathematics was used in the ancient times
Learning indicator
• Examine how mathematics was used by various generations and how
it has been used to solve problems.
• Develop short personal beliefs about the teaching and learning of
mathematics.
Activity 1.1
Take your jotter and write down a few points on how mathematics helped
the Babylonians, Egyptians and the Romans civilization? You may compare
what you have written with the ideas we shall be discussing with you in this
section. We are sure that most of your ideas will be similar to ours. Keep
these and add any new ideas you will discover as we go along.
Our prehistoric ancestors would have had a general sensibility about

amounts, and would have instinctively known the difference between, say,
one and two antelopes. But it took years for them to translate the concrete
idea of two things to the invention of a symbol or word for the abstract idea
of “two”. In order to carry on agriculture and trade, the need for formal
systems of number arose. Man started to think about numbers but again it
was merely tallying and counting as figure 1.1 depicts. Trade and
civilization necessitated the need for numbers – counting numbers, whole
numbers and integers. These helped the merchant to keep records of the
trading activities, measurement of plots of land, and the taxation of
individuals etc. Numbers were also needed to chart the course of the night
sky and develop the sophisticated lunar calendar.
Figure 1.1: Ishango bone, a tally stick from central Africa
Babylonian Numerals
The Sumerians (Babylonians) developed the earliest known writing
system using pictures of wedge-shaped characters inscribed on baked clay
tablets. They assigned symbols to groups of objects in an attempt to make the
14 UEW/ CODeL
Unit 1, section 1: Early number system and symbols OF NUMERACY
description of larger numbers easier. Then came the shift from using separate
tokens or symbols to represent sheaves of wheat, jars of oil, etc., to the more
abstract use of a symbol for specific numbers of anything. A small clay cone
to represent one, a clay ball for ten, and a large cone for sixty. Later, these
objects were replaced by equivalents so that numbers could be written with
the same stylus that was being used for the words in the text. Babylonian
mathematics was based on a sexagesimal, or base 60, numeric system, which
could be counted physically using the twelve knuckles on one hand and the
five fingers on the other hand. They used their thumb to count the three
segments of their four fingers to get 12 (Fig 1.2). They marked that 12 by
raising a finger on the other hand. Twelve times five fingers is 60.
Figure 1.2: Counting by twelves

using the segments of their fingers Figure 1.3: Babylonian numerals
Babylonian numbers used a true place-value system, where digits written in

the left column represented larger values, much as in the modern decimal
system, although, of course, using base 60 (Figure 1.3) instead of base 10.
The number 25 means “two tens, five ones”. Again 52 has the same symbols
but means “five tens, two ones.” Similarly, 1, 3 in sexagesimal means “One
sixty, three ones” or 63. However, the number 60 was represented by the same
symbol as the number 1. For example, in the Babylonian system
represent 3,600 plus 60 plus 1 or 3,661. That is, 1 in the 3600 (602 ) place, 1
in the 60 (601 ) place, and 1 in the ones (600 ) place (See figure 1.4). A space
separates the place values. Dear learner, what is the value of ? If you
said 83, then you are right since there is one at the 60 place and 23 at the ones
place making 83. How will you represent 70?
70 = ˂ (1 in the 60 place and 10 in the ones place)
The Babylonian numeration had no concept of zero, and so place holder
symbol was used where a particular place value is not represented in the
number. For example, in 3610, 602 or 3600 is represented, 601 or 60 is not
represented and 600 or ones are represented. Therefore,
3610 = ˂.
What about 4200? 4200 = ˂ (1 in the 602 ) place, 10 of the 601 s and no
value for the ones.
UEW/ CODeL 15
OF NUMERACY Unit 1, section 1: Early number system and symbols
The Babylonian numeration system is still in use today even though not
popular but can be seen in our use of time – 60 seconds in one minute and 60
minutes in our hour, degrees in triangles and circles. Base 60 was used
because 60 has many divisors (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 10, 12, 15, 20, 30, and 60) and
also culturally, is a product of 5 and 12. It is for similar reasons that 12 (which
has factors of 1, 2, 3, 4, and 6) has been such a popular multiple historically
(e.g., 12 months, 12 inches, 12 pence, 2 x 12 hours, etc.).
Figure 1.4: Babylonian Place Value System
The Roman numeral

Roman numerals are well known today and were the dominant number
system for trade and administration in most Europe. The Romans’ base ten
systems did not have a zero, just like the Sumerians, making calculations
clumsy.
Table 1.1: Roman Numerals

Symbol I V X L C D M
Representation 1 5 10 50 100 500 1,000
Now try to write the number 1,944 using the Roman numeral in Table 1. We
hope you obtain MDCCCCXXXXIIII as your answer? If yes,
congratulations.
Note that a subtractive notation was later adopted, where VIIII, for example,
was replaced by IX (10 – 1 = 9), which simplified the writing of numbers a
little, but made calculation even more difficult, requiring conversion of the
subtractive notation at the beginning of a sum and then its re-application at
the end. Roman numerals were an important part of our history, and their
use still persists in some minor applications. We all encounter them in our
daily lives. Following are some of the uses of these:
• (I)--------- Wall clocks
• (II)………Names of kings and queens like Queen Elizabeth II of
England
• (III)……… Names of book volumes, chapters.
• (IV)……… Ordered lists
16 UEW/ CODeL
Activity 1.2
1. List four Ghanaian chiefs whose titles have Roman numerals at the
end.
2. Write the following Hindu – Arabic numerals as Babylonian numerals.
i. 52
ii. 106
iii. 240
iv. 1000
v. 4000
vi. 3636
3. Watch this video:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QZh08FuMaWA
4. Using the Roman numerals, find the sum 1,223 + 1, 114
The Hindu – Arabic system

Later the more convenient way of writing numbers, i.e., the Hindu-Arabic
form, replaced the Roman numerals. Hindu-Arabic numerals, a set of 10
symbols—1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 0—that represent numbers in the
decimal number system were originated in India in the 6th or 7th century
and were introduced to Europe through the writings of Middle Eastern
mathematicians, especially Al-Khwarizmi about the 12th century. In a
general sense, the decimal system has 13 symbols - the ten digits, a decimal
marker for decimal points, vinculum for repeating decimals, and a minus
sign to indicate a negative number. Most significant numbers are placed to
the left, so reading of these numerals is effected from left to right.
Uses of the Hindu –Arabic numerals

• The Hindu – Arabic system facilitatess arithmetic computations,
particularly multiplication and division over Roman numerals.
• They also allowed more rapid calculation of the mathematical tables
needed for surveying, navigation, and the keeping of financial records
and thus contributed to the extensive exploration and the growth of
capitalism that characterized the Renaissance.
• It allows the expression of large numbers in a compact form and the
easy calculation of interest.
• While merchants could perform the required calculations for a
purchase or sale using the abacus or a counting board, the new method
was faster and left a permanent record. The sort of record-keeping
required by bankers who accepted funds on deposit and then lent or
UEW/ CODeL 17
OF NUMERACY Unit 1, section 1: Early number system and symbols
invested the money required a lasting and compact notation, which the
Hindu-Arabic system provided.
This system has really helped the world today as it has made it possible for
the algorithm of base two used by the computer world of our day.
Mathematics has helped to go from the specific problems considered by the

world to a more general way of analysing problems. In doing so created an
abstract mathematical language used across the world today. There is no
denying the fact that development is hinged on mathematics. It is the
foundation of the social, economic, political, and physical development of a
country. According to the Mathematics Curriculum for Basic 1 – 3,
mathematics is a never-ending creative process that serves to promote
discovery and understanding. It consists of a body of knowledge that
attempts to explain and interpret phenomena and experiences. Mathematics
has changed our lives and is vital to Ghana’s future development. From
this, we see a two-way traffic system: (1) Mathematics helps us to
understand the world, and (2) we use the world to understand mathematics.
The world is interconnected, and using mathematics, and students can make
sense of the world and solve complex and real problems.
Therefore, it is important that we promote effective teaching and learning of
mathematics at such tender ages to help children understand mathematics
and start solving problems daily.
Future of mathematics
As a prospective Early Grade teacher, you must note that mathematics is
changing, or at least the way we use mathematics in the context of our daily
lives is changing. The way you learn mathematics would not prepare your
learners with the mathematical skills they need in the 21st Century.
Mathematics had meant using standard techniques to solve well-defined
problems with unique right answers, but with now computing devices on the
go, the emphasis will be on creative problem-solving. Largely, we no longer
need to train learners to do only long computations but also help students
gain a deeper understanding of how and why Hindu-Arabic arithmetic
works.
Mathematics will still help people to further their education and get jobs, but
the skill that is in great demand today, and will continue to grow, is the
ability to take a novel problem that has a real-world context and solve it by
making progress in figuring out what you need from that context.
Summary
This section has looked at the development of the numerations systems from
early civilization till date. The Babylonians used base 60, whereas the
Romans and Hindus used base 10. We have also learned that mathematics
must be learned from the environment and applied to solve problems.
Mathematics must be taught using problem-solving strategies.
18 UEW/ CODeL
Suggested Answers to Activities

Activity 1.2
1. Kodwo Conduah VI, Osei Tutu II, Togbe Afede XIV, Osabrima
Kwesi Atta II
2. i. ˂ ˂ ˂ ˂ ˂
ii. ˂˂˂˂
iii.
iv. ˂ ˂˂˂˂
v. ˂˂˂˂
vi. ˂˂˂
3. MCCXXIII + MCXIV = MCCXXIII + MCXIIII
M CC XX III
+ M C X IIII
MM CCC XXX IIIIIII = MMCCCXXXVII = 2,337
UEW/ CODeL 19
WHAT IS MATHEMATICS? WHY LEARN AND TEACH
UNIT 1 SECTION
OF NUMERACY 2
Unit 1, section 2: What is mathematics? why learn and teach mathematics
MATHEMATICS
Dear learner, in section 1, we discussed the various ancient number system

and their application in our daily lives. Now we want to explain clearly what
Mathematics is and why we learn and teach children mathematics.
learning
outcomes By the end of this section, you will be able to:
• explain what Mathematics is;
• Give reasons why we learn and teach Mathematics.
Learning indicators
• Outline and analyse different perspectives on mathematics and discuss
their differences and similarities.
• Describe the conceptions about mathematics implicit in their own
belief.
What is Mathematics?
There is a range of views among mathematicians and philosophers as to the
exact scope and definition of mathematics. However, in this section, we will
discuss some meaning and definitions of mathematics as captured in
literature. Mathematics is a branch of science that deals with numbers and
their operations. It involves calculation, computation, solving of problems,
etc. Here is another definition of ‘Mathematics’ by Mathematics is the
science of numbers and space, or Mathematics is the science of
measurement, quantity, and magnitude. It is exact, precise, systematic, and a
logical subject. It may also be defined as the study of quantity, structure,
space, and change; it has historically developed, through the use of
abstraction and logical reasoning, from counting, calculation, measurement,
and the study of the shapes and motions of physical objects.
Activity 2.1
Write your thought down: If you were asked to state some reasons why we
learn mathematics? And why do we teach children mathematics? What
would you say? Write your response in your jotter.
Perhaps some of your reasons may be the same as those listed below.
Teaching and learning mathematics is important because:

• There is the general agreement that every child should study
mathematics because it can be found in everyday life and can be seen
all around us.
• To equip children with active participation in our democratic society.
Man is a social animal and co-operation of each defines human life.
Mathematics makes use of group work to carry out most of its
activities in the classroom, so that learners work together to promote
human life.
• Mathematics is one of the subjects in the school curriculum, and as
such, it must be taught.
20 UEW/ CODeL
Unit 1, section 2: What is mathematics? why learn and teach mathematics OF NUMERACY
• Mathematics teaching is very important for intellectual developments

such that there is no other subject in the curriculum like it, which
makes students’ brains active. That is, it is studied to develop the
powers of logical reasoning, accuracy, patience, self-reliance,
discovery, and the awareness of space.
• Mathematics children learn to prepare them for college and future
careers.
• As a subject, mathematics can add to students’ moral development
since mathematical knowledge is helpful in character and personality
development. It develops all those quantities which a person of strong
character must possess. A child develops qualities of cleanliness,
objectivity, and reality
• Another reason why we teach and learn mathematics is its importance
and usefulness in many fields, examples: engineering, architecture,
accountancy, banking, business, even agriculture, tailoring, carpentry,
surveying, and office work requires the knowledge of mathematics.
• Mathematics is also seen as the basics for scientific development and
modern technology.
• The usefulness of mathematics emanates in arithmetic skills, in
calculations needed for use at home, in the office, in the market, and
other places.
(Many of these ideas are from Yadav, 2019).
Activity 2.2
Write down three different definitions of mathematics.
Summary
In this section,, we have realised that mathematics has different definitions
and meanings, including mathematics as a branch of science that deals with
numbers and their operations. We have also looked at some important
reasons we teach and learn mathematics in school life. Apart from the fact
that it is part of the curriculum, it is also useful in many fields, including
engineering, architecture, and accountancy.
UEW/ CODeL 21
WHAT DOES IT MEAN TO LEARN AND TEACH
UNIT 1 SECTION
OF NUMERACY 3
Unit 1, section 3: What does it mean to learn and teach mathematics?
MATHEMATICS?
Dear learner, in section 2, we looked at what mathematics is and the

rationale for teaching and learning mathematics. In this section, we want to
discuss some views on how young children acquire mathematical concepts.
Good Luck and read on.
learning By the end of this section you should be able to:
outcomes
• Demonstrate knowledge and understanding on how children acquire
mathematical concepts
Learning indicator
• Reflect critically on the importance of teaching and learning
mathematics.
Activity 3.1
Write a reflective paper on the question: “What does it mean to learn and
teach Mathematics?
Developing mathematical concepts in young children

Young children use their senses to learn about the world. They form
concepts about language long before learning to speak and form
mathematical concepts long before learning to add or subtract. The way
children learn mathematics can be related to a number of concepts
propounded by experts in explaining how children learn in general. These
experts include Piaget, Vygotsky, and Gifford. According to Piaget (1936),
children construct their own knowledge and understanding through their
interactions with the environment. This believe is called a constructivist
theory. Vygotsky (1978), also called the social constructivist, believes that
children need to have someone more knowledgeable as a guide and need
opportunities to interact socially with peers as a means of learning. What is
the difference here? Piaget believed that development precedes learning
whereas Vygotsky argued that social learning comes before development.
This means that Piaget did not consider the effect that culture and social
setting may have on the child's cognitive development. However, they think
like Gifford (2008) who subscribes to cumulative learning, meaning that
learning needs to build on previously learnt ideas else it will not be effective
presenting children with something too advanced.
Development of mathematical understanding is connected to mathematical
learning. Brunner (1966) goes with this notion as he identified the spiral
curriculum, where children meet one concept at a level and meets it again at
a different level later, providing the opportunity for them to study it at a
deeper level for better understanding of it. We believe your understanding in
ratio and proportion for example has increased after studying it again when
you were in level 100. Brunner also said that children learn by going
through three phases:
22 UEW/ CODeL
Unit 1, section 3: What does it mean to learn and teach mathematics? OF NUMERACY
Enactive phase - children engage with something concrete in order to

explore and manipulate Ideas;
Iconic phase - children begin representing the ideas using pictures,

diagrams and models for Visualization;
Symbolic phase – children use abstract ideas and ways of represent

mathematics.
Liebeck (1984) agrees and disagrees in part to Brunner. Liebeck ELPS

pedagogy is like Brunner’s Enactive, Iconic and Symbolic phases. The E
stands for Experience, L for Language, P for Pictures and S for Symbols.
Thus, children need practical experience of the concepts to begin with while
learning and talking about the mathematical ideas. Children must go on to
represent mathematical ideas using pictures, diagrams and models before
moving on to use symbols to record mathematics. Notice that Brunner and
Piaget did not talk about the use of language in children learning but
Vygotsky and Liebeck did.
It is important too that we talk about Skemp` (1971) who proposed two
ways of understanding mathematical concepts as instrumental and relational
understanding. Do you know what that means? Exactly! Instrumental
understanding is like having a mathematical rule and being able to
manipulate it while relational understanding is having a mathematical rule,
knowing how to manipulate it and knowing why it works. Relational
understanding is a deeper and more complex understanding than
instrumental learning. Instrumental understanding is a subset of relational
understanding.
Dear prospective Early Grade educator, what do you think? Considering

these views on how children develop mathematical concepts, what does it
mean to learn and teach mathematics?
Learning and teaching mathematics include the following:

• Learn and speak the mathematical language in order to effectively
assist children learn mathematics.
• Understand the importance of teaching and learning materials and
provide learning resources, including building blocks for children to
learn.
• Adults, especially teachers and parents, must provide opportunities for
children to learn, provide additional resources for children to interact
and play alongside children using appropriate vocabulary to shape
thought, and ask appropriate questions to increase the potential of
children.
UEW/ CODeL 23
OF NUMERACY Unit 1, section 3: What does it mean to learn and teach mathematics?
Activity 3.2
Write a reflective paper on Brunner’s spiral curriculum and Skemp’s
understanding of the learning of mathematical concepts.
Summary
In this unit, we showed that there is no single universal definition of
mathematics. However, it may be defined as the science of quantity,
measurement, and spatial relations. We discussed that mathematics deals
with quantitative facts, relationships, problems, space, and forms. Again we
learned that we learn and teach mathematics because it has many uses and
can be applied in many fields. It also helps us to develop children thinking
and serves as a powerful tool of communication.
24 UEW/ CODeL
Unit 1, section 3: What does it mean to learn and teach mathematics? OF NUMERACY
UEW/ CODeL 25
Unit 1, section
BELIEFS,4: Beliefs, attitude,
ATTITUDE, ANDandVALUES
values in mathematics teaching and
IN MATHEMATICS
UNIT 1 SECTION
OF NUMERACY 4
learningTEACHING AND LEARNING
Dear student, congratulations on successfully finishing Unit 1, section 3,

and moving on to section 4. In Unit 1, section 3, we discussed the meaning
and importance of mathematics to early grade teachers, utilisation of
mathematics, and what it means to learn and teach mathematics. In this
section, we shall consider the definitions and interpretations of the concepts:
beliefs, attitudes, and values, implications of teacher attitude on pupils’
learning of mathematics in the Early Grade, and the connections between
teacher beliefs and practice.
learning
outcomes By the end of this unit, you will be able to:
• Define and interpret beliefs, values, and attitudes in mathematics.
• Explain the relationship between beliefs and attitudes.
Learning indicators
• Analyse different perspectives on the need for developing professional
values and attitudes.
• Outline the need for developing values as well as promoting respect
for equity and inclusivity in the mathematics classroom.
Definition of Belief
Leder and Forgasz (2002) claimed that in everyday language, the term
“belief” is often used loosely and synonymously with terms such as attitude,
disposition, opinion, perception, philosophy, and value. Because these
various concepts are not directly observable and have to be inferred, and
because of their overlapping nature, it is not easy to produce a precise
definition of beliefs (p.96). Different researchers associate belief with
motivation and conception. Beliefs are psychologically held perceptions,
premises, or assertions about the universe that are regarded to be true. In
other words, beliefs are assumptions and convictions we hold to be true
based on past experiences. Beliefs are the primary components of the
teacher's identity. Thus, coming to grips with a potential Early Grade
educator's personal mathematics beliefs is critical in mathematics education
since such beliefs of a teacher might impact her or his pupils.
Mathematical belief?
Mathematical beliefs refer to what is true about mathematics and are based
on a person’s experience as a mathematics student. Kloosterman (2002)
argued that there is a direct connection between belief and effort. ‘Student’s
belief is something the student knows or feels that affects effort – in this
case, effort to learn mathematics’ (p. 248). For example, some students
believe that mathematics is a "difficult" or "useless" subject, that "it's all
about one solution," or that "it's all about memorising of formulae" (Adnan,
Zakaria & Maat, 2012).
26 UEW/CODeL
Unit 1, section 4: Beliefs, attitude, and values in mathematics teaching and THEORIES IN THE LEARNING
learning OF NUMERACY
Mathematical knowledge leads to mathematical beliefs. Knowledge is a

justified true belief, a belief held by an individual that is both true and for
which they have some justification. Beliefs, unlike knowledge, may be held
with varying degrees of conviction. A teacher may have a belief that
mathematics is problem-solving-driven. Such a teacher has the conviction
that mathematics is dynamic, continually expanding field of human enquiry,
not a finished product, and its results remain open to revision. This teacher
will accept children’s methods and approaches to tasks. On the other hand,
mathematics is also viewed as a static but unified body of knowledge,
consisting of interconnected structures and truth, which are discovered and
not created (Ernest, 1989). Such a static view of mathematics will lead
teachers to insist on there being a single ‘correct’ method for solving the
problem. Beliefs system is a metaphor for describing the manner in which
one’s beliefs are organized in a cluster, generally around a particular idea or
object. This is different from the conception of an idea. Conception is a
general notion or mental structure encompassing beliefs, meanings,
concepts, propositions, rules, mental images, and preferences.
Activity 4.1
1. What are the distinctions between belief and attitude?
What are attitudes?

Attitudes arise out of core values and beliefs one holds internally. Attitudes
are manners of acting, feeling, or thinking that show one’s disposition or
opinion. According to Sarmah and Puri (2014), an attitude refers to a
learned tendency of a person to respond positively or negatively towards an
object, situation, concept, or another person. Attitude is composed of three
components:
• Affective/emotional component – which deals with self–confidence,
mathematics anxiety, and enjoyment of mathematics. It is based on
one’s feelings.
• Cognitive component – Is based on information or knowledge and
deals with perceived usefulness of the information.
• Behavioural component – reflect how the attitude affects the way we
act or behave.
For instance, in a case of a person who is scared of mathematics, the

cognitive component might be the fact that mathematics is difficult. On the
other hand, the affective component would be the feeling that he or she is
scared of mathematics. The behavioural component will be the person
avoiding mathematics completely. Ernest (1989) explained that teachers’
attitudes to mathematics itself include: liking (behaviour), enjoyment
(affect), and interest (behaviour) in mathematics or their opposites which
include math phobia. It also includes confidence in the teachers’
mathematical abilities (affect) and perceived usefulness of concepts
UEW/ CODeL 27
THEORIES IN THE LEARNING Unit 1, section 4: Beliefs, attitude, and values in mathematics teaching and
OF NUMERACY learning
(cognition). As a would-be educator, your attitude towards mathematics and

its teaching of it matters as it can affect the child’s attitude to mathematics
and its learning. Affect is a disposition or tendency or an emotion or feeling
attached to an idea or object. Affect is composed of emotions, attitudes, and
beliefs. Emotions are feelings or states of consciousness, distinguished from
cognition.
Types of attitudes
Now that you can confidently explain what attitude is let’s talk about the
types of attitudes. The four main types are Positive, Negative, Neutral, and
attitudes.
Positive attitudes
Individuals with positive attitudes focus on the positive aspects of people,
situations, events, and so on. To a person with a positive attitude, a mistake
or setback is an opportunity to learn from it and move forward in life. Their
trait includes:
• Deal with others in sincerity
• Remain flexible in their approach
• Exercise a greater degree of diligence
• Willingness to adapt
• Sense of responsibility
• Confidence in their doings
• Humility
• Cheerfulness / Happiness
Negative attitudes
People that have negative attitudes neglect the positive aspects of people,
circumstances, events, and so on while focusing on the negative aspects.
They are also more prone to voice their dissatisfaction with changes rather
than adapting to the changing environment. Additionally, they may place
blame on others for their failure. Characteristics of negative attitudes
include:
• Search for weaker elements of others and are not inclined towards
positive elements
• Blame failure on others
• Likely to complain about challengers rather than adapting to the
change in their environment
• Hatred
• Doubt
• Pessimism
• Jealousy
• Resentment
28 UEW/CODeL
Neutral attitudes
People with a neutral attitude don’t give enough importance to situations or
events. They ignore the problem, leaving it for someone else to solve. Also,
they don’t feel the need to change. Their traits include:
• They are of indifference and detachments
• Have a serene and unemotional type of posture, which makes them
balanced
• They remain self-satisfied and complacent
• A feeling of being disconnected
Sikken attitudes
• Reflects the state of mind negatively
• It cannot alter or amends one’s opinion because of its penetration at
the base level
• Possess enough potential to destroy the image of every related thing
coming to mind
Activity 4.2
In 3 minutes, think about any three negative attitudes of teachers that affect
learners' performance in mathematics. Write down what you discover in
your jotter.
Now compare your points with those in the discussion that follows:
Teachers’ attitudes or practices that affect performance in mathematics

• Emphasis on memorisation: Teachers who emphasise on
memorisation communicate to learners their mathematics in abstract
terms, which ultimately leads to mathematical anxiety in learners.
• Authoritarian teaching: Teachers who impose ideas on their learners
kill creativity in their learners.
• Teachers’ humiliation and intimidation: Teachers intimidating
learners results in withdrawal and anxiety in their lessons.
• Lack of variety in teaching and learning process: Teachers who do
not vary their teaching methods results in poor performance of learners
and dislike for mathematics
• Lack of appropriate and immediate feedback:
• Lack of inclusivity and equity:
What are Values?

Values refer to the worth of something. A belief one holds deeply, even to
the point of cherishing, and acts upon. Educational institutions may have
values such as honesty and punctuality, which are different from learning
behaviour values. Mathews (2001) described learning behaviour values as
mediators of learning behaviours. This definition means that what students
identify as important directs their learning behaviour in mathematics.
UEW/ CODeL 29
Values direct the way in which a student or teacher’s cognitive skills and
emotional dispositions are aligned to learning or teaching aspects of
mathematics (Seah & Anderson, 2015).
Values in mathematics education include:

• Achievement: This involves doing a lot of mathematics work,
knowing the steps to solution, knowing which formula to use, and
understanding why a solution is incorrect or correct
• ICT: This involves using a calculator to check the answer and using a
calculator to calculate
• Strategies: This involves shortcuts to solving a mathematics problem
and being given the formula to use
• Fluency: This involves an explanation of the solution to class and
practicing how to use mathematics formulas.
• Authority: This includes mathematics with the internet and
explanation by the teacher
• Versatility: Looking for different possible answers and being
fortunate at getting the correct answers
• Relevance: Stories about mathematics, explaining why rules/formulas
came from, the mystery of mathematics, stories about recent
development in mathematics, and using concrete materials to
understand mathematics.
There are differences between teachers' values within and between grades or
levels of practice. Just as there exist differences in values for teachers, there
are differences for learners across grade levels.
Dear prospective Early Grade educator, you need to note that learners at the
early level belong to learners who value relevance more than those of the
higher grades. This means that the learners at this level value understanding
more than mastery (achievement, ICT, strategies), fluency, authority, and
versatility of mathematics content.
Relationship between Emotions, Attitudes, and Beliefs

We are continuing our discussion on Beliefs, values, and attitudes in
mathematics. We shall examine the relationship between emotions,
attitudes, and beliefs this time. We shall discuss teachers’ beliefs about
mathematics teaching and learning and discuss ways of ensuring effective
mathematics teaching at the early grade level.
When thinking about the three components of affect (emotions, attitudes,

and beliefs), an important distinction between them is that emotions are the
most intensely felt, and the beliefs are the least intensely felt.
Also, beliefs are the most cognitive of the three, and emotions are the least
cognitive.
When comparing beliefs and knowledge, knowledge is a belief held with
such certainty that it is considered a fact to that particular person. A
statement that is a belief to one person may be considered knowledge by
30 UEW/CODeL
another. When comparing beliefs and values, beliefs are often seen as either
true or false, correct or incorrect, whereas values are often seen as either
desirable or undesirable, good or bad.
Values are also used more globally than beliefs because they are less
specific to a particular situation.
Activity 4.3
State three (3) ways of ensuring effective mathematics teaching at the early
grade classroom
Mathematics teacher’s beliefs about teaching and Learning

Mathematics
A teacher’s beliefs may change depending on the circumstances and the
constraints during a particular class. Also, a teacher’s beliefs may be
overpowered by student needs, such as building student confidence and
managing classroom behaviour. Teachers with the same mathematical
beliefs may differ in classroom practices due to differing beliefs about
children, society, and education (Lester, 2007, p. 274). As our beliefs
change our perspective on what we see, teacher beliefs affect how teachers
view instruction that they observe. It is believed that the key component that
impacts a change in beliefs is whether teachers reflected upon their
observations of instruction, giving them the opportunity to learn new ways
of making sense of their observations (Lester, 2007, p. 277).
Ways of ensuring effective mathematics teaching at the early

grade classroom
• Proper planning and preparation of lessons
• Appropriate selection of teaching resources
• Knowledge of the subject matter
• Understanding the philosophy of the early grade curriculum
• Appropriate pedagogical approaches

Activity 4.1
Beliefs are assumptions and convictions we hold to be true based on past
experiences, while attitudes are manners of acting, feeling, or thinking that
show one’s disposition or opinion.
Activity 4.2
• Emphasis on memorisation
• Authoritarian teaching
• Lack of variety of teaching and learning process
Activity 4.3
• Proper planning and preparation of lessons
UEW/ CODeL 31
• Appropriate pedagogical approaches

• Knowing the subject matter
Unit Summary
Congratulations! You have completed Unit 1 of this course book! So far,
you have learned about the history of the number system and its relation to
society. We discussed all this in section 1. In section 2, we discussed what
mathematics is and the reasons for teaching and learning of mathematics.
We followed this discussion in section 3 on what it means to learn
mathematics. In this last section of the unit, you have learned about beliefs,
attitudes, and values in mathematics teaching and learning. We have
discussed aspects like types of attitudes, teachers’ attitudes that affect
learners’ performance in mathematics, and ways of ensuring effective
mathematics teaching at the early grade level.
You have earned yourself a well-deserved break. You can take some time
off now to relax with family members and friends. Engage in all the
activities. We will meet you again in Unit 2.
Self–Assessment Questions
1. Define belief, values, and attitude with respect to mathematics.
2. Write a reflective paper on your beliefs, values, and attitudes.
3. State 4 types of attitudes and mention any three characteristics of each
32 UEW/CODeL
C
2 OF NUMERACY
ON S
TENT
BELIEFS UNDERLYING THE CURRENT EARLY

GRADE OFFICIAL CURRICULUM AND
INCLUSIVE
SECTION 1 NATURE OF EARLY GRADE MATHEMATICS CURRICULUM AND 36
IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTICE
SECTION 2 TEACHER BELIEFS AND PRACTICE AND DEVELOPING MATHEMATICAL 48

TASK
SECTION 3 UNDERLYING ASSUMPTIONS OF BELIEFS, ATTITUDES, AND VALUES 58

WITHIN THE CONTEXT OF TEACHING AND LEARNING MATHEMATICS
SECTION 4 CONNECTION BETWEEN TEACHER'S BELIEFS, PRACTICE, AND HOW 60

LEARNERS LEARN MATHEMATICS

UEW/CoDeL 33
XXXXXXX BELIEFS UNDERLYING THE CURRENT EARLY
UNIT 2
Unit X, section X: XXXXXXX
GRADE OFFICIAL CURRICULUM AND INCLUSIVE
CLASSROOM PRACTICE
Welcome to the second unit on our course theories in mathematics. In Unit
1, section 4, we considered the definitions and interpretations of the
concepts: beliefs, attitudes, values, and the implications of teacher attitude
on pupils’ mathematics learning in the Early Grade, and the connections
between teacher beliefs and practice. In this unit, we shall look at the nature
of the early grade mathematics curriculum and its implications for
classroom practice. We shall also consider teacher beliefs and practice and
developing mathematical tasks.
How the Unit is organised

The unit is divided into four sections. Section one discusses the nature of the
early grade mathematics curriculum and its implications for classroom
practice. The section aims to help you understand the different beliefs
underlying the early grade curriculum and inclusive classroom practices.
Teachers’ beliefs, practices, and development of mathematical tasks will be
discussed in section 2. The third section looks at underlying assumptions,
attitudes, and values within the context of teaching and learning of
mathematics. Section four is titled making connections between teacher
beliefs and practice and how learners learn mathematics.
After studying this unit, you should be able to:

• Demonstrate understanding of different beliefs underlying the current
Early Grade official curriculum and inclusive classroom practice
• Demonstrate an understanding of relevant professional values and
attitudes in teaching Early Grade mathematics.
• Demonstrate secure knowledge and understanding of relevant
professional values and attitudes
attitudes in teaching Early Grade mathematics
Learning indicators
• Outline, describe, and analyses different philosophies implicit in their
personal beliefs that coincide or otherwise with those embedded in the
current Early Grade curriculum.
• Describe differing conceptions about mathematics based on student
teachers’ own beliefs, values, and attitudes.
34 UEW/ CODeL
UEW/IDeL 35
Unit 2, section
NATURE 1: Nature of early
OF EARLY grade mathematics
GRADE MATHEMATICScurriculum and
CURRICULUM
UNIT 2 SECTION
OF NUMERACY 1
implications for practice
AND IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTICE
In this section, we will learn about the nature of the Early Grade
mathematics curriculum via the study of the nature of mathematics and the
beliefs guiding the early grade mathematics curriculum. It is important you
have an idea about beliefs underlying the curriculum that will guide your
practice to enable you to align with your philosophy of teaching and
learning.
learning
outcomes By the end of this section, you should be able to:
• Explain the Philosophy of education and mention at least two
educational philosophies.
• Explain the various beliefs underlying the early grade curriculum
• Identify relevant professional values and attitudes in teaching early
grade mathematics
Learning indicators
• Analyse different perspectives on the need for developing professional
values and attitudes.
• Outline the need for developing values and promoting respect for
equity and inclusivity in the mathematics classroom.
• Write a short personal philosophy of teaching and learning of
mathematics in Early Grade.
What is Philosophy of Education?

Dear learner, you may begin by reflecting on the meaning of philosophy.
The word Philosophy is from the Greek word philosophia, which means
“love of wisdom.” It is a dedicated pursuit of wisdom through a systematic
inquiry into the universe's nature and meaning and human life. In modern
usage, the term means a theory or attitude that acts as a guiding principle for
behaviour.
Now that you can confidently explain what Philosophy is let’s talk about the
Philosophy of education.
According to Tan (2006), the philosophy of education is the study of key
philosophical ideas that have influenced educational thought and
developments. Philosophy of education is an applied or practical philosophy
that examines education's goals, forms, methods, and meaning. It concerns
itself with the nature and aims of education and attempts to answer
philosophical problems emanating from the application of philosophical
theory.
Philosophy of education includes Perennials, Essentialism, Progressivism,
and Reconstructionist. These educational philosophies focus heavily on
what we should teach, the curriculum aspect.
36 UEW/ CODeL
Unit 2, section 1: Nature of early grade mathematics curriculum and THEORIES IN THE LEARNING
implications for practice OF NUMERACY
Activity 2.1
Identify any three (3) educational thoughts or philosophies and mention two
characteristics of each in your jotter.
Perhaps your answer may be the same or similar to those that we have listed
and discussed below.
• Idealism: Is one of the oldest educational philosophies, going back

to Socrates and Plato in ancient Greece. Idealism teaches that ideas
are the only true reality and that truth and values are absolute and
universal. Idealists argue that education aims to develop the
intellectual capacity of the learners by helping them to appreciate
broad and enduring ideas and principles. The school is seen as an
intellectual institution for students to explore and discover the truth.
Emphasis is on cognitive development, not vocational training. In
terms of the curriculum, teaching and learning should be done in
stages to prepare students to see the ideas that underpin reality. This
means that at the early grade level, students should learn basic skills
such as the 3Rs – reading, writing, and arithmetic, acquire desired
habits of mind such as the passion for learning, open-mindedness,
and perseverance. For the Idealists, the teacher is one who is
respected for their knowledge of the absolute and universal ideas.
They can teach the key concepts and principles from the classics,
patiently guide the students in their search for truth, and skilfully
promote thinking in the students.
• Realism: like the Idealism, Realism has a long history dating back to
Aristotle in ancient Greece. According to the realists, the reality is
found in the physical world we live in, and knowledge is gained
through reason and experience. Knowledge obtained from scientific
research and discovery is particularly useful, and such knowledge is
instrumental for us to survive and succeed in life. Schools are seen
as academic institutions to develop students’ reasoning, observation,
and experimentation abilities. The function of schools is to train and
prepare professionals and technicians in a society where
professionalism and technical skills are highly prized (Ozmon &
Craver, 2003). The realist believes the curriculum should be
systematically organised and classified under different subject-
matter disciplines such as mathematics, science, and language. Early
grade learners are required to learn the basic skills of reading,
writing, arithmetic, and moral values. The Realists see teachers as
experts in the various disciplines. Such a teacher knows the subject
thoroughly and is skilful in explaining the content to the students and
assessing the students’ understanding. For example, a mathematics
teacher in a primary school will teach about multiplication by
explaining the rule and providing examples with the help of pictures
or manipulatives. They then get the students to complete some
exercises and go through the answers with them.
UEW/ CODeL 37
THEORIES IN THE LEARNING Unit 2, section 1: Nature of early grade mathematics curriculum and
OF NUMERACY implications for practice
• Pragmatism: Pragmatism is also known as Experimentalism.

According to the pragmatists, reality is always changing and is
dependent on what we observe and experience. Knowledge claims and
even values are not permanent and absolute but are tentative and
subject to revision. Rather than searching for universal ideas, it is
more pragmatic to focus on using knowledge to help us achieve our
desired outcomes. In the context of education, schools should help
students to grow. Rather than stressing knowledge of traditions and
cultural heritage, the Pragmatists prefer content and activities that are
relevant to the students’ interests, needs, and problems. The
curriculum should be inter-disciplinary, integrated, and action-
oriented, rather than divided into specialised and theoretical subjects.
The ideal teacher for the Pragmatists is one who helps the students to
grow by empowering them with the knowledge, skills, and
dispositions to make intelligent decisions in life. Such a teacher is not
confined to the textbook or a fixed body of knowledge. He or she is
able to introduce topics that students are interested in and can relate to
in their lives. Rather than dispensing knowledge, the teacher is a
resource person and facilitator to guide the students in active learning.
• Existentialism: As the name implies, Existentialism is concerned with

issues relating to one’s existence. Existentialists reject universal and
absolute ideas and hold that reality is ‘constructed by the individual.
The knowledge that one needs to pursue is about the human condition
and the personal choices one makes (Ornstein & Levine, 2003). To
this end, schools should recognise that every student is a free, unique,
and sentient being with personal fears, hopes, and aspirations.
Existentialists are critical of schools that overlook and suppress this
individuality in students and view students as a collective and passive
whole to serve the needs of society. There is no fixed curriculum for
the Existentialists; the content and pedagogy are determined by the
needs and preferences of the students. By focusing on the individual
experiences, however, Existentialism has been criticised for neglecting
the needs of community and society, leading to selfishness and egoism
(Ozmon & Craver, 2003). The existentialist teacher is one who
respects the individual freedom and choice of the student. Open-
minded and reflective, the teacher creates a learning environment
where both teachers and students are free to reflect, ask questions and
engage in philosophical dialogue about issues and moral choices in
life.
• Postmodernism: Unlike the other educational philosophies,

Postmodernism is not a single system of philosophy but is more a
perspective or viewpoint. A convenient way of understanding
Postmodernism is to identify what it is opposed to. Postmodernism
opposes the Enlightenment claims to reason, objectivity, and
38 UEW/ CODeL
universality. Postmodernists argue that the Enlightenment version of

reason is not a universal truth: it is merely one rationale or narrative
constructed by the rising middle class of that time to reflect and
entrench its male-dominated, Eurocentric cultural point of view
(Gutek, 2004). Rejecting the existence of objective and eternal
knowledge, they assert that all claims to knowledge are constructed by
those in power to establish and perpetuate their control over the
oppressed and exploited. Postmodernists are critical of schools that
teach the students that there is officially established and authoritative
knowledge they need to accept and learn from the curriculum. For the
Postmodernists, the role of teachers is not simply to teach a body of
knowledge but to help students understand how curricular knowledge
is used to serve ideological and political interests in different ways
(Ozmon & Craver, 2003). Teachers should provide a student-centered
learning environment, employing a curriculum that begins with the
students' concrete personal identities, histories, and ordinary
experiences and then proceeds to more abstract meanings of culture,
history, and politics (ibid.).
Apart from these five major educational philosophies, there are five main
educational theories (Perennialism, essentialism, progressivism,
Reconstructionism, and critical theory). Table 2.1 shows the connection
between the five educational philosophies and five educational theories.
Table 2.1: Links between Education Philosophies and Education Theories

Educational Philosophy Educational Theory
• Idealism Perennialism (rooted in
Idealism and Realism)
• Realism Essentialism (Rooted in
Idealism and Realism)
• Pragmatism Progressivism and
reconstructionism (rooted
in pragmatism)
• Existentialism Critical theory (Rooted in
existentialism)
• Postmodernism Critical theory (Rooted in
Postmodernism)
(Adopted
from Tan, 2006, p.22)
Philosophy of Mathematics
According to Lerman (1990), the two philosophical schools of mathematics
(and mathematics education), namely, absolutist and
fallibilist philosophy of mathematics, influence the content, organization,
methods, and general structure of the mathematics curriculum.
UEW/ CODeL 39
Absolutist philosophies (including logicism, formalism, and Platonism)

view may be communicated in school by giving students mainly unrelated
routine mathematical tasks which involve the application of learned
procedures, and by stressing that every task has a unique, fixed and
objectively right answer, coupled with disapproval and criticism of any
failure to achieve this answer.
Fallibilism, social constructivism, and intuitionism view mathematics as the
outcome of social processes. Mathematical knowledge is understood to be
eternally open to revision, both in terms of its proofs and its concepts.
Consequently, this view embraces the practices of mathematicians, its
history and applications, the place of mathematics in human culture,
including issues of values and education as a legitimate philosophical
concern. It accepts that mathematics is made up of many overlapping
structures that grow, dissolve, and grow anew throughout history.
However, there are cases when students of fallibilism combine ideas from
the absolutist perspective for teaching and learning.
Mathematics education is about the practice or activity of teaching
mathematics. The philosophy of mathematics education concerns itself with
the aims or rationale behind the practice of teaching mathematics. This also
implicates the learning of mathematics since the two are inseparable. The
philosophy of mathematics education raises questions about the teaching
and learning of mathematics, their underlying aims or rationales, the roles of
the teacher, learner, and of mathematics in society, and the underlying
values of the relevant social groups.
Activity 2.2
1. What are the aims of the early grade mathematics curriculum?
2. Mention two philosophies behind the teaching and learning of
mathematics at the early grade level.
Beliefs underlying the current early grade official curriculum

We have learned about values and beliefs already in Unit 1. You noticed
that beliefs are psychologically held understandings, premises, or
propositions about the world that are thought to be true. Beliefs are
important since they constitute the teacher’s identity. You also learned that
values refer to beliefs one holds deeply, even to the point of cherishing and
acting upon them.
What are the beliefs underlying the current Early Grade curriculum?
Remember that these beliefs are imbedded in the philosophy of the
curriculum which concerns itself with the aims or rationale behind the
practice of teaching mathematics. The Early Grade mathematics curriculum
has its philosophy embedded in the following themes: rationale, philosophy,
general, and subject aims.
40 UEW/ CODeL
The rationale of the Early Grade Mathematics Curriculum

Rationale means a set of reasons or a logical basis for a course of action or
belief. The rationale for the Early Grade Mathematics Curriculum is as
follows:
• Mathematics forms an integral part of our everyday lives. It is a
universal truth that development is hinged on.
• It is the backbone of a country's social, economic, political, and
physical development. It is a never-ending creative process which
serves to promote discovery and understanding.
• It consists of a body of knowledge which attempts to explain and
interpret phenomena and experiences.
• Mathematics has changed our lives and is vital to Ghana’s future
development.
• To provide quality Mathematics education, teachers must facilitate
learning in the Mathematics classroom. This will provide the
foundations for discovering and understanding the world around us
and lay the grounds for Mathematics and Mathematics related studies
at higher levels of education.
• Learners should be encouraged to understand how Mathematics can be
used to explain what is occurring, predict how things will behave, and
analyse the causes and origins of things in our environment.
• The mathematics curriculum has considered the desired education
outcomes for learners at the basic level. Mathematics is also concerned
with the development of attitudes and is important for all citizens to be
mathematically and technologically literate for sustainable
development.
• Mathematics, therefore, ought to be taught using hands-on and mind-
on approaches, which learners will find as fun and adopt as a culture.
(Adopted from National Council for Curriculum and Assessment
[NaCCA], 2019).
General Aim of the early grade curriculum

The curriculum is aimed at developing individuals to:
• Become mathematically literate
• Good problem solvers who are capable of thinking creatively
• Develop individuals who are confident and competent to participate
fully in the Ghanaian society as responsible local and global citizens
(NaCCA, 2019, p.v).
Hope you can outline the philosophy behind the teaching and learning of
mathematics at the early grade level. If yes, you have done well. Here are
some of the philosophies identified in the rationale and aims of the
curriculum:
Mathematics as part of everyday life: Mathematics prevents chaos by
making our everyday life orderly. The laws of mathematics govern
UEW/ CODeL 41
everything around us, and without a good understanding of it, one cannot be
creative in problem-solving and will encounter significant problems in life.
Development is hinged on mathematics: It forms the basis of scientific and
technological developments. It is essential in the physical sciences,
technology, business, financial services and many areas of ICT.
Mathematics is creative: Mathematics's problem-solving ability or feature

is not static. It serves to promote discovery and understanding. Mathematics
is used in the fields of medicine, economics, sports, and so on. The
curriculum believes that teaching and learning mathematics will help
promote learners’ entrepreneurial skills by helping them think of innovative
ways of solving problems at hand. The curriculum stipulates pedagogical
approaches which promote creativity and innovation. Teachers allowing
learners to approach mathematical concepts and problems differently
promotes creativity and innovation.
Mathematical literacy: Mathematical literacy and numeracy are used

synonymously. This is seen as the ability to use basic computational and
geometrical skills in everyday contexts. It is also seen as being able to
understand better the quantity aspects of one’s environment. The curriculum
believes that teaching and learning mathematics will help learners to
develop number sense – common sense in employing numbers as
measurement and make approximations based on order of magnitude, and
symbol sense – an ability to generate numeric, graphic or computer
representations of algebraic expressions and being comfortable in using
these expressions.
Problem solving: the curriculum believes that mathematics is problem-

solving-driven. As such, its teaching and learning will help learners
continually expand their field of enquiry by looking for plausible
alternatives.
Global citizenship: The curriculum is of the conviction that teaching
mathematics is a social activity and its learning will help learners have
social interests at heart and continue to acknowledge that we have multiple
and divergent interests among different groups and people. Learners will be
competent and confident in using their skills, knowledge, competencies, and
attitudes to contribute effectively to the socioeconomic development of
Ghanaian society and the world at large. The curriculum believes that where
we are now as a people can be attributed to the influence of mathematics
and will continue to be so.
Teaching and Learning Philosophy (B1 – B3)

In recent times, it has become useful for the curriculum of specific areas of
study not only to state the rationale for including the subject in the general
curriculum but also to clearly state the curriculum's learning and teaching
philosophies. Below are the teaching and learning philosophies of the early
grade mathematics curriculum:
42 UEW/ CODeL
Teaching Philosophy: Ghana believes that an effective Mathematics

education needed for sustainable development should be inquiry-based.
Thus, Mathematics education must provide learners with opportunities to
expand, change, enhance and modify how they view the world. It should be
pivoted on learner-centred Mathematics teaching and learning approaches
that engage learners physically and cognitively in the knowledge-acquiring
process in a rich and rigorous inquiry-driven environment (NaCCA, 2019,
p.v).
Learning Philosophy: Mathematics learning is an active, contextualised

process of constructing knowledge based on learners’ experiences rather
than acquiring it. Learners are information constructors who operate as
researchers. Teachers serve as facilitators by providing the enabling
environment that promotes the construction of learners’ own knowledge
based on their previous experiences. This makes learning more relevant to
learners and leads to the development of critical thinkers and problem
solvers (NaCCA, 2019, p.v).
Teaching and Learning Philosophy for Kindergarten learners

Learning Philosophy: Developmental theories affirm that learners go
through distinct and unique stages in their development as they move
through their early years. Every child is very unique and develops at his /
her own pace. In language and cognitive skills development, learners go
through different and unique stages. This curriculum identifies the
individual differences and variability in a child’s development. It affirms
that the differences would not be seen as deficits or weaknesses but rather
rich and appropriate developmental experiences to help them bridge home
and school experiences. This curriculum ensures that classroom experiences
are made rich, and activities are developmentally appropriate to cater for the
different and unique stages. Further, the current curriculum relies on social
constructivist philosophical notions, which emphasise that learners learn
better when actively involved in their own learning: Learning is a social and
interactive process. Learners learn better when they interact and share ideas
with adults and other knowledgeable peers around them. The typical
characteristics of the learners at the early years are that they are active,
explorers, builders, also extremely curious and thus learn best when they are
involved actively in their own learning process. For such learners, learning
and play are inextricably linked, and as learners play and interact with their
friends, they learn better. Finally, to promote high-quality learning that is
functional, meaningful, and authentic, the growing child needs a safe, warm,
nurturing, and welcoming Physical, social, emotional, and psychological
environment. This is vital because research affirms that the type of
environment created for the child is key to their successful development and
a brighter future (NaCCA, 2019, p.v).
Teaching Philosophy: Participatory activities, play-based, and child-

centred experiences must be established in the classroom to enable learners
UEW/ CODeL 43
reflect on their experiences collaborate, and interact with other peers and
adults. They should engage actively and connect what they are learning to
their lives daily. Learning must be made functional, using real-life
experiences to help the child apply lessons learned to their daily lives.
Integrated approaches and play methods should be used alongside inquiry
and discovery in delivering the early childhood curriculum. Through play,
learners make sense of the world around them and develop an internal
process of inquiry that allows them to think critically and creatively about
their environment and what they are learning. Play is critical for developing
learners’ core skills, which are not only foundational for healthy child
development but are also building blocks for success in school, especially in
the areas of literacy, numeracy, and science. A child’s brain is not
compartmentalised. The child learns better when the learning is integrated
and holistic. Therefore, an integrated and thematic approach will be used to
integrate the various subjects and experiences that will be provided to these
young ones. Teachers are encouraged to use experiential teaching and
learning methodology to actively engage learners in their learning processes.
To promote critical and creative thinking, inquiry and discovery approaches
will enable these young learners to solve social problems. Since language
development is crucial at this period, literacy skills will be integrated across
the curriculum. A rich, literate environment will be created in each
classroom to encourage the young learners to reflect, think, create, find out
things for themselves, satisfy their curiosity; ask questions, criticize, solve
problems; observe, view information critically, and assimilate new
knowledge. In addition, learners will be provided with materials and
opportunities at different centres or corners of the classroom to explore and
independently carry out activities to help them achieve curriculum
objectives in all areas. Inclusive and differentiated learning strategies will be
used to connect learning to the abilities of all learners, including learners
with special needs. Interesting and child-friendly digital and ICT programs
and software will be integrated into the learning process to give hands-on
practice for learners to experience the use of technologies. The rigidly
structured and teacher-centred methods of teaching should be avoided
(NaCCA, 2019, p.v).
Hello learner, which of the philosophies of mathematics education discussed

earlier would you say is in tune with the philosophies of the early grade
mathematics curriculum? Did you mention Fallibilist, social constructivist,
and intuitionism philosophers? If yes, congratulations. They view
mathematics as the outcome of social processes.
Implications for teaching and Learning

Exactly what are the implications of various philosophical viewpoints on
teaching and learning? Some of the ramifications of the curriculum's ideas,
as indicated above, include the following, which you may have noticed:
Inquiry-based approach: The curriculum for early grades believes that
teaching must be practical, providing opportunities for learners to reflect on
44 UEW/ CODeL
carefully designed experiences they receive. Modeling concepts should be

done to link concepts learned to daily life. You are expected to use play-
based and other instructional strategies that encourage learners to use their
senses in different situations for effective learning.
Use of technology: Technology comes with opportunities for instruction in

mathematics education. Teachers should enhance the learning process by
using short videos, pictures from the internet, and other resources to help
learners understand concepts.
Inclusivity: The curriculum believes in the culture of respect and

belongingness. It is envisaged that you provide opportunities for learners to
learn about and accept individual differences. Differentiated planning and
teaching is required to help every learner to be part of the learning process.
Individual learning ability: As a teacher, you should acknowledge that
your learners' learning rates will be different, which will also inform their
achievement rates. Such knowledge should be used so those good learners
can assist weak learners through cooperative learning groups.
Learner-centred learning: The curriculum is of the view that learning best

takes place when learners are the focus of education, while teachers
facilitate the learning process, helping learners to evaluate and own their
knowledge created. As such, strategies which incorporate student choice and
autonomy and the use of open-ended questioning techniques are
encouraged.
Peer learning: Peer-to-peer contact is also required, according to the

curriculum, before an individual learner may develop any meaningful
knowledge. "Learners learn better when they connect with adults and other
knowledgeable peers around them and share their ideas" (NaCCA, 2019,
p.v). It should be standard procedure to have group discussions and joint
presentations.
Influence of teachers’ values, attitudes, and philosophies of

mathematics in students’ learning
As you may remember, we considered values, attitudes, and beliefs in Unit
1, section 4. So far, what are your values, attitudes, and beliefs about
mathematics? Again when someone asks you, ‘Do you have a philosophy?’
what exactly does he or she want to find out? Certainly, the person wishes
to find out about self- reflective statements of your beliefs about teaching
and learning. A teacher’s philosophy can be in part like the following:
I have spent the majority of my life teaching mathematics. Mathematics
teaching is my passion, and I am enthused about it. My role as a teacher is
to help motivate my students to learn new concept in mathematics, so they
can be successful in their future endeavours. I believe that a student-
cantered classroom is essential to help students blossom to their full
potential. My philosophy of education is that all children are unique and
UEW/ CODeL 45
must have a stimulating educational environment where they can grow

physically, mentally, emotionally, and socially. It is my desire to create this
type of atmosphere where students can meet their full potential. I will
provide a safe environment where students are invited to share their ideas
and take risks.
Did you know that such values, attitudes, and philosophies can influence
students’ learning in mathematics? Some believe that since learners are
knowledge constructors themselves, their philosophies cannot be influenced.
However, to a large extent, values, attitudes, and philosophies can be
influenced.
The following provides clear evidence:
Limited knowledge or belief of basic facts recalling of teachers causes poor
performance in mathematics.
Some teachers believe that effective teaching involves teachers first
showing students how to solve problems and then solving problems using
the method the teacher presented. These teachers believe that asking
learners to solve problems on their own is risky.
On the other hand, other teachers believe that effective instruction entails
teachers encouraging students to solve problems on their own and share
their ideas with their peers. These educators also believe that allowing
children to figure out how to address problems on their own is critical.
Either way – top-down or down-up approach – when down well gets the
best results.
Teachers believe that mathematics must be taught in accordance with some
logical assumptions about the hierarchy of topics in mathematics. This
suggests that learners learn according to the sequencing and pacing of topics
planned for instruction by the teacher. Teachers who might hold a different
view may teach illogically, affecting learners' learning in the long run.
Activity 2.3
Let’s practise writing your own teaching philosophy in your jotter.
Summary
This section has expanded your knowledge on philosophies of education,
beliefs underlying the early grade curriculum and professional values you
need as an Early Grade Educator. We also discussed the absolutist
philosophy, which believes that every task has a unique answer, and
fallibilist philosophy, which accepts criticisms and the practices of
mathematics in history and culture. We learned that the mathematics
curriculum has its philosophy imbedded in the following themes: rationale,
philosophy, general, and subject aims. Finally, the implications for teaching
and learning and the influence of teachers’ values, attitudes, and
philosophies of mathematics on students’ learning were also discussed.
46 UEW/ CODeL

Activity 2.1
Philosophy Characteristics
Idealism 1. Ideas are the only true reality.
2. Truths and values are absolute
and universal.
3. Promotes cognitive development
as against vocational training.
Pragmatism 1. Believes that reality is always
changing and dependent on what
we observe and experience.
2. Knowledge and values are not
permanent.
Postmodernism 1. There is no existence of objective
and eternal knowledge.
2. Enlightenment version of the
reason is not a universal truth.
3. Believes that schools should
assist learners in using curricula
knowledge to serve in different
ideological and political interests.
Activity 2.2
1. i. Become mathematically literate
ii. Good problem solvers who are capable of thinking creatively
iii. Develop individuals who are confident and competent to participate
fully in the
Ghanaian society as responsible local and global citizens

2. Mathematics as part of everyday life
i. Mathematics is creative
UEW/ CODeL 47
Unit 2, section
TEACHER 2: teacher beliefs
BELIEFS ANDandPRACTICE
practice andAND
developing mathematical
DEVELOPING
UNIT 2 SECTION
OF NUMERACY 2
task MATHEMATICAL TASK
If you are reading this, then you have already completed section 1. Good
work! If you have not read or completed Section 1, try to do so. This section
continues our discussion on beliefs underlying the current early grade
curriculum and inclusive classroom practices. In this section, we shall be
examining inclusion and equity – their meanings and implications in the
Early Grade mathematics classroom and how the Early Grade curriculum
promotes inclusion. It will also explain teacher beliefs and practice and the
development of mathematical tasks. Examples of mathematical tasks that
promote the spirit of the Early Grade curriculum will be provided.
Now read on ….
learning
outcomes If you follow the discussion closely, you should be able to achieve the
following at the end of the section:
• Explain the meaning of inclusion and equity and identify three ways it
is promoted by the early grade curriculum
• Describe how teachers’ beliefs and practices influence their
development of mathematical tasks.
Learning indicators
• Discuss inclusion and equity and their implication in the early grade
mathematics classroom.
• Making connections between teacher beliefs and practice and
developing mathematical tasks.
Meaning of Inclusion and Equity

Dear learner, let us consider these two terms you might be familiar with.
What are inclusion and equity? These two terms can be confusing since they
may mean different things to different people.
According to NaCCA (2019), inclusion ensures access and learning for all
learners, especially those disadvantaged. Those disadvantaged include those
with Special Learning/Educational Needs (SEN) such as the gifted/talented,
less academically endowed, physically and socially challenged, etc. It can
also be seen as principles that accommodate diversity among all learners.
This means anything resulting from discriminator attitudes about race,
social class, ethnicity, religion, gender, and ability is accommodated. This
concept emanates from the belief that education is a basic human right and
the foundation for a more just society (Prospects, 2020). On the other hand,
the term equity refers to fairness and justice, recognising that we do not all
start from the same place and must acknowledge and make adjustments to
imbalances.
Inclusion and equity are concepts that help us see imbalances – learners’
diversity and special needs in the learning process – those learners came to
the class with and must inform the interpretation of our beliefs of practice in
the classroom.
48 UEW/ CODeL
Unit 2, section 2: teacher beliefs and practice and developing mathematical THEORIES IN THE LEARNING
task OF NUMERACY
The early grade curriculum promotes the following:

• Learning is linked to the learner’s background and to their prior
experiences, interests, potential, and capacities.
• Learning that is meaningful because it aligns with learners’ ability
(e.g., learning that is oriented towards developing general capabilities
and solving the practical problems of everyday life); and
• Active involvement of the learners in the selection and organisation of
learning experiences, making them aware of their importance and also
enabling them to assess their own learning outcomes.
Equity and inclusivity should be seen as a process concerned with the
identification and removal of barriers, focused on improving the presence,
participation, and achievement of all learners and involve a particular
emphasis on those groups of learners who may be at risk of marginalization,
exclusion or underachievement (Prospect, 2020).
Activity 2.4
1. Explain the meaning of inclusion and equity.
2. Outline three ways of inclusion promoted by the curriculum
Mathematical task development

Dear learner, another area that deserves your attention is the development of
the mathematical task. A mathematical task is a planned activity provided to
help learners attain specific content standards in a mathematics curriculum.
Teachers’ beliefs inform their practice. Hope this statement has sat well with
you by now. This implies that teachers’ beliefs inform their development of
mathematical tasks.
As we have discussed previously, there are teachers who believe

mathematics is a static body of knowledge which involves a set of rules and
procedures that are applied to yield one right answer. This belief in
mathematics compels these teachers to develop mathematical tasks that
require applying rules and procedures to arrive at one particular right
answer.
The other group of teachers, enquiry–oriented mathematics educators, take a
more dynamic view of mathematics and believe it is a discipline that is
continually undergoing change and revision. Such belief compels these
teachers to develop mathematical tasks that require the active participation
of learners, assisting them in being creative in constructing and applying
mathematical concepts and communicating findings. For example, teachers
who believed that children learn mathematics by constructing their own
understanding in the process of solving problems used more word problems
in instruction and spent more time developing children's counting strategies
before teaching number facts than teachers who believed that mathematics is
learned by receiving knowledge about mathematical operations from the
teacher in discrete units (Peterson, et al., 1989).
UEW/ CODeL 49
THEORIES IN THE LEARNING Unit 2, section 2: teacher beliefs and practice and developing mathematical
OF NUMERACY task
The early grade mathematics curriculum promotes the enquiry–oriented

(constructivist or social constructivists) approach to the teaching and
learning of mathematics; as such, there is a need to develop and use tasks
that build on learners’ enquiry. Remember too that it is the “central
responsibility of teachers … to select and develop worthwhile tasks and
materials that create opportunities for students to develop … mathematical
understandings, competence, interests, and dispositions” (National Council
of Teachers of Mathematics [NCTM], 1991)
.
Tasks that promote enquiry – based learning include:
Problem-solving tasks: A task in which a student must recognize the nature
of a problem and analyse it in order to propose strategies for its solution. It
is trailblazing to the desired location (Ernest, 1991).
Let’s look at this classroom scenario: Kofi owns five cars and a very large
garage. How many cars are parked inside if he can see 2 cars parked outside
the garage? Did you say (3)? That is correct.
But is it always the case that if a car is not parked outside, it is inside the
garage? Think about it.
Activity 2.5
How many different ways can Kofi park his cars inside and outside the
garage?
Investigations task: These tasks have no clear goals or ill-defined goals

since there is more than one correct answer, so the answer is open.
Let's look at this classroom scenario: Miss Boakye is teaching investigating
with numbers in class 2. She asked her learners to place the digits 1, 2, 3, 4,
and 5 in the circles provided below so that the sum of the numbers across
and vertically is the same? What are some of the arrangements you can
make so that the sum is equal across and vertically?
Did you have the arrangement below as one of your answers? That is
correct. Congratulations. Write the other arrangement in your jotter.
3
5 1 2
4
Guided word problems: These involve scaffolding. ‘Scaffolding in
education refers to the use of a variety of instructional techniques aimed at
moving learners progressively towards stronger understanding and
ultimately greater independence in the learning process’ (NaCCA, 2019,
p.xvii).
50 UEW/ CODeL
Unit 2, section 2: teacher beliefs and practice and developing mathematical THEORIES IN THE LEARNING
task OF NUMERACY
Activity 2.6
Araba needs 4 exercise books which cost 2 Ghana cedis. She has only 5
Ghana Cedis.
a) How much money does she need in order to buy the books?
b) Determine the amount needed by Araba to buy the books
Summary
We hope you have gained immensely from the discussions. We have looked
at inclusion and equity in the classroom. We have also looked at teachers’
beliefs and practices in developing mathematics tasks. Again, we have
discussed tasks that promote enquiry based learning in the early grade
mathematics classroom. You can now state with the next section.
Activity 2.5
Outside Garage inside Garage
5 0
4 1
3 2
2 3
1 4
0 5
Activity 2.6
a) Multiply four by 2 to obtain the total amount of money needed to buy
the four books.
i.e. 4 x 2 = 8 Ghana cedis
b) Subtract 5 Ghana cedis from the total amount in (a) above
8 – 5 = 3 Ghana Cedis
UEW/ CODeL 51
Unit 2, section 3: Underlying
UNDERLYING assumptions OF
ASSUMPTIONS of beliefs,
BELIEFS,attitudes, and values
ATTITUDES,
UNIT 2 SECTION
OF NUMERACY 3
within the context of teaching and learning mathematics
AND VALUES WITHIN THE CONTEXT OF TEACHING AND
LEARNING MATHEMATICS
We are continuing with our discussion on beliefs underlying the current
early grade curriculum and inclusive classroom practice. This time, we shall
examine some underlying assumptions of beliefs, attitudes, and values
within the context of teaching and learning of mathematics and the
implications for classroom practice. It is good we consider assumptions of
practice since they serve as the foci of theories and how to perceive the
relationship between attitudes and values and teaching and learning. You
may begin by reflecting on these questions:
• What is an assumption?
• What are some assumptions of beliefs, attitudes, and values in
teaching and learning?
• Why are assumptions important?
learning
outcomes If you follow the discussions closely, you should be able to achieve the
following by the end of the section:
• Demonstrate secure knowledge and understanding of relevant
professional values and attitudes
attitudes in teaching Early Grade mathematics.
Learning indicators
• Discuss the assumptions of beliefs, attitudes, and values in the
teaching and learning of mathematics.
• Reflect on the implications of attitudes, beliefs, and values on
classroom practices.
Activity 2.7
Write your thought down. You may compare what you have written with the
ideas we shall be discussing with you in this section. We are sure that most
of your ideas about assumptions will be similar to ours. Keep these and add
any new ideas you will discover as we go along.
What is an Assumption?
The Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English (4th Ed.) defines
assumption as to think that something is true, although you have no proof.
Assumptions are important because they guide evidence generation and the
drawing of conclusions. Assumptions are the foundation for many of the
actions teachers do on a daily basis in teaching and learning. In other words,
a teacher's assumptions about his or her classroom, role, skill, goals, and
pupils form the basis for a variety of instructional activities and attitudes
both inside and outside the classroom.
Let’s look at this scenario: Miss Brown teaches numeracy in KG one. The
topics for the terms have been structured into eight units. If Miss Brown
assumes that all of unit 5 needs to be covered, then she will make that
reality. This assumption contains beliefs that suggest a teacher-cantered
approach that emphasises discipline and unit coverage.
52 UEW/CODeL
Unit 2, section 3: Underlying assumptions of beliefs, attitudes, and values THEORIES IN THE LEARNING
within the context of teaching and learning mathematics OF NUMERACY
Now that you can confidently explain what assumption is let’s talk about
some assumptions teachers and students engage in.
Assumptions relating to beliefs, attitudes, and values in the

teaching of mathematics
• Students' learning outcomes are strongly related to their beliefs,
attitudes, and values about mathematics.
• Learning mathematics does not solely depend on the role played by
purely cognitive factors but also includes beliefs, attitudes, and values
of mathematics.
• Attitudes change, and values formations may occur subtly even when
learners are not motivated, albeit relatively temporarily and
unpredictable of behaviour.
• Attitude change can be positive or negative. The ability to create
classrooms that encourage creative expressions requires teachers to
examine their fundamental assumptions about teaching, learning, and
professional role as teachers.
• Attitude is learned, it predisposes to action, the action towards the
object is either favourable or unfavourable, and there is response
consistency.
• Interests and beliefs of learners tend to be relatively unstable and
prone to change, while values and valuing are the most internalized
and stable.
Students believe that mathematics is difficult or useless. Teachers believe

that mathematics should be problem-solving-driven. Learners may enjoy
mathematics, a teacher may be a mathephobia, learners may value
achievement, and teachers may value shortcuts in solving mathematics
problems. As a would-be Early Grade educator, it is essential that you are
guided by these assumptions in the teaching and learning of mathematics as
you gather real evidence from your practice.
Influence of beliefs, values, and attitudes on the curriculum

Dear learner, from Unit 2, we considered some definitions of values, beliefs,
and attitudes. We referred to values as the worth of something. Values are
the deep affective qualities which education aims to foster through the
school subject mathematics and which are reflected in the convictions which
an individual has internalized as being the things of importance and worth
(Seah, et al., 2016). A belief one holds deeply, even to the point of
cherishing, and acts upon. Mathematical knowledge leads to mathematical
beliefs. Knowledge is a justified true belief, a belief held by an individual
that is both true and has some justification. Attitudes are manners of acting,
feeling, or thinking that show one’s disposition or opinion. Attitude refers to
a learned tendency of a person to respond positively or negatively towards
an object, situation, concept, or another person (Sarmah & Puri, 2014).
UEW/CODeL 53
THEORIES IN THE LEARNING Unit 2, section 3: Underlying assumptions of beliefs, attitudes, and values
OF NUMERACY within the context of teaching and learning mathematics
Do you understand the above? Do you recognise and understand the

individual words? How do these influence curriculum implementation?
Before we consider how beliefs, values, and attitudes influence curriculum
implementation, think about factors that affect curriculum implementation.
If you are able to identify some of these factors, your overall understanding
of this section is greatly enhanced.
Activity 2.8
Identify factors that affect or influence curriculum implementation.
Activities performed by humans are created by an individual beliefs, values,

and attitudes. Curriculum implementation is a human activity which is
influenced by the beliefs, values, and attitudes of learners and teachers.
Teachers’ belief, attitudes, and educational philosophies influence their
teaching approaches (Tan, 2001). These factors (teachers’ belief, attitudes,
educational philosophies) can affect the curriculum in the following ways:
• Relevance of the change: Do teachers as implementers of the new
curriculum believe and see the need and relevance of having a new
curriculum? When will you cherish a gift presented to you? Is it the
gift you need or want? If teachers see the relevance of a new
curriculum, the degree of implementation will be high.
• Teachers’ belief about curriculum understanding means that teachers
share the curriculum's idea that the teaching should integrate students’
attitudes, values, skills, and knowledge by implementing the steps in
the teaching and learning process. In other words, if the understanding
of the curriculum is unclear, it affects curriculum implementation.
• Teachers’ beliefs about the reaction of learners will influence his/her
choice of the most appropriate teaching techniques pedagogies in
presenting mathematical concepts to meet learners’ learners' needs.
• Teachers’ knowledge about the curriculum that supports the actions
and behaviours of teachers and students in the classrooms exhumes
confidence and influences the way teachers position themselves in
their teaching activities. Teachers assume roles such as facilitators,
motivators, and mediators based on the understanding of their duties.
• Teachers’ belief, values, and attitudes towards assessment in the
curriculum influence the way he picks and choose assessment tools to
implement the curriculum.
• Teachers’ belief in mathematics as a static body of knowledge
involving rules and procedures to obtain one correct answer or as
enquiry-oriented believing that it continually undergoes changes
requiring the use of problem-solving approaches influences teaching
and learning in the mathematics classroom.
• The attitude of School Improvement Support Officers (SISO),
formerly known as circuit supervisors, at the local level is important
towards a successful implementation of the curriculum. The
curriculum details may be too much for teachers to bear, and it will
54 UEW/CODeL
take the high action of supervisors to achieve the aims of the

curriculum.
The curriculum requires teachers to have positive beliefs, values, and

attitudes in implementing the curriculum such that learners will cultivate the
same. According to NaCCA (2019), learners are to be helped to cultivate the
following attitudes and values in order to effectively face the challenges in
the real world.
The Mathematics curriculum aims at helping learners to acquire the

following attitudes and values.
1. Commitment: determination to contribute to national development.
2. Tolerance: willingness to respect the views of others.
3. Patriotism: readiness to defend the nation.
4. Flexibility in ideas: willingness to change opinion in the face of more
plausible evidence.
5. Respect for evidence: willingness to collect and use data on one’s
investigation and respect data collected by others.
6. Reflection: the habit of critically reviewing ways in which an
investigation or observation has been carried out to see possible faults
and other ways in which the investigation or observation can be
improved upon.
7. Comportment: conforming to acceptable societal norms.
8. Co-operation: the ability to work effectively with others.
9. Responsibility: the ability to act independently and make decisions;
morally accountable for one’s action; capable of rational conduct.
10. Environmental Awareness: being conscious of one’s physical and
socio-economic surroundings.
11. Respect for the Rule of Law: obeying the rules and regulations of the
land.
12. Respect: This includes respect for the nation of Ghana, its institutions
and laws, and the culture and respect among its citizens and friends of
Ghana.
13. Diversity: Ghana is a multicultural society where every citizen enjoys
fundamental rights and responsibilities. Learners must be taught to
respect all persons' views and see national diversity as a powerful
force for national development. The curriculum promotes social
cohesion.
14. Equity: The socio-economic development across the country is
uneven. Consequently, it is necessary to ensure an equitable
distribution of resources based on the unique needs of learners and
schools. Ghana’s learners are from diverse backgrounds, which require
the provision of equal opportunities to all, and that all strive to care for
one another both personally and professionally.
15. Commitment to achieving excellence: Learners must be taught to
appreciate the opportunities provided through the curriculum and
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THEORIES IN THE LEARNING Unit 2, section 3: Underlying assumptions of beliefs, attitudes, and values
OF NUMERACY within the context of teaching and learning mathematics
persist in doing their best in whatever field of endeavour as global

citizens. The curriculum encourages innovativeness through creative
and critical thinking and the use of contemporary technology.
16. Teamwork/Collaboration: Learners are encouraged to commit to
team-oriented working and learning environments. This also means
that learners should have an attitude of tolerance to live peacefully
with all persons.
17. Truth and Integrity: The curriculum aims to develop learners into
individuals who will consistently tell the truth irrespective of the
consequences. In addition, it aims to make learners morally upright
with the attitude of doing the right thing even when no one is
watching, being true to themselves, and be willing to live the values of
honesty and compassion. Equally important, the ethos or culture of the
workplace, including integrity and perseverance, must underpin the
learning processes to allow learners to apply skills and competencies
in the world of work.
(Adopted from NaCCA, 2019, pp .xii - xiii)
Dear learner, do you see any alignment of these values and attitudes to your
beliefs or philosophies? Did you say yes? That is good news.
As a prospective teacher, you should understand that learners, on their part,

help in the implementation process of curriculum to be successful if they
cultivate these values and attitudes. Therefore, you are required to ensure
that during supporting teaching in schools (Teaching practices), learners
cultivate the above attitudes and skills as the basis for living in the nation as
effective citizens.
Summary
So far, so good! You have almost completed unit 2 of this course book. In
this section, we tried to help you acquire the skill of understanding the
difference between beliefs, values, and attitudes by studying its
characteristics. Again, we look into types of attitudes and teachers practices
that affect learners’ performance in mathematics. We also discussed ways of
ensuring effective mathematics teaching and learning at the early grade
classroom.
Suggested Answers for Activities
Activity 2.8
Learners, resources materials, teacher training, time allocation, universal
and individual characteristics (e.g., age, gender, cultural background, etc.),
social environment, assessment, etc.
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4: Connection
CONNECTION
Unit 1, section betweenTEACHER’S
BETWEEN teacher’s beliefs, practice,
BELIEFS, and how
PRACTICE,
UNIT 2 SECTION
OF NUMERACY 4
learnersAND
learnHOW
mathematics
LEARNERS LEARN MATHEMATICS
In section 2 of this unit, you read on teachers’ beliefs, practice, and

developing mathematical tasks. Read it again, this time, think of factors
relative to the understanding of learning difficulties in mathematics; causes
of these learning difficulties? And whether these learning difficulties in
mathematics can be solved or not?
A good knowledge of learning difficulties will help you to entertain and
help correct the situation if any should arise.
Now read on ….
learning
outcomes By the end of this section, you will be able to:
• Explain the difference between learning disability and learning
difficulty
• Understand the implications of learning difficulty in mathematics.
Learning indicators
• Outline the differences between learning disability and learning
difficulty
• Reflect on the implications for classroom practice relative to
understanding learning difficulties in mathematics.
Learning disability (LD) in mathematics

A learning disability is defined as a significantly reduced ability to
understand new or complex information, to learn new skills, with a reduced
ability to cope independently, which started before adulthood (Department
of Health, 2001).
Learning difficulties can be classified as mild, moderate, or severe. Students'

coping abilities vary as well. According to Bowe (2005), "some adapt to LD
so effectively that they 'pass' as not having a disability, while others battle
their entire lives to perform even the most basic tasks." Regardless of these
distinctions, LD always develops in childhood and is a lifelong condition"
(p. 71).
Narrowing to mathematics learning, learning disability becomes the

inability to conceptualise new or complex mathematical ideas, learn new
skills and solve specific mathematical problems on one’s own initiative.
Mathematics learning disability, commonly associated with dyscalculia,
impairs an individual’s ability to learn number–related concepts, perform
accurate mathematical calculations, reason and solve a problem, and
perform other basic mathematical skills. Dyscalculia (number dyslexia or
mathematics dyslexia) combines a number of other mathematics learning
difficulties which independently may not be referred to as a disability.
Dyscalculia learners have difficulty learning to count and recall

mathematics facts, weaknesses in skills related to mathematics, poor number
sense, and use of symbols for greater than and less than concepts (Rajkumar
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learners learn mathematics OF NUMERACY
& Hema, 2017). This problem can be detected in the classroom, at home,
and in everyday activities. Signs and symptoms which may vary from
student to student, at the early grade level, and include:
Delay in the ability to count and skipping over numbers struggling to
conserve an order in patterns, example: Smallest to largest or tallest to
shortest, delay in the ability to recognize numerals and difficulty in
understanding counting, Example, not able to identify the quantity seven
and difficulty in recalling mathematical facts e.g., 2 + 3 = 5, 2 + 4 = 6, 2 + 5
= 7, etc. Struggles to identify and use correct addition (+), subtraction ( − ),
greater than (>), less than (<) signs.
Activity 2.9
1. Dyscalculia is a learning disability associated with …………
2. Which one is not a cause of LD?
A) Lack of Exercise
B) Heredity
C) Problems at birth
D) Head injury
3. What does learning disability mean?
Characteristics associated with learning disabilities

Lerner (2000) identified nine learning and behavioural characteristics of
individuals with learning disabilities:
• Disorders of attention
• Reading difficulties
• Poor motor abilities
• Written language difficulties
• Oral language difficulties
• Social skills deficits
• Quantitative disorder
• Information processing problems
Activity 2.10
Is learning disability the same as learning difficulty? Explain
Mathematics Learning Difficulties

These refer to situations that impede the understanding of mathematics
concepts and the performance of specific mathematics skills. Mastering
Basic Number Facts: Many learning disabled students have persistent
trouble "memorizing" basic number facts in all four operations, despite
adequate understanding and great effort expended trying to do so. Instead of
readily knowing that 5+7=12 or that 4x6=24, these students continue
laboriously over the years to count fingers, pencil marks, or scribbled circles
and seem unable to develop efficient memory strategies on their own.
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OF NUMERACY learners learn mathematics
Arithmetic Weakness/Math Talent: Some learning-disabled students have

an excellent grasp of math concepts but are inconsistent in calculating. They
are reliably unreliable at paying attention to the operational sign, borrowing
or carrying appropriately, and sequencing the steps in complex operations.
These same students also may experience difficulty mastering basic number
facts. Because there is much more to mathematics than right-answer reliable
calculating, it is important to access the broad scope of math abilities and
not judge intelligence or understanding by observing only weak lower-level
skills.
The Written Symbol System and Concrete Materials: Many younger

students who have difficulty with elementary math actually bring school a
strong foundation of informal math understanding. They encounter trouble
connecting this knowledge base to the more formal procedures, language,
and symbolic notation system of school math. Teachers often compound
difficulties at this stage of learning by asking students to match pictured
groups with number sentences before they have had sufficient experience
relating varieties of physical representations with the various ways we string
together math symbols and the different ways we refer to these things in
words. The fact that concrete materials can be moved, held, and physically
grouped and separated makes them much more vivid teaching tools than
pictorial representations. Because pictures are semiabstract symbols, if
introduced too early, they easily confuse the delicate connections being
formed between existing concepts, the new language of math, and the
formal world of written number problems.
The Language of Math: Some mathematics LD students are particularly

hampered by the language aspects of math, resulting in confusion about the
terminology, difficulty following verbal explanations, and/or weak verbal
skills for monitoring the steps of complex calculations. Teachers can help
by slowing down the pace of their delivery, maintaining normal timing of
phrases, and giving information in discrete segments.
Visual-Spatial Aspects of Math: A small number of mathematics LD

students have disturbances in visual-spatial-motor organization, which may
result in weak or lacking understanding of concepts, very poor "number
sense," specific difficulty with pictorial representations and/or poorly
controlled handwriting, and confused arrangements of numerals and signs
on the page (Rajkumar & Hema, 2017).
Implications
Maintain consistency and communication across the school and
home settings: Parents, tutors, and classroom teachers should coordinate
and use the same instructional approach. Teach basic concepts using
concrete objects: For example, let the student explore number concepts by
counting the legs of a chair to find the number four or by subtracting
crayons from a box. The progression from understanding concrete materials,
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learners learn mathematics OF NUMERACY
pictorial representations, and abstract number representations may take

some students longer than others. Provide specialized materials: To help the
student organize their calculations, have them use graph paper (or lined
paper turned sideways) to keep numbers in columns. Encourage the use of
scrap paper to keep work neat, highlighters to underline keywords and
numbers, and manipulatives such as base-ten blocks or fraction bars.
Make our expectations explicit: Tell the student the procedures you would
like them to use when solving a problem, model each procedure, and then
tell them what they are expected to do. Some students benefit by having a
math notebook filled with examples of completed problems to which they
can refer if they become overwhelmed or confused.
Provide time for checking work: Emphasizing that completing math

assignments is a process, encourage students to become comfortable
reviewing their work, making changes, or asking questions when they are
unsure of their answers.
Give opportunities to connect mathematical concepts to familiar situations:
when introducing measurement concepts, have children estimate their
measurements before measuring classmates’ and family members’ heights
or weighing their book bags’ when empty and when full.
Help students apply math concepts to new situations: using percentages

to understand the price of a pair of shoes on sale at the mall or the amount of
their allowance they spend on snacks.
Provide access to programs or tutors that can help a student improve his or
her mathematics skills: Tutors can assist students with weak mathematics
sub-skills, such as multiplication and division. Provide tutorials after school
to boost performance and ensure that the student retains his or her skills.
Help students keep track of problematic areas: Students may benefit

from having their most common errors listed on flashcards when doing math
homework. They can then refer to the cards while completing their
assignments.
Play math games: To encourage automaticity with math facts, students may
benefit from playing math games (i.e. dice, playing cards) and listening to
commercially available audiotapes that provide a fun way of learning math
facts.
Use technology: NCTM (2006) states that technology is essential in

teaching and learning mathematics; it influences the mathematics that is
taught and enhances students' learning. Far from being just electronic
downtime, the internet offers educators a huge range of research-based
practices, interactive websites, resources, and lesson plans. A computer is a
patient teacher, and it is interesting to observe some students who will stay
with a game well beyond the time they might usually stay with a pen and
paper exercise. (Rajkumar & Hema, 2017, page 9).
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Summary
You have been given an insight into the beliefs underlying the current early
grade curriculum and inclusive classroom practice. You have also been
exposed to how to write you teaching philosophy. Your attention has been
drawn to various factors which affect the teaching and learning of
mathematics. Finally, distinction between learning disability and learning
difficulty has also been discussed.
Activity 2.9
1. Mathematics skills
2. Lack of exercise
3. A learning disability is a disorder that inhibits the ability to process
and retain information.
Activity 2.10
Although the two terms may appear to be interchangeable, there is a
significant difference between a learning difficulty and a learning disability.
A learning disability is a disorder that impairs an individual's capacity to
learn and intelligence in all areas of life. A learning difficulty is a condition
that impairs a specific type of learning but does not impair the individual's
overall IQ.
1. Explain four assumptions of beliefs, attitudes, and values underlying
the teaching and learning of mathematics.
2. Explain three factors that influence any curriculum implementation.
3. State 4 attitudes and values that the early grade curriculum expects
learners to cultivate at the end of the programme.
4. Mention 4 learning difficulties in mathematics.
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C
3 OF NUMERACY
ON S
TENT
MAJOR THEORIES OF LEARNING IN EARLY

GRADE MATHEMATICS IN INCLUSIVE
CLASSROOMS
SECTION 1 LEARNING AND BEHAVIOURISTS' THEORIES OF LEARNING 70
SECTION 2 THEORIES OF LEARNING 74
SECTION 3 COGNITIVE, CONSTRUCTIVISM, AND BEHAVIOURISM THEORIES 82

UEW/CoDeL 63
XXXXXXX MAJOR THEORIES OF LEARNING IN EARLY GRADE
UNIT 3
MATHEMATICS IN INCLUSIVE CLASSROOMS
Welcome to Unit 3. Dear learner, in Unit 2, you had the opportunity to

explore the underlying assumptions of beliefs, attitudes, and values within
the context of teaching and learning mathematics and the implications for
classroom practice relative to understanding learning difficulties in
mathematics. We also considered connections between teacher beliefs and
practice and the development of mathematical tasks.
In this Unit, the purpose, however, is to develop the prospective Early Grade
teachers’ understanding of some theories of earning in the early grade
mathematics classroom. You will agree that you need a sound knowledge of
various theories of learning to understand how early graders learn and the
application of this understanding to teaching. It is also important to establish
the connections between these learning theories and mathematics learning in
early grades.
How this unit is organised

The unit is organised into three sections
Section 1 examines the concept of learning and the behaviourist theory of
learning. In the second section, we will discuss three major theories of
learning in early grade: socio-cultural theory, activity theory, situated
cognition perspective, and their implications for practice.
In section 3, implications of three other major theories of learning – cognitive
perspective, constructivism, and behaviourism in early grade mathematics
will be discussed.
After studying this unit, you should be able to:

• Develop a better understanding of what learning is and the theoretical
basis of learning mathematics in early grade
• Differentiate between the theories of learning which are relevant to
early grade practitioners
• Examine the implications of theories of learning in early grade
mathematics.
Learning indicators
• Generate examples of children’s individual differences based on their
membership in various subcultures.
• Outline similarities and differences among socio-cultural, activity, and
situated cognitive theories.
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UNIT 3 SECTION
OF NUMERACY 1 LEARNING
Unit 3, section 1: Learning and behaviourists’ theories
AND BEHAVIOURISTS’ of learning
THEORIES OF LEARNING
Hello student, welcome to section 1 of unit 3, where we intend to look at

learning and the different types of learning. Often learning has been referred
to as a relatively permanent change in behaviour as a result of practice. Such
a concept assumes that certain conditions in the environment bring about
basic changes in our behaviour and that these changes continue for a long
time.
In this section, we are going to discuss the concept of learning and explain
the various learning types.
learning
outcomes By the end of the section, you should be able to:
• Develop a better understanding of the concept of learning
• Identify and explain the three main types of learning.
Learning indicator
• Explain the concept of learning
• Outline three characteristics of learning
What is learning?
Learning is the process of creating knowledge or the process of absorption
of knowledge resulting from the interaction between the teacher and the
learner. Learning occurs when there is a change in behaviour acquired
through an experience. In other words, Learning is observable changes in
behaviour. Learning is a means of acquiring new knowledge. In the words
of Ambrose and his colleagues, learning is:
“ a process that leads to change, which occur as a result of experience and
increase the potential for improved performance and future learning”
(Ambrose et al., 2010. P.3).
Learning is normally directed towards specific goals through organized

patterns of experience. Learning takes place when there is a relatively
permanent behaviour change.
Characteristics of Learning
The following are essential characteristics of learning identified by Kolb
(1984)
• Learning is a continuous process based on experience.
• Learning is a holistic process of adaptation to the world.
• Learning involves a transaction between the person and the
environment
• Learning is the process of creating knowledge.
• Learning in the conventional sense is the process of absorption of
knowledge resulting from the interaction between the teacher and the
learner
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Unit 3, section 1: Learning and behaviourists’ theories of learning OF NUMERACY
According to Kolbs, when a learner uses his or her experience to create or

construct knowledge, the process is called experiential learning.
Activity 3.1
1. What do you understand by the term ‘learning’ in conventional terms?
2. Briefly explain ‘experiential learning?
Types of Learning
There are three main types of learning: classical conditioning, operant
conditioning, and observational learning. Both classical and operant
conditioning manifest associative learning, whereby connections or
associations are made between events that occur together. Observation
learning is learning by observing others.
• Classical (or respondent) conditioning learning (Ivan Pavlov,

1927, Russian Physiologist): It is a process by which we learn to
associate events, or stimuli, that frequently happen together, and as a
result of such happenings, we learn to anticipate events. Imagine that
you are conditioning a dog to salivate in response to the sound of a
bell. You repeatedly associated the presentation of food with the sound
of a bell. You can say that the response has been acquired as soon as
the dog begins to salivate in response to the bell tone. Today,
whenever we are around someone’s cell phone and hear their phone
ringing the same as our phone, we reflectively reach to our phones due
to classical conditioning. Our body shows an unconditional response
to the conditional stimulus.
• Operant (or instrumental) conditioning learning (B. F. Skinner,
1938): Operant condition is the learning by which behaviours are
reinforced or punished, thus strengthening or extinguishing a response.
Learning resulting from conditioning depends on reinforcement.
Edward Thorndike coined the term “law of effect, in which behaviours
that are followed by consequences that are satisfying to the organism
are more likely to be repeated, and behaviours that are followed by
unpleasant consequences are less likely to be repeated (Gary, 2011).
B.F. Skinner researched operant conditioning by conducting
experiments with rats in what he called a ‘Skinner box. Over time, the
rats learned that stepping on the lever directly caused the release of
food, demonstrating that rewards or punishments can be used to
influence behaviours. He also talked about positive and negative
reinforcement.
• Observational Learning (Albert Bandura, 1925 - present): This is
the learning that takes place through the observation of behaviours of
others and imitating those specific behaviours, at the expense of
reinforcement. Albert Bandura noticed that children often learned
through imitating adults, and he tested his theory using his famous
Bobo-doll experiment. In it, children would attack the Bobo doll after
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OF NUMERACY Unit 3, section 1: Learning and behaviourists’ theories of learning
viewing adults hitting the doll. Teachers can use modeling,

demonstrating a new concept for learners to observe and make notes,
thereby increasing the focus of learners’ attention.
Activity 3.2
1. What is important about B.F Skinner’s operant conditioning?
Summary
In this section, we discussed that learning is a relatively permanent change
in behaviour as a result of practice. We also discussed that early
behaviourists such as Skinner, Pavlov, and Thorndike view all forms of
learning in terms of the development of connections between stimuli
received and responses displayed by organisms or learners.

Activity 3.1
1. Conventionally, learning is the process of assimilating or absorbing
knowledge resulting from the interaction between the teacher and the
learner.
2. Experiential learning is a form of active learning in which students
"learn through doing" and reflecting on their experiences.
Activity 3.2
It relates to reinforcement. That is to say, a leaner or an organism tends to
repeat responses for which it is reinforced. For example, a learner who is
praised for doing well will want to do well in order to receive more praise.
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UNIT 3 SECTION
OF NUMERACY 2
Unit 3, section
THEORIES2: Theories of learning
OF LEARNING
Hello again. So far, we have discussed the concept of learning and the three
main types of learning. In this section, we intend to focus our attention on
learning theories with particular reference to socio-cultural, Activity theory,
and situated cognitive perspectives on learning.
learning
• Explain what theories of learning means
• Identify the various types of learning theories and explain them.
Learning indicators
• Outline similarities and differences among socio-cultural, activity, and
situated cognition theories.
• Reflect critically on the implications of socio-cultural, activity,
cognitive theories perspectives on mathematics learning at the early
grade.
Definition of theory of learning

Theories are general principles and knowledge. Learning theories attempt to
explain all the factors involved as an individual grows in knowledge and
understanding. Learning theories are conceptual frameworks that describe
how information is absorbed, processed, and retained during learning.
Although there are many different approaches to learning, there are three
basic types of learning theory: behaviourist, cognitivist constructivist, and
social constructivist.
Types of Theories of Learning

• Socio-cultural Perspective
• Activity Theory Perspective
• A situated Cognitive Perspective
• A Cognitive Perspective
• Constructivism Perspective
• Behaviourism Perspective
Socio-cultural theory
Tenets/assumptions of social-cultural theory
There are three basic assumptions of social-cultural theory: Social
interaction plays an important role in learning. Language is an essential tool
in learning and within the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD). The
socio-cultural approach is to understand why humans behave the way they
do. It seeks to understand human behaviour and personality development by
examining the rules of the social groups and subgroups in which the
individual is a member.
Socio-cultural perspective believes that the meanings we form are products
of social ‘negotiations’ with other people. They say the symbols, objects,
events, and self-images that make up our world are the creation of shared
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Unit 3, section 2: Theories of learning OF NUMERACY
meaning through social communication. Lee Vygotsky’s social-cultural

theory views human development as a socially mediated process in which
children acquire their cultural values, beliefs, and problem-solving strategies
through collaborative dialogues with more knowledgeable members of
society (McLeod, 2020). Unlike Piaget’s notion that children’s development
must necessarily precede their learning, Vygotsky argues that “learning is a
necessary and universal aspect of the process of developing culturally
organized specifically human psychological function” (Vygotsky, 1978,
p.90). This means that social learning, not just learning, tends to precede
development. Cognitive development stems from social interactions from
guided learning within the zone of proximal development (ZPD) as children
and their partners' co-construct knowledge. ZPD is explained as the
difference between what a learner can do without help and what the learner
can achieve with guidance and encouragement from a skilled partner.
Indeed, the environment in which children grow up will influence how they
think and what they think about.
Classroom Applications
• The nature of learning should be collaborative by constructing
knowledge through social negotiations.
• Learning must first take place through interactions with others
(interpsychological) and then be integrated into the individual’s mental
structure (intrapsychological).
• Teaching and learning must be based on student-centred approach.
The role of the teacher must be that of a facilitator helping students
learn and practice, summarizing, questioning, clarifying, and
predicting. Teaching strategies of scaffolding and apprenticeship are
encouraged.
• Groups used in collaborative learning should contain members with
different ability levels so that more advanced peers can help less
advanced members operate within their ZPD.
Activity Theory Perspective

Activity theory (AT) came from Vygotsky's cultural-historical psychology
and Marxist materialism. It is also called Cultural Historical Activity Theory
(CHAT). AT has gone through different stages and landed with Engestrom’s
activity theory version. The difference between AT and social-cultural
Theory is that in AT, not only are meaning formations mediated by social
process, but also mediated by instruments and signs that are oriented
towards certain objects. According to AT, activity is primary and produces
knowledge.
AT explains how human cognition in which people, their intentions, tools,

culture, and social structures (e.g. roles, family, religion, school, law,
economy, class) are all considered not separable components of human
activity that constitute thought. We cannot understand cognition or learning
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OF NUMERACY Unit 3, section 2: Theories of learning
without considering these components of human activity that comprise it.

Tools as one of the components of human activity refer to methods of
thinking and problem-solving strategies that children internalize through
social interactions with the more knowledgeable members of society. The
value activity theory possesses as a result of the individual's analysis,
pursuance of their activity and objective by examining their tools and its
mediation through rules, community, and history. Tools or mediating
artifacts become functional as they become part of someone’s activity
(Christiansen, 1996).
The premise of AT is that a collective work activity, with the basic purpose
shared by others (community), is undertaken by people (subjects/actors)
who are motivated by a purpose of providing a solution to a problem or an
activity (object), which is mediated by signs (instruments, artifacts) or tools
used in order to achieve the goal or execute the action (outcome) (Figure
3.1). Activity theory also has rules, which are sets of conditions that help
determine how and why individuals may act and division of labour, which
determines the actions and operations among community members. The
lower part of the model (Figure 3.1) describes the invisible mutual
interactions of the activity system at the community (macro) level, and the
upper part talks about the visible individual actor (micro) level, who
operates with instruments.
According to Hashim (2007), Leont’ ev (1981) saw activities as imbedded

with a hierarchy system where activities comprise actions and actions made
up of operations. For example, in a hunting prey activity, one of the actions
is to scare the animals, and to shake the branch of a tree is the operation
(Hashim, 2007). Dear learner, in mathematics, investigating number
patterns is an activity (motive), completing three by 3 or 4 by four magic
squares is an action (goal) and using the trial and error and pyramid methods
are operations (conditions). The relation between subject and community is
mediated by division of labour; rules mediate the relation between subject
and community while community mediates between the individual and
environment. It is imperative that we guide learners to achieve their motives
by establishing specific goals and using appropriate conditions.
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Tool
Subject Object Outcome
Rules Community Division of Labour

Figure 3.1: Engestrom’s Activity Theory Model (Engestrom, 2001)
Classroom Implications
• Teachers should be aware that everything has a culture and social
meaning in the classroom. The way children interact with each other
and with the teacher will be influenced by objects such as black
/whiteboards, tables, and chairs, technology, shape, size, and
configuration of the room. Learning occurs within these contexts and
usually through specific activities.
• Teachers should ensure that the activities they provide are relevant and
iterative, providing students with incremental challenges that they can
manage at a social level so that the entire community of learners
shares ideas by building meaning together.
• Teachers should also be aware that tools can limit and enable social
interactions, so they must be applied wisely and appropriately for
effective learning.
• Teachers must guide learners (actors) to use external tools (e.g.,
Hammer, computers, calculators) and internal tools (e.g., Plans,
formulas, cognitive maps) to arrive at the deserved goals.
• Activities provided by the teacher must have a focus, and learners
must follow up rules for effective teaching and learning.
• Teachers must note that the key to promoting students’ interaction in
the classroom is collaborative group activity because it encourages
asking questions explaining, and justification of opinions.
Situated cognition perspective

Dear learner, let's now turn our attention to one approach to learning known
as situated cognition. This theory suggests that knowledge cannot be
separated from the context or situation in which it is acquired. What we
mean here by situated is that learning is connected to a culture, place,
activity, or social situation.
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Knowledge needs to be presented in authentic contexts

From the situated cognitive perspective, cognition occurs from locally
available resources and situational cues. This theory believes that unique
personal interests, human judgments, decisions, and adaptive behaviours are
constructed from the contexts in which they occur. This implies that one’s
attitudinal journal, communication, and decisions about how to act and why
do not come by chance or is in-born knowledge. From the proponents of
situated cognition, human actions are dependent on the context in which
they occur. Gibson’s theory of affordances and Vygotsky’s socio-cultural
and social learning theory serve as the foundation of situated cognitive
theory. According to Gibson (n.d), the environment in which one interacts
consists of various affordances, which provide the cues that are necessary
for perception, where perception becomes a direct consequence of the
properties of the environment. According to Vygotsky (1978), “every
function in the child’s cultural development appears twice: first on the social
level, and later, on the individual level; first between people
(interpsychological) and then inside the child (intrapsychological)” (p. 57).
How do you understand this statement? This social-cultural theory means
that an individual’s development can better be understood with typical
reference to the social environment in which the individual is situated. The
context also incorporates social settings that are experienced repeatedly and
allow them to be ordered personally. Any social interaction is shaped and
constrained by the features and norms of the particular context in which it
evolves, so the action takes place not merely in or on an environment but
with it.
In situated learning, Lave and Wenger (1991) explain that every idea and
human action is a generalization, adapted to the ongoing environment; it is
founded on the belief that what people learn, see, or do is situated in their
role as a member of a community. They reject the view of knowledge as a
collection of static and memorable facts. They do not accept the
conventional explanations view of learning as a process by which learners
internalize knowledge discovered, transmitted from others or experienced in
interaction with others, such that knowledge is characterized by the use of
the intellect (cerebral), taking the individual as the unproblematic unit, who
unproblematically absorbs the given knowledge via transmission and
assimilation.
Lave and Wenger observed situations of apprenticeship and noticed that in a

situation where learning-in-practice takes the form of apprenticeship,
succeeding generations give rise to a community of practice - a group of
people who share a common concern, a set of problems, or an interest in a
topic and who come together to fulfil both individual and group goals.
To explain the question of how learners develop an identity in the

community, for example, how student teachers become teachers, they
identified five trajectories – peripheral, inbound, insider, boundary, and
outbound – those individuals can take. Trajectory describes the individuals’
74 UEW/CODeL
position of membership category and role, which they play in the

community. The trajectories are:
• Peripheral trajectories: By choice or necessity, some trajectories
never lead to full participation. However, they may well provide a
kind of access to a community and its practice that becomes
significant enough to contribute to one's identity.
• Inbound trajectories: Newcomers are joining the community with the

prospect of becoming full participants in its practice. Their identities
are invested in their future participation, even though their present
participation may be peripheral.
• Insider trajectories: The formation of an identity does not end with
full membership. The evolution of the practice continues—new events,
new demands, new inventions, and new generations all create
occasions for renegotiating one's identity.
• Boundary trajectories: Some trajectories find their value in spanning
boundaries and linking communities of practice. Sustaining an identity
across boundaries is one of the most delicate challenges of this kind of
brokering work
• Outbound trajectories: Some trajectories lead out of a community,
as when children grow up. What matters then is how a form of
participation enables what comes next (Howard, 2010).
Situated cognition is the knowledge we gain by participating in our social

world and learning from our social and cultural context. A teacher’s
understanding of the order of rotation will set up a context where the
children will be expected to grasp the same idea. The children will grasp the
idea, so this cognition becomes somewhat distributed directly from teachers
to the learners and between peers among whom some come to the table with
master knowledge, helping all learners attain the concept desired.
In the classroom, many objects of context include the school curriculum,
resource books, teaching aids, specific words (pattern, rotational, order,
etc.). The social activity here is the enacted curriculum (curriculum taught
by the teacher), and this provides the strongest context from which
mathematical ideas will be made available to the children.
Classroom implications of situated cognition

• Through the situated cognition learning process, students should be
made to acquire knowledge via authentic context. Instructors must
provide authentic contexts – authentic activities – that reflect the way
the knowledge will be used in real-life. The more abstract a lesson is,
the less genuine the lesson.
• Students should collaborate to distribute knowledge acquired from a
specific social context.
• Learning occurs to a greater degree when teachers utilize specific
context technology.
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• Teachers should encourage learners to articulate and reflect their

thinking to complete tasks they are likely to encounter in the real
world.
• Teachers should provide meaningful context, application, and use of
knowledge rather than abstract and out-of-context learning in the
classroom or textbook.
• Instructors should approach their classrooms as communities of
practice and see their students as apprentices in new fields of learning.
• Teachers must act as models of behavior in their classrooms, setting
the tone of student behavior and manners of thinking (scaffolding).
Coaching and scaffolding are provided at critical times; articulation is
promoted to enable tacit knowledge to be made explicit.
Activity 3.3
Stop for a moment and think about similarities between the situated theory
of learning and the socio-cultural / activity theory of learning. Write
down what you discover in the spaces provided below.
Situated learning theory sociocultural /activity learning

theory
…………………………… …………………….…………………………..
…………………………………………………….….………………………
…………………………………………………….……………………….…
………………………………………………………..………………………
………………………………………………..………………………………
……………………………………………..…………………………………
…………………………………………….…….……………………………
………………………………………………….…………………….………
………………………………………………………………………..…..…..
Now compare your points with those in the discussion that follows
Similarities
• Both believe learning happens in the real-world
• Learning is social and happens through human interaction
• Importance of learning from others through modeling and mentorships
Activity 3.4
State two differences between situated learning theory and socio-cultural
activity theory of learning.
Summary
We believe you have enjoyed going through the theories of learning in Early
Grade with respect to socio-cultural, activity theory, and situated cognition
76 UEW/CODeL
perspectives and their implications for practice. Key to these ideas is the
importance of the viewpoint of a community for learning.
Activity 3.4
1. While situated learning theory offers a more internal perspective,
activity theory offers a more external perspective on human practices.
2. The concept of learning transfer differs between the situated cognition

theory and sociocultural/activity theory. In situated learning, if
learning does not take place in its authentic context, transfer is not
expected, while in sociocultural/activity learning, learning errors and
success through social negotiations (sociocultural) with other people
or human activity (activity theory) can be applied to other situations
and at other times.
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COGNITIVE, CONSTRUCTIVISM, AND BEHAVIOURISM
UNIT 3 SECTION
OF NUMERACY 3
This page is left blank for your notes
THEORIES
Dear student, congratulations on successfully finishing Unit 3, section 2,

and moving on to section 3. In section 2, we discussed three major learning
theories and their implication in the early grade classroom. In this section,
we are going to continue with our discussion on learning theories by
considering the perspectives of three other major theories of learning in
early grade classrooms: cognitive perspective, constructivism, and
behaviourism. The implications of these views of learning in the early grade
mathematics classroom is the focus of this section.
learning
outcomes By the end of this unit, you will be able
• Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of Constructivism,
Behaviourism, and Cognitivism theoretical perspectives of learning
• Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the implication of
Constructivism, Behaviourism, and Cognitivism theoretical
perspectives of learning Early Grade mathematics.
Learning indicators
• Compare and contrast constructivism, behaviourism, cognitivism as
learning theories.
• Discuss the implications of the above-mentioned theoretical
perspectives on mathematics learning at the early grade.
Cognitive perspective
As a prospective teacher, you should be concerned with what actually goes
on in the learners' minds during the learning process. This will enable you to
prepare and deliver lessons with the learners in mind. Accordingly, in this
section, we shall consider the concept of cognitivism and its implications in
the early grade mathematics classroom.
Now read on ….
Cognitivism is a theory that gained ground during the 1950s. It is a theory

that examines internal mental processes. Jane Piaget is one of the major
proponents of cognitivism, whose ideas were developed in the 1920s.
Assumptions of the cognitive perspective

• Learning is based on the assumption that knowledge acquisition lies at
the very heart of learning.
• Students need to correctly understand what they learn and store it in a
well-organized manner in their long-term memory
• The memory system is an actively organized processer of information.
Prior knowledge plays an important role in learning
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Unit 3, section 3: Cognitive, constructivism, and behaviourism theories OF NUMERACY
Principles / Believes of Cognitivist

1. Learning consists of changes in mental constructs and processes.
2. Learning is something that happens as a result of thinking.
3. For meaningful learning to take place, new information needs to fit in
with existing cognitive structures.
4. Learning is a process in which the student is actively engaged.
Developmental stages, according to Piaget

Piaget claimed that as children interact with their social and physical
environment, their mental growth progresses through four distinct stages.
These stages have so much importance to the learning of mathematics.
Below are the stages of development presented by Jean Piaget:
• Sensory-motor (0-2 years of age): This stage is where children begin

to use imitation, memory, and thought. The child moves from reflex
actions to goal-directed activity
• Pre-operational (2-7 years): This is the stage where children
gradually develop language and the ability to think in symbolic form
• Concrete operational (7-11 years): This is the stage where children
are able to solve concrete (hands-on) problems in a logical fashion
• Formal operational (11-15 years): This is the stage where children
can solve abstract problems logically.
Activity 3. 5
What is important about Piaget’s work?
What is inductive-deductive approach to teaching?

The inductive teaching method goes from the specific to the general and
may be based on specific experiments or experiential learning exercises.
Inductive reasoning is based on a variety of cases or data (i.e., specifics),
discovering patterns, and forming conclusions (i.e., general).
Deductive teaching methods progress from the general concept to the
specific use or application. In deductive reasoning, a general statement is
made, and logic is used to fit the specific cases.
Implications of the Cognitive theory of learning to the teaching

of mathematics
• The teacher needs to know about the student’s previous learning
• The teacher assists the student in developing meaning by providing
puzzles and rules for the student to work through.
• The teacher provides a structure or helps the student create a structure
that adds new learning.
• The teacher needs to employ the inductive-deductive approach of
teaching.
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OF NUMERACY This page is left blank for your notes
Constructivism
Constructivism is a cognitivist learning theory which states that learning is
an active process in which learners construct new ideas or concepts based
upon their current/past knowledge. It focuses on knowledge construction. In
other words, constructivism refers to a process where the learner is actively
engaged in constructing both the knowledge acquired and the strategies used
to acquire it. It is a theory of knowledge that argues that humans generate
knowledge and meaning from an interaction between their experiences and
their ideas. The learner selects and transforms information, constructs
hypotheses, and makes decisions, relying on a cognitive structure to do so.
Constructivism is built on the work of Jean Piaget and Jerome Bruner. The
learning theories of John Dewey, Marie Montessori, and David Kolb served
as the foundation of constructivist learning theory. Learning is seen as the
process by which individuals are introduced to culture by more skilled
members (Driver et al., 1994).
Activity 3.6
Briefly explain constructivism?
Characteristics of Constructivism
• Active learning
• Discovery learning
• Knowledge building
The teacher acts as a facilitator who encourages students to discover

principles for themselves and to construct knowledge by working to solve
real problems. A common misconception about the constructivist theory is
that instructors should not instruct anything directly to the students but
should always allow them to construct knowledge for themselves.
Teacher’s role in the constructivist teaching and learning

environment
1. Orchestrate discussion among learners.
2. Encourage learners to verbalize the mathematics they construct when
doing activities.
3. Encourage learners to make connections between different aspects of
mathematics
4. Encourage learners to explain and justify their solutions
5. Encourage self and peer assessment
6. Make learning relevant to everyday life
7. Use a variety of resources to cater for different learning styles.
Role of the learner in a constructivist teaching and learning

environment
• Discuss work with peers and teacher
• Pose and solve own problems
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• Verbalize the mathematics they are constructing when doing activities.

• Make connections between different aspects of mathematics
• Explain and justify own solutions
• Do self and peer assessment
• Investigate own errors.
Methods of assessment in a constructivist teaching and

learning environment
• Question and answer
• Observation
• Self-assessment
• Peer assessment
• Project work
• Essay
• Error Analysis
• Examination and Quiz
Now that you can confidently explain learning through the cognitive and
constructivism perspective of learning let's turn our attention to
Behaviourism. But before that, you may begin by reflecting on the question
below:
Explain what developmentalists’ means?
Do you realise that developmentalists are psychologists who hold the view
that if we are to understand learning, then we must not confine ourselves to
observable behaviour but must be concerned with learners’ ability to
mentally reorganise their inner world of concepts, memories etc.? If yes,
then congratulation.
Behaviourism
The fundamental idea underlying the behaviourist theory is that learning is a
connection between stimulus and response produced in a student or the
connection between response or reinforcement. For the behaviourist,
learning is the acquisition of new behaviour through conditioning. Teaching
and learning is a process of conditioning students to respond or react to
stimuli, and technology can help facilitate this training by controlling the
stimulus, choosing correct responses, and providing appropriate incentives
to learning, such as computer games.
Behaviourist theory assumes the learner as essentially passive, who simply

responds to their environment. They believe that a learner basically begins
as a clean slate, and his/her behaviour is shaped through positive or negative
reinforcements. To the behaviourist, learning is a process by which stimulus
and response bonds are established when a successful response immediately
and frequently follows a stimulus. Behaviourist believe that the environment
UEW/ CODeL 81
plays a key role in learning – learning takes place in a well-structured

environment.
They hold the belief that the child’s mind is empty (tabula rasa) and needs
to be filled by teachers.
Names of Early Behaviourist

• Edward Thorndike
• Burrhus Frederic Skinner
• Ivan Pavlov
Principles / Believes of the Behaviourist

• Behaviour that is positively reinforced will reoccur; intermittent
reinforcement is particularly effective.
• Information should be presented in small amounts to reinforcing
responses ("shaping").
• Reinforcements will generalize across similar stimuli ("stimulus
generalization"), producing secondary conditioning.
Implications of the Behaviourist Theory of Learning to the

Teaching of Mathematics
1. The teacher needs to reinforce the correct response and discourage the
wrong response.
2. The teacher controls the stimuli, chooses the correct response, and
provides the appropriate reward.
3. In the behaviourist perspective, the feedback to students is seen as a
reward and should immediately follow the learning process.
4. The teacher can also use marks, prizes, and praise as different
reinforcements.
5. This approach can also be used in programmed learning - the lesson
needs to be then arranged into a series of steps, and feedback must
follow immediately.
Summary
Hello learner! This section has also come to an end. This section has
discussed the theoretical perspectives of Constructivism, Behaviourism, and
Cognitivism. It also considered the educational implications of these
theoretical perspectives to the Early Grade Educator. Hope you enjoyed
reading this section too.

Activity 3.5
The most important ideas associated with Piaget’s work can be found in the
concrete operational stage in the name of ‘conservation.’ Children can
conserve number when they recognise that the number of objects does not
82 UEW/ CODeL
change when they are rearranged or spread out, and they can conserve
length when they know that the length of an object remains the same no
matter where it is placed.
Activity 3.6
Constructivism refers to a situation where the learner is actively engaged in
constructing both the knowledge acquired and the strategies used to acquire
it.
Read and write short notes on the following educationists:
Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi
Fredrich Froebel
Maria Montessori
Jean Piaget
Jerome Brunner
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C
4 OF NUMERACY
ON S
TENT
CHILDREN AND MATHEMATICS

SECTION 1 UNDERSTANDING SHAPE, SIZE, AND PATTERNS 92
SECTION 2 CHARACTERISTICS OF CHILDREN'S DEVELOPMENTAL STAGES 102

UEW/CoDeL 85
XXXXXXX
UNIT 4
Unit X, section
CHILDRENX: XXXXXXX
AND MATHEMATICS
In order for children to develop their innate number sense and working
knowledge with formal mathematical concepts, they must understand the
concepts of classification, ordering, conservation, and one-to-one
correspondence. One of the earliest concepts to develop is classification.
Classification involves the discrimination, matching, and grouping of
objects according to their attributes and attributes values (e.g., attributes
such as shape, size, and length). They provide children with the basis for
building early number concepts and the foundation for later skills in
mathematics.
You are now going to study Unit 4. In this unit, you will look at different
ways children learn mathematical concepts and the relevant theories and
principles of learning various mathematical concepts.
Learning outcomes
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:
• Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of different ways Early
Grade children learn mathematical concepts as proposed by theorists
and their relevance.
• Demonstrate an understanding of relevant theories and principles of
learning and their implications for teaching Early Grade mathematics.
Learning indicators
• Describe how respect for gender equity and inclusivity in mathematics
classrooms promote learning for all.
• Identify theories and theoretical principles that are relevant to the
learning and teaching of mathematics in the Early Grade classroom.
• Analyse portions of the Early Grade official mathematics curriculum
to identify which theoretical perspectives form the basis of the
curriculum.
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UNIT 4 SECTION
OF NUMERACY 1
Unit 4, section 1: Understanding shape,
UNDERSTANDING SHAPE, size,SIZE,
and patterns
AND PATTERNS
Shapes, sizes, and patterns are important concepts in mathematics

development and provide children with the basis for building early number
concepts. Here, in this section, we will look at the development of children's
understanding of size, shape, pattern, counting, number recognition, and
one–to–one correspondence. We shall look at some activities we can help
early grade children to do before understanding what a number is.
learning
outcomes By the time you finish going through this section, you should be able to:
• Identify and describe some common properties of objects
• Sort objects with common properties into groups.
• Compare two objects or groups of objects and say how related they are
• Arrange objects in order according to their length, sizes
Learning indicators
• Outline and discuss what children can do before learning about
numbers.
• Analyse the learning trajectory for counting.
Sorting or Classifying Objects

By sorting or classifying objects with children, we help them to put objects
into groups of things that are alike in some way and can be distinguished
from all others. Sorting activities often arise in activities in the home or
during free play. For example, the book goes to the cupboard, the broom to
the corner of the room – and so on. Sorting is a way of grouping or
classifying objects according to their attributes or characteristics. Children
learn to classify on the basis of qualities that involves sight, smell, and
touch. Some visual attributes include size, shape, colour, and texture. When
we sort or identify objects with children, we assist them in grouping objects
into classes that are related in some way but distinct from one another.
We can begin by asking children to identify how one object is similar to

other objects and group them together. Objects of the same colour, shape, or
size can exist. We encourage children to gather things and organize them
into groups to satisfy any of these properties or characteristics (size, shape,
length). They decide which objects belong to groups with specific
characteristics as they sort out or classify materials such as crayons, books,
pens, empty tins, etc. For example, children may sort or classify objects
such as pens, pencils, chalk, and crayon and put them together as a group of
writing materials. Activities selected should provide children with the
opportunities to create sets and to study the qualitative relationship between
them systematically. Set formation is a prerequisite for understanding the
concept of numbers and learning to count. Attribute pieces can be made
from cards or wood.
88 UEW/ CODeL
Unit 4, section 1: Understanding shape, size, and patterns OF NUMERACY
Figure 4.1: Some attribute pieces
Children are guided to sort these attribute pieces in a variety of ways. They
may sort them out into, say, a group of small and thick shapes, or a group of
circles, large and thin (small) pieces, and so on.
Shape and Size

Babies’ perception of an object begins from their earliest days of birth to
about 18 months. For instance, they see that mother is different from father
and that plate is different from a table even if they do not know the name
and cannot articulate the key differences between them. They also
differentiate objects by their size: they see that this is a book, and it is bigger
than a pen. Children aged between three to four years learn several aspects
of shapes, both two-dimensional (2 -D) and solid (3 -D). They easily
discriminate or perceive the differences between various shapes. For
example, when asked whether the shapes in Figure 4.2 are different,
children will quickly agree that they are. They can distinguish between a
regular prism (like a book) and a sphere (like a ball). In brief, the ability to
discriminate means only that the children see the shapes look different. In
terms of size, they discriminate by seeing that one object is bigger.
Figure 4.2: Two

Shapes
Activity 4.1
1. What is the size of the balls?
a) ……………….Ball b) ………….ball
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OF NUMERACY Unit 4, section 1: Understanding shape, size, and patterns
2. Identify the following shapes in Fig 4.1?
Figure 4.3: Different forms of Shapes
What is meant by Patterns in mathematics?

A pattern is a set of numbers, shapes, or any object that is repeated over and
over again. They are created when things like colours, figures, shapes,
objects, and so on are arranged in a particular order and repeated. For
example, the figure below is a bracelet made up of three different shapes.
The shapes rectangle, circle, and triangle form a pattern since they are
repeated.
We can also form a pattern with letters. You can see from figure 7.3 that
letter A and letter B are alternating with each other. This becomes our
pattern.
ABAB
Figure 4.4: Pattern with letters A and B
Pattern recognition begins with the ability to perceive patterns around the
environment (e.g., Look, my stripes are the same as yours). Children may
not be able to precisely label or describe patterns, but as they gain more
language skills, they are able to discern and label them. For instance,
pointing to a series of shapes in the classroom: Sir/ Madam, I see little
square, big square, little square, big square! etc.
Notes: Patterns can also be formed with numbers.
90 UEW/ CODeL
Activity 4.2
Describe an activity in which you would engage kindergarten learners to
enable them to identify the following shapes: rectangle, circle, and triangle.
Development of Verbal Counting

Teaching children to count is more than helping them learn the numbers one
to ten. It involves helping them understand the meaning of numbers.
Counting tells how many objects are in a set. When we count, we match
objects in the set being counted with the number words. The last word in the
counting sequence names the quantity. The meaning attached to counting is
the key conceptual idea on which all other number concepts are developed.
Children will often learn to recite the number names long before they can
really count or, for that matter, understand the concept of number. For
instance, children ages two to three might move objects as they count, but
they might count four while moving five objects. At ages 3 to 4, it can be
noticed that they are still learning to understand quantity. However, by age 4
to 6, they can match the number one to ten with ten items; this means they
are really counting with meaning. Clements and Sarama (2009) developed a
learning trajectory for counting (See Table 4.1) which enables teachers to
see the overarching goals of counting and how teachers can help a child
move to more sophisticated levels of thinking.
Table 4.1: Learning trajectory for counting

Level of thinking Characteristics
Precounter Here, the child has no verbal counting ability.
A young boy looking at three balls will answer "balls" when asked how
many. The child does not associate a number word with a quantity.
Reciter This child verbally counts using number

words, but not always in the right
Order. Sometimes they say more numbers
than the object to count, skip objects or repeat the same number.
Corresponder A child at this level can make one-to-one

correspondence with numbers and objects, starting with one number per
object. If asked "How many?" at the end of the count, they may have to
recount to answer.
Counter This child can accurately count objects in

organised display (in a line, for example) and can answer "How many?"
accurately by giving the last number counted (this is called the
cardinality). They may be able to write the matching numeral and may be
able to say the number just after or before a number by counting up from
1.
UEW/ CODeL 91
Producer - A learner at this level can count out objects to a

certain number. If asked to give five blocks, they can show you that
amount.
Counter and Producer - A child who combines the two previous levels
can count out objects, tell how many are in a group, remember which
objects are counted and which are not, and respond to random
arrangements. They begin to separate tens, and ones like 23 is 20 and 3
more.
Counter Backwards - A child at this level can count backward by

removing objects one by one or just verbally as in a "countdown."
Counter from any number This child can count up starting from numbers
other than one. They are able to immediately state the number before and
after a given number.
Skip Counter Here; the child can skip-count with

understanding by a group of a given number – tens, fives, twos, etc
Source: Clements and Sarama (2009)
Verbal counting has at least two separate skills:

• First, a child must be able to produce the standard list of counting
words in order: example, one, two, three, four, etc.
• Second, a child must be able to connect this sequence in a one-to-one
correspondence with the objects in the set being counted, and each
object must get one and only one count.
As part of the counting skills, children must be guided to recognize that

each counting number identifies a quantity that is one more than the
previous quantity, as illustrated in figure 4.5
Fig. 4.5: In counting, each number is one

more than the previous number
92 UEW/ CODeL
Tips for Counting

• Don't rush the children through this activity. It is important that
children become comfortable and accurate using the counting
sequence.
• Encourage children to move objects as they are being counted so that
they learn to count each item once
• If children are confused with counting order (e.g., 1, 3, 2, etc.), point
to the items and model the correct counting order
• Encourage children to state what is being counted (E.g., 1, 2, 3, books,
not just 1, 2, 3...).
• Organised concrete and visual representations can help with the
understanding of numbers and the relationship between them.
Counting Forward and Counting Backward

Counting forward or Counting On: An Addition Strategy
Is a beginning mental mathematics strategy for an addition? The procedure
is to start with one addend and count on a number of steps equal to the
second number. This strategy is most easily used when one of the addends is
1, 2, or 3, as it becomes difficult to keep track of bigger addends. Since it is
easier to start with the bigger of the two numbers being added, a knowledge
of the commutative property is helpful. For example, to add 5 + 3, start with
"5" and then count up "6, 7, 8".
5 6 7 8
5+3 1 3 =2 8 3
So, 5 +
Counting backward
This is basically the same idea as counting on, but the counting goes
backwards. This strategy is most useful for subtrahends of 1, 2, or 3.
9 - 3 Start at 9 and count back

3 numbers.
9 8 7 6
1 2 3
So, 9 - 3 = 6
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Notes
As you count forward or you count on, the quantity increases, and as you
count backward, the quantity decrease.
Activity 4.3
1. Line up five children and five chairs labeled 1 to 5 in front of the
classroom. As the whole class counts from 1 to 5, the children sit
down once at a time, and when the target number, 5, is reached, it is
repeated. The child who sat on five now stands, and the count goes
back to 1. Children stand up one at a time as the count goes back as
illustrated below:
1, 2, 3, 4, 5 5, 4, 3, 2,
1
Forward count Backward
count
2. Create a simple fill-in-the-blank counting worksheet to show their
understanding of counting backwards. Example: 20, 19, __ , 17,__ ,
__, 14 , 13, __, __, 9 etc
3. Assist children to write the following numbers in backward skip count
order
a) 36, 34, 37, 32, 33 , 35
b) 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31.
Understanding one–to–one correspondence

The concept one – to – one correspondence is an early mathematics skill
that involves the act of counting each object in a set once and only once
with one touch per object. In other words, one–to–one correspondence is the
ability to match numbers to objects or objects to objects. For example, they
match the number five to five books or match a chair to a table. Children
begin to develop one-to-one correspondence when they match one object
with another. According to NCTM (2000), when it comes to counting with
one – to – one, the objective is to "Use the one – to – one correspondence
counting skills to solve problems by matching sets and comparing number
amount and in counting the number of objects to 10 and beyond and to
recognise the number of objects in small groups without counting and by
counting" (p.34).
SE SE
Fig. 4.6: matching objects one-to-one
94 UEW/ CODeL
More Than, Less Than, and Equal To of a quantity

The concepts of "more", "less," and "same" are basic relationships
contributing to the overall concept of number. Classroom activities should
help children build on and refine this basic notion that links their ability to
count. Using two groups of objects, with one having more objects than the
other, we lead children to pair or associate objects for the object until one
group is exhausted and objects
are still left in one of the groups. This activity has been illustrated in Fig 4.7
using arrows or matching lines.
A B
Fig. 4.7: Matching objects
The children note that one ball in group A is not associated with any bottle
top in group B. There is "one more ball than" the bottle tops. We say group
A has more objects than group B or that group B has fewer or fewer objects
than group A.
In Fig 4.6, we saw that each table in set A is paired with a chair in set B
such that all the objects in the two sets have been paired. We say in this case
that there are as many objects in set A as in set B (i.e., there are an equal
number of objects in set A and set B).
Comparing objects
As a prospective early grade teacher, you need to provide opportunities for
children to compare objects. Children should be made to compare objects
such as two pencils or sticks and note the difference in their lengths. You
should also ask children to compare their heights with the heights of their
peers in the class. By doing this, we can encourage them to use the
expressions such as ‘longer than’, ‘taller than’, ‘smaller than’, etc. For
example, a child may say, “The pencil is shorter than the pen’.
Figure 4.8: comparing lengths
UEW/ CODeL 95
Note: In comparing objects, make sure that the two objects are on the same
flat surface
Summary
We have discussed in this section that children’s mathematics classrooms
should be filled with instructional resources for them to play with. We also
learned that attribute pieces are cut-out shapes and discussed how patterns
are formed. In addition, we discussed that objects are sorted according to
common features/characteristics, matching involves associating objects
from one group to objects in another group.

Activity 4.1
1.
a) Big ball
b) Small ball
2. Circle, square, star, and triangle
Activity 4.2
• Show the pupils cutouts of the given shapes
• Assist pupils in learning the names of the shapes – rectangle, circle,
triangle.
• Give out the cut-out shapes to groups or individuals to examine them
carefully
• Assist pupils in taking turns to pick out a shape from a collection and
name it
• Pupils identify a named shape from a collection of shapes
• Pupils identify a named shape from shapes drawn on cardboard or
chalkboard
• A pupil calls out the name of a shape, and another pupil draws it or
traces it from a cutout.
• Pupils identify or point to a named shape in a real object.
Activity 4.3
1. Practice with students during instruction
2. 20, 19, 18, 17, 16 , 15, 14 , 13, 12 , 11 , 10 , 9.
3.
a) 37, 36, 35, 34, 33, 32 -------- Backwards skip count
b) 31, 30, 29, 28, 27, 26………. Backward skip count
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CHARACTERISTICS OF CHILDREN’S DEVELOPMENTAL
UNIT 4 SECTION
OF NUMERACY 2
This page is left blank for your notes
STAGES
Welcome to the second section of Unit 4. We discussed in section 1 children

and mathematics by looking at different ways early grade children learn
mathematics concepts. In this current unit, you will be introduced to the
characteristics of children's developmental stages and its implication for
teaching early grade mathematics.
learning
outcomes By the end of this lesson, you will be able to:
• Explain the meanings of development and child development
• Mention and explain the stages of child development
Learning indicators
• Outline and analyse the meaning of development and children’s
development stage.
• Identify and explain attributes of the child development stage.
Development: What does it mean?

The term "development" has various meanings to different people and can
be explained in different contexts. In general terms, Development can be
explained as a process that creates growth, progress, positive change, or
addition of physical, economic, environmental, social, and demographic
components. Development refers to the physiological, behavioural,
cognitive, and social changes that occur throughout human life, guided by
genetic predispositions (nature) and environmental influences (nurture). In
terms of mathematical Development, Vygotsky conceptualised it as a
process involving participation, communication, inclusiveness,
instructiveness, situatedness, and so forth (Webel, 2013).
What is child development?

Child development is the scientific study of the patterns of growth, change,
and stability that occur from conception through adolescence. Child
development is also referred to as the sequence of Physical, language,
thought, and emotional changes that occur in a child from birth to the
beginning of adulthood. This Development covers skills that a child master
over their life span in four domains or categories: Physical, Social and
Emotional, Cognitive and Communication, and speech. Though they are
categorised separately, they are linked and co-occur at each stage of a child's
development.
Stages of child development

There are three stages of development: early childhood, middle childhood,
and adolescence. These stages are defined by the primary tasks of
development in each stage.
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Unit 4, section 2: Characteristics of children’s developmental stages OF NUMERACY
Developmental Characteristics and Interest of School-Age

Children
Transition Years Grades K -1 (5-6 years)

Physical Social-Emotional Cognitive
• Enjoy long periods of • Eager to receive adult • Understand

free play praise language
• Enjoy small group • Prefer play in a small better than
cooperative games group they speak
• May require rest after • Eager to identify with • Eager to
high energy play older children learn
• Improved body • Learning to cooperate • Define
coordination; yet still with others, but may at things by
can fall easily times display selfish their use
behaviour • Developing
a sense of
humor
• Ask many
questions
Middle Years Grade 2 -3 (7 -9 years)
• Enthusiastic about • Strong drive • Enjoy collecting
games towards things
• Possess a high activity independence • Can plan and
level • Like to take on carry out a
• Enjoy games that responsibility project with
allow for comparison • Like to have a best adult support
of skills friend • Develop a sense
• Enjoy games that • Rigid sense of of time
allow for self- right and wrong. • Like to talk; use
improvement language to
express feelings
Pre – Adolescent Years Grades 4 -6 (10 -12 years)
• Enjoy competitive • Enjoy small, peer- • Engage in
games dominated group daydreaming
• Possess a high activity discussion • Can often
level • Like to join understand other
• Enjoy physical organised groups points of view
activities that master • Anxious to grow • Enjoy problem-
specific skills up solving games
• Enjoy games that • Intensely loyal to • Ask many
allow for self- their peer group questions and
improvement • Can be daring and want a
competitive thoughtful
answer
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Early Teens Grades 7- 8 (13 -14 years)

• Experiencing the • Sensitive to their • Capable of a
beginning of puberty appearance high level of
• May appear awkward • Critical of their abstract thought
as a result of rapid parent and home • Beginning to
growth • Depend on their think about their
• Tend to tire easily peer group to future life roles
• High activity level and develop an identity • Need time and
appetite • Strong desire to freedom to
assert individuality engage in self–
and independence reflection
• Are able to
postpone
gratification
What are the Characteristics of Child Development Stages?

At each stage of development, children gain skills in four domains, as
mentioned earlier. These domains are:
• Physical domain- The body increases in skills and performance over

time. Physical skills developed under this domain include the broad
development of motor skills such as rolling over, standing, walking,
running, as well as the ability to maintain balance, change position,
sitting, and many more. This development also includes the child's
ability to clutch with fingers and hands, eat, dress, write, etc.
• Social and emotional domain: - Involves learning what feelings and
emotions are, understanding how and why they occur, recognising
their feelings and that of others, and developing effective ways for
managing those feelings evolves as they grow. They also develop a
relationship with others (e.g., teachers, friends, and family) and learn
how to interact and follow social etiquette.
• Cognitive or Mental domain: Cognitive development deals with how
children think, explore, and figure out things. This is to say it is the
development of knowledge, skills problem -solving, reasoning, and
remembering which aid children to think about and understand the
world around them. They are the skills the brain uses to think, read,
pay attention, and solve problems.
• Communication and speech domain: Children learn to communicate
with people around them and learn the language. This area of
development is more than just talking.
These areas of development interlink at every stage of children's

development, and there cannot be any progress in one area without
progressing in another.
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Activity 4.4
Briefly discuss any three stages of child development.
Theories of Children's Development

Developmental theories provide a framework for thinking about human
development and learning. Child development theories are centered on
many elements of Development, such as social, emotional, and cognitive
growth, and aim to explain how children change and grow over the course
of childhood. Understanding is learned or modified, and knowledge and
skills are retained, all of which are influenced by cognitive, emotional, and
contextual factors. When youngsters have learned fundamental
computational skills and can apply mathematics to their environment,
mathematics becomes useful in their lives.
In section 3 of Unit 3, we identified four distinct stages of development.

Now stop and mention these four stages identified in Unit 3. Did you
mention: Sensory-motor, Preoperational, Concrete operational, and Formal
operational? If yes, then congratulations.
We shall again carry out a detailed discussion on Piaget’s developmental

stages and look at other developmentalist who also made an important
contribution to the developmental theory of learning.
Piaget's Cognitive developmental theory

The formation of a person's thought processes and how these thought
processes affect how they perceive and communicate with the world are the
subjects of this theory. Piaget's theory outlines and explains how thought
processes and mental states form. The sensory-motor stage, Pre-operational
stage, Concrete Operational stage, and Formal Operational stage are the four
stages he recognizes of children's Development. The order in which the
stages occur has been largely invariant; however, the ages at which people
enter each higher-order stage vary according to each person's hereditary and
environmental characteristics. Piaget noted that children should not be seen
as little adults and therefore should not be treated as such in the learning
situation.
• Sensory-motor Stage: This stage lasts from birth to two years, during
which time an infant's experience of the environment is restricted to
sensory sensations and motor movements. Children are often without
language during this period, but they learn to physically manipulate
objects in their environment. Later in this period, children become
conscious of others and begin to learn the language.
• Pre -Operational Stage: The pre-operational stage is the second stage

in Piaget's theory of cognitive development and begins at age two and
lasts until approximately age 7 (i.e., 2 – 7years; Pre-school, Nursery,
UEW/CODeL 101
kindergarten, and Basic 1). Some of the major characteristics and

developmental changes of children are: Children begin to think
symbolically in symbolic play and learn to use words and pictures to
represent objects. Children tend to be egocentric and struggle to see
things from the perspective of others. Children at this stage are not
able to carry out the four rules in mathematics (i.e., addition,
subtraction, multiplication, and division) mentally because they are
unable to relate to the abstract state of things. They are good at
imitating though they may not understand what someone does. Putting
things in their proper order is also a difficulty for them.
• Concrete Operational Stage: According to Piaget, the concrete

operational stage depicts an important stage in the cognitive
Development of children. This period spans the time of middle
childhood. It begins around age seven and continues until age 11 and
is characterised by the Development of logical thought. Their thinking
becomes more logical and organised but still very concrete. When
given a problem, they cannot formulate all of the possible alternatives
at the outset. They begin to group things into classes and form one-to-
one correspondences. They can reverse thought processes and order
elements or events in time. Children at this stage are also able to
perform mental actions rather than relying on the physical need to
perform them.
• Formal Operational Stage: Children learn the ability to deal with the
abstract in both verbal and mathematical contexts when they reach the
formal operational level, which is when they are 14 years old or older.
They have the ability to reverse thought processes, comprehend time,
quantity, distance, and height, and execute mathematical operations
solely by abstract thought.
An important idea associated with Piaget's work and noted in the concrete
operations stage is 'conservation.' Children can conserve number when they
recognise that the number of objects does not change when they are
rearranged or spread out and can conserve length when they know that the
length of an object remains the same no matter where it is placed.
Jerome Bruner theory of development

Bruner's model suggested that children and adults alike can experience and
subsequently think about a particular idea or concept through three main
stages when learning mathematics: enactive, iconic, and symbolic. Bruner
noted that any subject could be taught effectively in some intellectually
honest form to any child at any stage of development. His theory of
development and the learning of mathematics are summarised as follows:
• Enactive stage: Learning at the enactive level involves hands-on or
direct experience. The learner is engaged in firsthand manipulation,
constructing, or arranging of real-life objects. The individual can know
102 UEW/CODeL
many things at the motor level and perform many coordinated

movements without expressing this knowledge. This is especially true
for children at the sensory-motor stage of development. The learner
interacts directly with the physical, representing the concrete phase.
Physical objects must be used to teach children at this phase or stage.
For example, children understand four only if they see and handle four
objects.
• Iconic stage: This is the imagery phase characterized by the use of a

visual medium. With this stage knowing occurs when children make
mental pictures of concrete objects. It is semi-concrete and involves
representational thinking based on pictures or images. They can
mentally picture geometric shapes and compute their areas. Children
can produce imagery "maps" in their minds. Visual and perceptual
organizations dominate at this stage. For example, children can picture
3 counters plus four counters together, making 7 counters.
• Symbolic stage: At the symbolic level the learner is capable of using

abstract symbols to represent reality. This is the abstract phase where
the child manipulates and uses symbols irrespective of their enactive
or iconic counterparts. Ideas are represented in symbols. Children can
make mental manipulations on abstract symbols like 3 + 4 = 7 and A =
½ bh.
According to Bruner, these three stages do not appear in sequence and then
disappear. But are used simultaneously for the acquisition of new
knowledge throughout the lifetime of an individual and are not necessarily
age-dependent. The implication of Bruner's theory for teaching is that new
concepts should be taught first using concrete materials with a gradual
introduction of abstract symbols through the use of pictures and diagrams.
Behavioural Child Development theories

This theory is quite different from previous theories about child
development. This is because it ignores interior thoughts and feelings.
Instead, it focuses solely on how our experiences shape our lives. According
to the behavioral approach, all human behaviour can be defined in terms of
environmental factors. Environmental contact influences behaviour,
according to behavioural theories of child development. This is based on
John Watson, B.F. Skinner, and Ivan Pavlov's theories. Learning, according
to these behaviorists, occurs through processes of association and
reinforcement. Classical conditioning and operant conditioning are two
significant types of learning that arose from this developmental method.
Learning is accomplished by conditioning, which entails pairing a naturally
occurring stimulus with a previously neutral stimulus. Reinforcement and
punishment are used in operant conditioning to change behaviour.
UEW/CODeL 103
Maria Montessori theory of Development

As defined by Montessori, the plane of Development is divided into four
periods (i.e., four planes). The first plane (birth to age six, early childhood),
the second plane (ages six to twelve, childhood), the third plane (ages
twelve to eighteen, adolescence), and the fourth plane (ages 18 to 24,
Maturity). This theory encompasses child development from conception
until adulthood at the age of 24. Traditional education thinks that
Development is linear and that children learn more and more as they grow
older, building on what they have already learned. Montessori, unlike
traditional education, recognized that a child's Development is not always
linear. She believes that Development happens in cycles with peaks and
valleys (see Fig 4.1).
Figure 8.1: Montessori Plane

development
A horizontal line may be seen in Fig. 8.1, indicating the child's age. The
triangles are formed by lines of progression and retrogression. This
demonstrates that Development is most intense at the start of a plane, peaks,
and then fades to the next plane in preparation for the start of a new stage of
Development.
• The First Plane: Birth to Age 6 (Early Childhood): This is the

beginning of a child's personality development. As Montessori put it,
the child has an absorbent intellect at this period. They acquire the
skills of speaking, reading, crawling, and walking. From birth to the
age of three, the youngster absorbs everything about his or her
environment like a sponge. This is the absorbent mind's unconscious
state. This absorption becomes conscious between the ages of 3 and 6,
which is the second half of the first plane. The sensitive periods,
including spoken language, written language, mathematics, movement,
and many others, make tasks more achievable.
• The Second Plane: Age 6 – 12 (Childhood): Children's appetite for
information and strong desire for intellectual independence
characterize the second plane of development. They begin to seek
moral order and develop their conscience, or sense of good and wrong,
104 UEW/CODeL
at this age. This is an excellent opportunity for parents to teach their

children about fairness and how to help others.
• The Third Plane: Age 12 – 18 (Adolescence): Feelings of self-
concern and self-assessment characterize this development period. It's
a good time to think critically and explore deeper moral and societal
principles. During this stage, the teenager is working on developing
his social self and feels compelled to engage and exert more control
over his or her life. They also want to be emotionally self-sufficient.
• The Fourth Plane: Ages 18 – 24 (Maturity): An intense yearning for
material and spiritual independence characterizes the fourth level of
development. They learn about themselves and their place in the
world, and they know that discovery, trial and error, and practice are
the best ways to learn.
In reality, properly comprehending how children change and grow

throughout childhood necessitates consideration of a wide range of elements
that influence physical and psychological development. Genes,
environment, and interactions between these two forces all play a role in
how children develop physically and mentally.
Summary
Development is the process of growth or progress. This unit delineated child
development and the characteristics of the development stages. The unit
also outlined theories that explain physical, language, speech, social,
emotional, and cognitive development.
Self-Assessment Questions
1. Children can sort or classify attribute pieces according to
a) ………………………
b) ………………………
c) ……………………….
2. With an illustrative example, describe how can a child who cannot

count determines which of two groups contains more objects?
3. The procedure in which one object is paired with or associated with
another is termed………
4. Discuss four characteristics of child development

5. Discuss the contributions of Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi and Friedrich
Froebel to the learning of mathematics.
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106 UEW/CODeL
C
5 OF NUMERACY
ON S
TENT
MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES
SECTION 1 MEANING AND PRINCIPLES OF MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCE (MI) 114
SECTION 2 GARDNER'S THEORY OF MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCE 116
SECTION 3 MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCE THEORY AND PERSONAL DEVELOPMENT 120

UEW/CoDeL 106
XXXXXXX
UNIT 5
Unit X, section
MULTIPLEX: XXXXXXX
INTELLIGENCE
Hello! You are welcome to unit 5. In the previous unit, you were taken
through how children learn mathematics and their developmental stages.
Here, in this unit, we are going to look at multiple intelligence. We shall
discuss the foundations of multiple intelligence theory and how the theory
influences one’s personal development.
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• Demonstrate understanding of the meaning and principles of multiple
intelligences
• Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of implications of multiple
intelligences in classroom practice.
Learning indicators
• Outline and analyses principles of multiple intelligences
• Describe the dimensions of Howard Gardner’s multiple intelligences
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UEW/ CODeL 109

MEANING AND PRINCIPLES OF MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCE
UNIT 5 SECTION
OF NUMERACY 1
Unit 5, section
(MI) 1: Meaning and principles of multiple intelligence (mi)
Dear student, we welcome you to the first section of unit 5. In this section,
we want to discuss the meaning of multiple intelligence (MI) and its
principles.
learning
• Explain what multiple intelligence is
• Identify the various principles of multiple intelligence
Learning indicators
• Describe the meaning of multiple intelligence
• Outline the foundation of multiple intelligence
What is multiple intelligence?

Multiple intelligence refers to a theory describing the different ways
students learn and acquire information. Now the question one may ask is
what qualifies as an "Intelligence?” The concept of intelligence has been
modified since the birth of psychology. Some believe intelligence consists
of one general factor, while others believe intelligence is a collection of
distinct abilities instead of a single element. Intelligence includes the skill
enabling individuals to resolve genuine problems and create an effective
product and the potential for finding or creating new problems. These bits
of intelligence range from the use of words, pictures, numbers, physical
movement, introspection, and being in tune with nature.
Activity 5.1
Mention any two fundamental principles of intelligence.
The Foundations of Multiple Intelligence

The first intelligence test came out of a French psychologist named Alfred
Binet and his colleagues. In 1904, Alfred and his colleagues were tasked by
the then minister of public instruction in Paris to develop a means in
determining primary grade learners who were "at-risk" of failing to provide
remediation for these learners. In the process, they came out with the first
intelligence test. This was later imported to the United States, and
intelligence testing became widespread, as did the notion that something
called "intelligence" could be objectively measured and reduced to a single
number or "IQ" score. Almost 80 years after Alfred Binet and his colleagues
developed the first intelligence tests, Howard Gardner, a Harvard
psychologist, challenged this commonly held belief that our culture had
defined intelligence too narrowly. He then argued that at least seven
essential intelligence exist and most recently added an eighth and discussed
the possibility of a ninth (Gardner, 1999). Gardner devised a multiple
intelligence theory (MI theory), presuming that different human capacities
range from musical intelligence to the intelligence involved in self-
understanding.
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Unit 5, section 1: Meaning and principles of multiple intelligence (mi) OF NUMERACY
Summary
We have learned from this section that multiple intelligence delineates the
different ways students learn and acquire information and that it ranges from
the use of words, numbers, pictures, and so on. We also learned that the first
intelligence test emerged from the work of Alfred Binet and his colleagues,
which was aimed at establishing ways of providing support to learners who
were failing in their studies.

Activity 5.1
1. Intelligence is not fixed – teachers can help to develop the intellectual
capacity of students.
2. Intelligence is not unitary – everyone has some of each intelligence,
forming a unique pattern of intelligence.
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UNIT 5 SECTION
OF NUMERACY 2
Unit 5, section 2: Gardner's
GARDNER'S THEORYtheory
OFof MULTIPLE
multiple intelligence
INTELLIGENCE
Hello student, you are welcome to section 2 of unit 5. We discussed the

meaning of multiple intelligence and the historical foundation of multiple
intelligence in the previous section. In this section, we are still going to
discuss multiple intelligence, but with a slight focus on identifying the
forms of multiple intelligence by Howard Gardner. We shall also discuss
whether multiple intelligence is the same as learning style.
learning
outcomes We hope by the time you complete this section, you will be able to:
• Mention and explain at least five forms of intelligence as proposed by
Howard Gardner.
• Draw a distinction between multiple intelligence and learning style.
Learning indicators
• Outline the dimensions of Howard Gardner’s multiple intelligences
• Compare multiple intelligence with learning style.
• Outline how the dimensions of Howard Gardner’s multiple
intelligence can be used in teaching early grade children.
Activity 5.2
1. These learners benefit from physical experiences such as touching.
What kind of intelligence do they have?
2. What kind of intelligence does Adwoa have if she can work well with
personal deadlines and goals?
3. What features do people with logical-mathematical intelligence
exhibit?
Gardner’s eight categories of intelligences

Gardner first outlined or conceived the theory of multiple intelligence in
1983. He theorized that people have different "intelligence" and that people
do not have just an intellectual capacity but have many kinds of intelligence.
Gardner provided a means of mapping the broad range of abilities that
humans possess by grouping their capabilities into the following eight broad
categories of intelligence:
Verbal–Linguistic Intelligence: This intelligence deals with one's capacity
to use words effectively, whether orally or written. In other words, verbal-
linguistic intelligence involves knowing through reading, writing, and
speaking (i.e., through language). It also consists of understanding the order
and meaning of words in speech and writing and how to use the language
properly. Some of the application of this intelligence includes using
language to remember information, convincing people to take a specific
course of action through language, and using language to inform
(explanation). It is important to note that individuals with such traits tend to
like various kinds of literature, play word games, engage in discussion with
others, tell jokes, debate, etc.
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Unit 5, section 2: Gardner's theory of multiple intelligence OF NUMERACY
Logical-mathematical Intelligence: This intelligence uses numbers

effectively and reasons logically. It is characterised by logical patterns,
statements and propositions, functions, and other related abstractions. A
logical – mathematically inclined person tends to think more conceptually
and abstractly and can often see patterns and relationships that others miss.
The kinds of processes used in logical-mathematical intelligence services
include categorization, classification, inference, generalisation, calculation,
and hypothesis testing. People with logical-mathematical intelligence have
excellent problem-solving skills and enjoy thinking about abstract ideas,
like conducting scientific experiments.
Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence: Expertise in using one's whole body in

expressing ideas and feelings and facility in using one's hand to produce or
transform things. People with bodily-kinesthetic intelligence are good at
body movement, performing actions, and physical control. They are skilled
in dancing and spots, enjoy creating things with their hands, and have
excellent physical coordination. In short bodily-kinesthetic intelligence,
people remember by doing rather than hearing or seeing.
Musical-Rhythmic Intelligence: This intelligence includes sensitivity to

rhythms, sounds, melody, and timbre or tone colour of a musical piece.
Strong musical intelligence people have a rich understanding of the musical
structure and easily recognise melodic patterns and tons. They have a strong
appreciation for music and are often good at musical composition and
performance.
Interpersonal Intelligence: This intelligence deals with knowing through

interaction with other people. Individuals who have strong interpersonal
intelligence are skilled at nonverbal communication, see situations from a
different perspectivess, and assess the emotions, motivations, desires, and
intentions of those around them. In addition, they are able to resolve
conflicts in group settings.
Intrapersonal Intelligence: This is about self-knowledge and the ability to
act adaptively on the basis of that knowledge. This intelligence includes
having an accurate picture of oneself, awareness of inner moods, intentions;
capacity for self-discipline, self – understanding, and self–esteem.
Individuals who are strong in intrapersonal intelligence are good at being
aware of their own emotional states, feelings, and motivations. They tend to
enjoy self-reflection and analysis. They analyse their strengths and
weaknesses.
Naturalist Intelligence: According to Gardner, individuals who are high in

this type of intelligence are more in tune with nature and are often interested
in nurturing, exploring the environment, and learning about other species. In
other words, they are experts in the recognition and classification of the
numerous species of an individual's environment. People with naturalist
intelligence are interested in subjects such as botany, biology, and zoology
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OF NUMERACY Unit 5, section 2: Gardner's theory of multiple intelligence
and can categorise and catalog information easily. They also enjoy camping,
gardening, hiking, and exploring the outdoors. They dislike learning
unfamiliar topics that have no connection to nature.
Visual-Spatial Intelligence: The ability to perceive the visual-spatial world

accurately and to perform transformation upon those perceptions. This
intelligence involves sensitivity to colour, line, shape, form, space, and
relationships between these elements. People who are strong in visual-
spatial intelligence are good at visualising things. These individuals are
often good with directions and maps, charts, videos, and pictures. They
enjoy drawing, painting, and visual art.
Activity 5.3
Explain why teachers’ educators and student teachers have to develop an
understanding of multiple intelligences theory.
Multiple Intelligence versus learning styles?
Activity 5.4
If you are asked to state if multiple intelligence is the same as learning style,
what would you say? Write your answer down.
Now read on
Multiple intelligences and learning styles are terms that many educators use
interchangeably. But did you know they are different? Multiple intelligence
and learning styles are related but not the same. Multiple intelligence, as
discussed earlier, represents an individual's intellectual abilities and
strengths, whereas learning style, according to Nasreen (2014), is defined as
a way of processing, internalizing, and constructing new materials by an
individual. In short, learning styles have to do with an individual’s preferred
way of learning or, as Gardner put it, how students approach a task.
Learning styles are fluid and may not correlate entirely to the type of
intelligence. Neil Flemming, in 1987, came up with VARK, which stands
for the four basic modalities of learning techniques: visual, aural, auditory,
read/write, and kinaesthetic.
Summary
Gardner claims that we all have eight different forms of intellect. These
separate intelligence collaborate in an infinite number of combinations in
each of our learning experiences. Furthermore, while we all have these
intelligences, they do not develop in the same way or at the same rate in
each individual.
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Unit 5, section 2: Gardner's theory of multiple intelligence OF NUMERACY

Activity 5.2
1. Bodily-kinesthetic
2. Intrapersonal intelligence
3. People with logical-mathematical intelligences are “Maths smart.”
They have the ability to detect patterns, reason deductively, think
logically, make calculations and solve abstract problems.
Activity 5.3
Having knowledge of multiple intelligences allows a teacher educator to
think about the different types of learners he /she might have in his/her
class, encourage all types of intelligences in each learner, and allow for an
individual learning process that will allow each learner to use his or her own
abilities and show that he or she is learning. To the student-teacher, to allow
for an individual learning process, student teachers need to be aware of
diverse intelligence. This will allow them to use their distinct strengths and
display learning.
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MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCE THEORY AND PERSONAL
UNIT 5 SECTION
OF NUMERACY 3
Unit 4, section 3: Multiple intelligence theory and personal development
DEVELOPMENT
Intelligence is not something that is fixed, and teachers can help to develop
the intellectual capacity of students. To apply a learning model in the
classroom, you must first use the model to yourself as a teacher or an
educator before a meaningful application can be made. Therefore, it is
important that you employ multiple intelligences in your classroom, and as a
teacher, you must first understand the multiple intelligences theory and
personalized its content. This will enhance your commitment level in using
the theory with your learners. An essential step in utilising the multiple
intelligences theory is determining the nature and quality of one's own
multiple intelligences and developing them. As one begins to do this, it will
become apparent how his particular fluency or lack of fluency in each of the
eight intelligence affects his / her competency in the various roles as a
teacher.
learning
outcomes By the end of this section, you should be able to do the following:
• Tell how one’s intelligence could be assessed.
• Explain how one can develop his / her intelligence
Learning indicators
• Discuss how learners can develop their intelligence
• Describe the implications of multiple intelligence for teaching and
learning numeracy in the early grade.
Measuring Intelligence
Identifying or developing a person's multiple intelligences profiles is not
simple, and that test cannot accurately determine the nature or quality of a
person's intelligence. The best way to assess one's multiple intelligences,
therefore, is by:
a) Appraisal using multiple intelligence inventory: A realistic appraisal
of your performance in the many kinds of tasks, activities, and
experiences associated with each intelligence can help identify your
multiple intelligences. Look for real-life experiences you've already
had involving these eight intelligences.
b) Tapping multiple intelligence resources: The theory of multiple
intelligences is a good model for looking at individuals' teaching
strengths and examining areas that need improvement. Perhaps you
gravitate towards a cooperative learning strategy because you are an
interpersonal learner or teacher. Therefore, through multiple
intelligence, you can survey your teaching style and see how it
matches the eight intelligences. As a teacher, you can achieve this by
tapping resources in the intelligence you shy away from in the
classroom. Here are some ways to do this:
• Draw on a colleague’s expertise: For example, suppose you don't
have an idea for integrating or bringing music into the classroom when
teaching counting numbers because your music intelligence is
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Unit 4, section 3: Multiple intelligence theory and personal development OF NUMERACY
undeveloped. In that case, you can draw on the expertise of your

colleague who is musically inclined.
• Use available technology: You can tap your school's technical
resources (e.g., the ICT teachers/coordinators) to convey the
information you might not be able to provide through your efforts. For
instance, you can use calculators and self-paced computer software to
supplement your shortcomings in logical-mathematical areas.
• Seeking help from your learners: You can consider getting help
from your learners in areas your knowledge is deficient. For example,
your learners may do some picture drawings on geometric shapes on
cardboards for learning activities if you don't feel comfortable doing it
yourself.
• The final way to come to grips with intelligence that seem to be "blind
spots" in your life is through a process of careful cultivation or
personal development of your intelligences.
Multiple intelligence theory provides a model through which you can

activate your neglected intelligences and balance your use of all the
intelligences.
Activity 5.4
1. Mention three (3) factors that influence the development of ones’
intelligence.
2. State two (2) classroom implications of the multiple intelligence
theory.
Developing your Multiple Intelligences

A person's weak intelligence may actually turn out to be his or her strongest
intelligence once it is given a chance to develop. Therefore, one must be
careful in using the terms "strong intelligence" and "weak intelligence" to
describe individual differences among a person's intelligence. It is important
to note that most people can develop their intelligence to a relatively
acceptable level of mastery and whether intelligence can be developed
depends on three (3) main factors:
a) Biological endowment: Including hereditary or genetic factors and
insults or injuries to the brain before, during, and after birth.
b) Personal life history: Experiences with parents, teachers, peers,
friends, and others who awaken intelligence, keep them from
developing, or actively repress them.
c) Cultural and historical background: Including time and place in
which you were born and raised and the nature and state of cultural or
historical developments in different domains.
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OF NUMERACY Unit 4, section 3: Multiple intelligence theory and personal development
Implications for teaching

The theory of multiple intelligence has broad implications for teaching and
learning. Human beings (children/learners) have their unique configuration
of intelligences. Therefore, teachers have to take that into account when
teaching, mentoring or nurturing. As teachers/ educators, we should teach
individuals in a way they can learn and assess them in a way that allows
them to show what they have learned and apply their knowledge and skills
in unfamiliar contexts. Again, the multiple intelligence theory has
implications for team teaching. For example, if an ideal teaching team or
curriculum planning
Summary
In this section, we looked at how to assess learners’ intelligence through
appraisal using multiple intelligence inventory and tapping multiple
intelligence resources. It also discussed the way to develop ones’ own
intelligence. Hope you enjoyed reading.
Selected Answers to Activities

1. Biological endowment, personal life history, cultural and historical
background
2. i. Teachers must organize experiences for learners to develop their
own intelligence.
Assessment must be done in a way for learners to apply knowledge learned
in unfamiliar
Contexts to develop their intelligence.
Unit Summary
This unit discussed the meaning and principles of Multiple Intelligence
theory. The unit also gave an account of the foundation of the multiple
intelligence theory and MI theory and personal Development and its
implication in the teaching and learning numeracy in early grade.
1. What is the theory of multiple intelligences?
2. What are these intelligences, and what do they mean?
3. Is it possible to measure multiple intelligences through self-reports?
Discuss
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6
OF NUMERACY
C S
ON
TENT
FACTORS THAT AFFECT TEACHING AND

LEARNING OF NUMERACY
SECTION 1 GUIDING PRINCIPLES FOR SCHOOL MATHEMATICS 128
SECTION 2 LEARNER, TEACHER RATIO 130
SECTION 3 SOCIO-CULTURAL FACTORS 134
SECTION 4 THE CONCEPT OF SOCIO AND EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE 138

UEW/CoDeL 139
XXXXXXX FACTORS THAT AFFECT TEACHING AND
UNIT 6
LEARNING OF NUMERACY
Dear student, we warmly welcome you to Unit 6, the last unit of this course.
We hope you enjoyed the previous units. The quality of teaching and
learning mathematics has been of significant challenge and concern to
educators. Instructional design is an effective way to alleviate problems
related to teaching and learning numeracy. One of the most important
reasons for exposing teachers and student teachers to factors that affect the
teaching and learning of numeracy is that knowing the factors affecting
numeracy achievement is vital for making the best design decisions.
Therefore, this unit focuses on developing an understanding and creating
awareness of the various factors that influence early grade children’s
mathematics learning and how these can inform their (student teachers)
teaching practices.
When you have gone through this unit, you should be able to:
• Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the principles of teaching
and learning in early grade numeracy based on teacher-student factors
• Demonstrate understanding of factors that affect early grade children
learning and teaching of numeracy.
Learning indicators
• Outline and analyse the different broad compositions of factors that
affect early grade children learning and teaching of numeracy.
• Outline and analyse how socio-cultural factors, attitude, and anxiety
influence learning and teaching of Early Grade mathematics.
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UEW/CODeL 127
UNIT 6 SECTION
OF NUMERACY 1
Unit 6, section
GUIDING 1: Guiding principles
PRINCIPLES FORforSCHOOL
school mathematics
MATHEMATICS
In this section, we will discuss the conditions and policies that must be in
place for students to be successful in their mathematical studies. We hope
that you will enjoy the discussion.
learning
outcomes By the time you get to the end of this section, you should be able to:
• Mention at least four principles and standards for school mathematics
• Identify teacher and instructional factors that affect mathematics
teaching and learning
Learning indicators
• Outline principles of teaching and learning of mathematics in early
grade mathematics curriculum and their effectiveness.
• Discuss the conceptions about the principles of teaching and learning
numeracy based on teacher-learner factors.
Principles underpinning teaching and learning of

mathematics
In their document dubbed: Principles to Actions, the National Council of
Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM) outlined six guiding principles for school
mathematics. The goal was to delineate the conditions, structure, and
policies that must exist for all learners to learn mathematics. These include.
• Teaching and Learning. An excellent mathematics programme
requires effective teaching that engages learners in meaningful
learning through individual and collaborative experiences that promote
their ability to make sense of mathematical ideas and reason
mathematically.
• Access and Equity. An excellent mathematics programme requires
that all learners have access to a high–quality mathematics curriculum,
effective teaching and learning, high expectations, and the support and
resources needed to maximise their learning potential.
• Curriculum. An excellent mathematics programme also includes a
curriculum that develops important mathematics along with coherent
learning progressions and develops connections among areas of
mathematical study and between mathematics and the real world.
• Tools and Technology. An excellent mathematics programme
integrates the use of mathematical tools and technology as essential
resources to help students learn and make sense of mathematical ideas,
reason mathematically, and communicate their mathematical thinking.
• Assessment. An excellent mathematics programme ensures that
assessment is an integral part of instruction, provides evidence of
proficiency with important content and practices, includes a variety of
strategies and data sources, and informs feedback to students,
instructional decisions, and programme improvement.
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Unit 6, section 1: Guiding principles for school mathematics OF NUMERACY
• Professionalism. In an excellent mathematics programme, educators

hold themselves and their colleagues accountable for the mathematics
success of every student and for personal and collective professional
growth towards effective teaching and learning of mathematics.
(Adopted from NCTM, 2014)
These principles can be associated with the teaching and learning numeracy
and applied to all content areas of mathematics. However, in this course, we
have identified four key principles as being central to effective teaching and
learning of numeracy.
a) Engaging children’s Preconceptions: Understanding of new concepts

are constructed on a foundation of existing understanding and
experiences. This means that teachers must familiarise themselves
with children’s early mathematics experiences and understanding.
Teachers must build on what the learner knows, both mathematically
and experientially, including creating and connecting learners’ stories
that both contextualise and establish a rationale for the learning.
b) Ensure equity: Equity demands teachers to accommodate disparities
in order to help all kids learn mathematics. When given access to high-
quality mathematics instruction, all learners may learn mathematics
regardless of their personal qualities, educational background, or
physical difficulties. The term "equity" does not imply that all students
should receive the same teaching; rather, it implies that reasonable and
necessary accommodations must be made and adequately demanding
content offered for all students to have equal access and achievement.
c) Teaching principal: Effective pedagogy requires teachers to know and
understand relevant, develop students' understanding and create a
challenging and supportive learning environment.
d) Useful assessment: In terms of the assessment principle, support
students to take ownership of their learning communicate what
students know and understand.
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UNIT 6 SECTION
OF NUMERACY 2
Unit 6, section
LEARNER 2: Learner – teacher ratio
– TEACHER RATIO
Hello! You are welcome to section 2. In the previous section, you were
taken through some guiding principles and standards for school
mathematics. In this section, you will learn about the teacher-learner ratio.
This will be followed with a discussion on teachers’ factors which influence
teaching and learning of mathematics.
learning
• defined learner- teacher ratio
• State and explain teacher factors which affect mathematics teaching
and learning.
Learning indicators
• Describe the conceptions about learner- teacher ratio as a pre-requisite
of teaching and learning of numeracy.
• Outline and analyse different factors that influence early children’s
learning of mathematics.
Activity 6.1
How important is learner – teacher ratio for learners?
What is learner- teacher ratio?

Learner – teacher ratio refers to the number of learners who attend a school
divided by the number of teachers in the school. In other words, the learner-
teacher (L-T) ratio expresses the relationship between the number of
learners enrolled in a school and the number of full-time equivalent teachers
employed in the school. For instance, a learner-teacher ratio of 20: 1
indicates that there are 20 learners for every one teacher. This means that a
school with a 20:1 learner–teacher ratio would have twenty times as many
learners as full-time teachers. However, this ratio does not consider the
amount of instruction time for learners compared to the length of a teacher’s
working day or how much time is spent teaching. The learner-teacher ratio
is essential for various reasons.
• It can be used as a tool to measure teacher workload and allocation of
resources, particularly in public schools. A lower ratio will lighten the
workload for teachers, enabling them to focus on quality rather than
quantity of their teaching and grading.
• Learner- teacher ratio serves as an indicator of the amount of
individual attention any single child is likely to receive. Keeping in
mind that not all class sizes are going to be the same.
• Schools, districts, or municipalities frequently employ learner–teacher
ratios in judging the quality of education.
Now, the question is, “What is the ideal learner-teacher ratio?”.

Unfortunately, there is no standard perfect answer for what constitutes a
good learner-teacher ratio. However, it is important to note that the ideal
learner-teacher ratio varies depending on a few factors:
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Unit 6, section 2: Learner – teacher ratio OF NUMERACY
1) Age and academic needs of the learners: One of the factors that need
to be considered when dealing with the ideal learner–teacher ratio is
the ages of the learners and their academic needs. Young children and
learners with challenges require more time and individual attention
from teachers than older children. Therefore, the ideal learner–teacher
ratio in this context would be high in favour of young children and
children with learning difficulties than adult learners.
2) Skill and Experiences: One needs to factor in the specific teacher's
skills, experience, and efficacy because they (teachers) are not equal.
A highly skilled and experienced teacher might handle a large class
size than one with less experience.
Factors that affect learning of mathematics

The quality of learners’ performance in mathematics remains a top priority
for educators. Teachers and other stakeholders have long been interested in
exploring variables (factors) contributing effectively to the quality
performance of learners. These variables, inside and outside schools, affect
the teaching and learning process and learners’ quality of academic
achievement. Before we continue, write down some teachers’ based factors
that you think to influence the teaching and learning of mathematics and on
students’ achievement.
Activity 6.2
Write two teacher factors that affect mathematics teaching and learning.
Teachers-based and Instructional factors

Some teacher-based and instructional elements that influence the learning of
mathematics are discussed below:
• Teachers’ knowledge. Teachers’ knowledge influences instructional
practices and students' learning. The type of knowledge of a teacher
has an impact on the effective teaching of numeracy. Teachers have
special responsibility in relation to content knowledge and should
possess a deep understanding in order to communicate what is
essential about the subject. However, content knowledge does not
ensure effective and meaningful teaching for students' understanding.
Therefore, pedagogical content knowledge, which represents the
blending of content and pedagogy into an understanding of how
subject matters, problems, and issues are to be organized and
presented, is important. They are also expected to have specific
knowledge of individual students. Knowledge of students is integral to
the process of assessment, a process which affects students’ learning
significantly. Teachers’ competency in this area is closely linked to
students thinking, understanding, and learning of mathematics.
• Teachers’ beliefs: Teachers’ beliefs determine how students engage
with learning and influence their self-efficacy. Though there is no
concise definition of what constitutes beliefs, Thompson (1992)
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OF NUMERACY Unit 6, section 2: Learner – teacher ratio
distinguished them from knowledge in that they can be held with

varying degrees of conviction and, although independent of their
validity, are valid for the individual who holds them. For example, if a
teacher believed that being numerate involves the ability to perform
standard procedures, then learners' errors are more likely to be
interpreted as the result of learners’ carelessness. However, if the
teacher believed that learners were trying to make sense of
information, then their errors may be viewed and interpreted as a
misunderstanding. Thus beliefs play a critical role in mathematics
teaching and learning. However, there can be a mismatch between
what a teacher says he or she believe and what is seen in their practice.
Teachers’ practices may be influenced by classroom realities, such as
time, assessment issues, and resources.
• Instructional factors. Factors such as instructional strategies and

methods and the curriculum also affect the teaching and learning of
mathematics. Success in mathematics involves understanding one’s
current state of knowledge, building on it, improving it, and making
changes where necessary. This can be achieved through problem
solving, abstraction, inventing, and proofs. Curriculum
implementation influences the nature of the task, the classroom
discourse, and eventually, students learning. This means that
curriculum implementation strategies have a direct effect on students
learning. Teachers’ decisions while implementing the curriculum
influence how the students act and how they perform the instructional
task. Hence, teachers need to create an instructional environment that
gives a student the opportunity to think and reason instead of
memorizing facts.
• Level of Challenge provided by mathematics task. Swan (2005)

posit that “Teaching does not always result in learning” (p.3).
Teachers’ beliefs about what students can and cannot do influence the
level of challenge students experience in mathematics. Challenge is a
critical aspect in the effective teaching of mathematics, and when
teachers provide challenging tasks, along with prompts, or
scaffoldings, it allows students to access the task and provide an
opportunity to learn.
Summary
Learner – teacher ratio refers to the number of learners who attend a school
divided by the number of teachers in the school. Teachers’ knowledge,
teachers’ beliefs and instructional factors affect the teaching and learning of
mathematics.
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Unit 6, section 2: Learner – teacher ratio OF NUMERACY

Activity 6.1
Student-teacher ratio is one of the strongest indicators for student success
and engagement. The fewer the number of students each teacher works with,
the more closely they are able to adapt their teaching to the specific learning
needs of the students.
Activity 6.2
1. Teacher’s assessment practices
2. Teachers effectiveness
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UNIT 6 SECTION
OF NUMERACY 3
Unit 6, section 3: Socio-cultural
SOCIO-CULTURAL factors
FACTORS
Hello! In section 2, we discussed some teacher-based factors that affect the

teaching and learning of numeracy. In this section, we will explore and
develop our understanding of how other factors such as socio-cultural
factors, anxiety, beliefs, and attitudes can influence the teaching and
learning of mathematics.
learning
outcomes By the end of this section, you should be able to
• Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of different factors that
affect early grade children’s mathematics learning and implications of
this for classroom practice.
• Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of socio- cultural factors;
attitude; anxiety that influences learning and teaching of early grade
mathematics.
Learning indicators
• Outline how socio-cultural factors influence learning and teaching of
early grade mathematics.
• Outline and analyse how attitude and anxiety influence learning and
teaching of early grade mathematics.
What are socio- cultural factors?

Socio-cultural theorists argue that individuals cannot be considered in
isolation from their social and historical context. This means socio-cultural
factors are factors within societies and cultures that affect the thought,
behaviours, and feelings of individuals of those societies and cultures. Do
you know some of these factors? Write your answers down.
Perhaps some of your answers may be the same as those that we have listed
and explained below:
• Sociocultural Norms: Mathematics is congruent to all cultures. As a
result, pupils are more likely to learn efficiently when a link is formed
between culture and mathematics. To pique students' interest in
mathematics, teachers should use and incorporate artifacts from the
cultural group to which their students belong in their lessons. A
teacher may refuse to accept a solution because of the instructor's lack
of awareness of the students' cultures and traditions. This turns to
affect the teaching and learning of mathematics.
• Language: Language is crucial in mathematics learning and teaching.

Language assists kids in transitioning from concrete mathematics
skills based on actual things to a more symbolic mathematics ability
based on digits. Students' mathematical vocabulary learning is a
critical component of their language development and, ultimately,
mathematical aptitude. Because comprehension of mathematical
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Unit 6, section 3: Socio-cultural factors OF NUMERACY
terminology allows access to concepts, mathematical training in

language domains is essential.
• Peer pressure: According to Schmeck et al. (2013), the type of

company that a learner keeps influences his / her behaviour, including
the attitude towards learning. Peer pressure affects students learning of
mathematics and other subjects in many ways. For instance, if a
learner is influenced by peers to indulge in drugs and skip class, it
affects his or her mathematics learning ability because drugs affect
mental health.
• Socio-economic factor: The financial situation of a learner's family

can impact their learning abilities in a variety of ways. Learners from
financially affluent backgrounds are more likely to receive a good
educational background and support. In contrast, those from less
affluent backgrounds may lack such support, negatively affecting their
learning abilities.
How attitudes affect mathematics teaching and learning

Attitude determines the effort a student is likely to put in his or her learning
of a subject. It refers to someone’s basic liking or dislike of a subject.
Therefore, we are going to discuss students’ attitudes as a factor that
influences teaching and learning of mathematics.
Attitude towards mathematics reflect students’ value, self-confidence,

enjoyment, motivation, and anxiety levels when it comes to the subject.
Many studies link attitude towards mathematics to learning and, ultimately,
mathematics achievement. Students' attitude towards mathematics have
been shown to influence the level of achievement (Zhao et al., 2012). A
positive attitude has been associated with higher achievement, while a
negative attitude appears to relate to poor performance.
Several factors explain why attitudes toward mathematics become more
negative as students progress through the grades, including pressure to
perform well, overly demanding tasks, uninteresting lessons, and a less-
than-positive attitude on the part of teachers. Teachers can therefore bring
about a shift in students’ attitudes towards mathematics by fostering the
belief that everyone can do mathematics, avoiding placing too much
emphasis on a test, provide opportunities that encourage investigation and
questioning over routine procedures.
Activity 6.3
1. One of the following is often defined as the tendency to react
favourably or unfavourably towards certain stimuli such as individual,
national or racial group
a) Attitude
b) Belief
c) Behaviour
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OF NUMERACY Unit 6, section 3: Socio-cultural factors
d) Feelings
2. Which of the following could be a contributing factor towards

underachievement in mathematics?
a) Gender
b) Socio-cultural background
c) Nature of mathematics
d) Innate ability of a person.
2. Which of the following best explains attitude?

a) Action undertaken by an individual
b) The experiences of an individual
c) The feelings of an individual
d) The mental disposition of an individual
Mathematics Anxiety
Mathematics anxiety has been defined as feelings of tension, apprehension,
or fear that interfere with manipulating numbers and solving mathematical
problems in a wide variety of ordinary life and academic situations. In other
words, anxiety in mathematics is a fear of mathematics or a negative feeling
about the subject. Hembree (1990) explained that mathematics anxiety is
directly connected with mathematics avoidance. Many factors account for
mathematics anxiety among school children. These include teachers’ lack of
subject knowledge and ability to plan teaching materials effectively;
learning from teachers who are themselves anxious about their mathematical
abilities in certain areas (e.g., fractions, algebra, geometry, etc.), emphasis
on memorization as well as the emphasis on speed. Memorization and speed
usually go hand in hand. The use of drills, timed test, and games that put a
premium on speed to foster memorization also contribute to anxiety in
mathematics. However, teachers can lessen this anxiety among children by
employing instructional methods, which include less lecture but more
student-directed and places more emphasis on discussion. Teachers should
provide opportunities for children to do mathematics in small groups so that
they can work together on a problem -solving strategies and processes. A
relaxed, unhurried atmosphere within which students work without pressure
can also be provided.
Activity 6.4
1. What is meant by mathematics anxiety?
2. Mention 2 teacher practices that contribute to students’ mathematics
anxiety
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Unit 6, section 3: Socio-cultural factors OF NUMERACY
Summary
This unit has presented a series of major factors that influence mathematics
teaching and learning. Factors such as attitude, anxiety, and socio-cultural
factors were discussed in this unit.

Activity 6.3
1. Attitude
2. Socio-cultural background
3. The mental disposition of an individual
Activity 6.4
1. Anxiety in mathematics is a fear of mathematics or negative feeling
about the subject.
2. Emphasis on doing one’s own work; Lack of variety in the teaching-
learning process
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UNIT 6 SECTION
OF NUMERACY 4
This page
THEis CONCEPT
left blank forOF
your notes AND EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE
SOCIO
In section 3, we looked at how socio- cultural factors, anxiety, and attitude

affect the teaching and learning of numeracy. In this section, we shall focus
on socio-emotional intelligence and its impact on the teaching and learning
numeracy.
learning
outcomes We hope that by the time you complete this section, you will be able to:
• Demonstrate understanding of social and emotional intelligence and
how these influence early grade children’s mathematics learning.
• Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of how to validate the
feelings of others in a busy classroom.
Learning indicators
• Outline and analyse teachers' different roles in developing children’s
emotional intelligence.
• Describe teachers' concern for teaching emotional intelligence.
• Discuss the basic ingredients of emotional and social intelligences
(self-awareness, self-control, empathy, personal motivation, and
relationship skills).
Activity 6.1
Take your jotter and write down a few points in answering these questions:
a) What is emotional intelligence?
b) Identify any two domains of emotional intelligence.
We hope your answers include points as we have stated in the discussion

session.
What is emotional intelligence?

Emotional intelligence is the ability to feel, understand, and effectively
apply the power and emotional sensitivity as an energy source and as a
motivator (Hasratuddin, n.d). Emotional intelligence stems from the
concept of “Social intelligence.” Social intelligence is one’s ability to
understand and relate to people. According to literature, emotional
intelligence is comprised of four domains: Self- awareness, self-
management, social – awareness, and relationship management.
Self-awareness: This domain deals with one’s capacity to turn into his /her
own emotions by way of knowing how he or she feels and why as well as
how those influence what he or she does. An individual develops emotional
self-awareness competency, which aid in understanding his or her own
strength and limitations and clarity on one’s values and a sense of purpose.
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Unit 6, section 4: The concept of socio and emotional intelligence OF NUMERACY
Self–management: This is the ability to keep disruptive emotions and

impulses under control. Within this domain, one develops core
competencies such as emotional self- control, adaptability, achievement
orientation, and positive outlook.
Social –awareness: Indicate accuracy in reading and interpreting other

people’s emotions, often through non–verbal cues.
Relationship management: Is an interpersonal skill that allows one to act

in ways that motivate, inspire and harmonize with others while also
maintaining an important relationships.
Promoting learners’ socio-emotional skills

Socio-emotional skills of children begin from birth. Children begin to
develop an understanding of feelings as soon as they start interacting with
people who care for them. It is therefore important to note that as early
grade teachers, we play a critical role in nurturing social-emotional skills in
our learners so that they develop healthy relations with their peers for
effective teaching and learning of mathematics. Several approaches promote
students’ socio-emotional skills in the classroom. These methods include:
• Using socio-emotional language: Language plays an essential role
in social-emotional development. When children start school, they
are put under more pressure to maintain correctly regulated and goal-
directed activities, to block destructive behaviours, and to follow the
rules (Campbell & Stauffenberg, 2008). Language skills help with
the necessary social-emotional adjustment by enhancing the ability
to understand, comprehend and comply with behavioral demands,
cope actively with learning challenges, and relate positively to
teachers and peers.
• Promoting cooperative learning: Cooperative learning necessitates
students working together to achieve a common goal. This technique
allows students to reflect on and practice their social and emotional
competencies while still developing their academic competencies
while they work on mathematics problems.
• Encourage classroom discussion: There is a heavy emphasis on

student involvement and student-led discussions in classrooms
where social-emotional development activities produce the best
results. Creating environments in which students may express their
questions concerns, provide feedback, and be heard by teachers and
one another is an important social-emotional learning goal. You can
open the door to class discussions and encourage students to engage
more fully with their lessons by asking them to share their
favorite/least favorite part of a lesson, encouraging them to provide a
summary of what they learned, or inviting them to express
something they would have liked to learn more about.
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Activity 4.2
Define cooperative learning and how it supports social and emotional
development?
Validating feelings of students

One way we communicate acceptance of ourselves and others is through
validation. Validation does not imply acceptance or approval. Validation is
a technique of supporting and deepening a relationship while keeping a
different point of view when a best friend or family member makes a
decision you don't think is wise. For example, within the classroom context,
you may tell students they have the right to feel the way they feel. You may
not agree with their choices or may be overreacting. But it’s important to
recognise that the way they are feeling is real to them.
Emotional Validation
The process of learning about, comprehending, and accepting another
person's emotional experience is known as emotional validation. Emotional
validation differs from emotional invalidation, which occurs when someone
else's emotional experiences are dismissed, ignored, or judged. Linehan
(2012) posit that there is six levels of validating one’s emotion:
• Level 1: Being present - Being present, according to Linehan, entails

giving your full attention to the person you are validating. There are
numerous approaches to being present. For instance, sitting with a
learner as he or she sobs over a poor mathematics test result or sitting
with Doris while she cries because a supposed friend told lies about
her. Being present for yourself entails acknowledging and sitting with
your own experience rather than "running away," avoiding, or pushing
it away. It's not simple to sit with a lot of feeling. Even joy or
excitement might make you feel uneasy at times. Some individuals are
frequently uncomfortable with intense emotion since they don't know
what to say. Often, the answer is simply being there and paying
nonjudgmental attention to the person. Being aware of your own
emotions is the first step toward accepting your feelings.
• Level 2: Accurate reflection - Accurate reflection entails

synthesizing what you've heard from others or synthesizing your own
feelings. Others can do this in an awkward, sing-songy, phony style
that is extremely aggravating, or you can do it yourself in a critical
way. Accurate reflection is about validation done in an authentic way,
with the goal of truly comprehending the experience rather than
judging it.
140 UEW/ CODeL

• Level 3: Mindreading - Mindreading is the ability to guess what

another person is experiencing or thinking. People's capacity to
recognize their own emotions varies. Some people, for example, mix
up worry with excitement, while others mix up happiness and
excitement. Some people may be unsure of what they are experiencing
because they were not permitted to experience their emotions or were
taught to be fearful of them. People may hide their emotions since they
have learned that others do not appreciate their sensitivity (Linehan,
2012). This disguising can lead to them not even acknowledging their
feelings to themselves, making emotions more difficult to control.
Being able to appropriately describe feelings is a necessary step
toward regulating them.
• Level 4: Understanding the person’s behaviour in terms of their

history and biology – Many people's emotional reactions are
influenced by their experiences or biology. A student who fails his or
her mathematics test because he or she skipped math classes is
unlikely to appreciate missing arithmetic lessons. At this level,
validation would be saying, "Given what happened to you, I
completely understand why you don't want to miss math class."
Understanding your own reactions in light of previous experiences is a
form of self-validation.
• Level 5: Normalising or recognising emotional reactions that
anyone would have -
Everyone benefits from understanding that their feelings are normal.
Knowing that anyone would be unhappy in a given situation validates the
emotionally sensitive individual. As an example, "Of course you're worried.
Speaking in front of an audience for the first time is nerve-racking for
anyone."
• Level 6: Radical genuineness - When you understand someone's

emotion on a deep level, you have demonstrated radical authenticity.
Perhaps you've experienced a similar experience. Sharing that
experience as equals is what radical authenticity entails.
Examples of validating statement

• We are going to get through this …..
• Help me to understand how you are thinking
• I believe we can figure this out together
• It sounds as though you’re feeling …….
In conclusion, good knowledge and understanding of the six levels

highlighted by Linehan (2012) is crucial in validating one's emotional
feelings.
UEW/ CODeL 141

Summary
In this section, we have looked at the concept of socio and emotional
intelligence. We discussed approaches that promote students’ socio-
emotional skills in the classroom. Again, we have discussed how students’
feelings can be validated.

Activity 6.5
1. Emotional intelligence is the ability to feel, understand, and effectively
apply the power and emotional sensitivity as an energy source and as a
motivator.
2. Self-management and social awareness
Activity 6.6
Cooperative learning is an instructional method in which students work in
small groups to accomplish a common learning goal under the guidance of a
teacher. The method reinforces collaboration, increase the learning interest
of students, and feeling of collective and individual feeling of responsibility.
It boosts students’ morale of criticism and acceptance of criticism.
Unit Summary
Dear student, we hope you have enjoyed all the sections in this unit. We
have discussed some guiding principles and standards for school
mathematics. We have learned about how factors anxiety, attitude, and
socio-cultural factors affect mathematics learning. Again, you have learned
what socio and emotional intelligence is and how
to validate the feelings of students. Emotional intelligence is the ability to
feel, understand, and effectively apply the power and emotional sensitivity
as an energy source and as a motivator and stems from the concept of social
intelligence. The unit also gave an account of how the feelings of an
individual could be validated by employing Linehan (2012) six stages of
validation.
1. What is emotional validation?
2. Explain three ways learners’ feelings can be validated without
agreeing?
3. What are examples of validating statements?
142 UEW/ CODeL

Reference
Adnan, M., Zakaria, E., & Maat, S. M. (2012). Relationship between
mathematics beliefs, conceptual knowledge, and mathematical experience
among pre-service teachers. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 46,
1714-1719.
Anghileri, J. (2006). Scaffolding practices that enhance mathematics
learning. Journal of Mathematics Teacher Education, 9,33–52.
doi:10.1007/s10857-006-9005-9
Ernest, P. (1989). The knowledge, beliefs, and attitudes of the mathematics

teacher: A model. Journal of education for teaching, 15(1), 13-33.
Kashefi, H. (2017). Teaching and learning theories applied in Mathematics
classroom among Primary school teachers DOI:
10.1109/WEEF.2017.8467070.
Kloosterman, P. (2002). Beliefs about mathematics and mathematics
learning in the secondary school: Measurement and implications for
motivation. In Beliefs: A hidden variable in mathematics education? (pp.
247-269). Springer, Dordrecht.
Martin, J. et al. (1993). Mathematics for teacher training in Ghana: Tutor
notes, Accra: Unimax Publishers.
McLeod, S. (2020). Developmental Psychology / Lev Vygotsky, Simply
Psychology. Available at https://www.
Simplypsychology.org/Vygotsky.htm.
National Council for Curriculum and Assessment. (2019). Mathematics

Curriculum for Primary Schools (Basic 1 – 3). Accra: Ministry of
Education.
Ozmon, H. A., & Craver, S. M. (2003). Philosophical foundations of
education (7th ed.). New Jersey: Merrill Prentice Hall.
Rajkumar, R., & Hema, G. (2017). Mathematics learning difficulties for
school students: Problems and strategies. Shanlax International Journal of
Arts, Science and Humanities, 5(4), 183-190.
Sarmah, A., & Puri, P. (2014). Attitude towards mathematics of the students
studying in diploma engineering institute (polytechnic) of Sikkim. Journal
of Research & Method in Education, 4(6).
Sriraman, B., & English, L. (2005). Theories of mathematics education: A

global survey of theoretical frameworks/trends in mathematics education
research.
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144 UEW/ CODeL

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THEORIES IN THE LEARNING OF

NUMERACY IN EARLY GRADE

Justice Enu, PhD.

Michael E. Ampiah, MPhil

College for Distance and e-Learning

All rights reserved including translation. No part of this publication

THEORIES IN THE LEARNING OF NUMERACY IN EARLY GRADE

© College for Distance and e-Learning, 2022

Graphic Design and Layout:

SECTION 1 EARLY NUMBER SYSTEM AND SYMBOLS 14

SECTION 2 WHAT IS MATHEMATICS? WHY LEARN AND TEACH

SECTION 3 WHAT DOES IT MEAN TO LEARN AND TEACH

SECTION 4 BELIEFS, ATTITUDE, AND VALUES IN MATHEMATICS TEACHING

SECTION 1 NATURE OF EARLY GRADE MATHEMATICS CURRICULUM AND

SECTION 2 TEACHER BELIEFS AND PRACTICE AND DEVELOPING

SECTION 3 UNDERLYING ASSUMPTIONS OF BELIEFS, ATTITUDES, AND

SECTION 4 CONNECTION BETWEEN TEACHER'S BELIEFS, PRACTICE, AND

SECTION 1 LEARNING AND BEHAVIOURISTS' THEORIES OF LEARNING 66

SECTION 2 THEORIES OF LEARNING 70

SECTION 3 COGNITIVE, CONSTRUCTIVISM, AND BEHAVIOURISM

SECTION 1 UNDERSTANDING SHAPE, SIZE, AND PATTERNS 92

SECTION 2 CHARACTERISTICS OF CHILDREN'S DEVELOPMENTAL

SECTION 1 MEANING AND PRINCIPLES OF MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCE (MI) 114

SECTION 2 GARDNER'S THEORY OF MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCE 116

SECTION 3 MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCE THEORY AND PERSONAL

SECTION 1 GUIDING PRINCIPLES FOR SCHOOL MATHEMATICS 128

SECTION 2 LEARNER – TEACHER RATIO 130

SECTION 3 SOCIO-CULTURAL FACTORS 134

SECTION 4 THE CONCEPT OF SOCIO AND EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE 138

In presenting the material in this book, we have tried to be as simple,

On successful completion of this course, you should be able to:

Planned completion date Actual completion date

Unit 2: Beliefs underlying the

Unit 3: Major theories of learning

Unit 4: Children and

Unit 5: Multiple intelligence

Unit 6: Factors that affect

WHY DO WE TEACH MATHEMATICS IN

SECTION 2 WHAT IS MATHEMATICS? WHY LEARN AND TEACH MATHEMATICS 20

SECTION 3 WHAT DOES IT MEAN TO LEARN AND TEACH MATHEMATICS? 22

SECTION 4 BELIEFS, ATTITUDE, AND VALUES IN MATHEMATICS TEACHING AND 26

the adinkra symbol used in the UEW crest

Dear learner, welcome to unit 1 of this course entitled why we teach

Our prehistoric ancestors would have had a general sensibility about

Figure 1.1: Ishango bone, a tally stick from central Africa

Figure 1.2: Counting by twelves

Babylonian numbers used a true place-value system, where digits written in

Figure 1.4: Babylonian Place Value System

The Roman numeral

Table 1.1: Roman Numerals

The Hindu – Arabic system

Uses of the Hindu –Arabic numerals

Mathematics has helped to go from the specific problems considered by the

Suggested Answers to Activities

Dear learner, in section 1, we discussed the various ancient number system

Teaching and learning mathematics is important because:

• Mathematics teaching is very important for intellectual developments

Dear learner, in section 2, we looked at what mathematics is and the

Developing mathematical concepts in young children

Enactive phase - children engage with something concrete in order to

Iconic phase - children begin representing the ideas using pictures,

Symbolic phase – children use abstract ideas and ways of represent

Liebeck (1984) agrees and disagrees in part to Brunner. Liebeck ELPS