(CSEC Chemistry) Section A Notes and ESQs

CSEC CHEMISTRY / SECTION A – PRINCIPLES OF CHEMISTRY
1. States of Matter
Typical Exam Question / 2005 CSEC Chemistry Paper 01 Typical Exam Question / 2009 CSEC Chemistry Paper 02
Which of the following operations results in sublimation? Transitions between the three states of matter can be
efficiently illustrated by using water.
(A) Heating of solid sodium chloride
(B) Cooling of oxygen gas
(C) Heating of ethanol
(D) Heating of iodine crystals
Typical Exam Question / 2020 CSEC Chemistry Paper 01
Which of the following processes does NOT provide

evidence in support of the particulate nature of matter?
(i) Name the THREE states of matter. (1 mk)
(A) Osmosis (ii) Which of the two temperatures, (A) and (B) in Figure
(B) Diffusion 3 represents the melting point? boiling point?
(C) Filtration (2 mks)
(D) Brownian motion (iii) What would be observed at (C) in Figure 3? (1 mk)
See answers in the ‘Exam-style questions’ section
Candidates should be able to:
• explain how evidence supports the particulate theory of matter;

o evidence obtained from practical work involving processes, such as diffusion and osmosis
o use of salt or sugar to control garden pests and as a preservative
• distinguish among the three states of matter;
o arrangement of particles, energy of particles, strength of forces of interaction
o consideration of physical characteristics of states
o example: volume, density, compressibility
• explain the changes between the three states of matter in terms of energy and arrangement of particles.
o consideration of freezing, melting, boiling, evaporation, sublimation, condensation; heating and
cooling curves
1. States of Matter
INTRODUCTION
introduction
Chemistry is the study of the structure and behaviour of matter. Matter is any substance that has mass and
volume. Most common substances exist as solids, liquids, or gases, which have diverse physical and
chemical properties. Along with these physical and chemical properties, matter can also undergo physical
and chemical changes. Physical changes may include the often-reversible changing from one state to
another when heated or cooled. Chemical changes may include the usually irreversible making or breaking
of bonds between atoms, such as rusting.
PARTICULATE THEORY
particulate theory
The kinetic particle or particulate theory of matter is a model that describes the arrangement, movement,
and energy of particles in a substance. It helps in explaining both the physical properties of matter as well as
the differences between the three main states of matter. There are four main ideas behind the particulate
theory:
1. All matter is composed of particles

2. The particles are in constant, random motion and temperature affects their speed of motion
3. The particles have empty spaces between them
4. The particles have forces of attraction between them
1. States of Matter
The processes of diffusion, osmosis, and Brownian motion provide evidence to support the fact that all
matter is made of particles.
Diffusion is the net movement of particles from a region of high concentration to one of lower concentration
until the particles are evenly distributed. Particles in gases and liquids are capable of diffusing.
Example 1 Example 2
When two pieces of cotton wool soaked in When a purple potassium manganate(VII) crystal is placed
concentrated ammonia solution and concentrated in water, it dissolves to produce a uniformly purple
hydrochloric acid respectively are placed solution. The particles making up the crystal separate from
simultaneously at opposite ends of a glass tube, a each other and diffuse through the spaces between the
white ring of ammonium chloride forms inside the water particles until they are evenly distributed.
tube. Ammonia solution gives off ammonia gas and
hydrochloric acid gives off hydrogen chloride gas. The
particles of the gases diffuse through the air inside the
tube, collide, and react to form ammonium chloride:
Ammonia particles are lighter, and hence diffuse faster

than hydrogen chloride particles, so the particles
collide and react closer to the source of the hydrogen
chloride particles.
1. States of Matter
Osmosis is the movement of water molecules through a differentially permeable membrane from a dilute
solution of high water potential to a more concentrated solution of lower water potential.
Example 1 Example 2
When a dilute sucrose solution is separated from a The membranes of living cells are differentially permeable
concentrated sucrose solution by a differentially and the cytoplasm inside the cells contains about 80%
permeable membrane, water molecules move water.
through the membrane from the dilute solution into • When a strip of living tissue (such as potato or
the concentrated solution, but the sucrose molecules pawpaw) is placed in water, water molecules move
cannot move in the other direction. The volume of the into the cells by osmosis. Each cell swells slightly,
concentrated solution increases and the volume of the and the strip increases in length and becomes rigid.
dilute solution decreases.
• When the strip is placed in a concentrated solution
(e.g., sugar solution), water molecules move out of
the cells by osmosis. Each cell shrinks slightly, and
the strip decreases in length and becomes softer.
Osmosis is also used to:
• control garden pests (Slugs and snails for example have differentially permeable and moist skins.
When salt is sprinkled on them, it dissolves in the moisture forming a concentrated solution, causing
the water to move out of their bodies by osmosis. They will die from dehydration if their bodies lose
more water than the can tolerate.)
• preserve food (Salt and sugar are used to preserve foods such as meat, fish, and fruit. They draw out
water from the cells by osmosis to prevent decay (since there is no water available for the chemical
reactions which cause the decay). They also draw water out of microorganisms, inhibiting their growth.)
Particles in fluids move randomly in what is called Brownian motion (also known as
pedesis). They do this because they are bombarded by the other moving particles in the
fluid. Larger particles can be moved by light, fast-moving molecules. Examples of
Brownian motion include the motion of pollen grains on still water, the diffusion of
pollutants in the air, etc.
1. States of Matter
STATES
statesOF MATTER
of matter
OF A
The model is used to explain the physical properties of the three states of matter: solids, liquids, and gases.
Solid Liquid Gas
Shape fixed takes the shape of the takes the shape of its entire
container; horizontal surface container
Volume fixed fixed variable
Compressibility difficult to compress can be compressed slightly very easy to compress
Closeness of very close close far apart

particles (high density) (lower density than solids) (low density)
Arrangement of regular pattern randomly arranged randomly arranged

particles
Movement of vibrate around a fixed move around each other move quickly in all directions
particles point slowly
Attraction strong weak very weak

between
particles
Energy of low energy greater energy highest energy

particles
2D diagram
The particles in the diagrams represent atoms or molecules and, in some cases, oppositely charged ions,
depending on the type of substance.
1. States of Matter
The fourth state of matter is plasma. It is the most common state of matter in the universe. The sun and
other stars are made of plasma. Plasma is similar to gas because it has no definite shape or volume.
However, plasmas consist of ions and free-moving electrons. Other states of matter consist of neutral
atoms and molecules. However, plasma is not a common state of matter on earth.
Solids: Liquids: Gases: Plasmas:
have a fixed volume and have a fixed volume have no fixed shape or have no fixed shape or
a fixed shape but no fixed shape volume volume
cannot flow, because can flow and take the can flow and consist of ions and free-
their particles cannot shape of their completely fill their moving electrons
move from place to place container because container because
and are held together by particles can move their particles can
strong forces around each other move quickly in all
directions
cannot be compressed cannot be easily
because their particles compressed, because can be compressed
are close together and their particles are because their particles
have no space to move close together and are far apart and have
into have no space to space to move into
move into
1. States of Matter
Change of state
The state matter exists in depends on its temperature. It can change from one state to another by heating or
cooling, as this causes a change in its kinetic energy and arrangement of particles.
• When a substance is heated, its particles will gain kinetic energy, moving increasingly faster and
farther apart. The forces of attraction become increasingly weaker.
• When a substance is cooled, its particles will lose kinetic energy, moving increasingly slower and
closer together. The forces of attraction become increasingly stronger.
The changes of state include:
• melting, when a solid changes into a liquid (heat is absorbed causing the particles in the solid to
vibrate until they break free from their fixed positions)
o The temperature remains constant while the solid is melting because all the heat energy
being supplied is used to overcome the forces of attraction between the solid particles. This
constant temperature is known as the melting point.
• boiling, when a liquid changes into a gas (heat is absorbed causing the particles to gain energy to
move faster and farther apart)
o Note that boiling is different from evaporation. Boiling will occur at a specific temperature at
which the heat energy being supplied is used to overcome the forces of attraction between
the liquid particles (this is the melting point), while evaporation may take place at any
temperature. Additionally, boiling takes place throughout the liquid whereas evaporation
takes place only at the liquid’s surface.
• freezing, when a liquid changes into a solid (heat is evolved causing the particles to slow down and
get locked into position)
o The temperature at which these particles form a solid is the freezing point. The freezing
point of a pure substance has the same value as the melting point, e.g., water has a melting
and freezing point of 0°C.
• condensation, when a gas changes into a liquid (heat is evolved causing the particles to slow down
and become liquid)
• sublimation, when a solid changes into a gas without going through a liquid state (enough heat is
absorbed for the particles to completely overcome the forces of attraction which are weak;
examples include dry ice, iodine, and naphthalene (found in moth balls))
• deposition, when a gas changes into a solid without going through a liquid state (enough heat is
evolved for the particles to lock into fixed positions)
1. States of Matter
Another way to list phase changes is by states of matter:
• Solids can melt into liquids or sublime into gases. Solids form by deposition from gases or freezing
of liquids.
• Liquids can vaporize into gases or freeze into solids. Liquids form by condensation of gases and
melting of solids.
• Gases can condense into liquids or undergo deposition into solids. Gases form from the sublimation
of solids and vaporization of liquids.
Heating and cooling curves
These diagrams, also called temperature curves, are simple line graphs that show the phase changes a
given substance undergoes with increasing or decreasing temperature over time. Temperature is measured
on the vertical y-axis and the amount of heat added over time is measured on the horizontal x-axis. For the
heating and cooling curve of any given substance, the solid phase will be represented in the lower left corner
of the graph, where the temperature is at its lowest and the amount of heat added is relatively small.
When the temperature of a pure solid is measured at intervals as it is heated and changes state to a liquid
and then to a gas, the temperature can be plotted on a graph against time. This graph is a heating curve. For
example, the heating curve for water is shown below.
1. States of Matter
The curve shows that as heating occurs, the temperature of the substance increases. However, the graph
has two horizontal sections where the temperature remains constant for a period of time even though
heating continues. These happen when there is a change of state. The first change of state is where melting
occurs, and the temperature remains constant at the melting point until all the substance has melted. The
second change of state is boiling, and the temperature remains constant at the boiling point until all the
substance has boiled.
When the temperature of a gas is measured at intervals as it is cooled and changes state to a liquid and then
to a solid, the temperature can be plotted on a graph against time. This graph is a cooling curve. For
example, the cooling curve for water is shown below.
Like heating curves, cooling curves have two horizontal sections. The first is where the state changes from
gas to liquid and the second is where it changes from liquid to solid.
1. States of Matter
EXAM-STYLE QUESTIONS
exam-style questions
OF A
Which of the following operations results in sublimation? Transitions between the three states of matter can be
efficiently illustrated by using water.
(A) Heating of solid sodium chloride
(B) Cooling of oxygen gas
(C) Heating of ethanol
(D) Heating of iodine crystals
The answer is (D) Heating of iodine. Iodine crystals slowly

sublime at room temperature, and when heated they turn
into deep-purple vapours.

(i) Name the THREE states of matter. (1 mk)
Which of the following processes does NOT provide
(ii) Which of the two temperatures, (A) and (B) in Figure
evidence in support of the particulate nature of matter?
3 represents
(A) Osmosis melting point?
(B) Diffusion boiling point?
(C) Filtration (2 mks)
(D) Brownian motion (iii) What process would be observed at (C) in Figure 3?
(1 mk)
The answer is (C) Filtration. Osmosis, diffusion, and
(iv) Name the process which occurs when the following
Brownian motion all provide evidence in support of the
conversions take place.
theory, while filtration is a physical separation process.
Water vapour → water
Typical Exam Question / 2005 CSEC Chemistry Paper 01 Iodine (s) → iodine (g)
Which of the following depicts Brownian motion? i/Solid, liquid, and gas
(A) Pollen grains moving at random in water ii/A represents the melting point; B represents the boiling
(B) Water moving from sea water into brine through point.
cellophane iii/At (C), melting is observed.

(C) The scent of perfume moving through the air
iv/
(D) The movement of sugar particles into the blood
stream through the intestine wall Water vapour → water = gas to liquid = condensation
The answer is (A) Pollen grains moving at random in Iodine (s) → iodine (g) = solid to gas = sublimation
water.
1. States of Matter
A student sets up three experiments as follows: Water exists in three states of matter while iodine exists in
two.
(i) Describe the strength of the forces of attraction

between the particles in EACH state of water. (3 mks)
(ii) When heated, iodine changes from one state into
another. What is this process called? (1 mk)
(iii) Describe how the energy of the iodine particles
(i) Describe what would be observed in each. (6 mks)
changes as iodine undergoes the process mentioned
(ii) Account for the observations described above. Include
in (iii) above. (2 mks)
the names of the processes, the nature of matter,
and how matter is transported. (7 mks) i/In the solid state, there are very strong forces of
(iii) Suggest and explain how the rate of change of the attraction between the particles. In the liquid state, the
observations made in Expt 2 can be increased. (2 mks) forces of attraction are not as strong as those between the
particles of a solid. In the gaseous state, the forces of
i/In Expt 1, the molecules of ammonia and hydrogen
attraction between the particles are very weak.
chloride will diffuse through the air in the tube. They collide
and form a white powder called ammonium chloride. In Expt ii/Sublimation
2, the particles of the potassium manganate(VII) crystals
iii/Enough heat is absorbed for the particles in the solid
will diffuse and turn the solution purple. In Expt 3, water
state, which have small amounts of kinetic energy, to
molecules will move into the pawpaw strips through
overcome the forces of attraction and for the iodine to
osmosis. This will cause the strips to increase in size.
become a gas, with large amounts of kinetic energy.
ii/In Expt 1, the molecules of ammonia and hydrogen move
from their respective regions of higher concentration at the Typical Exam Question / 2005 CSEC Chemistry Paper 02
ends of the tube to one of lower concentration at the centre Water can exist as solid ice, liquid water, or gaseous steam
through diffusion. They collide to form a ring of ammonium in spite of the fact that the individual particles in these
chloride, which will be closer to the hydrochloric acid than three states are the same. Explain the differences
the ammonia solution because the ammonia molecules are between these three states in terms of the arrangement
lighter and diffuse faster. In Expt 2, the particles of of their particles, forces of attraction between them, and
potassium manganate(VII) will move from their high their kinetic energy. (6 mks)
concentration at the bottom of the beaker to one of lower
concentration in the rest of the fluid through diffusion. In As a solid, particles are closely packed together in a
regular pattern with very strong forces of attraction and
Expt 3, water molecules move from the water, which has a
high water potential, into the cells of the pawpaw strips, small amounts of kinetic energy. As a liquid, particles are
which have a low water potential, through osmosis. This randomly arranged and have small spaces between them
causes the strips to increase in mass and become turgid. with weaker forces of attraction than solid but more
kinetic energy. As a gas, particles are randomly arranged
iii/This can be done by stirring. Stirring increases the kinetic and have large spaces between them with very weak
energy causing the particles to move faster. forces of attraction and large amounts of kinetic energy.
2. Mixtures and Separations

A mixture of copper(II) oxide and copper (II) sulphate is BEST Chromatography is widely used in the pharmaceutical
separated by industry to check the purity of substances.
(A) distilling the mixture (i) Suggest ONE advantage of using chromatography
(B) heating the mixture and condensing to separate the components of a mixture. (1 mk)
(C) shaking with excess water and then filtering (ii) Using two fully labelled chromatograms, illustrate
(D) shaking with excess water followed by fractional how chromatography can be used to indicate
distillation whether a compound is a pure substance. (4 mks)

• distinguish between pure substances and mixtures;

o Elements, compounds, atoms, molecules, fixed composition, properties, variable
composition, variable properties.
• distinguish among solutions, suspensions, and colloids;
o Reference to particle sizes, passage of light, sedimentation.
• investigate the effect of temperature on solubility of solids in water;
o Examples showing that a decrease in solubility with increasing temperature will not be required.
• apply suitable separation techniques based on differences in properties of the components of mixtures;
o Properties to be included: particle size, boiling point, crystalline structure, solubility, and solute
mobility in solvent. Include line drawing to represent the separation process.
• describe the extraction of sucrose from sugar cane.
o A simple treatment of the following: crushing, precipitation, filtration, vacuum distillation,
crystallisation, centrifugation.

CLASSIFICATION OF MATTER
classification of matter
Matter is any substance that has mass and volume, and can be classified into two main groups: pure
substances and mixtures.
Pure Substances Mixtures

They have a fixed, constant composition They have a variable composition
Their properties are variable since their components
Their properties are fixed and constant
retain their own individual properties
The component parts cannot be separated by physical The component parts can be separated by physical
means means
Pure substances can be further classified into elements and compounds, and mixtures into homogenous
and heterogenous mixtures.
i.e.,
Pure substances
A pure substance is composed of only one type of material and has the following fixed properties:
• a sharply defined, constant melting/freezing point

• a sharply defined, constant boiling point
• a constant density
Whether a substance is pure is indicated by its melting or boiling point. Any impurities in a pure substance
will lower its melting point (and cause it to melt over a wider temperature range) and raise its boiling point
(and cause it to boil over a wider temperature range). For example, the melting and boiling points of water
are 0°C and 100°C respectively. Making water impure by dissolving a lot of sodium chloride in it raises the
boiling point from 100°C to about 103°C. The more salt that is dissolved, the greater the rise in the boiling
point. Adding salt makes it freeze at temperatures below 0°C.
Paper chromatography can also be used. If a substance is pure, it will produce only one single spot on a
chromatogram. If it is not pure, it will produce multiple spots.

Elements
An element is simplest form of matter that cannot be broken down into anything simpler by ordinary
chemical or physical means. The smallest particle in an element that has the same properties as the
element is an atom. Each element is composed of only one kind of atom. Most elements are made up of
individual atoms (e.g., silver Ag, which is made up of individual silver atoms), however, a few are made up of
molecules (e.g., nitrogen N2, which is made up of nitrogen molecules, each molecule being composed of two
nitrogen atoms).
Elements can be further classified into metals, nonmetals, metalloids, and noble gases.
Compounds
Compounds are composed of more than one kind of atom. These atoms are combined chemically, they are
always present in the same proportions by mass, and they cannot be separated by physical means. A
compound is represented by a chemical formula, which indicates the elements the compound is made up of
and the ratio in which they have combined. For example, the chemical formula of water is H2O, which
indicates that there are hydrogen and oxygen present in the compound in a ratio of 2:1.
The properties of a compound are fixed and are different from the properties of the individual elements that
form the compound. For example, hydrogen and oxygen are both gases at room temperature whereas
water is a liquid.
Compounds can either be covalent (molecular) or ionic.


Mixtures
A mixture is a material which contains two or more distinct chemical substances. The components of a
mixture are physically combined, and as such, can be physically separated. No chemical reactions take place,
meaning each component retains its own chemical identity and their individual physical properties. Even
though the chemical properties of the components have not changed, a mixture may exhibit new physical
properties, like boiling point and melting point.
A homogenous mixture is one in which the properties and physical components are uniform throughout the
mixture. The component parts cannot be distinguished from each other. A solution is a homogenous
mixture. Examples of homogenous mixtures include air, salt dissolved in water, and metal alloys.
A heterogenous mixture is a non-uniform in which the components can be distinguished from each other,
though not always with the naked eye. Suspensions and colloids are heterogenous mixtures. Examples of
heterogenous mixtures are salt and sand, mayonnaise, and muddy water.

Solutions
A solution is a homogenous mixture of two or more substances. It is composed of a solvent (the substance
present in a higher concentration that does the dissolving) and a solute (the substance present in a lower
concentration that dissolves). A solution may contain more than one solute. Solutions in which the solvent is
water are aqueous solutions.
Solute state Solvent state Example Components

Solid Liquid Sea water Sodium chloride dissolved in water
Liquid Liquid White vinegar Ethanoic acid dissolved in water
Gas Liquid Soda water Carbon dioxide dissolved in water
Solid Solid Bronze (metal alloy) Tin dissolved in copper
Gas Gas Air Oxygen, carbon dioxide, noble gases, and
water vapour dissolved in nitrogen
Depending upon the dissolution of the solute in the solvent, solutions can be categorized into
supersaturated solutions, unsaturated and saturated solutions.
• A supersaturated solution comprises a large amount of solute dissolved at a given temperature

(usually increased) such that if it is reduced, the extra solute will crystallize quickly.
• An unsaturated solution is a solution in which a solvent is capable of dissolving more solute at a
given temperature.
• A saturated solution can be defined as a solution in which a solvent is not capable of dissolving any
more solute at a given temperature.

Colloids
A colloid is a heterogenous mixture (though they tend to look homogenous) containing particles that are
intermediate in size between those of a solution and suspension. The particles in a colloid cannot be seen
even with a microscope, and if left undisturbed, they do not settle. The properties of a colloid are
intermediate between those of a solution and a suspension.
Type of colloid Composition Examples

Sol Solid particles dispersed in a liquid paint
Gel Liquid droplets trapped in solid jelly
Emulsion Liquid droplets dispersed in a liquid mayonnaise, milk
Foam Gas bubbles dispersed in a liquid whipped cream
Solid aerosol Solid particles dispersed in a gas smoke
Liquid aerosol Liquid droplets dispersed in a gas fog, aerosol sprays, clouds
Suspensions
A suspension is a heterogenous mixture containing minute particles visible to the naked eye. If left
undisturbed, the particles in a suspension eventually settle. The components of a suspension can be
separated by filtration. For example, dust in air is a suspension of a solid in a gas, and muddy water is a solid
suspended in a liquid.
Solution Colloid Suspension

Size of particles Extremely small Larger than solution, Larger than colloid
smaller than suspension
Visibility of particles Not visible, even with a Not visible, even with a Visible to the naked eye
microscope microscope
Sedimentation Do not separate if Do not settle if Settle if undisturbed
undisturbed undisturbed
Passage of light Light passes through Most scatter light Light does not pass through
Appearance Transparent Translucent or opaque Opaque


SOLUBILITY
solubility
The ability of a substance to be dissolved is called solubility. The solubility of a solute is an indication of how
much of the solute can dissolve in a fixed mass of solvent at a particular temperature to form a saturated
solution. The solubility of a solute in water is usually measured as the mass of solute that will saturate 100
g of water. Each solute and solvent combination has a specific solubility at a given temperature.
For most solid solutes in water, solubility increases as temperature increases. This means that as the
temperature increases, a greater mass of solute will saturate a fixed mass of water. A solution which is
saturated at one temperature will not be saturated at a higher temperature, and if a solution which is
saturated at one temperature is cooled, crystals of the solute will form since less of the solute can dissolve
at a lower temperature.
Other factors that affect solute solubility include pressure, molecule size, and polarity.
When solubility is plotted against temperature, a graph known as a solubility curve is generated. For
example, the solubility curve for potassium chlorate(v) KClO3 is shown below.
It is seen in the graph that the solubility of potassium chlorate(v) increases with an increase in temperature.
Solubility curves can be used to find:
• the solubility of a solid at any temperature within the range of the graph
Example
What is the solubility of KClO3 at 78°C?
At 78°C, the solubility of KClO3 is 35 g per 100 g of water.

• the temperature at which crystals would just start to form if an unsaturated solution containing a
fixed mass of solute is cooled to the point where it is just saturated
Example
At what temperature would crystals just begin to form if an unsaturated solution of potassium
chlorate(V) containing 20 g of potassium chlorate(v) dissolved in 100 g of water is cooled from 80°C?
The temperature at which 20 g of KClO3 saturates 100 g of water = 55°C

∴ temperature at which crystals just begin to form = 55°C
• the mass of solute that would crystallise out of a saturated solution if its temperature is decreased
Example
What mass of potassium chlorate(v) would crystallise out of a saturated solution containing 100 g of
water when the temperature of the solution is decreased from 64°C to 22°C?
At 64°C, 25 g of KClO3 saturates 100 g of water

∴ mass of KClO3 crystallising out of a saturated solution containing 100 g of water = 25 g – 7 g = 18 g
• the mass of solute to be added to resaturate a solution if its temperature is increased
Example
What mass of potassium chlorate(v) must be added to resaturate a solution containing 250 g of
water if the temperature of the saturated solution is increased from 32°C to 82°C?

∴ mass of KClO3 to be added to resaturate a solution containing 100 g of water = 38 g – 10 g = 28 g
28
and mass of KClO3 to be added to resaturate a solution containing 250 g of water = 100 × 250 𝑔 = 70 g
• the minimum mass of water required to dissolve a fixed mass of solute at a given temperature
Example
What is the minimum mass of water required to dissolve 40 g of potassium chlorate(v) at 74°C?

100
∴40 g of KClO3 saturate 32
× 40 𝑔 of water = 125 g of water

SEPARATION TECHNIQUES
separation techniques
OF A
Since mixtures contain components that interact physically, they can be separated using physical separation
techniques. The technique used to separate the components of a mixture depends on the physical
properties of the components.
Filtration
This technique is used to separate a suspended or settled solid and a liquid

when the solid does not dissolve in the liquid, i.e., it is used to separate the
components of a suspension. It only allows the solid to be collected.
Filtration makes use of filter paper to separate the solid from the liquid.
The filter paper works like a sieve, keeping back the solid particles because
they are too big to pass through, whereas the liquid particles are small
enough. The part of the mixture that stays behind is the residue, and the
part that passes through is called the filtrate.
Filtration can be used to separate soil and water. It is also used in the purification of drinking water and in
coffee machines.
Evaporation
This technique is used to separate and retain the solid solute from
the liquid solvent in a solution. It is used if the solute does not
decompose on heating or if a solid without water of crystallisation
(water incorporated within a crystalline structure) is required.
During evaporation, the solution is boiled, allowing the liquid to

vaporise into the air. The boiling point of the solvent must be
lower than that of the solute so that it is converted to a gas. The
solute is left behind in the container. It is a fairly rapid process and if all the liquid evaporates the solid
remaining lacks any crystalline structure. This method is not suitable if the solid to be collected is
decomposed by heat.
Evaporation can be used to obtain the sodium chloride from a sodium chloride solution.

Crystallisation
Like evaporation, this technique is used to separate a solution

of a solid dissolved in a liquid and only allows the solid to be
collected. Unlike evaporation, the solution is not boiled; it is
left in a container at room temperature for the liquid to
vaporise into the air. The solvent must be more volatile than
the solute so it evaporates and leaves the solute behind. It is a
slow process, and the solid remaining has a distinct crystalline
structure. It is used if a hydrated solid containing water of crystallisation is required.
Simple distillation
This technique is also used to separate a solution of a

solid dissolved in a liquid. It allows both the solid and
liquid to be collected. Simple distillation is an
appropriate method of separation only if the liquid has
a lower boiling point than the solid, i.e., the liquid
becomes a vapour before the solid. One of the key
components of the apparatus used in distillation is a
Liebig condenser. Distillation is used to make distilled
water from tap water and can be used to obtain pure
water from sea water.
The method by which the distillation apparatus works is as follows:
• The mixture is heated in the distillation flask until it boils and vaporisation occurs.
• The vapour rises up the distillation flask and as it passes into the Liebig condenser, it cools and
condenses back into a liquid. The liquid passes down the condenser and is collected as the distillate.
• The concentration of the solution in the distillation flask gradually increases and when most of the
liquid vaporised, the solution can be poured into an evaporation basin and left to crystallise to obtain
crystals of the solute if required.

Fractional distillation
This technique is used to separate a mixture

of two or more liquids which are miscible
(able to be mixed) and have different boiling
points that are close together. The apparatus
used in fractional distillation is similar to that
used in simple distillation. However, a
fractionating column is attached between a
round-bottom flask and the Liebig
condenser. Fractional distillation can be used
to separate a solution of ethanol (with a
boiling point of 80°C) and water (with a
boiling point of 100°C), for example. It is used
in the petroleum industry to separate crude
oil into different fractions such as gasoline,
kerosene, and diesel.
The method by which the fractional distillation apparatus works is as follows:
• The mixture boils and vapours of both liquids enter and move up the fractionating column where
they condense and vaporise many times.
• As the mixture of vapours moves up the column, in becomes increasingly richer in the more volatile
component, i.e., the one with the lower boiling point, until the vapour reaching the top of the column
consists only of the more volatile component. This vapour passes into the condenser, condenses,
and is collected as the distillate.
• The vapour of the less volatile liquid, i.e., the one with the higher boiling point, condenses in the
fractionating column and returns to the round-bottomed flask.
• When almost all of the more volatile liquid has distilled over, the temperature begins to rise,
showing that a mixture of both vapours is reaching the top of the column and distilling over. This is
collected in a second container and discarded.
• Once the temperature reaches the boiling point of the less volatile liquid, that liquid is then distilled
into a third container.

Separating funnel
This technique is used to separate a mixture of liquids

that are immiscible and have different densities. A
separating funnel is a container that has a tap at the
bottom, allowing one liquid to be drained off before the
other. It is usually conical in shape to reduce the amount
of liquids lost at the interface of the two liquids. Oil and
water are two liquids that are immiscible and they have
different densities, for example. If a mixture of oil and
water is placed into a separating funnel, the oil with a
lower densities floats on the water which has a higher
densities.
The method by which the separating funnel works is as follows:
• The tap is opened to allow the liquid with the higher density to run into the container below.
• The tap is closed as the liquid interface almost reaches it and the first container is replaced with a
second.
• The tap is opened again to allow a very small amount of the liquid with the lower density to run into
the container and then closed. The contents of the second container are discarded.
Paper chromatography
This technique is used to separate a mixture of dissolved

substances which are coloured or can be coloured, and which will
travel through a material, e.g., filter paper. The substances are
separated based on how soluble they are in the solvent used and
how strongly they are attracted to the paper. It can also be used
to distinguish between pure and impure substances: a pure
substance produces one spot on the chromatogram an impure
substance produces two or more spots
Many inks and food colourings are mixtures of two or more dyes, which can be separated by paper
chromatography.

The method by which paper chromatography works is as follows:
• A drop of the dye mixture is placed 1 cm from the bottom of a rectangular piece of absorbent paper,
e.g., filter paper. The paper is then hung in a beaker containing solvent so that the lower edge is
below the surface of the solvent and the dye is above.
• The solvent moves up the paper and dissolves the dyes in the mixture, carrying them with it.
However, the different dyes travel up the paper at different rates.
• The dyes that are the most soluble in the solvent and least attracted to the paper travel the fastest
and farthest.
• The dyes that are the least soluble in the solvent and most attracted to the paper travel the slowest
and the least distance.
• Once the solvent has completed its movement up the paper, the paper is allowed to dry. There will
be a pattern of different coloured dyes on the paper, each one representing a part of the mixture.
This pattern is known as a chromatogram.
The Rf value can be calculated from a chromatogram. It is equal to the distance travelled by the compound
divided by the distance travelled by the solvent front, both measured from the origin.
Technique Basis of Description Diagram

separation
Filtration Particle Used to separate a
sizes suspended or settled
solid and a liquid when
the solid does not
dissolve in the liquid.

Evaporation Boiling Used to separate and
points retain the solid solute
from the liquid solvent
in a solution. The
solution is boiled.
Crystallisation Volatilities Used to separate and

retain the solid solute
from the liquid solvent
in a solution. The
solution is left at room
temperature.
Simple Boiling Used to separate and

distillation points retain the liquid
solvent from a solid
solute in a solution.
Fractional Boiling Used to separate two

distillation points or more miscible
liquids with close
boiling points.

Separating Densities Used to separate two
funnel or more immiscible
liquids.
Paper Solubilities Used to separate

chromatography and several solutes in a
attraction solution, usually
coloured.
Magnetism Magnetism Used to separate solid

heterogenous
mixtures.
Centrifugation Densities Used to physically
separate mixtures.
Sublimation Sublimation Used to separate a
substance which
sublimes from a liquid.

Extraction of sucrose from sugar cane
Sugar cane was first introduced to the Caribbean by the Dutch in ~1625 and has been a very important part
of its economy since. The production of sucrose from the sugar cane plant is an industrial process that
makes use of several separation techniques.
• The sugar cane stalks are harvested, transported to the factory, cleaned, and cut into small pieces
by revolving knives in the shredder.
• The pieces are then crushed in the crushers as water is
spread on them to dissolve the sugar present. This produces
cane juice and cane fibre, or bagasse. The bagasse is taken to
the boiler furnace where it is burnt to supply heat for the
boilers.
• The cane juice, which is acidic and contains impurities, enters
the clarifier where precipitation occurs. The juice is heated,
and calcium hydroxide is added which neutralises any acids in
the juice and causes the impurities to precipitate out, i.e.,
they are converted into larger, insoluble particles.
• The juice then moves into the rotary filter where continuous
filtration takes place to remove the insoluble impurities. This
produces factory mud and clarified juice. The mud is returned to the fields.
• The clarified juice, which is about 85% water, goes into a series of three or four boilers or
evaporators where vacuum distillation occurs. These boilers are under successively lower pressures
so that as the juice passes from one to the next it boils at successively lower temperatures. In this
way the water evaporates and the juice is concentrated but no charred or caramelised by the boiling
process. The juice from the last boiler is a thick syrup contain about 35% water.
• The thick syrup moves into the crystalliser where crystallisation takes place. Here the syrup is
evaporated until it is saturated with sugar. As soon as the saturation point is exceeded, small grains
of sugar, called ‘seed’, are added to serve as nuclei for the formation of sugar crystals. As the
crystals form, the remaining syrup becomes thick and viscous and is called molasses. The mixture of
crystals and molasses for massecuite.
• The sugar crystals and molasses in the massecuite are then separated by centrifugation. Each
centrifuge contains a perforated basket. The massecuite is placed into the basket and this revolves
at high speed. The molasses is forced out through the holes in the basket are collected in the outer
drum of the centrifuge. The sugar crystals remain in the basket.
• The damp, unrefined sugar crystals are collected and dried by being tumbled through heated air.


OF A
A mixture of copper(II) oxide and copper(II) sulphate is Chromatography is widely used in the pharmaceutical
BEST separated by industry to check the purity of substances.
(A) distilling the mixture (i) Suggest ONE advantage of using chromatography
(B) heating the mixture and condensing to separate the components of a mixture. (1 mk)
(C) shaking with excess water and then filtering (ii) Using two fully labelled chromatograms, illustrate
(D) shaking with excess water followed by fractional how chromatography can be used to indicate
distillation whether a compound is a pure substance. (4 mks)
The answer is (C) shaking with excess water and then i/Can be used to separate highly complex mixtures;
filtering. Copper(II) oxide is insoluble in water whereas Requires low sample volumes; Can separate components
copper(II) sulphate is soluble. The mixture is shaken with with very similar physical and chemical; Identifies the
excess water and then filtered. The filtrate is the copper(II) different constitutes of a mixture.
sulphate solution and the residue is the unreacted
ii/
copper(II) oxide.
2011 CSEC Chemistry Paper 01
A separating funnel can be used to separate a mixture of
(A) kerosene and water

(B) kerosene and ethanol
(C) solid calcium chloride and water
(D) solid calcium chloride and kerosene.
The answer is (A) kerosene and water. A separating

funnel is used to separate immiscible liquids.

Which of the following substances is a suspension?
The first stage in the process of refining crude oil to
(A) Milk produce more value-added products is fractional
(B) Gasoline distillation.
(C) Chalk in water
(i) Name the property of compounds upon which
(D) Sugar in water
fractional distillation is based. (1 mk)
The answer is (C) Chalk in water. Milk is a colloid, while
i/Different boiling points
gasoline and sugar in water are solutions.

2013 CSEC Chemistry Paper 01 2015 CSEC Chemistry Paper 02
From which of the following mixtures can a solid be Distinguish between a solution and a suspension. (2 mks)
obtained by the process of sedimentation?
A solution is a homogenous mixture of very small
(A) Gels particles and as such is transparent. Its particles cannot
(B) Emulsions be filtered out. A suspension is a heterogenous mixture
(C) Foams with visible components and as such is opaque. Its
(D) Suspensions particles can be filtered out.
The answer is (D) Suspensions. Sedimentation is the 2015 CSEC Chemistry Paper 02
separation of suspended solid particles (particles that
settle). Colloids do not settle if undisturbed while Besides temperature, state TWO other factors that affect
suspensions do. the rate at which a solute dissolves. (2 mks)
Pressure, particle size, stirring, solute concentration

Sublimation can be used in separating 2005 CSEC Chemistry Paper 02
(A) suspended solids from a liquid State THREE ways in which a colloid differs from a
(B) a pair of liquids that do not mix suspension. (3 mks)
(C) components of a liquid with similar boiling points
Particle size: Suspension particles are larger /
(D) a solid with weak interparticle forces from one with
Sedimentation: Suspensions settle if undisturbed while
strong forces
colloids do not / Visibility of particles: Suspension
The answer is (D) a solid with weak interparticle forces particles are visible to the naked eye while colloid
from one with strong forces. Sublimation is used to particles are not visible, even with a microscope
separate a substance which sublimes from a mixture. A
solid with weak interparticle forces can lose heat quickly 2011 CSEC Chemistry Paper 02
and sublime.
The production of sugar is important to the Caribbean
2014 CSEC Chemistry Paper 01 economy. The process of extracting sucrose from sugar
cane involves several steps. Two of these steps are:
Which of the following separation techniques is NOT used
during the extraction of sucrose from sugar cane? (i) Clarifying
(ii) Crystallizing
(A) Filtration
(B) Precipitation Outline what happens in EACH step. (4 mks)
(C) Centrifugation In clarification, the juice is heated and calcium hydroxide is

(D) Chromatography added which neutralises the acids in the juice and causes
The answer is (D) Chromatography. the impurities to precipitate out as insoluble calcium
salts. In crystallisation, the syrup is crystallised at low
pressure to form massecuite.
Sedimentation: Suspensions settle if undisturbed while


Separation of mixtures is based on specific properties of Figure 3 is a flow diagram of the industrial processing of
the components in the mixture. Which of the following sugar cane to produce crystalline sucrose. Study the
properties is used to separate a mixture of oil and water? figure carefully and answer the questions which follow.
(A) Solubility
(B) Viscosity
(C) Particle size
(D) Boiling point
The answer is (B) Viscosity.
Which of the following techniques may be used to separate

a mixture of plant pigments into their individual
components?
(A) Centrifugation
(B) Solvent extraction
(C) Fractional distillation
(D) Paper chromatography
The answer is (D) Paper chromatography. (i) Identify Process P and Process Q. (2 mks)
(ii) State the importance of the centrifugation
process. (1 mk)
(iii) Identify Product X. (1 mk)
A substance X, with a boiling point of 58 degrees Celsius, is (iv) The bagasse produced is used in the factory
miscible with another liquid Y, of boiling point 94 degrees during the processing of sugar cane. In which
Celsius. A mixture of these two liquids can BEST be part of the factory is this bagasse used and what
separated into its components by is it used for? (2 mks)
(A) fractional distillation i/Clarification, Vacuum Distillation

(B) simple distillation
ii/Centrifugation allows massecuite to be separated into
(C) use of a separating funnel
sugar crystals (sold on the local market or exported) and
(D) sublimation
molasses (used to manufacture rum and alcohol).
The answer is (A) Fractional distillation. This technique is
iii/Molasses
used to separate two miscible liquids with close boiling
points. iv/The bagasse is burnt in a furnace and used to generate
electricity.
3. Atomic Structure
Which of the properties below refer to a neutron? Chlorine has two isotopic forms with mass numbers 35
and 37 respectively. Chlorine has an atomic number of 17.
Relative Approximate
(i) What differences, if any, are expected between the
Charge Mass
chemical reactions of chlorine-35 and chlorine-37?
(A) +1 1
Explain your answer. (2 mks)
(B) 0 1
(C) -1 0 (ii) Determine the number of electrons, protons, and
(D) 0 2 neutrons in the anion formed from the chlorine-37
atom. (3 mks)
(A) neutrons plus protons i/The isotopesSee answers

would havein similar
the ‘Exam-style
chemicalquestions’
reactionssection
as
(B) neutrons minus protons their chemical properties depend only on the number of
• describe
(C) electrons pluswith illustrations, the structure of atoms of atomic
neutrons valencenumber 1 to
electrons 20;posses
they
The
(D) electronsoplus atom as consisting of three basic particles: protons, neutrons, and electrons arranged in
protons
shells. No consideration of orbitals is expected.
• state properties of electrons, protons, and neutrons;
(E) distilling othe Properties
mixture related to relative mass and charge only.
• define
(F) heating theatomic
mixturemass and mass number;
and condensing
• define
(G) shaking withrelative
excessatomic mass;
water and then filtering
o Relative
(H) shaking with atomicfollowed
excess water mass based on carbon-12 isotope.
by fractional
• interpret notations of the form
distillation
o a – mass number; b – atomic number; c – charge; d – number of items in the entity;
X – symbol of the atom.
• define isotopy;
o Isotopes as atoms with the same number of protons and different number of neutrons.
• list uses of radioactive isotopes.
o At least three uses of radioactive isotopes; for example, carbon dating, radiotherapy, tracers,
pacemakers, and energy generation.
3. Atomic Structure
STRUCTURE
structure ofOF THE ATOM
the atom
An atom is the smallest unit of matter that retains all the chemical properties of an element. Each is made of
three different types of fundamental particles: protons, neutrons, and electrons.
The atom contains a central, positively charged nucleus that has most of the mass of the atom. This nucleus
is surrounded by negatively charged electrons arranged in energy shells.
The modern view of the atom is a nucleus containing protons and neutrons fixed in the centre, with smaller
electrons orbiting outside the nucleus in the energy shells.
Each particle has its own charge and mass.
Relative charge Mass (amu) Location

proton p+ +1 1
Found in the nucleus
neutron n0 0 1
electron e- -1 Approx. 0 Spin around the nucleus in energy shells
In an uncharged, neutral atom, the number of electrons orbiting the nucleus is equal to the number of
protons inside the nucleus. In these atoms, the positive and negative charges cancel each other out, leading
to an atom with no net charge. If it has an unequal number of protons and electrons, it is an ion.
Atoms of different elements contain different numbers of protons and electrons – this is what makes the
elements different. The number of protons is what defines the element and is used to distinguish one
element from another.
3. Atomic Structure
Mass number and atomic number
The mass number (A) is the total number of protons and neutrons in an atom. The atomic number (Z) is the
total number of protons.
An atom can be represented using the symbol notation:
Where:
• A
is the mass number, the total number of protons and neutrons (nucleons)
• z is the atomic number, the total number of protons
• X is the symbol of the element
Atomic number = number of protons
Mass number = number of protons + number of neutrons
For example, chlorine Cl can be shown as:
This symbol shows that chlorine has 35 nucleons, 17 of which are protons. It also tells us that chlorine has
18 neutrons (35 nucleons – 17 protons). Since the number of electrons and protons are equal in a neutral
atom, chlorine also has 17 electrons.
3. Atomic Structure
Example
The atomic number of a sodium atom is 11 and its mass number is 23. Calculate the number of protons,
neutrons, and electrons it contains.
# protons = atomic number # neutrons = # electrons = # of protons

mass number – atomic number
atomic number = 11 number of protons = 11
number of neutrons = 23–11
∴ number of protons = 11 ∴ number of electrons = 11
∴ number of neutrons = 12
Ions
Atoms have the same number of protons in the nucleus as they have electrons orbiting in the energy shells
around the nucleus. However, they can lose or gain electrons due to collisions or other interactions. When
they do, they form charged particles called ions. Ions contain unequal numbers of protons and electrons.
• If an atom loses one or more electrons, it becomes a cation (a positively charged ion)
• If an atom gains one or more electrons, it becomes an anion (a negatively charged ion)
For example, the atom below has two electrons in an energy shell outside the nucleus. The atom is neutral,
as it has two positive protons and two negative electrons (2 + (-2) = 0).
One electron has been lost. The ion has two One electron has been gained. The ion has two
positive protons but one electron, so it is a cation positive protons but three electrons, so it is an anion
(2 + (-1) = +1). (2 + (-3) = -1).
When this atom ionises, it may gain or lose one or more electrons. This determines the charge on the ion,
represented by a superscripted numeral with a + or -. If only one electron is lost or gained, there is no
numeral – only the charge. For example, lithium atom (3 electrons) that loses one electron forms Li+, and a
nitrogen atom (7 electrons) that gains three electrons forms N3-.
3. Atomic Structure
Electron configuration and energy shells
An electron configuration is the way in which electrons are arranged in an atom. The electron configuration
shows how many electrons occupy each atom’s energy shell. Energy shells are series of energy levels
around the nucleus in which electrons spin.
Energy shells are numbered starting closest to the nucleus and moving outwards. Each shell can hold a
certain number of electrons. For elements with atomic number 1-20, the first shell holds two electrons, the
second holds eight, and the third can be thought of as holding eight as well.
The electron configuration of an atom can be predicted from its atomic number. For example, the atomic
number of sodium is 11. Sodium atoms have 11 protons and 11 electrons.
• 2 electrons occupy the first shell

• 8 electrons occupy the second shell
• 1 electron occupies the third shell (this final shell is called the valence shell, that has valence
electrons)
The electron configuration of sodium can hence be written as (2.8.1). It can also be shown as a
diagram (shown on the left) in which each shell is modelled as a circle, and each electron is
modelled as a dot or cross.
Isotopes
An element’s atomic number defines it. An element with 17 protons will always be chlorine. However, an
element’s mass number can vary, which means that it can have different numbers of neutrons. Although
chlorine has a mass number of 35 (meaning it has 18 neutrons), it can also have a mass number of 37
(meaning it has 20 neutrons). The different types of chlorine are called isotopes.
Isotopes are atoms of the same element that have the same atomic number but differing mass numbers,
i.e., the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons.
Isotopes of an element have the same chemical behaviour, determined only by the number of electrons an
atom has. They have slightly different physical behaviour, however, as they have slightly different masses.
3. Atomic Structure
There are three isotopes of hydrogen: hydrogen, deuterium (hydrogen-2), and tritium (hydrogen-3).
These isotopes have one proton (their atomic number, making them hydrogen) but different numbers of
neutrons (making them isotopes).
14
7
N and 14
6
C are not isotopes because although they have the same mass number, they are not the same
element. If the number of protons changes, it is a different element.
Average atomic mass
The average atomic mass for an element is calculated by summing the masses of the element’s isotopes,
each multiplied by its natural abundance on earth.
𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 = ∑(𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑝𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 × 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑏𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒)
Example
Carbon has two isotopes as shown in the table below.

Isotope Mass Abundance (%)
12
C 12.00 amu 98.93
13
C 13.00 amu 1.07
𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 = ∑(𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑝𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 × 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑏𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒)
𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 = (12 × 0.9893) + (13 × 0.0107)

𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 = 12.0107
Use of radioisotopes
• Carbon-14 is used in radiocarbon dating (determining the age of living organisms).

• Cobalt-60 is used to treat cancerous cells in tumours (by directing a controlled beam of it at the cells).
• Iodine-131 is used to treat thyroid cancer (via injection into the tumour).
• Uranium-235 is used to generate energy (in nuclear power stations).
• Plutonium-238 is used to power heart pacemakers (it is used in batteries).
Radioisotopes are also used for food preservation, sterilisation of medical equipment, and in smoke detectors.
3. Atomic Structure
OF A
Which of the properties below refer to a neutron? Chlorine has two isotopic forms with mass numbers 35
and 37 respectively. Chlorine has an atomic number of
Relative Approximate
17.
Charge Mass
(A) +1 1 (i) What differences, if any, are expected between
(B) 0 1 the chemical reactions of chlorine-35 and
(C) -1 0 chlorine-37? Explain your answer. (2 mks)
(D) 0 2 (ii) Determine the number of electrons, protons, and
neutrons in the anion formed from the chlorine-
The answer is (B) 0 and 1. 37 atom. (3 mks)
.2003 CSEC Chemistry Paper 01 i/The isotopes would have similar chemical reactions as
their chemical properties depend only on the number of
Which TWO of the following statements are true about the valence electrons they possess.
arrangement of electrons,
(I) distilling the mixtureprotons, and neutrons in an
ii/ Mass no. = 37; atomic no. = 17
atom?
(J) heating the mixture and condensing
# of protons = atomic no. = 17
I.(K) shaking with
Protons excess water
and neutrons and then
are found filtering
in the nucleus.
II.(L) shaking with excess water followed by
Electrons can be found anywhere outside fractional
the # of neutrons = mass no. – atomic no. = 37 – 17 = 10
distillation
nucleus.
# of electrons = 18 (See A5)
III. The number of protons always equals the number of
neutrons. 2012 CSEC Chemistry Paper 02
IV. The number of protons always equals the number of
Radioisotopes are very useful in everyday life. For
electrons.
example, Uranium-235 is used in generation because it
produces large amounts of energy when the atoms split.
(A) I and III
(B) I and IV State TWO other uses radioisotopes and explain the
(C) II and III importance of EACH. (4 mks)
(D) III and IV
Carrbon-14 dating – method of determining the age of
The answer is (B) I and IV. Protons and neutrons are located archaeological specimens less than 50,000 years old;
in the nucleus of the atom, and, since an atom has a neutral Tracers – used to study chemical changes within living
charge, the number of protons will be equal to the number organisms; Radiotherapy – used to treat cancer cells as
of electrons. it destroys them more rapidly than normal cells.
A separating funnel is used to separate immiscible liquids.

3. Atomic Structure
How many neutrons and electrons does the particle 24 X2+ Atoms of an element, 19
9
A, readily combine with those of
12
have? another element 27
13
B.
Neutrons Electrons Draw a labelled diagram to illustrate the number of

(A) 12 10 protons, neutrons, and electrons present in an atom of
(B) 12 12 B. (3 mks)
(C) 24 10
mass no. = 27; atomic no. = 13
(D) 24 12
atomic number = # of protons = # of electrons = 13
The answer is (A) 12 neutrons and 10 electrons. The # of neutrons = 27 – 13 = 14

number of neutrons is the mass number (24) subtracted
from the atomic number (12). Since particle X is an ion with a
+2 charge, it has lost two electrons from the number atom X
would have.
Two particles have the following composition:
(i) 10 protons, 12 neutrons, 10 electrons 2017 CSEC Chemistry Paper 02

(ii) 10 protons, 11 neutrons, 10 electrons
(a) Two isotopes of carbon are 12 C and 13C. Define
6 6
They are therefore both the term
(v) What ‘isotope’ ifand
differences, hence
any, show by calculation
are expected between
12 13
(A) allotropes thatchemical
the C andreactions
C are isotopes. (3 mks)
of chlorine-35 and
6 6
(B) cations (b) chlorine-37?
Radioisotopes are very
Explain useful
your in everyday
answer. (2 mks) life. For
(C) isotopes example, the
(vi)Determine theUranium-235 isotope isprotons,
number of electrons, used in and
(D) metals energy generation
neutrons because
in the anion formedit from
produces large
the chlorine-
37
amounts
atom. (3
of mks)
energy when the atoms split. State
The answer is (C) isotopes. These particles have the same
THREE other uses of radioisotopes. (3 mks)
number of protons but different number of neutrons, i/The isotopes would have similar chemical reactions as
making them isotopes. a/ Isotopes
their have
chemical the same
properties number
depend of protons
only but of
on the number
differentelectrons
valence numbersthey
of neutrons.
posses
Neutron number = mass number – atomic number
12 – 6p+ = 6n0 neutrons; 13 – 6p+ = 7n0
∴ they are isotopes
b/Radiocarbon dating, chemotherapy, food preservation,

sterilisation of medical equipment, pacemakers, smoke
detectors, chemical tracers, nuclear weapons, batteries
3. Atomic Structure
2004 CSEC Chemistry Paper 01 Typical Exam Question / 2006 CSEC Chemistry Paper 02
An ion with a single negative charge may be converted into a Isotopes are quite common, with a number of naturally
neutral atom of the same element by occurring elements have more than one stable isotope.
Chlorine-35 (35
17
Cl) and carbon-12 (12
6
C) are the more
(A) losing an electron
abundant isotopes of chlorine and carbon respectively.
(B) gaining an electron
The other isotopes are 37 Cl and 14 C. Carbon-14 is
(C) gaining a proton 17 6
radioactive.
(D) losing a neutron
(a) (i) Define the term ‘isotopes’.
The answer is (A) losing an electron. If the ion has a
(ii) State ONE use of carbon-14.
negative charge, it has more electrons than protons. It must
(b) Write the electron configurations of 37 Cl and
lose one electron in order to be neutral. 17
14
6
C.
a/i/Isotopes are forms of a chemical element with the
Which of the following statements is/are true of atoms? same atomic number but different mass numbers
(meaning they have different numbers of neutrons).
I. They contain three fundamental particles.
II. They are indivisible in chemical reactions. ii/Radiocarbon dating
III. Those of an element are all exactly alike.
b/
IV. They contain particles which all carry charges.
# of protons of atom = # of electrons
(A) I only 37
17
Cl – 2.8.7 and 14
6
C – 2.4
(B) I, II, and III only
(C) II and IV only # of neutrons = mass no. – atomic no. = 37 – 17 = 10
(D) I and III only
# of electrons = 18 (See A5)
An isotope of lead can be represented by the following
The answer is (B) I, II, and III only. Neutrons do not carry symbol 207 Pb. From this symbol, it can be deduced that
82
charges.
one atom of the isotope has
2006 CSEC Chemistry Paper 01 (A) 82 neutrons
Radioactive isotopes are NOT normally used in the (B) 82 protons
(C) 125 protons
(A) determination of the age of fossils (D) 207 protons
(B) treatment of cancer
(C) treatment of influenza The answer is (B) 82 protons. The atomic number gives
(D) powering of certain types of submarines the number of protons (82). The number of neutrons is
125.
The answer is (C) treatment of influenza.
If the ion has a negative charge, it has more electrons
than protons. It must lose one electron in order to be
neutral.
3. Atomic Structure
Number of Number of Number of An atom with atomic structure 27 X contains

Element 13
Protons Electrons Neutrons
(A) 14 protons, 13 neutrons
Q 8 8 8
(B) 13 protons, 27 neutrons
R 16 16 16
S 8 8 9 (C) 13 protons, 14 neutrons
T 16 18 16 (D) 27 protons, 13 neutrons
The answer is (C) 13 protons, 14 neutrons. The atomic

Which of the following pairs of elements are isotopes? number (13) indicates that X contains 13 protons. The
number of neutrons is the mass number – the atomic
(A) Q and R
number (27-13 = 14).
(B) R and T
(C) Q and S The
2018atomic number gives
CSEC Chemistry the01
Paper number of protons (82).
(D) S and T The number of neutrons is 125.
Which of the following statements BEST describes the
The answer is (C) Q and S. These elements have the If the ion has
difference a negative
between charge,
an atom anditan
has more electrons
ion?
same number of proton but different numbers of than protons. It must lose one electron in order to be
(A) An atom is electrically neutral but an ion is
neutral.
neutrons.
positively charged.
Which of the following elements is an anion? (B) An atom is electrically neutral but an ion is
negatively charged.
(A) Q
(C) An atom contains equal numbers of protons and
(B) R
electrons whereas an ion contains more
(C) S
electrons than protons.
(D) T
(D) An atom contains equal numbers of protons and
The answer is (D) T. This element has more electrons electrons whereas an ion contains unequal
than it does protons, making it negatively charged. numbers of protons and electrons.
2018 CSEC Chemistry Paper 01 The answer is (D) An atom contains equal numbers of
protons and electrons whereas an ion contains unequal
‘Mass number’ is the number of
numbers of protons and electrons.
(A) neutrons plus protons
(B) neutrons minus protons
(C) electrons plus neutrons In the notation 35
17
Cl, the subscript 17 represents the
(D) electrons plus protons
(A) atomic number
The answer is (A) neutrons plus protons. (B) oxidation state
(C) mass of a mole of atoms
(D) atoms in a mole of molecules
The answer is (A) atomic number.

3. Atomic Structure
Typical Exam Question / 2008 CSEC Chemistry Paper 01 2016 CSEC Chemistry Paper 01
The following question refers to the relative charges and The mass number of an element is the number of
approximate masses of four particles as listed below.
(A) neutrons in an atom of the element
Relative Approximate (B) protons and electrons in an atom of the element
Charge Mass (C) neutrons and protons in an atom of the element
(A) +1 1 (D) protons, neutrons, and electrons in an atom of
(B) 0 1 the element
(C) -1 0
The answer is (D) protons, neutrons, and electrons in
(D) 0 2
an atom of the element.
Which of the above properties refers to a proton? 2015 CSEC Chemistry Paper 01
24
The answer is (A) +1 and 1. 11
Na and 23
11
Na are isotopes because they
(A) conduct electricity

(B) react vigorously with water
(M) distilling the mixture
Which of the following statements are true? Isotopes of an (C) have the same number of protons
(N) heating the mixture and condensing
element contain (D) have the same relative atomic mass
(O) shaking with excess water and then filtering
(P) I.shaking
the same number
with excess of protons.
water followed by fractional The answer is (C) have the same number of protons.
II. the same number of neutrons.
distillation
III. different numbers of electrons. 2014 CSEC Chemistry Paper 01
IV. the same number of protons as electrons.
The mass number of an element is the number of
particles in the nucleus of an atom of that element.
(A) I and II only
‘Particles’ refer to
(B) I and IV only
(C) II and III only (A) neutrons
(D) II and IV only (B) protons and electrons
(C) neutrons and protons
The answer is (B) I and IV only.
(D) protons, neutrons, and electrons
The answer is (D) protons, neutrons, and electrons.

4. Periodic Table and Periodicity

Calcium, magnesium, and barium are Group II metals. Which The image represents a part of the periodic table
of these is true when these metals react with cold water? showing the location of fluorine F, chlorine Cl, bromine
Br, Iodine I, and astatine At.
(A) Magnesium is more reactive than calcium
(B) Calcium is more reactive than barium
(C) Barium is more reactive than magnesium
(D) There are no differences in reactivities
(a) Identify the group in the period table in which the
Typical Exam Question / 2017 CSEC Chemistry Paper 01 elements are placed. Give ONE reason. (2 mks)
An element, X, has an electron configuration 2, 8, 1. At An experiment is set up by a group of student as follows:
which of the following positions is the element in the
periodic table?
(A) Period 1 Group I

(B) Period 1 Group II
(C) Period 3 Group I (b) What would the students observe? Include an
(D) Period 3 Group II equation in your answer. (3 mks)
(c) Identify the forms of carbon, V and Q. (2 mks)
• explain the basis for the arrangement of elements in the periodic table;
o mention historical development of the periodic table, for example, contributions from Mendeleev
and Dobereiner. Classification based an atomic number, atom structure. Arrangement in periods
and groups.
• explain trends in group II;
o ease of ionisation, reactivity with oxygen, water, and
(i) Which
diluteof
hydrochloric
the two allotropes
acid. of carbon, diamond or
• explain trends in group VII; graphite, conducts electricity? Explain your answer
o consideration of the following properties: physical state at room
in terms temperature,
of the strength
structure and of of the two
bonding
oxidising power allotropes.
• identify trends in period 3; Conducts electricity:
o metallic to semi-metallic to non-metallic properties Explanation:
• predict properties of unknown elements based on the position in the periodic table.
(i) Name the THREE states of matter. (1)

(ii) Which of the two temperatures, (A) and (B) in Figure
3 represents the (2)
melting point?
boiling point?
(iii) What would be observed at (C) in Figure 3? (1)

INTRODUCTION
introduction
The periodic table of the elements is the organized tabular arrangement of chemical elements in order of
increasing atomic number. An element is a substance made up of only one type of atom. Periodicity refers to the
recurrence of elements with similar properties at regular intervals in the periodic table.
In the modern periodic table:
• there are 118 elements

• the elements are arranged in order of increasing atomic number (number of protons in the nucleus)
• there are 7 horizontal rows called periods and 8 vertical columns called groups
• metals are on the left and nonmetals are on the right, separated by a zigzag line
• the block between groups 2 and 3 is where transition metals are placed

The electronic configuration of an element is related to its position on the periodic table.
• The number of electron shells is the period number of that element

• The number of valence electrons is the group number of that element
• The total number of electrons in all shells is the atomic number of that element
For example, sodium (2, 8, 1) is in period 3 (three shells), group 1 (one valence electron), and has an atomic number
of 11 (2 + 8 + 1 = 11).
The ‘father of the periodic table’ is considered to be Dmitri Mendeleev. He, along with many other scientists,
contributed to the modern, present-day form of the periodic table.
• In 1789, Antoine Lavoisier grouped elements into metals, non-metals, gases, and earths
• In 1829, Johann Döbereiner grouped elements into triads based on atomic weight
o Döbereiner noticed that the atomic weight of strontium fell between the
weights of calcium and barium, elements possessing similar chemical
properties. After discovering the halogen triad (Cl, Br, I) and the alkali metal
triad (Li, Na, K), he proposed that nature contained triads of elements.
• In 1864, John Newlands put forward his Law of Octaves
o This was a pattern proposing that each element was similar to the element eight places ahead
• In 1869, Dmitri Mendeleev published a periodic table
o This was after realising the physical and chemical properties of
elements were related to their atomic mass in a repeating or
‘periodic’ fashion
o He arranged them so that groups of elements with similar
properties fell into vertical columns in the table
o In his table, there were occasional gaps in his horizontal rows.
Mendeleev was able to work out the atomic mass of the
elements and predict their properties based on the table, and
turned out to be correct once these elements were discovered
Just as Mendeleev was able to predict the properties of elements, so can predictions about elements in a
group be made based on knowledge of what one of the elements of the group is like. For example, all the
elements in group 1 are reactive metals, and all the elements in group 8 are unreactive nonmetals.
Properties of elements and their compounds vary progressively across a period and down a group. These
properties are known as trends.

PERIODIC TRENDS
periodic trends
Periodic trends are patterns in elements on the periodic table. The existence of the trends is due to the
similarity in atomic structure of the elements in their groups or periods and because of the periodic nature of
elements. These trends are readily mapped to the periodic table; however, each trend has its exceptions.
• Atomic radius (↙)

Atomic radius is the distance from the nucleus of an atom the outer edge of the electron cloud.
Atomic radius decreases across a period and increases down a group.
Across a period, the shielding effect is constant. The shielding effect is when the
valence electrons are blocked from attraction (‘shielded’) by the nucleus. When the
number of electrons increases, they fall into the valence shell. This means that ‘new’
electrons are shielded from the nuclear attraction. However, the number of protons
increases. So, for the shells not affected by shielding, there are more positive
protons than negative electrons. The increasing nuclear charge pulls the electrons
more strongly towards the nucleus, and the atomic size decreases.
Sodium and phosphorus are both in period 3.
Sodium has an atomic number of 11. This means that a neutral sodium
atom has 11 protons and 11 electrons. Phosphorus has an atomic number
of 15. This means that a neutral phosphorus atom has 15 protons and 15 electrons. The valence
electrons in each atom are shielded from the nuclear charge. Therefore, only the electrons in first
two shells in these sodium and phosphorus atoms will be pulled closely to the nucleus. This means
that 10 electrons are attracted to the nucleus in each. However, there are 11 protons in sodium and
15 protons in phosphorus. The 15 protons in phosphorus have a stronger charge and pull the 10
electrons more tightly than the 11 protons in sodium. Therefore, phosphorus, further across in the
period, will pull more tightly and have a smaller atomic size. Hence, atomic radius decreases across
a period.
Down a group, the number of energy levels increases, so there is a greater distance between the
nucleus and the outermost orbital. This results in a larger atomic radius.

• Ionic radius (↙)
Ionic radius is the distance from the nucleus of an ion to the outer edge of the electron cloud.
Once the periodic table is divided into metal and nonmetal sections,
ionic radius decreases across a period and increases down a group.
A cation has a smaller radius than its neutral atom because it loses valence electrons. The shell is
pulled more closely to the nucleus, giving it a smaller radius. An anion has a larger radius than its
neutral atom because it gains valence electrons. There is added electron-electron repulsion (because
electrons have like charges, they push each other away) in the valence shell and weakened nuclear
charge that expands the size of the cloud, giving it a larger radius.
The trends down a group and across a period are the same for that of atomic radius. Down a group,
there are additional energy shells that increase the size of the ion. Across a period, the shielding
remains constant while nuclear charge increases, pulling electrons closer to the nucleus and
decreasing the size of the ion.
• Metallic character
Metallic character refers to the set of chemical properties associated with metals. These properties
result from how readily metals lose electrons to form cations.
Metallic character decreases across a period and increases down a group.
Across a period, atoms more readily accept electrons, uncharacteristic of metals since they lose
electrons. Metallic character therefore decreases across a period.
Down a group, electrons become easier to lose as the atomic radius increases, where there is less
attraction between the nucleus and the valence electrons because of shielding and increased
distance. Since metals lose electrons, metallic character increases down a group.

• Electronegativity
Electronegativity is a measure of the attraction an atom has for bonding electrons. It can be thought
of as how badly an atom wants another electron in order for that atom to become an anion. The
higher the electronegativity, the more desperate for an electron the atom is. Electronegativity is not
measurable, but the Pauling scale is used to quantify differences. Fluorine is the most
electronegative element, whereas caesium is the least.
Electronegativity also affects polarity. In a polar molecule, atoms differ in electronegativity ad

attract electrons with different strengths, such as in water or hydrogen chloride. In a nonpolar
molecule, the electronegativity is similar or the same.
Electronegativity increases across a period and decreases down a group.
Across a period, electronegativity increases. Since electronegativity is the attraction an atom has for
electrons, metals, to the left of the table, have low electronegativities. However, nonmetals tend to
gain electrons and have high electronegativities. The closer the valence shell is to being full, the
stronger the pull of that atom on other electrons, and as such, the greater the electronegativity.
Down a group, the number of energy levels increases, and so does the distance between the nucleus
and the outermost shell. The increased distance, electron-electron repulsion, and shielding weaken
the nuclear attraction. Weaker nuclear attraction means atoms cannot attract electrons as strongly.
• Electron affinity
Electron affinity is the energy released when a neutral atom acquires an electron.
Electron affinity increases across a period and decreases down a group.
Across a period, the desire to gain an electron increases as an atom gets closer to a full valence
shell. More energy will be released as the desire increases.
Down a group, atoms increased distance to the nucleus and increased shielding makes it more
difficult for an atom to gain an electron. This means less energy is released.

• Ionisation energy
Ionisation energy is the amount of energy needed to pull an electron away from an atom in the gas
state, or the tendency of an atom to give up electrons. The energy required to remove the first
electron from an atom is the first ionisation energy. The factors that affect ionisation energy include
(1) distance of the valence electrons from the nucleus, since increased distance means less energy is
required, (2) effective nuclear charge, since the greater the charge, the more energy is required, and
(3) shielding effect, since the greater the shielding, the less amount of energy is required.
Ionisation energy increases across a period and decreases down a group.
Across a period, effective nuclear charge increases as shielding remains constant. This pulls the
electron cloud closer to the nucleus, making it more difficult to remove an electron. This means
more energy is required.
Down a group, the number of energy levels increases and the distance between the nucleus and the
electron is greater. The increased distance weakens the nuclear attraction, which makes it easier to
remove. This means less energy is required.

Trends in Group II
Group II of the periodic table is composed of the following elements: beryllium, magnesium,
calcium, strontium, barium, and radium. The elements in group II are known as alkaline earth
metals, because they are metals that form alkaline solutions when they react with water. These
elements display very similar properties. They are very reactive and are never found naturally in
their free state but are always found in nature combined with other elements in compounds.
Group II elements have the following general properties in common:
• They are fairly soft metals

• They are shiny, silvery-white when freshly cut but turn dull quickly as they react with oxygen
• They have fairly high melting and boiling points
• Their atoms have two valence electrons and will readily lose them to form metal cations
with a charge of +2
• They are more reactive going down the group
o This is because moving down the group, valence electrons become further away from the
attractive pull of the positive nucleus due to shielding and increased distance. There is
therefore a greater ease of ionisation (ionisation energy: the tendency for atoms to give up
electrons) going down the group. What this means is that it is easier for these elements to
lose an electron, meaning the reactivity is greater.
Reactions with oxygen
Group II metals burn in the air and even more rapidly in oxygen. Going down the group, the metals burn
more readily. The reactions are similar, forming the metal oxide.
• Magnesium reacts slowly to form a coating of magnesium oxide MgO on exposure to air. If ignited,
magnesium burns with a blinding white flame, producing white, solid magnesium oxide.
2Mg(s) + O2(g) → 2MgO(s)
• Calcium reacts readily to form a coating of calcium oxide CaO on exposure to air. If ignited, calcium
burns with a brick red flame, producing white, solid calcium oxide.
2Ca(s) + O2(g) → 2CaO(s)
• Barium reacts very readily to form a coating of barium oxide BaO on exposure to air. If ignited,
barium burns with an apple green flame, producing white, solid barium oxide.
2Ba(s) + O2(g) → 2BaO(s)

Reactions with water
Group II metals react with water. The reactivity increases down the group.
• Magnesium reacts very slowly with cold water, producing magnesium hydroxide Mg(OH)2 and
hydrogen gas H2.
Mg(s) + 2H2O(l) → Mg(OH)2(aq) + H2(g)
o Hot magnesium reacts with steam to form magnesium oxide.
Mg(s) + H2O(g) → MgO(s) + H2(g)
• Calcium reacts vigorously with cold water, producing calcium hydroxide Ca(OH)2 and hydrogen gas H2.
Ca(s) + 2H2O(l) → Ca(OH)2(aq) + H2(g)
• Barium reacts very vigorously with cold water, producing barium hydroxide Ba(OH)2 and hydrogen
gas H2.
Ba(s) + 2H2O(l) → Ba(OH)2(s) + H2(g)
Reactions with dilute hydrochloric acid
Group II metals react with hydrochloric acid to form hydrogen and salts called chlorides. The reactions are
similar. The reactivity increases down the group.
• Magnesium reacts vigorously to produce magnesium chloride MgCl2 and hydrogen gas H2.
Mg(s) + 2HCl(aq) → MgCl2(aq) + H2(g)
• Calcium reacts very vigorously to produce calcium chloride CaCl2 and hydrogen gas H2.
Ca(s) + 2HCl(aq) → CaCl2(aq) + H2(g)
• Barium reacts violently to produce barium chloride BaCl2 and hydrogen gas H2.
Ba(s) + 2HCl(aq) → BaCl2(aq) + H2(g)

Trends in Group VII
Group VII of the periodic table is composed of the following elements: fluorine, chlorine, bromine,
iodine, and astatine. The elements in group 7 are known as halogens because they produce salts.
These nonmetals display very similar properties, including being very reactive.
Group VII elements have the following general properties in common:
• They are poisonous elements

• They exist as nonpolar, diatomic molecules (e.g., Cl2, Br2)
• They are generally soluble in nonpolar solvents and slightly soluble in water
• They have low melting and boiling points
• Their atoms have seven valence electrons and will readily lose them to form nonmetal
anions with a charge of -1
• They are less reactive going down the group
o This is because moving down the group, the attractive pull of the positive nucleus weakens
due to shielding and increased distance. Therefore, since the attraction of the nucleus is
weaker, it is more difficult for it to pull on the electron to be gained. This decreases reactivity.
This also means that electronegativity (the tendency for atoms to attract electrons) decreases
down the group as well, since it is more difficult to attract electrons going to the group.
Halogens have different colours and states at room temperature, as well as various practical uses:
Element Appearance and state at Notes Uses

room temperature
fluorine pale yellow gas toothpaste
chlorine yellow-green gas treating water (e.g., pools)
bromine red-brown liquid the liquid evaporates easily to making pesticides and plastics
form an orange vapour
iodine grey-black solid the solid sublimes readily when sterilising wounds
heated forming a purple
vapour; the solid forms a
brown solution when mixed
with water
Note that the colours get darker and more intense down the group. Also note that the melting and boiling
points increase down the group. Because the molecules become larger, the intermolecular forces become
stronger, and more heat energy is needed to overcome those forces. When the molecule melts or boils, it is
the intermolecular forces that are broken, not the covalent bonds in each molecule.

Halogen displacement reactions
A displacement reaction is one in which an element in its free state replaces another in a compound. For
example, when an aqueous solution of chlorine (though it can be chlorine gas) is added to aqueous sodium
bromide, the chlorine displaces the bromide ion in the potassium bromide:
Cl2(aq) + 2KBr(aq) → 2KCl(aq) + Br2(aq)
The solution will turn brown, the brown colour being the displaced bromide.
A more reactive halogen displaces a less reactive halide from a solution of one of its salts.
Note the difference between halogens and halides: halogens are diatomic molecules that are elements
while halides are ionic compounds containing fluoride (F-), chloride (Cl-), bromide (Br-) or iodide (I-) ions.
Since reactivity decreases down the group, elements higher up will displace those further down in group 7. If
a less reactive halogen in aqueous solution reacts with a compound containing a more reactive halide, no
reaction will occur. To determine whether a displacement reaction has occurred after mixing the aqueous
halogen solution with a sodium or potassium halide solution, observe the colour of the resulting solution.
The halide solutions are all colourless, so, if a displacement reaction occurs and a different halogen forms, it
can be identified by its distinctive colour. Chlorine is yellow-green, bromide is red-brown, and iodine will
range from a brown solution to a grey-black precipitate depending on the amount produced.
Halogen in aqueous Potassium chloride Potassium bromide Potassium iodide

solution
Chlorine - potassium chloride + bromide potassium chloride + iodine
Bromine - - potassium bromide + iodine
Iodine - - -
From these trends, it can be predicted that fluorine, at the top of Group VII, will displace all halides from their
compounds. On the other hand, astatine, at the bottom of Group VII, will not displace any. This is because
reactivity decreases down the group.
Displacement reactions can be explained by considering the relative oxidising strengths of the halogens.
Oxidising strength is a measure of how easily one substance takes electrons from another. The oxidising
strength of elements in Group 7 increases moving up the group, because the ability to ionise by gaining an
electron increases moving up the group.
Fluorine has the strongest oxidising strength out of all the elements. In Group VII, it has the strongest
oxidising strength and astatine has the weakest. It can also be said that fluorine is the strongest oxidising
agent (= brings about the oxidation of another reactant by causing an atom in the reactant to lose electrons
and causing the agent to gain electrons).
In the table above comparing the halogen displacement reactions, it can be said that chlorine is the
strongest oxidising agent (best electron acceptor), and iodine is the weakest. A stronger oxidising agent will
accept electrons from a weaker oxidising agent. This is why chlorine displaces the bromide ions in potassium
bromide. Each chlorine atom in a chlorine molecule accepts an electron from a bromide ion. As a result, each
chlorine atom forms a chloride ion, and each bromide ion forms a bromide atom. Two bromide atoms then
pair to form a molecule.
Cl2(aq) + 2Br-(aq) → 2Cl-(aq) + Br2(aq)
Chlorine is said to have oxidised the potassium bromide (caused it to lose electrons). This also means that this
reaction is a redox reaction (one that involves reduction and oxidation), since the halogens gain electrons and the
halide ions lose them.

It is important to note that halide ions can be distinguished by using silver nitrate solutions. The test solution is
acidified using a few drops of dilute nitric acid, and then a few drops of silver nitrate solution are added. Different
coloured silver halide precipitates form, depending on the halide ions present.
• Chloride ions give a white precipitate of silver chloride.

• Bromide ions give a cream precipitate of silver bromide.
• Iodide ions give a yellow precipitate of silver iodide.

Trends in Period III
Period III of the periodic table is composed of the following elements: sodium, magnesium, aluminium, silicon,
phosphorus, sulphur, chlorine, and argon.
sodium magnesium aluminium silicon phosphorus sulphur chlorine argon

11Na 12Mg 13Al 14Si 15P 16S 17Cl 18Ar
(2,8,1) (2,8,2) (2,8,3) (2,8,4) (2,8,5) (2,8,6) (2,8,7) (2,8,8)
Moving across the period, the physical and chemical properties of the elements change.
• There is a change in metallic to non-metallic character across the period

• The metalloid lying between the metals and nonmetals have some properties of both metals and
nonmetals
• Across the period, the boiling point increases then decreases
• Across the period, the ability of atoms to lose electrons decreases and their ability to gain electrons
increases
o Silicon does not usually ionise. It usually reacts by sharing electrons with other nonmetals.
o Argon does not ionise and is chemically unreactive.

LEARNING OUTCOMES
learning outcomes
OF A
• explain the basis for the arrangement of elements in the periodic table;
The periodic table is arranged in terms of increasing atomic number. Forty years after Dobereiner
proposed the Law of Triads, Mendeleev released the periodic table which organised elements into
groups and periods. He was able to realise that the physical and chemical properties of elements
were related to their atomic mass in a repeating way. The modern table is connected to the atomic
structure of each element as well.
• explain trends in Group II;

Group II consists of metals with very similar properties because they all have two valence electrons.
They all have similar reactions with oxygen (producing a metal oxide), water (producing a metal
hydroxide), and hydrochloric acid (producing a metal chloride). The reactivity of the elements
depends on the ability of their atoms to lose their valence electrons and increases going down the
group. This is because it becomes easier to lose their valence electrons.
• explain trends in group VII;

Group VII consists of nonmetals with similar properties because they all have seven valence
electrons. The reactivity of the elements depends on their ability of their atoms to gain electrons and
decreases going down the group. This is because it becomes more difficult to attract electrons. They
also undergo displacement reactions, where a more reactive element will displace a less reactive
element from a compound. Displacement reactions depending on the relative oxidising strength,
which is how easily a substance takes electrons from another substance. Oxidising strength
decreases going down the group.
• identify trends in period 3;

Going along Period 3, the metallic nature of elements decreases (because their ability to lose
electrons decreases) and the non-metallic nature of the elements increases (because their ability to
gain electrons increases). The electronegativity of these elements increases going from left to right.
• predict properties of unknown elements based on the position in the periodic table.
An atom of an element has the same number of valence electrons as the group it is in, the same number
of shells as the period it is in, and the same number of electrons as the atomic number it has.

OF A
Calcium, magnesium, and barium are Group II metals. Which Figure 2 represents a part of the periodic table showing
of these is true when these metals react with cold water? the location of fluorine F, chlorine Cl, bromine Br, Iodine I,
and astatine At.
(A) Magnesium is more reactive than calcium
(B) Calcium is more reactive than barium
(C) Barium is more reactive than magnesium
(D) There are no differences in reactivities
The answer is (C) Barium is more reactive than

magnesium. Reactivity increases going down Group II as it is
easier to lose electrons. Barium is lower than magnesium.
(a) Identify the group in the period table in which the
elements are placed. Give ONE reason for your
An element, X, has an electron configuration 2, 8, 1. At answer. (2 mks)
which of the following positions is the element in the
An experiment is set up by a group of student as follows:
periodic table?
(A) Period 1 Group I

(B) Period 1 Group II
(C) Period 3 Group I
(D) Period 3 Group II
The answer is (C) Period 3 Group I. The number of shells (3)

is the period number, and the number of valence electrons (b) What would the students observe when they
(1) is the group number. conduct the experiment represented in Figure 3?
Illustrate your answer by means of an equation.
(3 mks)
Which of the following halogens is a liquid at room
a/The elements are placed in group 7. This is because
temperature?
their electron configurations show that their valence
(A) Bromine shells have 7 electrons. (F = 2.7, Cl = 2.8.7, etc)
(B) Fluorine
b/The student will observe the chlorine gas displacing the
(C) Chlorine
bromide since it is more reactive. Potassium chloride and
(D) Iodine
bromine are formed. The colour of the solution will
The answer is (A) Bromine. At room temperature, bromine change. This is illustrated by the equation Cl2(g) +
is a liquid, fluorine and chlorine are gases, and iodine is solid. 2KBr(aq) → 2KCl(aq) + Br2(aq).

Barium is below calcium in Group II of the periodic table. Table 2 shows selected properties of four Group II
When these metals react with water, the main difference elements.
in observation is the
(A) gas evolved

(B) rate of reaction
(C) colour of the product
(D) colour change with litmus
The answer is (B) rate of the reaction. Calcium reacts (i) Outline the reason for the change in atomic radius
vigorously with cold water, while barium reacts very from magnesium to barium. (2 mks)
vigorously. Hydrogen gas is evolved from both, and the (ii) Barium reacts more readily with water than
colour of both metal hydroxides is white. magnesium does. With reference to the data in
Table 2, explain this observation. (2 mks)
i/Going down group II, more shells are found in the atom
Which set of elements has atoms with two electrons in of each element. With each shell added, the distance from
their outer shells? the nucleus to the outer edge of the atom (i.e., the atomic
radius), increases.
(A) The halogens
(B) Period 2 elements ii/The table shows that ionisation energy decreases going
(C) Group II elements down the group. Magnesium has a greater ionisation
(D) The transition elements energy (747 kJ mol-1), so when it reacts with water, more
energy is required to form a compound (MgCl2). Barium,
The answer is (C) Group II elements. The group number is
on the other hand, requires less energy (512 kJ mol-1),
the number of valence electrons, so group II elements
and will form its metal chloride (BaCl2) more readily.
have two valence electrons. The halogens have seven
valence electrons, period 2 elements have two shells and
varying numbers of valence electrons, and the transition
elements have varying numbers of valence electrons. In the space below, draw a diagram to show the
arrangement of electrons in the chlorine atom. [Atomic
2008 CSEC Chemistry Paper 01 number = 17]
The alkali metals are found in the periodic table in Group
(A) I
(B) II
(C) III
(D) IV
The answer is (C) I. Group 1 is the group that consists of

the alkali metals.

The properties of four metals, W, X, Y, and Z are An element X has an atomic number of 19. Place element
summarised in the following table. X in the correct position in the table below. Give a reason
for your answer. (3 mks)
Metal Reaction With Water/Steam
W There is no reaction.
X Reacts with steam but not with cold water.
Y Reacts rapidly with cold water.
Z Reacts slowly with cold water.
The order of reactivity of these metals, with the MOST
reactive FIRST, is
X, with an electronic configuration of (2.8.8.1), will be in
(A) W, X, Y, Z Period 4, Group I because the period number is the
(B) X, Y, Z, W number of shells, and the group number is the number of
(C) Y, Z, W, X valence electrons.
(D) Y, Z, X, W
The answer is (D) Y, Z, X, W. The more reactive a metal is,
the more vigorously it reacts with other substances. Two samples of aqueous sodium bromide are treated
with chlorine gas and solid iodine as shown in
Y
2003 CSEC Chemistry Paper 01 Experiments 1 and 2 in Figure 4.
In descending Group VII of the periodic table, which TWO

of the following trends occur?
I. The density of the elements increases
II. The relative atomic mass of the elements
decreases
III. The melting point of the elements increases
IV.The reactivity of the elements increases (i) State whether a reaction would take place in EACH
(A) I and III case. (2 mks)
(B) I and IV (ii) Write a balanced equation, where appropriate, for
(C) II and III the reaction(s) occurring in (i) above.
(D) II and IV
i/A reaction will occur in Experiment 1, but not in
The answer is (A) I and III. The density of the halogens Experiment 2.
increases going down the group since the mass and
(Chlorine is more reactive than bromine, so it will displace
volume increase in that direction. The same applies to the
the bromide to form sodium chloride. Iodine however will
melting point, as the intermolecular forces become
not displace bromide since it is less reactive.)
stronger going down the group. Relative atomic mass
increases down the group, while reactivity decreases. ii/ Cl2(g) + 2NaBr(aq) → 2NaCl(aq) + Br2(aq)

The arrangement of elements in the periodic table is (i) List TWO uses of chlorine. (2 mks)
based on (ii) Chlorine is bubbled into two test tubes which contain
(A) relative atomic mass iodide and fluoride ions as shown in Figure 5 below.
(B) atomic number What is expected to be seen in test tube Y and test
(C) mass number tube Z? Give a reason for your answer. (4 mks)
(D) relative molecular mass
The answer is (B) atomic number. The periodic table is

arranged based on increasing atomic number.
Sulphur and oxygen are in the same group because
(A) they can react with each other

(B) the atomic number of sulphur is 16 and the
relative atomic mass of oxygen is 16
(iii) Describe how solutions containing Cl-, Br-, and I-
(C) they have the same number of electrons in their
ions respectively can be distinguished from one
outer shell
another.
(D) they can form covalent compounds
i/Chlorine is used (1) as a bleaching agent and (2) in the
The answer is (C) they have the same number of
treatment of water.
electrons in their outer shell. Elements in the same group
have the number of valence electrons in common. ii/In test tube Y, the colour of the solution will change to
brown. This is because the chlorine will displace the iodide
in the potassium iodide since it is more reactive than the
The atoms of Element X contain nineteen electrons. With iodide. This also means that chlorine is a stronger oxidising
which of the following elements will the chemistry of X be agent than iodine. However, it will not displace the fluoride
similar? as fluoride is more reactive that chlorine. Chlorine is a
weaker oxidising agent than fluorine. The colour will
(A) Aluminium
remain the same.
(B) Bromine
(C) Lithium iii/These solutions can be distinguished by using silver
(D) Magnesium nitrate. By first acidifying the solution by using a few drops
of dilute nitric acid, a few drops of silver nitrate solution
The answer is (C) Lithium. Element X will have an electron
can then be added which will result in colour changes
configuration of (2.8.8.1). It is therefore placed in Group I,
depending on which halide is present. Chloride ions will
since the number of valence electrons is the group
give a white precipitate of silver chloride, bromide ions will
number of that element. Lithium is also in Group I, and
give a cream precipitate of silver bromide, and iodide ions
elements in the same group have similar chemical
will give a yellow precipitate of silver iodide.
properties.

Which of the following atoms represented below by their Elements X and Y have the following electron
electronic configuration will most readily form a positive configurations.
ion?
X: 2, 8, 2 Y: 2, 8, 8, 2
(A) 2, 8, 1
(B) 2, 8, 2 (i) Place Elements X and Y in their correct positions on
(C) 2, 8, 7 the periodic table in Figure 2. (2 mks)
(D) 2, 8, 8
The answer is (A) 2, 8, 1. This Group I atom will react the X
most readily since its nuclear attraction is the weakest.

Since it is a metal, it will lose electrons, forming a cation.
2010 CSEC Chemistry Paper 01 (ii) Explain why you placed the Elements X and Y in the
Which of the following is NOT true of the group of specific group and period in Figure 2 above. (3 mks)
elements known as the halogens? (iii) Classify X and Y as metals or nonmetals. Give ONE
reason for your answer. (2 mks)
(A) They are all nonmetals. (iv) Based on the position of X and Y in the periodic table,
(B) They form negative ions by the loss of electrons how will X and Y react with cold water? Give ONE
from their atoms. reason for your answer. You should comment on the
(C) The boiling point of the elements increases as products formed and the relative rates of the
their atomic numbers increase. reaction. (3 mks)
(D) The oxidising power of the elements decreases as (v) Write a balanced chemical equation for the reaction
their atomic numbers increase. between X and oxygen.
The answer is (B) They form negative ions by the loss of ii/Since the period number is the number of shells and the
electrons from their atoms. They gain electrons instead. group number is the number of valence electrons, X and Y
2010 CSEC Chemistry Paper 01 were placed into periods 3 and 4 respectively, and both
elements were placed into group II.
In the portion of the periodic table indicated below, which
of the elements is MOST easily ionized? iii/Both are metals. X and Y have two valence electrons.
When they ionise, they will lose these two electrons to
form positive cations. This is a characteristic of metals.
iv/X will react slowly with cold water, while Y will react
The answer is (A). This Group I atom will easily lose readily. This is because reactivity increases going down
electrons and form a metal cation because of its Group II. Metal oxides (XO and YO) will be formed, and
increased distance from the nucleus. C, while being in hydrogen gas will be evolved.
group VII, has relatively strong nuclear attraction when
v/ 2X(s) + O2(g) → 2XO
compared to A since it is at the top of the group.
5. Structure and Bonding

Which of the following is the type of crystal structure of V and Q are different forms of the element carbon. R is
iodine at room temperature and pressure? an ionic solid. Table 3 presents some properties of V, Q
and R. Use this to answer the questions that follow.
(A) ionic
(B) metallic
(C) giant molecular
(D) simple molecular
The electron configuration in atoms of X and Y are 2, 8, 5

and 2, 8, 6 respectively. Which represents X and Y?
(i) Complete the table. (2 mks)
X Y
(ii) State the term used to describe different forms of
(A) Metal Nonmetal
an element such as the two forms of carbon, V
(B) Nonmetal Nonmetal
and Q. (1 mk)
(C) Nonmetal Metal
(iii) Identify the forms of carbon, V and Q. (2 mks)
(D) Metal Metal

• explain the formation of ionic and covalent bonds;

• predict the likelihood of an atom forming an ionic or a covalent bond based on atomic structure;
• write formulae to represent ions, molecules, and formula units;
• explain metallic bonding; (i) Which of the two allotropes of carbon, diamond or
o arrangement of cations and mobile electrons graphite, conducts electricity? Explain your answer
• describe ionic crystals, simple molecular crystals, and giant molecular
in terms ofcrystals;
the structure and bonding of the two
o make diagrammatic representations of sodium chloride, graphite, and diamond
allotropes.
• distinguish between ionic and molecular solids; Conducts electricity:
o use melting point, solubility in water and organic solvents, and conductivity;
Explanation:
• relate structure of sodium chloride, diamond, and graphite to their properties and uses;
o use solubility in water, conductivity, hardness, and lubricating power
• explain the term allotropy. (i) Name the THREE states of matter. (1)
o reference to the allotropes of carbon – diamond
(ii) and graphite
Which of the two temperatures, (A) and (B) in Figure
3 represents the (2)
melting point?
boiling point?
(iii) What would be observed at (C) in Figure 3? (1)

INTRODUCTION
introduction
Bonding is the process by which atoms combine with each other, occurring with valence electrons only. They bond
to attain a more stable electronic configuration, resembling the closest noble gas. These noble gases include:
The noble gases (in group 0/8) are very unreactive. They do not form bonds with other atoms. Except for
helium (with two), noble gases have eight valence electrons. The outer shell of eight electrons is called an
octet structure, and it makes the atom very stable. To achieve this noble gas configuration, elements can
gain, lose, or share electrons by forming bonds with other atoms.
There are three main types of intramolecular bonding (which holds atoms together, not molecules):
• ionic bonding, which involves the transfer of electrons

• covalent bonding, which involves the sharing of electrons
• metallic bonding, which involves an array of positive ions in a sea of electrons
The type of bonding an atom participates in depends on whether it is a metal or nonmetal.
Metals (groups 1-3) Nonmetals (groups 4-8)
Metals will readily lose electrons to attain the Nonmetals will readily gain or share electrons to
electronic configuration of the closest noble gas. achieve the stability of a full outer shell.
When metals lose electrons, they form positive ions When non-metals gain electrons, they form negative
called cations because they now have more protons ions called anions because they now have less
than electrons. protons than electrons.
Therefore, a metal (with 1-3 valence electrons) and a nonmetal (with 5-8 electrons, as ones in group 4 do
not form simple ions) are likely to form ionic bonds. On the other hand, two nonmetals (4-8 electrons, as
covalent bonding does not involve ions), are likely to form covalent bonds. Metallic bonds are formed from
only one type of element, so it CANNOT be said that two metals form a metallic bond.

The charge on the ion depends on the number of electrons lost or gained.
For most metal ions, the number of positive charges is the same as the group number. For example,
aluminium is in Group III, so its ion is Al3+. For most nonmetal ions, the negative charge is eight minus the
group number. For example, phosphorus is in Group V, so the phosphide ion is P3-.
Generally:
• Group 1 elements form ions with a 1+ charge. • Group 5 elements form ions with a 3− charge.
• Group 2 elements form 2+ ions. • Group 6 elements form ions with a 2− charge.
• Group 3 elements form 3+ ions. • Group 7 elements form ions with a 1− charge.
• Group 4 elements do not generally form • Group 0 elements do not form ions because
simple ions. they have full outer shells.
When covering structure and bonding, it is important to know, understand, and be able to represent
chemical formulae. Just as elements can be represented by atomic symbols, compounds formed by ionic or
covalent bonding can be represented by chemical formulae. These formulae tell which elements are found
in a compound, as well as the ratio between the elements in the compound. The three main types of
chemical formulae are:

• The molecular formula, which uses subscripts to give the actual number of atoms of each element
present in one molecule of a compound. For example, the molecular formula of water is H 2O, which
means one molecule of water contains two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom. Other molecular
formulae include CO2 for carbon dioxide, and C6H12O6 for glucose.
• The structural formula, which is a diagrammatic representation of one molecule of the compound
using lines to represent bonds. For example, the structural formula for carbon dioxide is O = C = O,
which shows that there are two bonds between each oxygen atom and the carbon atom.
• The empirical formula, which gives the simplest whole number ratio between the elements in the
compound using subscripts. The compound consists of multiples of these smallest units. For
example, the empirical formula for magnesium chloride is MgCl2, which shows that magnesium and
chlorine are present in a ratio of 1 to 2.
For example, the three types of chemical formula for ethane are:
C2H6 CH3
Molecular formula Structural formula Empirical formula
Diagrams of ionic and covalent bonds also make use of dot-and-cross diagrams. These diagrams make it
possible to keep track of where electrons have come from when an ionic or covalent bond is formed. They
show the outer electron shells with electrons represented as dots or crosses, and, in ionic bonding, the
charge of the ion at the top right outside square brackets (not at the centre, as it is not the nuclear charge).
In ionic compounds, these diagrams look like: In covalent compounds, these diagrams look like:

IONIC BONDING
ionic bonding
Ionic bonding is a type of chemical bonding that involves the electrostatic attraction between oppositely
charged ions. The positive and negative ions are strongly attracted to each other. The electrostatic attraction
is called an ionic bond.
Ionic bonds are formed between metals and nonmetals only. Both metals and nonmetals, before forming
the ionic bond, have incomplete valence shells, and so are unstable. One or more electrons are transferred
from each metal atom to each nonmetal atom. The metal and nonmetal atoms end up with completely full
outer shells and become stable. This is always the case: a metal will lose electrons and the nonmetal will
gain. No metals in existence accept electrons.
Example 1
Sodium Na (2, 8, 1) has only one electron in its outer shell. It is easier (more energetically favourable) for
sodium to donate that one electron, and as such, sodium tends to lose one electron, forming Na +. This means
that the sodium atom has lost one electron, and as such, there are more protons than electrons, making it a
positive sodium ion (a cation). Chlorine Cl (2, 8, 7) has seven electrons in its valence shell. Chlorine tends to
take on an electron and become Cl-. This means that the chlorine atom has gained one electron, and as such,
there are more electrons than protons, making it a negative chlorine ion (an anion). When sodium reacts with
chlorine, the sodium atom will lose its electron and the chlorine atom will gain it. The sodium cation and the
chloride anion (not chlorine anion – this is explained later) then attract each other to form sodium chloride.
The sodium cation has an electron configuration of (2, 8), and the chloride anion has an electron configuration
of (2, 8, 8). Both ions now satisfy the octet rule and have complete valence shells.
Generally, the loss of an electron by one atom and gain of an electron by another atom happen at the same
time: in order for a sodium atom to lose an electron, it needs to have a suitable recipient like a chlorine atom.

Example 2
In magnesium oxide, two electrons in the outer shell of the magnesium atom are transferred to the outer
shell of the oxygen atom. Since magnesium loses two electrons, an Mg2+ ion is formed. Since oxygen has
gained two, it forms O2-.
Example 3
In calcium chloride, the calcium atom loses two valence electrons. However, a single chlorine atom has only
space in its outer shell for one electron. Therefore, two chlorine atoms are needed to react with one calcium
atom.

Sodium chloride (NaCl), magnesium oxide (MgO), and calcium chloride (CaCl2) are called ionic compounds.
Ionic compounds have the following properties:
• They have high melting and boiling points, and are dense
o There are strong attractive forces between the large numbers of positive and negative ions
acting in all directions. It needs a lot of energy to overcome these forces to melt the solid.
This means they also have low volatility (= how easily a substance will turn into a gas).
• They are crystalline solids at room temperature
• They dissolve in polar solvents such as water, but do not dissolve in nonpolar solvents
o The partial negative ends of polar molecules attract the cations, and the partial positive ends
attract the anions. This pulls the ions out of the lattice, causing the crystal to dissolve.
Polarity is covered in the section on covalent bonding.
• They are insoluble in organic solvents (= substances that contain carbon)
• They conduct electricity and heat when molten or dissolved in water but not when solid
o The ionic bonds have broken in water and the ions are free to move. In solids, the ionic bonds
hold them together.
• They are hard and brittle
o Strong ionic bonds exist between the ions throughout the structure. If pressure is applied,
the layers of ions are displaced slightly and ions with the same charges then repel each
other and break the lattice apart.
Sodium chloride (NaCl), like many ionic compounds, does not consist of simply one sodium and one chloride
ion. Instead, millions and millions of ions are arranged in a repeating, predictable, 3-D pattern (a crystal). This
forms a giant 3-D structure called an ionic lattice. Thus, a lattice is a regularly repeating 3-D arrangement of
ions, atoms, or molecules.
In an ionic lattice:
• the electrostatic attractive forces between the positive and negative ions act in all directions
• the forces are very strong, and it takes a lot of energy to overcome them
In the crystal lattice of NaCl, each Na+ ion is bonded to six Cl- ions, and each Cl- ion is bonded to six Na+ ions.

An ionic compound is named first by its cation and then by its anion. The cation has the same name as its
element, while the ending of the elemental name of the anion is removed, adding “-ide”. KF is potassium
fluoride, from potassium K and fluorine F. The “-ine” ending of the latter is replaced with “ide.”
Ionic compounds are also represented by chemical formulae.
• When writing the formula for an ionic compound from the name:
o Write the symbol for each element/species in the compound.
o Write the charge for the elements/species to the top right of it (superscript).
o Reverse the charges of each, placing the new charges to the bottom right (subscript). These
subscripts represent the number of formula units of an element/species in a compound. This
is further covered in A6. Mole Concept.
o Write the formula without the charge.
E.g. Lithium oxide
Lithium = Li, oxygen = O
Lithium has a +1 charge and oxygen has a -2 charge / Li+, O2-
The charges are reversed and the ion charges dropped / Li2O
The diagram below shows examples of the formula of ionic compounds being derived from their names.
• When writing the name for an ionic compound from the formula:
o Identify the cation and anion from the elements/species in the compound. Remember that the
charges were swapped in order to obtain the formula, so the charge to the top right of the
element/species in the formula may not be that of the actual ion.
o Identify the elements/species themselves. For stock ionic compounds, which use specify
transition metal charges, use Roman numerals to indicate the amount of charge on the cation.
o Write the final compound based on the elements/species.
E.g. Pb3N4
Pb4+ = lead(IV), N3- = nitride (from nitrogen)
The names are combined / Lead(IV) nitride


Ionic bonds are formed between metals and nonmetals, but it is not only between elements from the periodic
table. Ionic bonds are also formed between polyatomic ions.
Polyatomic ions are ionic compounds that contain ions consisting of groups of covalently bonded atoms
instead of single atoms (monoatomic ions). These ions act as one unit and have charges.
When polyatomic ions are involved in bonding, the name of the metal and the polyatomic ion are combined as
is. For example, Ca(NO3)2 is called calcium nitrate, not calcium nitride, a different compound.
When oxygen is present in a polyatomic ion, the name of the ion is derived from the element combined with the
oxygen, with the ending ‘-ite’ or ‘-ate’. For example, NO2- is the nitrite ion and NO3- is the nitrate ion.
When writing formulae of ionic compounds, the sum of positive charges and the sum of negative charges must
be equal. This is because the total number of electrons lost by one type of atom or group of atoms must be the
same as the total number gained by the other type of atom or group of atoms. Formulae of ionic compounds are
therefore empirical formulae since they represent the ratio of ions present. The ratio of the subscripts should
also be cancelled to its simplest form. Calcium sulphate is therefore CaSO4, because Ca2(SO4)2 is cancelled to its
simplest ratio.

Hydrated ionic compounds (hydrates) have a specific number of water molecules in their chemical formula. In
the solid state, these water molecules (also called ‘waters of hydration’) are part of the structure of the
compound.
Hydrates are named by the ionic compound followed by a numerical prefix and the suffix “-hydrate”. The
“• nH2O” notation indicates that “n” number of loosely bonded water molecules are associated per formula
unit.
• The ionic compound (without the waters of hydration) is named first by using the rules for naming
ionic compounds (e.g., Ba(OH)2 = barium hydroxide).
• Greek numerical prefixes are added to the word hydrate to indicate the number of water molecules
per formula unit for the compound. (BA(OH)2 • 8H2O is barium hydroxide octahydrate.
E.g. Lithium hydroxide monohydrate
Name the ionic compound without the waters of hydration / Lithium hydroxide = LiOH
Use the prefix to determine the number of water molecules present / monohydrate = H2O
Therefore, lithium hydroxide monohydrate is LiOH • H2O
E.g. Na2CO3 • 10H2O
Name the ionic compound without the waters of hydration / Na2CO3 = sodium carbonate
Use the number of water molecules present to determine the prefix / 10H2O = decahydrate
Therefore, Na2CO3 • 8H2O is sodium carbonate decahydrate
If one atom has too many electrons and another has too few, ionic bonding works. However, if two nonmetals
need additional electrons, covalent bonds must be formed.

COVALENT BONDING
covalent bonding
OF A
Covalent bonding involves the sharing of electrons between nonmetals.
Some elements have very high ionization energies and are incapable of transferring electrons, while other have
very low electron affinity and cannot take up electrons. The atoms of such elements tend to share their
electrons with the atoms of other elements (such as carbon dioxide CO2) or with other atoms of the same
element (such as fluorine F2) in a way that both atoms obtain octet configuration in their respective valence
shell and thus achieve stability.
Example 1
Hydrogen (1) needs one more electron to have a complete outer shell. It shares an electron with another
hydrogen atom.
This creates a single bond, and the two hydrogen atoms form a hydrogen molecule, H2. This is a diatomic
molecule since there are two atoms in it.
This hydrogen molecule is a product of covalent bonding. Covalent bonding can be indicated by using:
• solid lines H – H (the line represents two electrons shared)

• dot-and-cross diagrams (most common and best representation)
Example 2
Oxygen (2, 6) has six valence electrons, and needs two more to fill its valence shell. When two oxygen atoms
bond and share two pairs of electrons, each can have a full valence shell. Since one bond represents two
electrons (one pair) shared, oxygen forms a double bound. The result is an oxygen molecule, O2.

Atoms of different elements will form either one, two, three, or four covalent bonds with other atoms. The
number of covalent bonds usually shared by each nonmetal is equal to eight minus the group number.
Element Number of bonds
Group 4 Carbon 8-4=4
Group 5 Nitrogen 8-5=3
Group 6 Oxygen 8-6=2
Group 7 Chlorine 8-7=1
Covalent bonding can also take place between atoms of different elements to create molecules of covalent
compounds.
Example 3
Both hydrogen (1) and chlorine (2, 7) need one more electron to fill their outer shells. By sharing a pair of
electrons, one from each, they can fill their outer shell and become stable. The result is a hydrogen chloride
molecule.
Example 4
Oxygen (2, 6) needs two more electrons, but hydrogen (1) only needs one. The oxygen atom shares one
electron with one hydrogen atom and a second electron with another hydrogen atom. The result is a water
molecule.

These molecules are covalent compounds. Covalent compounds generally display similar properties:
• They have low melting and boiling points

o Covalent bonds are very stable and the intramolecular forces are quite strong,
but the intermolecular forces between covalent compounds are weak. Since
the forces are weak, it needs only a little amount of energy to break. Since
they have low melting and boiling points, they also have high volatility.
• They do not conduct electricity in any state due to the lack of free electrons
• They are usually insoluble in polar solvents such as water (excp. sugar, glucose, urea, etc)
• They are soluble in organic solvents
Covalent substances are composed of individual molecules, which can either be polar or nonpolar due to the
electronegativity (= how strongly atoms attract electrons) of the atoms present.
• In a polar molecule, one type of atom has a partial positive charge (δ+) and another type has
a partial negative charge (δ+) because the atoms at either side of the covalent bond differ in
electronegativity and attract the shared electrons with different strengths. Examples include
water H2O, ammonia NH3, hydrogen chloride HCl, and ethanol C2H5OH.
• In a nonpolar molecule, the electronegativity of the atoms is similar or the same, and they
attract the shared electrons with equal strengths. The molecule does not have any partially
charged regions. Examples include hydrogen H2, oxygen O2, and methane CH4.
When naming covalent compounds, the first nonmetal keeps its name. For the second nonmetal, the ending is
usually removed and replaced with ‘ide’. If there is more than one atom (whether first or second), Greek
prefixes are used to show how many of an atom there is. The formula given for these covalent compounds are
usually molecular formulae, not empirical.
E.g. Iodine heptachloride shows that the compound is composed of two elements: iodine and chlorine. There is
one iodine atom and seven chlorine atoms. The formula is therefore ICl7.
E.g. C3O2 shows that the compound is composed of two elements: carbon (C) and oxygen (O). There are three
carbon atoms and two oxygen atoms. The name is therefore tricarbon dioxide.

METALLIC BONDING
metallic bonding
OF A
Metallic bonding occurs in metals and is the result of the electrostatic attraction between metal cations and
delocalized electrons. Unlike in ionic and covalent bonding, metallic bonds are formed in one type of element
only, i.e., two metals cannot bond.
Metal atoms are packed tightly together in rows to form a metal lattice, and their valence electrons become
delocalized. This means that the valence electrons are no longer associated with any specific atom and are free
to move. This forms positive cations and a sea of mobile electrons. The metal lattice is held together by the
electrostatic forces of attraction between the delocalized electrons and the cations, known as the metallic
bond, which is strong.
Metals share specific properties:
• They have high melting and boiling points

o The strong electrostatic forces of attraction between the cations and delocalised electrons
require large amounts of heat energy to break. This also means that they are solid at room
temperature, which is not high enough to break the attractive forces.
• They have high density
o The atoms are packed very closely together.
• They conduct electricity and heat
o The delocalized electrons are free to move around and carry electricity and heat.
• They are malleable (can be beaten into thin sheets) and ductile (can be drawn into thin wires)
o The atoms of each metal are all the same type and size. If force is applied, the atoms can slide
past each other into new positions without the metallic bonds breaking.

Ionic structures
An ionic crystal is made of an ionic lattice in which strong electrostatic forces of attraction called ionic bonds
hold the cations and anions together in a regular, repeating, three-dimensional arrangement. Ionic crystals are
represented by empirical formulae or formula units.
• They have high melting and boiling points. There are strong attractive forces between the large
numbers of positive and negative ions acting in all directions, which require a lot of energy to overcome.
• They are crystalline solids at room temperature
• They conduct electricity and heat when only molten or dissolved. The ionic bonds have broken in water
and the ions are free to move. In solids, the ionic bonds hold them together.
• They do not dissolve in nonpolar organic solvents
• They are soluble in water. The partial negative ends of polar water
molecules attract the cations, and the partial positive ends attract the
anions. This pulls the ions out of the lattice, causing the crystal to dissolve.
• They are hard and brittle. Strong ionic bonds exist between the ions
throughout the structure. If pressure is applied, the layers of ions are displaced slightly and ions with
the same charges then repel each other and break the lattice apart.
Sodium chloride is an example of an ionic structure. Its solubility makes it useful in manufacturing chlorine and
sodium hydroxide by electrolysis of its aqueous solution and in de-icing roads.
Simple molecular/covalent structures
Iodine and sulphur have a simple molecular structure. They can form crystals because the molecules are
regularly arranged in a lattice. The properties of iodine and sulphur can be related to their structure:
• They have low melting points because the forces between the molecules (intermolecular forces) are
weak. It does not need much energy to overcome these forces and separate the molecules.
• They are soft. When scratched, it does not take much energy to overcome the weak forces between the
molecules.
• They do not dissolve easily in water because the water molecules cannot form strong enough bonds
with the molecules to separate them from each other.
• They dissolve in nonpolar organic solvents because the forces between the solvent molecules and the
molecules are stronger than those between the molecules themselves. Note, though, that some
molecular crystals, such as sucrose, are soluble in water.
• They do not conduct electricity when solid or molten. This is because they have neither ions nor
electrons that can move.

Giant molecular/covalent structures
Giant molecular structures have a three-dimensional network of covalent bonds. The formulae of these
structures are empirical. Diamond and graphite are both giant molecular structures made of carbon atoms.
They are allotropes of carbon. Allotropy is the property of a chemical element to exist in two or more different
crystalline or molecular forms, known as allotropes of the element.
In diamond, each carbon atom forms four covalent bonds with other carbon atoms. Each
carbon atom can be imagined to be at the centre of a tetrahedron. This creates a three-
dimensional arrangement of carbon atoms throughout the crystal. The network of
tetrahedrons extends almost unbroken throughout the whole
structure.
In graphite, each carbon atom is bonded covalently to three others to form hexagonal
rings of atoms, which are bonded together to form layers. The layers have weak forces
of attraction between them which hold them together. The fourth electron from each atom
becomes delocalised and can move within the lattice.
Similar properties between these and other giant covalent structures include:
• They have high melting points. It needs a lot of energy to break down the network of strong covalent bonds.
• They are insoluble in water and in organic solvents. The network of covalent bonds is too strong to
allow solvent molecules to form strong enough bonds with the individual atoms.
Differences in properties of diamond and graphite
Hardness:
• Diamond is hard: the strong covalent bonding throughout makes it difficult to scratch the surface of the
crystal. Diamond is one of the hardest substances known and is ideal to use for the edges of cutting tools.
• Graphite is soft: the forces between the layers of graphite are weak, so the layers can slide over each
other when a force is applied. The layers of graphite flake away easily and so graphite is used as a
lubricant and in the ‘leads’ of pencils.
Electrical conduction:
• Diamond does not conduct electricity. There are no electrons free to move because each carbon atom
forms covalent bonds with four others, leaving no free electrons.
• Graphite conducts electricity. Carbon has four electrons in its outer shell to use in bonding. In graphite,
three of the carbon electrons in each atom are used to form covalent bonds. The fourth carbon electron
in each atom is free to move around and along the layers. These electrons are called delocalised
electrons. When a potential difference is applied, these electrons move along the layers.

Metallic structures
• Many, but not all, metals have high melting points. In metals with high melting points there are strong
attractive forces between the positive ions and the delocalised electrons acting in all directions. It needs
a lot of energy to overcome these forces to melt the solid.
• They are malleable (can be shaped by hitting) and ductile (can be drawn into wires). This is because,
when a force is applied, the layers slide over each other. Metals are not brittle like ionic compounds
because in metals, new attractive forces are formed between the delocalised electrons and the atoms
in the layers.
• Metals are insoluble in both water and organic solvents, but many metals react with water rather than
dissolving. In metals that do not react, the metallic bonds are too strong to allow solvent molecules to
form strong enough bonds with the individual atoms to separate them from each other.
• Metals conduct electricity when solid or molten. This is because the delocalised electrons can easily
move through them when a potential difference is applied.

OF A
Which of the following is the type of crystal structure of V and Q are different forms of the element carbon. R is an
iodine at room temperature and pressure? ionic solid. Table 3 presents some properties of V, Q and
R. Use this to answer the questions that follow.
(A) ionic
(B) metallic
(C) giant molecular
(D) simple molecular
The answer is (D) simple molecular. Iodine is a simple

molecular crystal held together by weak forces. It is solid
at room temperature and pressure. (MP 114 C; BP 184 C)
(i) Complete the table. (2 mks)
(ii) State the term used to describe different forms of an
The electron configuration in atoms of X and Y are 2, 8, 5 element such as the two forms of carbon, V and Q. (1
and 2, 8, 6 respectively. Which represents X and Y? mk)
(iii) Identify the forms of carbon, V and Q. (2 mks)
X Y
(A) Metal Nonmetal (iv) State one use of V and one use of Q and indicate the
(B) Nonmetal Nonmetal property upon which each use is based. (4 mks)
(C) Nonmetal Metal (v) Explain why R will conduct electricity when molten
(D) Metal Metal
but not in the solid state. (2 mks)
The answer is (B) Nonmetal, Nonmetal. Since the number
of valence electrons is its group number, X and Y are in i/The structure of V is ‘giant covalent structure’. The
groups 5 and 6 respectively. These groups consist mostly electrical conductivity of Q is ‘electrical conductor’.
of non-metallic elements that form anions when bonding
ii/Allotropy
ionically.
iii/V is diamond and Q is graphite.
iv/Diamond (V) is used as a cutting tool because of strong
Which of the following will NOT conduct electricity? covalent bonds existing in its tetrahedron structure.
Graphite is used as a lubricant because weak Van der
(A) solid calcium
Waals forces exist between the hexagonal layers of
(B) solid calcium chloride
atoms and so they slide over each other.
(C) molten calcium chloride
(D) a solution of calcium chloride in water v/When R is in the solid state, the ionic bonds are held
together. When it is molten, the bonds break and the ions
The answer is (B) solid calcium chloride. Aqueous and
are free to move and carry a current.
molten ionic compounds conduct electricity, as do metals.

A metallic bond is formed when The electronic configurations of four elements, P, Q, R,

and S are:
(A) cations are held together by a sea of mobile
electrons P: 2, 7
(B) positive metal ions held together by a sea of anions
Q: 2, 8, 2
(C) anions are held together by negative electrons
(D) metal atoms are held together by molecular forces R, 2 8, 6
The answer is (A) cations are held together by a sea of S: 2, 8, 8, 2

mobile electrons. A metallic bond is formed when metal
Elements P and Q react together to form a compound.
cations and delocalized electrons attract each other.
Deduce whether this compound is ionic or covalent. Use
These bonds involve neither anions nor molecular forces.
‘dot cross’ diagrams to show the bonding in the
2020 CSEC Chemistry Paper 01 compound formed and write its formula. (4 mks)
One property of ionic compounds is that they This compound will be ionic. Q is a metal and P is a
nonmetal. Q will donate its two valence electrons to two
(A) contain molecules atoms of P.
(B) are solids and vaporize easily
(C) usually dissolve in organic solvents
(D) conduct electricity when molten or dissolved
The answer is (D) conduct electricity when molten or

dissolved. When ionic compounds dissolve/melt, they can
conduct electricity due to the ability of the ions to move
freely. Ionic compounds consist of ions, not molecules.
They are crystalline solids at room temperature, but do
not vaporize easily due to their high melting and boiling
points because of the strong forces of attraction.
How many covalent bonds are there in a nitrogen

molecule? QP2
(A) 1 Q is metal with two electrons in its outer shell. It will give
(B) 2 each of its outer electrons to each nonmetal P atom. To
(C) 3 form a neutral ionic compound with Q which needs to lose
(D) 4 two electrons, two anions are needed. Each P atom gains
one electron to become P-, while the Q atom will lose two
The answer is (C) 3. Nitrogen is in group 5 and will form electrons forming Q2+.
three covalent bonds when bonding with itself (8 - 5 = 3).

Which of the following atoms would NOT form a cation? Depending on their structures and properties, solids may
be classified as having metallic, giant covalent, simple
(A) Magnesium
molecular, or ionic lattice structures. The structure and
(B) Aluminium
conductivity of selected solids are to be summarized in
(C) Sodium
Table 3.
(D) Chlorine
Complete the table to show the structure and conductivity
The answer is (D) chlorine. Chlorine, a nonmetal, will
of EACH solid substance listed. The first one is done as an
generally not lose electrons to form a cation. Magnesium,
example.
aluminium, and sodium are metals, so they will.

Simple molecular
This diagram represents the structure of Atom X.
No
Metallic
Giant covalent
Sodium chloride and calcium oxide both have similar giant
The charge on the ion formed by X would MOST likely be ionic crystalline structures with high melting points.
However, the melting point of calcium oxide is higher than
(A) 5+ that of sodium chloride. Sketch the lattice structure for
(B) 5- sodium chloride and suggest why its melting point would
(C) 3+ be lower than that of calcium oxide. (5 mks)
(D) 3-
The answer is (D) 3-. Atom X has five valence electrons,

placing it in group 5. Group 5 elements generally gain 3
electrons, making them have a 3- charge.
Which of the following statements is FALSE? Ionic compounds are formed when electrostatic
attractions form between oppositely charged ions. These
(A) Hydrogen chloride is covalent attractions are strong and so require a large amount of
(B) Water is ionic energy to break. This energy is provided in the high
(C) Aqueous hydrogen chloride is ionic melting temperature. NaCl has a lower melting point than
(D) Ammonia gas is covalent CaO due to the Na+ ion. This ion has a lesser charge than
The answer is (B) Water is ionic. Water H2O is a covalent Ca2+ and so forms weaker attractions. The weaker the
compound formed between hydrogen and oxygen. attraction, the less energy required to overcome it.

The following illustrations refer to the electronic structure Like sodium chloride, calcium carbonate has a giant ionic
of four atoms. crystalline structure.
(i) Is it LIKELY that calcium carbonate will conduct

electricity in its solid state? (1 mk)
(ii) Give a reason for your answer. (2 mks)
i/No. It is unlikely that calcium carbonate will conduct

Which atoms form covalent bonds when they react?
electricity as a solid.
(A) P and Q
ii/In the solid state, ions are held together by the ionic
(B) P and S
bonds and are not free to move. When molten or aqueous,
(C) Q and S
the ionic bonds have broken and are only then free to
(D) Q and R
move.
The answer is (B) P and S. P is a nonmetal with 1 valence
electron. Q is a nonmetal with 6 valence electrons. When 2013 CSEC Chemistry Paper 02
they react, they will form covalent bonds.
Crystals of sodium chloride are BEST described as
(A) ionic
(B) metallic Element Y will bond with phosphorus to form a
(C) molecular compound.
(D) macromolecular
(i) State the type of bonding that occurs between
The answer is (A) ionic. Sodium chloride is a crystalline phosphorus and Element Y.
ionic compound. (ii) Referring only to the electrons in the outer shells of
the elements, sketch a diagram to show this bond.
i/Covalent bonding
Graphite can be used as a lubricant because of
ii/
(A) strong attraction between the hexagonal layers
(B) weak attraction between the hexagonal layers
(C) the loose electrons, which can move throughout
the lattice
(D) strong attraction within the hexagonal layers
The answer is (B) weak attraction between the

hexagonal layers. The attraction is weak, so can slide
over each other when a force is applied.

The bond between the two carbon atoms in the diagram Elements W and X react to form a compound. The
below is electronic configurations of the elements are:
W: 2, 7
X: 2, 8, 2
(i) State the appropriate group and period to which

each belongs. Hence, indicate the type of bonding
(A) single that occurs between W and X and write the formula
(B) double of the compound formed. (6 mks)
(C) triple (ii) Suggest whether the resulting compound will
(D) dative dissolve in water. Explain your answer. (3 mks)
The answer is (B) double. The carbon atoms share four i/The number of valence electrons is the group an element
electrons. Since two electrons are represented by one is in, while the number of energy shells is the period an
bond, four are represented by two. element is in. Thus, element W is in Group 7, Period 2, and
element is in Group 2, Period 3. This means that element X
is a metal and element W is a nonmetal. The bond will be
ionic. A single W atom only needs one electron, but the X
atom has two to donate. Therefore, two W atoms are
required. This means the formula is XW2.
ii/XW2 is an ionic compound, which will dissolve in water.

The partial negative ends of the polar water molecules
attract the cations, and the partial positive ends attract the
anions. This pulls the ions out of the lattice, causing the
crystal to dissolve.
“Potassium iodide is soluble in water but not very soluble

in ethanol.”
Explain why the statement above is true. (4 mks)

Which of the diagrams illustrates bonding in chlorine?
Water is a highly polar solvent. The polar water molecules
The answer is (D). Chlorine Cl2 has one covalent bond. have a strong attraction from charged ions and pull the
ions out of the lattice. Ethanol, however, is an organic
Which of the diagrams illustrates bonding in oxygen?
compound that is only slightly polar. It only interacts
The answer is (B). Oxygen O2 has two covalent bonds. slightly with ionic compounds such as potassium iodide.
6. Mole Concept
Which of the following aqueous solutions contains 1 mole of One mole of an element X (atomic number = 11) reacts
hydrogen ions? with chlorine to form one mole of its chloride of mass
58.5 g mol-1.
(A) 2 dm3 of 0.5 mol dm-3 HCl
(B) 2 dm3 of 0.5 mol dm-3 H2SO4 (i) Based on the information given above, calculate the
(C) 1 dm3 of 1.0 mol dm-3 H2SO4 relative atomic mass of the element X. (2 mks)
3 -3
(D) 1 dm of 1.0 mol dm CH3COOH [Relative atomic mass: Cl = 35.5]
The answer is (A) 2 dm3 of 0.5 mol dm-3 HCl.

(ii) Write a balanced equation to show the formation of
the chloride of X. (2 mks)
(iii) Jared, another student in Lesley’s class, weighed
Candidates should be able to: 18.0 g of aspirin. Calculate the number of moles of
aspirin he weighed.
• define mole and molar mass;
- 2+ +
o MnO
The mole as the amount of substances that contains 4 (aq)
6.0 x 10+235Fe (aq) + 8H (aq)
(the Avogadro’s →
constant)
2+ 3+
particles in that substance. Molar mass – mass ofMn (aq)of+ a5Fe
1 mole (aq) + 4H
substance in 2gOmol-1
• perform calculations involving the mole;
Identify the oxidising and reducing agents in the
o Calculations from mass to moles and moles to mass and percentage composition by mass.
equation and explain your answer. (4 mk)
o Calculate relative molecular mass or relative formula mass given atomic masses.
(iv) Iron(II) oxide reacts with dilute sulphuric acid to give
o No definitions are required for the relative masses. Distinguish between molar mass and
a pale green solution. Write the equation for the
relative masses.
reaction between iron(II) oxide and dilute sulphuric
• state Avogadro’s Law;
acid. (2 mks)
o Calculations involving molar volumes. [rtp and stp].
(v) State whether the reaction in (ii) above is an acid-
• state the Law of Conservation of Matter;
base reaction or a redox reaction and explain your
• write balanced equations;
answer. (3 mks)
o Use of both ionic and molecular equations (including state symbols) to represent chemical
reactions referred to in the syllabus.
• apply the mole concept to equations, both ionic and molecular;
o Calculations involving masses and volumes.
• define the term standard solution.
o Molar concentration and mass concentration.
6. Mole Concept
MOLE &mass
mole & MASS
Different terms are used to represent a fixed amount of something (e.g., a dozen represents 12 things).
Similarly, in chemistry, the mole represents a fixed number – the amount of particles as there are atoms in
12.0 grams of carbon-12 (because of its high abundance and stability). It was found that 12 g of carbon-12
contains 6.022 x 1023 atoms of carbon-12. Hence,
A mole is the amount of a substance that contains the same number of particles as there are atoms in 12.00 g
of carbon-12.
In the definition:
• ‘amount’ can refer to the mass of a substance or the volume of a substance if it is a gas
• ‘particles’ can refer to atoms, molecules, formula units, or ions
This number – 6.022 x 1023 – is Avogadro’s constant NA.
The number of particles in a given substance is the number of moles multiplied by Avogadro’s number.
i.e.,
number of particles = number of moles × NA
• If a substance is an element, e.g., metals and noble gases, the particles are individual atoms.
• If the substance is a molecular element, e.g., oxygen or covalent compounds (such as water), the
particles are molecules made up of atoms.
• If the substance is an ionic compound, e.g., sodium chloride, the particles are formula units made up
of ions.
Worked examples
> Calculate the number of water H2O molecules in 0.5 moles of water.
number of molecules = number of moles × NA
= 0.5 x 6.0 x 1023
= 3.0 x 1023 water molecules

6. Mole Concept
> Calculate the number of moles 1.5 x 1023 particles of copper Cu make up.
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠
number of moles =
𝑁𝐴
1.5×1023
=
6.0×1023
= 0.25 moles
The calculations of moles and particles can be extended to look at the number of moles or particles inside a
compound. For example,
• 2 mol of potassium carbonate K2CO3 consists of 2 mol of K2CO3 formula units, or 4 mol of K+ ions and
2 mol of CO32- ions
• 1 mol of water H2O consists of 1 mol of H2O molecules, or 2 mol of H atoms and 1 mol of O atoms
Worked example
Calculate the number of hydrogen atoms in 1.5 mol of methane CH4.
1 mol CH4 contains 4 mol H atoms
∴ 1.5 mol CH4 contains 1.5 x 4 mol H atoms = 6 mol H atoms
1 mol H atoms contains 6.0 x 1023 atoms
∴ 6 mol H atoms contains 6 x 6.0 x 1023 atoms = 3.6 x 1024 atoms
Because the mass of atoms is extremely small, scientists use relative atomic mass to compare the masses
of different atoms.
Relative atomic mass Ar is the average mass of one atom of an element compared to one-twelth the mass
of an atom of carbon-12. Since relative atomic mass is a comparative value, it has no unit.
Molecular elements and compounds formed by covalent bonding are composed of molecules. Relative
molecular mass Mr is the average mass of one molecule of an element or compound compared to one-
twelfth the mass of an atom of carbon-12.
Compounds formed by ionic bonding are represented by formula units. Relative formula mass is the average
mass of one formula unit of a compound compared to one-twelfth the mass of an atom of carbon-12.
To determine the relative formula or molecular mass, add all the relative atomic masses of the elements
present in the compound.
6. Mole Concept
Worked examples
> Calculate the relative molecular mass of nitrogen N2. [RAM: N = 14]
N2 consists of 2 atoms of N
∴ relative molecular mass = 2(14)
= 28
> Calculate the relative formula mass of magnesium carbonate MgCO 3. [RAM: Mg = 24, C = 12, O = 16]
MgCO3 consists of 1 atom of Mg, 1 atom of C, and 3 atoms of O
∴ relative formula mass = 1(24) + 1(12) + 3(16)
= 84
Molar mass is the mass of one mole of a substance measured in grams per mole g mol-1.
For example, since 12.00 g of carbon contains 6.0 x 10 23 carbon atoms, or 1 mol of carbon atoms, the molar
mass of carbon is 12 g mol-1. Since 1860 g of glucose contains 6.0 x 1023 glucose molecules, or 1 mol of
glucose moles, the molar mass of glucose is 180 g mol-1.
Worked example
M(H2O) = 2(1) + 16
= 18 g mol-1
M((NH4)2CO3) = 2(14) + 8(1) + 1(12) + 3(16)
= 96 g mol-1
The number of moles in a substance is the mass of the substance divided by the molar mass.
𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
number of moles =
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
6. Mole Concept
Worked examples
> Calculate the number of moles in 10 g CaCO3. [RAM: Ca = 40, C = 12, O = 16]
M(CaCO3) = 1(40) + 1(12) + 3(16)
= 100 g mol-1
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
number of moles =
10 𝑔
=
100 𝑔 𝑚𝑜𝑙−1
= 0.1 mol
> Calculate the mass of 0.2 mol of H2SO4. [RAM: H = 1, S = 32, O = 16)
M(H2SO4) = 2(1) + 1(32) + 4(16)
= 98 g mol-1
mass = number of moles x molar mass
= 0.2 mol x 98 g mol -1
= 19.6 g
The calculation of moles and mass and moles and number of particles can be combined.
Worked example
Calculate the mass of 1.5 x 1023 molecules of HCl. [RAM: H = 1, Cl = 35.5]

number of moles =
𝑁𝐴
1.5×1023
=
6.0×1023
= 0.25 mol
M(HCl) = 1(1) + 1(35.5)
= 36.5 g mol-1
mass = molar mass x number of moles
= 36.5 g mol-1 x 0.25 mol
= 9.13 g
6. Mole Concept
MOLE mole
& GAS VOLUMES
& gas volumes
numbers&
In 1811, Amedeo Avogadro proposed what is known as Avogadro’s law.
Avogadro’s law states that equal volumes of gases under the same conditions of temperature and pressure
contain the same number of molecules.
For example, 100 cm3 of oxygen gas at 25°C and pressure of 101.3 kPa has the same number of molecules
as 100 cm3 of nitrogen gas at 25°C and 101.3 kPa.
If the number of molecules in each gas is 6.0 x 1023, i.e., 1 mol, it follows that 1 mol of all gases under the
same conditions of temperature and pressure occupy the same volume.
Molar volume Vm is the volume of one mole of a gas.
Molar volume, therefore, is the volume of a gas which contains 6.0 x 1023 molecules of the gas.
• Standard temperature and pressure stp equates to a temperature of 0°C (273 K) and a pressure of
101.3 kPa (1 atmosphere).
• Room temperature and pressure rtp equates to a temperature of 25°C (298 K) and a pressure of
101.3 kPa (1 atmosphere).
Molar volume at stp is 22.4 dm3 or 22 400 cm3.
Molar volume at rtp is 24.0 dm3 or 24 000 cm3.
𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
number of moles =
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
Worked examples
> Calculate the volume occupied by 0.25 mol nitrogen N 2 at stp.
molar volume at stp = 22.4 dm3 mol-1
volume = number of moles x molar volume
= 0.25 mol x 22.4 dm3 mol-1
= 4.48 dm3
6. Mole Concept
> Calculate the mass of 600 cm3 of CO2 at rtp.
molar volume at rtp = 24 dm3 mol-1

𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
number of moles =
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
0.6 𝑑𝑚3
=
24 𝑑𝑚3 𝑚𝑜𝑙−1
= 0.025 mol
M(CO2) = 1(12) + 2(16)
= 44 g
mass = molar mass x moles
= 44 g mol-1 x 0.025 mol
= 1.1 g
> Calculate the volume occupied by 4.5 x 10 22 molecules of HCl(g) at rtp.

number of moles =
𝑁𝐴
4.5×1022
=
6.0×1023
= 0.075 mol
molar volume at rtp = 24 dm3 mol-1
volume = molar volume x moles
= 24 dm3 mol-1 x 0.075 mol
= 1.8 dm3
6. Mole Concept
MOLE &moleCONCENTRATION
& concentration
VOLUMES
numbers&
The concentration of a solution is a measure of the quantity of a solute dissolved in a fixed volume of the
solution. The volume of a solution usually used is 1 dm3 = 1 000 cm3.
The concentration of a solution can be expressed in two ways:
• Mass concentration, which gives the mass of solute dissolved in 1 dm3 of solution. The unit for mass
concentration is grams of solute per cubic decimetre of solution g dm -3.
• Molar concentration, which gives the number of moles of solute dissolved in 1 dm 3 of solution The
unit for molar concentration is moles of solute per cubic decimetre of solution mol dm -3.
Worked example
A solution of sodium hydroxide NaOH contains 10.0 g of NaOH dissolved in 1 dm 3 of solution. Express the
concentration of the solution in g dm-3 and mol dm-3.
the solution contains 10.0 g of NaOH in 1 dm3
∴ mass concentration = 10.0 g dm-3
M(NaOH) = 1(23) + 1(16) +1(1)
= 40 g mol-1
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
number of moles =
10 𝑔
=
40 𝑔 𝑚𝑜𝑙−1
= 0.25 mol
∴ molar concentration = 0.25 mol dm-3
The number of moles in a solution is the concentration multiplied by the volume.
amount of solute (mol) = concentration (mol dm-3) x volume (dm3)

6. Mole Concept
A standard solution is a solution whose concentration is known accurately. A standard solution is made in a
volumetric flask.
A known mass of solute is added to the flask and distilled water is then added until the
solution reaches the mark on the neck of the flask.
To make a standard solution which does not have a volume of 1 dm3, the
mass of the solute required must be calculated first.
Worked examples
> Determine the mass of K2CO3 which must be dissolved in distilled water to make 250 cm3 of
K2CO3 solution with a concentration of 0.2 mol dm-3.
1 000 cm3 (1 dm3) of the required solution contains 0.2 mol K2CO3
0.2
250 cm3 contains × 250 mol K2CO3 = 0.05 mol K2CO3
1000
M(K2CO3) = 138 g mol-1
i.e., mass of 1 mol K2CO3 = 138 g
∴ mass of 0.5 mol K2CO3 = 0.05 x 138 g
= 6.9 g
> Calculate the molar concentration of a sodium hydroxide solution which contains 6 g of sodium hydroxide
dissolved in distilled water to make 200 cm3 of solution.
M(NaOH) = 40 g mol-1
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
number of moles =
6
=
40
= 0.15 mol
200 cm3 of solution contains 0.15 mol NaOH

0.15
∴ 1 cm3 of solution contains mol NaOH
200
0.15
and 1 000 cm3 (1 dm3) of solution contains × 1000 mol NaOH = 0.75 mol
200
molar concentration = 0.75 mol dm-3

6. Mole Concept
> Calculate the molar concentration of a solution of HCl which has a mass concentration of 9.125 g dm -3.
M(HCl) = 36.5 g mol-1
i.e., mass of 1 mol HCl = 36.5 g

9.125
∴ number of moles HCl in 9.125 g = mol = 0.25 mol
36.5
i.e., number of moles HCl in 1 dm3 = 0.25 mol
molar concentration = 0.25 mol dm-3
> Determine how many moles of sodium sulphate are present in 250 cm3 of a sodium sulphate solution which
has a molar concentration of 0.2 mol dm-3.
1 dm3 of solution contains 0.2 mol Na2SO4
i.e., 1 000 cm3 of solution contains 0.2 mol Na2SO4

0.2
∴ 1 cm3 of solution contains mol Na2SO4
1000
0.2
and 250 cm3 of solution contains × 250 mol Na2SO4 = 0.05 mol
1000
number of moles present = 0.05 mol
> A chemist wishes to make a sodium chloride solution with a molar concentration of 0.25 mol dm -3 but only
has 11.7 g. What is the maximum volume of solution they can make?
M(NaCl) = 58.5 g mol-1
i.e., mass of 1 mol = 58.5 g

11.7
∴ number of moles in 11.7 g = = 0.2 mol
58.5
Required solution has a molar concentration of 0.25 mol dm-3
i.e., 0.25 mol NaCL is contained in 1 dm3 of solution
or 0.25 mol NaCl is contained in 1 000 cm3 of solution

1000
∴ 1 mol NaCl is contained in cm3 of solution
0.25
1000
and 0.2 mol NaCl is contained in × 0.2 cm3 of solution = 800 cm3 of solution
0.25
maximum volume of solution = 800 cm3

6. Mole Concept
MOLE & CHEMICAL FORMULAE
mole & chemical formulae
numbers&
A chemical formula shows how many moles of each element combine to form one mole of the compound.
For example, H2O represents 2 mol of hydrogen atoms combined with 1 mol of oxygen atoms.
• The empirical formula is the simplest whole number mole ratio between the atoms/ions in the compound.
• The molecular formula is the actual number of moles of atoms of each element present in one mole
of the compound.
If the proportions of an element are known, the empirical formula can be calculated. If the molecular
formula of a compound is different from the empirical formula and the molar mass is known, the molecular
formula can be calculated.
Worked examples
> A sample of a solid decomposed and is found to contain 6.52 g of potassium, 4.34 g of chromium, and 5.34
g of oxygen. What is the empirical formula of the compound?
K Cr O
mass (g) 6.52 4.34 5.34
-1
molar mass (g mol ) 39 52 16
6.52 4.34 5.34
number of moles = 0.167 = 0.083 = 0.334
39 52 16
simplest mole ratio 2 1 4
(divide # moles by
smallest number)
empirical formula = K2CrO4
> On analysis, a sample of glucose was found to contain 40.0% carbon, 6.7% hydrogen, and 53.3% oxygen.
The molar mass of the compound is 180 g mol-1. Determine the molecular formula of glucose.
(Assume mass of sample is 100 g)
C H O
mass (g) 40 6.7 53.3
-1
molar mass (g mol ) 12 1 16
40 6.7 53.3
number of moles = 3.3 = 6.7 = 3.3
12 1 16
simplest mole ratio 1 2 1
6. Mole Concept
empirical formula = CH2O
M(CH2O) = 1(12) + 2(1) + 1(16)
= 30 g mol-1
M(glucose) = 180 g mol-1

180
Ratio between M(glucose) and M(CH2O) = = 6
30
∴ the molecular formula is 6 x the empirical formula
the molecular formula of glucose is C6H12O6
Percentage composition
The percentage composition of a compound indicates the percentage, by mass, of each element in the
compound.
Worked examples
> Calculate the percentage composition of hydrogen and oxygen in water.
M(H2O) = 2(1) + 1(16)
= 18 g mol-1
mass of hydrogen in 1 mol H2O = 2(1) = 2 g

2
percentage hydrogen = × 100% = 11.11%
18
mass of oxygen in 1 mol H2O = 16 g

16
percentage oxygen = × 100% = 88.89%
18
> Calculate the percentage, by mass, of nitrogen in ammonium phosphate.
M((NH4)3PO4) = 3(14) + 12(1) + 1(31) + 4(16)
= 149 g mol-1
mass of nitrogen in 1 mol (NH4)3PO4 = 3(14)
= 42 g
42
percentage nitrogen = × 100% = 28.19%
129
6. Mole Concept
MOLE & CHEMICAL REACTIONS
mole & chemical reactions
numbers&
A chemical reaction is a process that involves the rearrangement of the molecular or ionic structure of a
substance. For example, hydrogen gas reacts with oxygen gas to produce water. This is a chemical reaction.
Its reactants are hydrogen and oxygen, while its product is water.
A chemical equation is a shorthand representation of a chemical reaction using symbols and formulae.
The equation for the previous reaction is H2 + O2 → H2O. However, this equation is incomplete. To complete it, it
is important to know the components of a chemical reaction.
• Subscript numerals placed beside a species represent the number of atoms a single species has
present. For example, CO2 represents one carbon atom and two oxygen atoms, NOT two carbon atoms
and two oxygen atoms. Coefficients are placed before the symbol or formula and represent the number
of times a subscript is multiplied (atoms without a visible subscript have a subscript of 1, and
substances without a visible coefficient have a coefficient of 1).
o 2H represents two atoms of hydrogen not bonded together.
o H2 represents one molecule of hydrogen, which consists of two atoms of hydrogen
bonded together.
o 2H2 represents two molecules of hydrogen, and, in total, four atoms of hydrogen.
o 3CO2 represents three molecules of carbon dioxide. In total, the number of atoms of
each element is three carbon atoms and six oxygen atoms (3C, 6O).
o Ca(NO3)2 represents one formula unit of calcium nitrate, which consists of one Ca 2+ ion and two
NO3— ions; therefore, the number of atoms of each element is one calcium atom, two nitrogen
atoms, and six oxygen atoms (1C, 2N, 6O).
o 2Ca(NO3)2 represents two formula units of calcium nitrate. The number of atoms of each
element is two calcium atoms, four nitrogen atoms, and twelve oxygen atoms (2C, 4N, 12O).
• Further, a complete chemical equation will include the state symbol of each substance in the equation.
A state symbol is written in brackets after the symbol or formula of each reactant and product. This
indicates the physical state of the reactants and products.
State State symbol Species

Solid (s) I2, elements not listed below, all ionic compounds not soluble in water
Liquid (molten) (l) Hg, Br2, H2O
Gaseous (g) H2, N2, O2, F2, Cl2, noble gases
Aqueous solution (aq) ionic compounds soluble in water
6. Mole Concept
To determine which ionic compounds are soluble and which are not, refer to the solubility table below:
Salts Solubility Exceptions
Cyanide (CN—) C
Ammonium (NH4+) A
Nitrates (NO3—) N
None
Soluble
Acetates/Ethanoates (CH3COO—) A
- D
Alkali Metals (Group 1) A
Chlorides (Cl—)
Bromides (Br—) Soluble Silver, lead(II), mercury
Iodides (I—)
Fluorides (F—) Soluble Group 2, lead(II), iron(III)
Sulphates (SO42—) Soluble Calcium, strontium, barium, mercury, silver, lead(II)
Carbonates (CO32—)
Insoluble Group 1, ammonium
Phosphates (PO43—)
Hydroxides (OH—) Insoluble Barium, strontium, Group 1, ammonium
Sulphides (S2—) Insoluble Group 2, Group 1, ammonium
Oxides (O2—) Insoluble Group 1

6. Mole Concept
The Law of Conservation of Matter states that matter can neither be created nor destroyed during a chemical
reaction. Since all the atoms that were present at the beginning of the reaction are present at the end, it follows
that the total mass of the products must be the same as the total mass of the original reactants. This means all
complete chemical equations must be properly balanced.
To balance a chemical equation:
• Write out the correct chemical formula for each reactant and product.
o Seven of the common elements exists as diatomic molecules in their free state, namely, Br 2, I2,
N2, Cl2, H2, O2, and F2 (BrINClHOF). Other elements in their free state are indicated by their
symbol.
• Write the state symbol after each reactant and product.
• Start balancing the elements in the product immediately after the arrow first.
• Any polyatomic ion which is unchanged from one side to the other can be balanced as a unit.
• If compounds contain hydrogen or oxygen, balance hydrogen second from last and oxygen last.
• If any elements occur in their free state, leave them until the very last to balance.
• Use coefficients in front of each formula to balance the number of atoms of each element on the left
and right sides. The formula must not be changed.
• Check that the coefficients are in the lowest possible ratio.
The completed equation for the reaction between hydrogen and oxygen forming water is hence:
For example, hydrogen gas reacts with oxygen gas to form water: H2(g) + O2(g)
2H2(g) + O2(g) → 2H2O(g)
This means:
2 mol of H2 + 1 mol of O2 → 2 mol of H2O
2(2 x1) g of H2 + 1(2 x 16) g of O2 → 2[(2x1) + 16] g of H2O
4 g of H2 + 32 g of O2 → 36 g of H2O
If the quantity of one reactant or product is known, it is possible to calculate the quantities of any of the
other reactants and products.
6. Mole Concept
Worked examples
> Calculate the mass of magnesium oxide formed by burning 12 g of magnesium in excess oxygen.
2Mg(s) + O2(g) → 2MgO(s)
Since the mass of the reactant, Mg, is known, the number of moles can be determined:
M(Mg) = 24 g mol-1
12 𝑔
moles =
= 0.5 mol
the mole ratio between Mg and Mg O is 2:2 = 1:1
Hence 0.5 mol Mg forms 0.5 mol MgO
M(MgO) = 1(24) + 1(16) = 40 g mol-1
mass = 40 g mol-1 x 0.5 mol
= 20 g
> Determine the mass of sodium carbonate required to produce 23.4 g of sodium chloride when the sodium
carbonate reacts with excess hydrochloric acid.
Na2CO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) -> 2NaCl(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
M(NaCl) = 58.5 g mol-1

23.4 𝑔
number of moles in 23.4 g = = 0.4 mol
the mole ratio between NaCl and Na2CO3 is 2:1, hence 0.5 x 0.4 mol Na2CO3 forms 0.4 mol NaCl = 0.2 mol
Na2CO3
M(Na2CO3) = 106 g mol-1
mass of 0.2 mol = 0.2 mol x 106 g mol-1 = 21.2 g

6. Mole Concept
> Determine the decrease in mass that would occur when 21.0 g of magnesium carbonate is heated until its
mass remains constant.
MgCO3(s) + MgO(s) + CO2(g)
the decrease in mass is the loss of carbon dioxide, therefore, the mass of CO2 produced must be determined
M(MgCO3) = 84 g mol-1
21.0 𝑔
number of moles in 21.0 g = = 0.25 mol
0.25 mol MgCO3 forms 0.25 mol CO2
M(CO2) = 44 g mol-1
mass of 0.25 mol CO2 = 0.25 mol x 44 g mol-1 = 11.0 g
> Nitrogen reacts with hydrogen to produce ammonia. Calculate the minimum volume of hydrogen that would
be required to react completely with 6.0 dm3 of nitrogen at rtp.
N2(g) + 3H2(g) -> 2NH3(g)
volume of 1 mol N2 at rtp = 24 dm3

6.0 𝑑𝑚3
number of moles in 6.0 dm3 = = 0.25 mol
24 𝑑𝑚3 𝑚𝑜𝑙−1
the mole ratio between N2 and H2 is 1:3
hence 0.25 mol N2 reacts with 3 x 0.25 mol H2 = 0.75 mol H2
volume = 24 dm3 mol-1 x 0.75 mol = 18.0 dm3

6. Mole Concept
OF A
Which of the following aqueous solutions contains 1 mole One mole of an element X (atomic number = 11) reacts
of hydrogen ions? with chlorine to form one mole of its chloride of mass
58.5 g mol-1.
(E) 2 dm3 of 0.5 mol dm-3 HCl
(F) 2 dm3 of 0.5 mol dm-3 H2SO4 (iii) Based on the information given above, calculate the
3 -3
(G) 1 dm of 1.0 mol dm H2SO4 relative atomic mass of the element X. (2 mks)
(H) 1 dm3 of 1.0 mol dm-3 CH3COOH [Relative atomic mass: Cl = 35.5]
The answer is (A) 2 dm3 of 0.5 mol dm-3 HCl.

(iv) Write a balanced equation to show the formation of
2007 CSEC Chemistry Paper 01 the chloride of X. (2 mks)
Three grams of sodium hydrogen carbonate are added to Since the atomic number of X is 11, it is in group 1
100 cm3 of 0.2 mol dm-3 hydrochloric acid. When Hence its chloride is XCl
effervescence ceases, the mixture is filtered. and the
By the law of conservation of matter:
filtrate heated until a saturated solution is obtained. Tue
saturated solution is left to crystallise. 2X + Cl2 → 2XCl (ii)
The number of moles of hydrochloric acid participating in 2(X) + 2(35.5) = 2(58.5)

this reaction is
RAM of X = 23 (i)
(A) 0.2 x 100
100 × 0.2
(B) 2017 CSEC Chemistry Paper 02
1000
1000 × 0.2
(C) Define EACH of the following terms:
100
100
(D)
0.2
a) mole
100 × 0.2 100
The answer is (B) . 100 cm3 to dm3 is . To b) molar mass
1000 1000
obtain the number of moles, use the equation: (2 mks)
amount of solute (mol) = concentration (mol dm-3) x a/A mole is the amount of a substance that contains the
volume (dm ) 3 same number of particles as 12.00 g of carbon-12 –
6.02 x 1023 particles.
b/The molar mass of a substance is the mass of one mole

of the substance
6. Mole Concept
Lesley was asked to weigh 0.20 moles of aspirin to be Copper is a product of the reaction that occurs when dry
used in a supervised experiment during her chemistry ammonia is passed over a sample of heated copper (II)
laboratory class. Before doing so, she read the label, at oxide. The equation for the reaction is given below:
the back of the bottle, shown below.
2NH3 + 3CuO → 3Cu + 3H2O + N2
Calculate the mass of copper produced if 0.12 dm3 of

nitrogen is produced at room temperature and pressure
(rtp). (4 mks)
(Relative atomic mass of Cu = 64; One mole of gas

occupies 24 dm3 at rtp.)
First, find the number of moles of copper by finding the

number of moles of N2 produced and using the mol ratio
moles = volume/Vm
i) Calculate the mass Lesley would have to weigh to
obtain 0.20 moles of aspirin. (1 mk) = 0.12 dm3/24 dm3 mol-1
ii) Jared, another student in Lesley’s class, weighed = 0.005 mol N2
18.0 g of aspirin. Calculate the number of moles
of aspirin he weighed. (1 mk) 1:3 mol ratio between Cu and N2
i/ mass = Mr x moles = 180 g mol-1 x 0.20 mol = 36 g hence 3 * 0.005 = 0.015 mol Cu produced
ii/moles = mass/Mr = 18.0 g/180 g mol-1 = 0.10 mol mass = Mr x moles
= 64 g mol-1 x 0.015 mol
= 0.96 mol Cu produced
One mole of an element X (atomic number = 11) reacts

with chlorine to form one mole of its chloride of mass
58.5 g mol-1.
(i) Based on the information given above, calculate the

relative atomic mass of the element X. (2 mks)
[Relative atomic mass: Cl = 35.5]
(ii) Write a balanced equation to show the formation of

the chloride of X. (2 mks)
Since the atomic number of X is 11, it is in group 1
Hence its chloride is XCl

7. Acids, Bases, and Salts

Which of the following BEST describes a substance that Students were required to prepare a sample of the
supplies protons as the only positive ions in aqueous normal salt produced when aqueous sodium hydroxide
solutions? reacts with dilute sulphuric acid.
(A) Salt (i) Define the term ‘normal salt’. (2 mks)

(B) Base (ii) Identify one other type of salt formed from the
(C) Alkali reaction between dilute sulphuric acid and sodium
(D) Acid hydroxide. Write the chemical formula. (2 mks)
(iii) State the name of one other acid that can also
produce the type of salt identified in (ii) above.
Sulphuric acid is a stronger acid than ethanoic acid in (1 mk)
aqueous solution because sulphuric acid
(A) is more corrosive than ethanoic acid
Define EACH of the following terms:
(B) is obtainable in high concentrations
(C) causes sugar to char while ethanoic acid does not (i) Amphoteric oxide (2 mks)
(D) ionises to a greater extent than ethanoic acid (ii) Acid anhydride (2 mks)
 define acid, acid anhydride, base, alkali, salt, acidic, basic, amphoteric, and neutral oxides;
o Consideration of proton donor/acceptor and replaceable hydrogen. Relate to basic and acidic oxides.
 relate acidity and alkalinity to the pH scale;
o pH scale - No formal definition of pH required.
 discuss the strength of acids and alkalis on the basis of their completeness of ionisation;
o Degree of ionisation linked to strength and the pH of the solution.
 investigate the reactions of nonoxidizing acids;
o Reactions of acids with metals, carbonates, hydrogen carbonates, bases.
 list examples of acids in living systems;
o Vitamin C (ascorbic acid), methanoic acid (in ants), lactic acid (build-up in muscles). Neutralisation of
Vitamin C with sodium hydrogen carbonate. Formula of Vitamin C not required. The treatment of ant
stings, use of vinegar in food preservation due to low pH. Use of lime juice to remove rust stains.
 investigate the reaction of bases with ammonium salts;
 identify an appropriate method of salt preparation based on the solubility of the salt;

o A general knowledge of the solubility of sulphates, nitrates, chlorides, carbonates, and
bases. Uses of salts in everyday life.
 list the uses and dangers of salts;
o Refer to action of baking powder, calcium carbonate for the manufacture of cement. For
food preservation: sodium chloride, sodium nitrite, sodium nitrate, sodium benzoate. For
medical uses: plaster of Parris (calcium sulphate), Epsom salts (magnesium sulphate).
Sodium nitrate is implicated in causing brain damage in infants and also suspected to be
carcinogenic.
 distinguish between acid salts and normal salts;
o Basicity of acids.
 investigate neutralisation reactions using indicators and temperature changes;
o Use of colour change of indicators and temperature changes to determine neutralisation
point. Refer to the action of toothpaste in neutralising acids in the mouth. For example,
fluoride ions replacing hydroxide ions in the enamel of the tooth. Effect of adding lime to
soil. Effect of adding lime and an ammonium fertiliser to soil at the same time.
 perform calculations using volumetric analysis data.
o Number of moles reacting, the mole ratio in which reactants combine, and the molar
concentration and mass concentration of reactants.

ACIDS, BASES,
acids, bases, &&
the THE
pH scalePH SCALE
The chemical properties of many solutions enable them to be divided into three categories: acidic,
alkaline/basic, and neutral. The category in which a substance falls is based on their pH (power of hydrogen).
The pH scale is the numerical scale which translates the values of the concentration of the hydrogen ion H +
into numbers between 0 and 14. pH can only be measured in aqueous solutions.
pH numbers
strongly acidic weakly acidic weakly basic strongly basic
neutral
Based on the pH scale:
 substances with a pH less than 7 are acidic

 substances with a pH of exactly 7 are neutral
 substances with a pH greater than 7 are basic
Hydrogen ions H+ make a solution acidic, while hydroxide ions OH- make a solution alkaline. A neutral
solution has the same number of H+ and OH- ions.
pH is important in gardening and managing soil. Soil pH is analysed to indicate the acidity or alkalinity of soil.
Most plants favour a pH value of between 5 and 8. Soils may become acidic from acid rain, overuse of
fertilisers with ammonium salts, or by the excessive breakdown of organic matter by bacteria. Crushed or
powered limestone (calcium carbonate CaCO3), lime (calcium oxide CaO), or slaked lime (calcium hydroxide
Ca(OH)2) is added to neutralise the excess acidity in the soil.

Strong acids and strong bases ionise completely in solution. This means that all of the acid/base molecules
ionise and there is a high concentration of H+ ions (acids) or OH- ions (bases). Hydrochloric, sulphuric, and
nitric acids are strong acids, and Group I hydroxides are strong bases.
i.e.,
HCl(aq) → H+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
NaOH(aq) → Na+(aq) + OH-(aq)
Weak acids and bases partially ionise in solution. The solution contains a mixture of acid or base molecules
which have not ionised and ions produced from the molecules which have ionised. There is a low
concentration of H+ ions (acids) or OH- ions (bases). This reaction, unlike that of a strong acid or base, is
reversible, indicated by a double arrow ⇆. The products of this reaction can attract again. Organic acids such
as ethanoic acid are weak acids. Ammonia is an example of a weak base.
i.e.,
CH3COOH(aq) ⇆ H+(aq) + CH3COO-(aq)
NH3(g) + H2O(l) ⇆ NH4+(aq) + OH-(aq)
The terms ‘alkali’ and ‘base’ are often used interchangeably. However, alkalis are bases that dissolve
in water to form a solution that contains hydroxide ions OH-. For example, copper(II) oxide CuO is a base, but
is insoluble in water, so it is not an alkali.
An acid-base indicator is a substance that indicates the acidity or basicity of a solution through characteristic
colour changes. The colours seen in the pH diagram above that correspond to the degree of acidity are
basicity are from universal indicator. Universal indicator shows how strongly acidic or alkaline a solution is in
paper or solution form. Dark red indicates strongly acid solutions, while dark purple indicates strongly basic
ones. In the middle, neutral pH 7 is indicated by the colour green. There are also other indicators that can be
used to determine whether a solution is acidic or alkaline:
Acidic colour Alkaline colour
Litmus Red Blue
Methyl orange Red Yellow
Screened methyl Red Green

orange
Phenolphthalein Colourless Pink

Acids
An acid is a substance that donates hydrogen ions (protons) in aqueous solution. Acids in their anhydrous
form (not dissolved in water) are composed of covalent molecules and can be solid, liquid, or gas at room
temperature. All acid molecules contain hydrogen, such as hydrochloric acid HCl and sulphuric acid H 2SO4.
When added to water, the acid molecules ionise, forming positive hydrogen ions and negative anions.
i.e.,
HCl(g) + H2O(l) → H+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
The H+ ions then become attached to the polar water molecules forming hydronium ions H 3O+.
i.e.,
H+(aq) + H2O(l) → H3O+(aq)
The overall reaction can be summarised as:
HCl(g) + H2O(l) → H3O+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
Acids are proton donors. H+ ions, present in aqueous acids, are single protons. A hydrogen atom is
composed of a proton and an electron. Once it loses its valence electron becoming a positive H+ ion, it
leaves only the nucleus containing the one proton.
When an acid reacts, the hydrogen ions (protons) formed when it is dissolved in water can be ‘donated’
to the other reactant. For example, when an aqueous solution of hydrochloric acid reacts with sodium
hydroxide, the hydrochloric acid gives its H+ ions to the OH- ions of the sodium hydroxide, forming water.
i.e.,
OH-(aq) + H+(aq) → H2O(l)


Properties of aqueous acids
The presence of H+ ions give acids their characteristic properties. Aqueous solutions of acids are described as
being acidic and have the following common properties:
 They have a sour taste

 They change blue litmus to red
 They have a pH < 7
 They are corrosive
 They are electrolytes, i.e., they conduct an electric current
Chemical reactions of aqueous acids
Acids have common reactions with certain other reactants. In all of these reactions, the hydrogen ions are
replaced by metal ions or ammonium ions to form a salt.
 Acids react with reactive metals

Most acids react with metals above hydrogen in the reactivity series to form a salt and hydrogen gas.
i.e.,
reactive metal + acid → salt + hydrogen
reactive metal + acid → salt + hydrogen gas
For example,
Zn(s) + 2HCl(aq) → ZnCl2(aq) + H2(g)
Ionically: Zn(s) + 2H+(aq) → Zn2+(aq) + H2(g)
When reactive metals react with acids, effervescence (bubbling) is seen as hydrogen gas is evolved.
The reactions also become hotter because they produce heat (i.e., they are exothermic).
Nitric acid is an exception, which releases oxides of nitrogen when it reacts with metals, not hydrogen.
 Acids react with bases

When acids react with bases, which are mainly metal hydroxides and metal oxides, a salt and water
are formed. This is a neutralisation reaction, and the pH of the salt and the water will be 7 (neutral).
base
base++acid
acid→
→salt
salt++water
water
For example,
2KOH(aq) + H2SO4(aq) → K2SO4(aq) + 2H2O(l)
Ionically: OH-(aq) + H+(aq) → H2O(l)

 Acids react with metal carbonates and metal hydrogencarbonates
When acids and metal hydrogen/carbonates react, a salt, carbon dioxide, and water are the products.
metal carbonate + acid → salt + carbon dioxide + water

A
For example,
Na2CO3(aq) + H2SO4(aq) → Na2SO4(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
Ionically: CO32-(aq) + 2H+(aq) → CO2(g) + H2O(l)
metal hydrogencarbonate + acid A→ salt + carbon dioxide + water
For example,
Mg(HCO3)2(aq) + 2HNO3(aq) → Mg(NO3)2(aq) + 2CO2(g) + 2H2O(l)
Ionically: HCO3-(aq) + H+(aq) → CO2(g) + H2O(l)
Acids can be classified in various ways:
 Organic and inorganic acids

Most organic acids contain the carboxyl group, i.e., COOH. In these acids it is the hydrogen at the end of
the carboxyl group which forms the H+ ion when the acid dissolves in water. E.g., methanoic acid HCOOH,
ethanoic acid CH3COOH, lactic acid CH3CH(OH)COOH, ascorbic acid C6H8O6, citric acid C6H8O7.
Inorganic acids contain a non-metallic element or polyatomic group as well as hydrogen. E.g.,
hydrochloric acid HCl, nitric acid HNO3, sulphuric acid H2SO4, phosphoric acid H3PO4.
 Protocity/Basicity
This is the number of H+ ions acids produce per molecule when dissolved in water.
o Monobasic acids yield one H+ ion per molecule, e.g., hydrochloric acid, ethanoic acid
o Dibasic acids yield two H+ ions per molecule, e.g., sulphuric acid
o Tribasic acids yield three H+ ions per molecule, e.g., phosphoric acid
 Concentration
A concentrated acid is one in which many acid molecules are
dissolved in a set volume of solution, while a dilute acid will have
very few molecules per unit volume.

Certain compounds react with water to form an acid. These are known as acid anhydrides (lit., ‘an acid without
water’). Many acid anhydrides are acidic oxides of nonmetals. Carbon dioxide CO 2, sulphur dioxide SO2, sulphur
trioxide SO3, and nitrogen dioxide NO2 are examples of acid anhydrides:
CO2(g) + H2O(l) ⇆ H2CO3(aq)

carbonic acid
SO2(g) + H2O(l) ⇆ H2SO3(aq)
sulphurous acid
SO3(g) + H2O(l) → H2SO4(aq)

sulphuric acid
2NO2(g) + H2O(l) → HNO2(aq) + HNO3(aq)

nitrous acid nitric acid
Acids in living systems
Acid Location Notes

Vitamin C/ascorbic In many fruits and - Essential to a healthy diet
acid C6H8O6 vegetables, e.g., West - Deficiency leads to scurvy
Indian cherries, citrus - When exposed to heat during cooking, it is oxidised
fruit, raw green which destroys it
vegetables - Sodium hydrogencarbonate neutralises vitamin C and is
added to improve the appearance and texture of foods
Citric acid C6H8O7 Citrus fruit - Lime juice is used to remove rust stains from clothing.
The acid in the juice reacts with the iron(III) oxide in rust
stains, making a soluble compound which washes out of
the clothes.
Fe2O3 (s) + 6H+ (aq)  2Fe3+ (aq) + 3H2O (l)
Methanoic acid In ant and bee venom - Causes itching, swelling, redness, and pain
HCOOH - Treated by applying a paste of sodium
hydrogencarbonate or calamine lotion which contains
zinc oxide. Both neutralise the acid.
Lactic acid C3H6O3 Made cells of muscles - A person collapses if too much lactic acid builds up in the
during strenuous activity muscles because it prevents the muscles from
contracting
Ethanoic acid In vinegar - Vinegar can be used to preserve food items because its
CH3COOH low pH denatures enzymes that cause decay and also
prevents the growth of microorganisms

Bases
A base is a substance that accepts protons. Bases are normally metal oxides and metal hydroxides. However,
ammonia is also classified as a base.
When a base reacts with an acid, the O2- or OH- ions accept the donated protons from the acid, forming water.
The base has accepted the protons from the acid and this fact can be used to define a base as a proton acceptor.
When hydrochloric acid HCl reacts with sodium hydroxide NaOH, the OH- ions of the sodium hydroxide accept
the H+ ions, or protons, from the hydrochloric acid forming water.
i.e.,
Soluble bases are known as alkalis. When they dissolve in water, they form hydroxide ions. Most bases are
not alkalis, i.e., they are insoluble in water.
e.g.,
NaOH(s) + H2O(l) → Na+(aq) + OH-(aq)
Na2O(s) + H2O(l) → 2Na+(aq) + 2OH-(aq)
NH3(g) + H2O(l) ⇆ NH4+(aq) + OH-(aq)
A strong alkali is fully ionised when dissolved in water, e.g., potassium hydroxide KOH, whereas a weak alkali
is only partially ionised when dissolved in water, e.g., ammonia NH 3.
Properties of aqueous alkalis
The presence of OH- ions in an aqueous solution gives alkalis their characteristic properties. Aqueous solutions
of alkalis are described as being alkaline and have the following common properties:
 They have a bitter taste

 They change red litmus to blue
 They have a pH > 7
 They are corrosive
 They are electrolytes, i.e., they conduct an electric current
 They feel soapy when touched

Chemical reactions of bases
Bases have common reactions with certain reactants.
 Bases react with acids

When bases react with acids, a salt and water are formed. This is a neutralisation reaction, and the pH
of the salt and the water will be 7 (neutral).
base
base++acid
acid→
→salt
salt++water
water
For example,
MgO(s) + HCl(aq) → MgCl2(aq) + H2O(l)
Ionically: MgO(s) + 2H+(aq) → Mg2+(aq) → H2O(l)
 Bases react with ammonium salts

When bases react with ammonium salts, a salt, ammonia, and water are produced. The ammonium
salts undergo decomposition when warmed with the base. In order to react, the reactants need to
be heated.
i.e.,
reactive metal + acid → salt + hydrogen
base + ammonium salt → salt + ammonia + water
For example,
CuO(s) + 2NH4Cl → CuCl2(s) + 2NH3(g) + H2O(l)
Oxides
Some metal oxides and hydroxides can behave as bases because they can react with acids. They can also
behave as acids because they can react with strong alkalis. These substances are referred to as being
amphoteric.
As a base:
amphoteric hydr/oxide + acid → salt + water
As an acid:
strong alkali + amphoteric hydr/oxide → salt + water
e.g.
Al(OH)3(s) + 3HCl(aq) → AlCl3(aq) + 3H2O(l)


NaOH(aq) + Al(OH)3(s) → NaAlO2(aq)+ 2H2O(l)
sodium aluminate
Amphoteric oxides and hydroxides include:
 aluminium oxide Al2O3

 zinc oxide ZnO
 lead(II) oxide PbO
 aluminium hydroxide Al(OH)3
 zinc hydroxide Zn(OH)2
 lead(II) hydroxide Pb(OH)2
Oxides can be classified into four groups:
 Acidic oxides
Oxides of some nonmetals which react with alkalis to form a salt and water are acidic.
e.g., carbon dioxide CO2, sulphur dioxide SO2, sulphur trioxide SO3, nitrogen dioxide NO2, silicon dioxide SiO2.
2NaOH(aq) + CO2(g) → Na2CO3(aq) + H2O(l)
 Basic oxides
Oxides of metals which react with acids to form a salt and water are basic.
e.g., magnesium oxide MgO, iron(III) oxide Fe2O3, copper(II) oxide CuO.
MgO(s) + H2SO4(aq) → MgSO4(aq) + H2O(l)
Potassium oxide, sodium oxide, and calcium oxide are basic oxides that are also classified as alkalis
because they react with water to form a solution containing OH- ions.
Na2O(s) + H2O(l) → 2NaOH(aq)
 Amphoteric oxides
Oxides of some metals which react with both acids and strong alkalis to form a salt and water are
amphoteric.
 Neutral oxides
Oxides of some nonmetals which do not react with acids or alkalis are neutral.
e.g., carbon monoxide CO, nitrogen monoxide NO, dinitrogen monoxide N 2O

Salts
A salt is a compound formed when some or all of the hydrogen ions in an acid are replaced by metal or
ammonium ions. Salts can be classified into two groups based on whether all or only some of the hydrogen
ions are replaced:
 Normal salts (pH = 7)

These are formed when all of the hydrogen ions in an acid are replaced by metal or ammonium ions.
e.g.,
H2SO4(aq) + 2NaOH(aq) → Na2SO4(aq) + 2H2O(l)
 Acid salts (pH < 7)

These are formed when the hydrogen ions in an acid are only partially replaced by metal or ammonium
ions. Only dibasic and tribasic acids can form acids salts. The type of salt formed by dibasic and tribasic
acid will depend on the relative quantity of each reactant.
e.g.,
H2SO4(aq) + NaOH(aq) → NaHSO4(aq) + H2O(l)
Acid Salt(s) formed Anion present Salt Example

-
hydrochloric acid chlorides Cl normal sodium chloride NaCl
HCl
nitric acid HNO3 nitrates NO3- normal sodium nitrate NaNO3
ethanoic acid ethanoates CH3COO- normal sodium ethanoate CH3COONa
CH3COOH
sulphuric acid H2SO4 sulphates SO42- normal sodium sulphate Na2SO4
hydrogensulphates HSO4- acid sodium hydrogensulphate NaHSO4
carbonic acid H2CO3 carbonates CO32- normal sodium carbonate Na2CO3
hydrogencarbonates HCO3- acid sodium hydrogencarbonate NaHCO3
phosphoric acid phosphates PO43- normal sodium phosphate Na3PO4
H3PO4 hydrogenphosphates HPO42- acid disodium hydrogenphosphate Na2HPO4
dihydrogenphosphates H2PO4- acid Sodium dihydrogenphosphate NaH2PO4

Waters of crystallisation
Some salts contain a fixed number of water molecules between the ions in their crystal lattice, known as water
of crystallisation. Salts containing water of crystallisation are referred to as hydrated salts.
For example, CuSO4 • 5H2O represents hydrated copper(II) sulphate (pentahydrate).
Water of crystallisation is essential to develop the crystalline structure, and sometimes the colour, of the
crystals containing it. If the water of crystallisation is removed by heating, the solid loses its crystalline
structure, becomes powdery, and its colour may change.
heat
CuSO4 • 5H2O (s) → CuSO4(s) + 5H2O(g)
blue crystals white powder
(hydrated) (anhydrous)
Salts without water of crystallisation are anhydrous salts.
Preparation of salts
There are many different methods by which salts can be produced. When deciding on the method of
preparation, it is important to know:
 the solubility of the salt to be produced

 the solubility of the compounds (reactants) which may be used to prepare the salt
 the hydration of the salt being prepared
Preparation of insoluble salts
Insoluble salts can be prepared by reacting two solutions, one containing the cations of the salt being prepared
and the other containing its anions. This is known as ionic precipitation. In an ionic precipitation reaction, the
two soluble salts react in solution to form a soluble salt and an insoluble salt, i.e., a precipitate.
e.g.,
Barium nitrate solution reacts with sodium sulphate solution to form insoluble barium sulphate and sodium
nitrate solution.
Ba(NO3)2(aq) + Na2SO4(aq) → BaSO4(s) + 2NaNO3(aq)
Ionic equation: Ba2+(aq) + SO42-(aq) → BaSO4(s)


The general method for preparing insoluble salts is as follows:
1. Choose two soluble salts, one containing the cations required to make the salt and the other
containing the anions required.
2. Dissolve the two salts in water to make solutions.
3. Mix the two solutions to form the insoluble salt as a precipitate.
4. Filter the mixture and collect the precipitate as the residue.
5. Wash the residue with distilled water while it is still in the filter funnel and leave it to dry.
Preparation of soluble salts
There are three main methods for preparing soluble salts:
 direct combination
Salts composed of two simple ions, such as metal chlorides, can be prepared by reacting two
elements, a metal and a nonmetal, directly with each other. The metal supplies the cations of the salt,
and the nonmetal supplies the anions.
e.g.,
Aluminium chloride can be prepared in a fume cupboard by passing a stream of dry chlorine gas over
heated aluminium foil in a long glass tube.
The equation for the reaction is
2Al(s) + 3Cl2(g) → 2AlCl3(s)
Since the reaction occurs in the absence of any moisture, the salt formed is an anhydrous salt. This is
particularly suitable for preparing anhydrous aluminium chloride and anhydrous iron(III) chloride.
The general method for preparing soluble salts using direct combination is as follows:
1. Choose a suitable solid metal and chlorine gas.
2. Heat the metal in a stream of the chlorine gas in a fume cupboard.

 the reaction between a reactive metal, insoluble carbonate, or insoluble base + an acid
Many soluble salts can be prepared by reacting a reactive metal, insoluble carbonate, or insoluble base
with an acid.
e.g., e.g., e.g.,
Reacting a reactive metal Reacting an insoluble Reacting an insoluble base

and an acid to prepare carbonate and an acid to and an acid to prepare
magnesium chloride: prepare calcium nitrate: copper(II) sulphate
Mg(s) + 2HCl(g) → CaCO3(s) + 2HNO3(aq) → CuO(s) + H2SO4(aq) →

MgCl2(aq) + H2(g) Ca(NO3)2(aq) + CO2(g) + CuSO4(aq) + H2O(l)
This method cannot be used to prepare salts H2O(l)
of very reactive metals, e.g., potassium or
sodium salts, because the reaction of these
metals with an acid is too violent.
In these reactions, the final product will only be a pure solution of the required salt if the
reaction has reached completion (no acid remains). One way to achieve this is by using an
insoluble reactant. This reactant is added to the acid until some remains. This indicates
there is no more acid left for the reactant to react with. Since it is insoluble, the excess will
remain undissolved in the solution of the salt.
The general method for preparing soluble salts using reactions with acids is as follows:
1. Choose the appropriate reactive metal, insoluble carbonate, or insoluble base to

provide the cations and the appropriate acid to provide the anions.
2. Place the acid into a beaker and add the metal, carbonate, or base until excess solid
remains and effervescence stops if a metal or carbonate is used. This indicates that
all the acid has reacted. Heating may be required to speed up the reaction when
using a metal or a base.
3. Dip a piece of blue litmus paper into the solution to ensure all the acid has reacted.
The litmus should remain blue.
4. Remove the excess unreacted solid by filtration.
5. Collect the filtrate and evaporate the water over a beaker of boiling water. If a
hydrated salt is required, evaporate some of the water to concentrate the solution
and leave the concentrated solution to crystallise.

 the reaction between an alkali + acid (titration)
Potassium, sodium, and ammonium salts cannot be prepared by the method above for two reasons:
(1) potassium and sodium react in a violent manner with acids, making the reactions too dangerous
(2) potassium, sodium, and ammonium carbonates and hydroxides are all soluble, so when the
reaction has reached completion and no more acid remains, the excess solid dissolves and the
solution of the salt will not be pure
Instead, these salts are prepared by adding an acid to an aqueous alkali until the solution is just
neutral, indicating that the reaction has reached completion.
e.g.,
To prepare potassium sulphate, sulphuric acid is added to potassium hydroxide solution until the
resulting solution is just neutral:
2KOH(aq) + H2SO4(aq) → K2SO4(aq) + 2H2O(l)
The colour change of an indicator is used to determine the neutralisation point. The technique used to
determine the exact volume of acid needed to neutralise a fixed volume of aqueous alkali is known as
a titration. A carbonate solution may also be used in place of the aqueous alkali.
The general method for performing a titration is as follows:
1. Choose an appropriate alkali or soluble carbonate to

provide the cations and an appropriate acid to supply the
anions.
2. Measure a fixed volume of the aqueous alkali or
carbonate using a pipette. Run it into a conical flask and
add a few drops of indicator solution (e.g.,
phenolphthalein).
3. Place the acid in a burette and take an initial burette reading.
4. Add acid to the aqueous alkali or carbonate until the neutralisation is reached.
5. Take a final burette reading and determine the volume of acid added.
6. Repeat the titration until there are three volumes of acid within 0.1 cm3 of each other.
Average these volumes to determine the volume of acid needed.
7. Add this volume of acid to the fixed volume of aqueous alkali or carbonate without the
indicator.
8. Evaporate the water from the solution.

Method of preparation Salts prepared Reactants Method Example
Ionic precipitation Insoluble salts Two soluble salts  Dissolve each salt in distilled PbSO4
(one to supply the water to make two solutions.
cations and one to  Mix the solutions to form a
supply the anions) precipitate.
 Filter to separate the
precipitate.
 Wash the precipitate (residue)
with distilled water.
 Dry the residue.
Direct combination Anhydrous Suitable metal (to  Choose a suitable solid metal AlCl3
chlorides supply cations) and chlorine gas.
 Heat the metal in a stream of
Chlorine gas (to chlorine gas in a fume
supply the Cl- ions) cupboard.

Reactive metal reacting Soluble salts Suitable metal (to  Add the metal to the acid and ZnCl2
with an acid of Mg, Al, Zn, supply cations) warm if necessary. Keep
Fe adding until effervescence
Suitable acid (to (bubbling) stops and the metal
supply anions) is present in excess.
 Dip a piece of blue litmus
paper into the solution; it
should remain blue.
 Filter to remove the excess
metal and collect the filtrate.
 Evaporate the water or
evaporate some water and
leave to crystallise.
Insoluble carbonate Soluble salts Suitable insoluble  Add the carbonate to the acid Cu(NO3)2
reacting with an acid except of K, carbonate (to until effervescence stops and
Na, and NH4 supply cations) the carbonate is present in
excess.
Suitable acid (to  Dip a piece of blue litmus
supply anions) paper into the solution; it
should remain blue.
carbonate, collect the filtrate.
Insoluble base reacting Soluble salts Suitable insoluble  Add the base to the acid and MgSO4
with an acid except of K, base (to supply warm if necessary. Keep
Na, and NH4 cations) adding until the base is
present in excess.
Suitable acid (to  Dip a piece of blue litmus
supply anions) paper into the solution; it
should remain blue.
base, collect the filtrate.

Titration Potassium, alkali or carbonate  Place the acid in a burette and K2SO4
sodium, and to supply the K+, find the volume needed to
ammonium Na+, or NH4+ ions neutralise a fixed volume of KHSO4
salts alkali or carbonate solution by
suitable acid to performing a titration using a
supply the anions suitable indicator.
 Add the volume of acid found
above to the fixed volume of
alkali or carbonate solution
without adding the indicator to
make a normal salt.
leave to crystallise .

Salts in everyday life
Salt Use Notes

Sodium Component of baking - Baking powder is used to make cakes rise
hydrogencarbonate powder - When baking powder (also contains a weak acid) is
NaHCO3 mixed with the liquid in the cake mixture, the active
components react forming carbon dioxide
HCO3- (aq) + H+ (aq)  CO2 (g) + H2O (l)
- The carbon dioxide forms bubbles in the cake which
expand on heating, causing the cake to rise
Sodium carbonate To soften hard water - Hard water (with high mineral content) does not lather
(washing soda) with soap
Na2CO3 - When Na2CO3 is added, the Ca2+ and Mg2+ ions precipitate
out as insoluble calcium and magnesium carbonate
- The water becomes soft and will lather with soap
Calcium carbonate Manufacture of cement - To make cement, calcium carbonate is heated in a kiln
CaCO3 - It decomposes forming calcium oxide (quicklime)
- The calcium oxide is blended with other materials to
form clinker, which is ground with calcium sulphate to
make cement
Magnesium Various medicinal - Adding Epsom salt to bath water relieves stress, eases
sulphate purposes aches and pains, reduces inflammation, and helps cure
(Epsom salt) skin problems
MgSO4 • 7H2O - Works as a laxative orally
In agriculture - Improves plant growth
Sodium benzoate Food preservation - Used to preserve foods with a low pH (it is converted to
C6H5COONa benzoic acid which prevents microorganism growth)
Sodium nitrate - Used to preserve meat as they destroy bacteria, slow
NaNO3 and sodium oxidation of fats and oils which cause rancidity, give an
nitrite NaNO2 attractive red colour to the meat, and add flavour
Sodim chloride - Used to preserve food such as meat and fish by
NaCl withdrawing water from their cells by osmosis so water
is unavailable for the reactions which cause decay
Calcium sulphate Plaster of Paris - Plaster of Paris is made of anhydrous calcium sulphate
(gypsum) CaSO4 • - When water is added, heat is given off and a paste forms
2H2O - The paste is used to coat walls and ceilings and make
orthopaedic casts

Dangers of salts
Salt Notes
Sodium benzoate - May increase the risk of developing cancer (carcinogenic)
C6H5COONa - May increase hyperactivity and asthma in children
Sodium nitrate NaNO3 - May be carcinogenic
and sodium nitrite NaNO2 - May cause brain damage in infants
Sodim chloride NaCl - Can lead to hypertension if consumed in excess

NEUTRALISATION
neutralisation reactionsREACTIONS
A neutralisation reaction is a reaction between a base and an acid to form a salt and water. In a
neutralisation reaction between an aqueous alkali and an aqueous acid, the OH - ions of the alkali react with
the H+ ions of the acid. These ions react to form water and the other ions remain in solution as spectator
ions.
e.g.,
NaOH (aq) + HCl (aq) → NaCl (aq) + H2O (l)
Na+ (aq) + OH- (aq) + H+ (aq) + Cl- (aq) → Na+ (aq) + Cl- (aq) + H2O (l)
i.e.,
OH- (aq) + H+ (aq) → H2O (l)
The neutralisation point occurs when the OH- ions have fully reacted with the H+ ions and neither ion is
present in excess. In a reaction between a strong alkali and a strong acid, the solution at this point is neutral,
i.e., pH 7. Neutralisation reactions are exothermic since they produce heat energy.
The neutralisation point of a reaction between an aqueous alkali and an aqueous acid is determined by be
forming a titration using an indicator or temperature change.
 When using an indicator, a fixed volume of alkali is measured using a pipette and run into a conical
flask. A few drops of indicator are added and the acid is added from the burette. The neutralisation
point is determined when the colour of the solution changes on the addition of a single drop of acid
from the burette. Phenolphthalein and methyl orange are the most commonly used indicators to
determine the neutralisation point in a titration.
 When using temperature change, i.e., a thermometric titration, a fixed volume of alkali is placed into
an insulated container (e.g., a polystyrene cup) and its temperature is recorded. The acid is added in
very small quantities from a burette. Using the thermometer, the solution is quickly stirred after
each addition and the temperature is recorded. This process is continued until several successive
drops in temperature have been recorded.
The temperature increases as more acid is added because more hydrogen ions are being added to
react with the hydroxide ions. The temperature stops increasing when all the hydroxide ions have

reacted and there are none left in solution (the neutralisation point). The temperature then
decreases because:
o no more heat is being produced as the reaction has reached completion
o acid at a lower temperature is being added, which cools the solution
o heat is being lost to the environment
A graph is drawn showing temperature against volume of acid added. Two straight lines of best fit
are drawn and the point of intersection of the lines is the neutralisation point.
i.e.,
Neutralisation reactions in everyday life
Use Active compound Notes

Toothpaste Sodium - Toothpaste helps reduce tooth decay which is caused by
hydrogencarbonate acid in the mouth reacting with the calcium
NaHCO3 and sodium hydroxyapatite Ca10(PO4)6(OH)2 in tooth enamel
monofluorophosphate - Sodium hydrogencarbonate neutralises any acid present
Na2FPO3 while F- ions in the sodium monofluorophosphate
displace the OH- ions in the calcium hydroxyapatite
forming calcium fluorapatite (which does not react with
acid, preventing tooth enamel from decaying)
i.e.,
Ca10(PO4)6(OH2 (S) + 2F- (aq) Ca10(PO4)6F2 (s) + 2OH- (aq)

Soil treatment Lime in the form of - Adding lime to soil neutralises any acids present, since
calcium oxide CaO or most plants grow best if the soil pH is neutral
calcium hydroxide - Lime cannot be added at the same time as an
Ca(OH)2 ammonium fertiliser because the two react to form a
salt, ammonia, and water
e.g.,
CaO (s) + 2NH4+ (aq) → Ca2+ (aq) + 2NH3 (g) + H2O (l)
- The lime and the NH4+ ions are no longer available in the
soil, so the benefits of both are lost
Antacids Sodium - Antacids are used to treat indigestion and acid reflux by
hydrogencarbonate neutralising excess hydrochloric acid in the stomach
NaHCO3, magnesium
hydroxide Mg(OH)2,
aluminium hydroxide
Al(OH)3, or magnesium
carbonate MgCO3

VOLUMETRIC ANALYSIS
volumetric analysis
A titration is a technique in which a titrant, a solution of known concentration, is added (titrated) to an
analyte, a solution of unknown concentration.
At the equivalence point, the titrant is stoichiometrically equal to the analyte in the sample: neither of the
reactants is in excess. At the end point, the indicator changes its colour.
Volumetric analysis involves performing a titration to determine the exact volume of one solution, usually
an acid, required to neutralise a fixed volume of another solution, usually an aqueous alkali or carbonate.
The results of the titration can then be used quantitatively in one of two ways:
 to calculate the mole ratio in which two reactants combine; or

 to calculate the molar or mass concentration of one of the reactants.
Determining mole ratios
If both reactants are standard solutions, the mole ratio in which they combined can be determined.
Worked example
During a titration, it was found that 25 cm3 of potassium hydroxide of molar concentration 0.6 mol dm-3 was
neutralised by 10 cm3 of sulphuric acid of molar concentration 0.75 mol dm-3. Determine the mole ratio in
which the reactants combine.
The number of moles of KOH reacted:
1 000 𝑐𝑚 0.6 𝑚𝑜𝑙

=
25 𝑐𝑚 𝑥 𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝑥 = 0.015 mol KOH
The number of moles of H2SO4 reacted:
1 000 𝑐𝑚 0.75 𝑚𝑜𝑙

=
𝑥 = 0.0075 mol H2SO4
∴ 2 mol KOH reacts with 1 mol H2SO4


Determining concentration
The concentration of one reactant used in a titration can be determine if the mass of molar concentration of
the other reactant is a standard solution.
Worked example
A student performed a titration to determine the concentration of a solution of hydrochloric acid. The
student used a standard solution of potassium hydroxide with a concentration of 0.1 mol dm -3 and added
the hydrochloric acid to 25 cm3 of the potassium hydroxide solution. The results of the experiment are
shown in the table below. Determine the molar concentration of the hydrochloric acid.
Titration number
Burette reading
Rough 1 2 3
Final reading / cm3 21.5 20.5 41.0 20.4
Initial reading / cm3 0.0 0.0. 20.5 0.0
Volume of acid added / cm3 21.5 20.5 20.5 20.4
The average volume of hydrochloric acid used:

. . .
= 20.5 cm3
∴ it takes 20.5 cm3 HCl to neutralise 25 cm3 KOH with a concentration of 0.1 mol dm-3
KOH (aq) + HCl (aq)  KCl (aq) + H2O (l)
the number of moles of KOH that reacted:
1 000 𝑐𝑚 0.1 𝑚𝑜𝑙

=
𝑥 = 0.0025 mol KOH
∴ 1 mol KOH reacts with 1 mol HCl and 0.0025 mol HCl reacts
the number of moles of HCl in 1 dm3:
20.5 𝑐𝑚 0.0025 𝑚𝑜𝑙

=
1 000 𝑐𝑚 𝑥 𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝑥 = 0.122 mol HCl
∴ molar concentration of HCl (aq) = 0.122 mol dm-3

Which of the following BEST describes Students were required to prepare a sample of the
normal salt produced when aqueous sodium hydroxide
a substance that supplies protons as the only positive ions in
reacts with dilute sulphuric acid.
aqueous solutions?
(i) Define the term ‘normal salt’. (2 mks)
(A) Salt
(ii) Identify one other type of salt formed from the
(B) Base
reaction between dilute sulphuric acid and sodium
(C) Alkali
hydroxide. Write the chemical formula. (2 mks)
(D) Acid
(iii) State the name of one other acid that can also
The answer is (D) Acid. Acids are considered ‘proton donors’ produce the type of salt identified in (ii) above.
as they donate hydrogen ions (protons) in aqueous solution (1 mk)
the oxide of a metal? i/ A normal salt is an ionic compound of neutral pH in

which the replaceable hydrogen ions from an acid are
(A) Salt
completely replaced by metal or ammonium ions.
(B) Base
(C) Alkali ii/An acid salt such as sodium hydrogensulphate NaHSO4
(D) Acid
iii/H3PO4 (aq) can produce acids salts such as Na2PO4 and
The answer is (B) Base. Oxides of metals which react with NaH2PO4
acids to form a salt and water are basic.
Define EACH of the following terms:
Sulphuric acid is a stronger acid than ethanoic acid in
(i) Amphoteric oxide (2 mks)
aqueous solution because sulphuric acid
(ii) Acid anhydride (2 mks)
(A) is more corrosive than ethanoic acid
i/An amphoteric oxide is the oxide of an element which
(B) is obtainable in high concentrations
reacts with both and acid and an alkali.
(C) causes sugar to char while ethanoic acid does not
(D) ionises to a greater extent than ethanoic acid ii/An acid anhydride is the oxide of a nonmetal which
dissolves in water to give an acidic solution.
The answer is (D) ionises to a greater extent than ethanoic
acid. Stronger acids ionise to a greater extents than weaker
acids.
8. Oxidation-Reduction Reactions
Which of the following statements is TRUE for this equation? (i) A pink solution of aqueous acidified potassium
manganate(VII) is decolourised by the addition of
Mg(s) + H2SO4(aq) → MgSO4(aq) + H2(g)
ferrous (Fe2+) ions. The chemical equation for the
(A) Hydrogen is oxidised from 0 to +1. reaction is
(B) Hydrogen is reduced from +2 to 0.
MnO4-(aq) + 5Fe2+(aq) + 8H+(aq) →
(C) Mg is oxidised from 0 to +2.
Mn2+(aq) + 5Fe3+(aq) + 4H2O
(D) Mg is reduced from +2 to 0.
(E) Base Identify the oxidising and reducing agents in the
(F) Alkali equation and explain your answer. (4 mk)
4NH(G)
3(g)Acid
+ 5O2 → 4NO(g) + 6H2O(g) (ii) Iron(II) oxide reacts with dilute sulphuric acid to give
a pale green solution. Write the equation for the
The change in the oxidation number of nitrogen is:
(A) +3 to +2 acid. (2 mks)
(B) +3 to -2 (iii) State whether the reaction in (ii) above is an acid-
(C) -3 to +2 base reaction or a redox reaction and explain your
(D) -3 to -2 answer. (3 mks)
• investigate the action of common oxidising and reducing substances in everyday activities;
o Action of bleach (stain removal), browning of cut fruits, and rusting. Sodium sulphite or
sulphur dioxide used as food preservatives.
• define oxidation and reduction;
o Loss and gain of electrons and a change in oxidation number.
• deduce oxidation number from formulae;
• identify oxidation and reduction reactions including reactions at electrodes;
• distinguish between oxidising and reducing agents;
o Equations involving formulae for potassium chromate(VI), potassium manganate(VII) and
household bleach are not required. Inclusion of at least one example of a substance, which
can behave both as an oxidising and a reducing agent.
• perform tests for oxidising and reducing agents.
INTRODUCTION
introduction
Oxidation and reduction are opposite processes that occur simultaneously in certain reactions. These are
known as redox reactions. These reactions occur in everyday life, including:
• the action of bleaches

Bleach is added to clothes to remove coloured stains. The most commonly used bleaches are
chlorine bleaches containing sodium chlorate(i) NaClO and oxygen bleaches containing hydrogen
peroxide H2O2. Both types of bleach remove stains by oxidising the coloured chemicals or dyes in the
stain to their colourless form. Hence, the stain disappears.
ClO-(aq) + coloured dye → Cl-(aq) + colourless dye
• rusting
When iron and its alloy, steel, come into contact with oxygen and moisture, the iron is oxidised by
the oxygen to form hydrated iron(III) oxide Fe2O3 • xH2O (rust). Given sufficient time and exposure to
oxygen and moisture, any iron object will eventually oxidise entirely to rust and disintegrate.
4Fe(s) + 3O2(g) + 2xH2O(l) → 2Fe2O3 • xH2O(s)
• the browning of cut fruits

When certain fruits (such as apples and bananas) and vegetables (such as potatoes) are peeled or
cut, the surface is exposed to oxygen in the air. Enzymes in the cells on the surface of the fruit or
vegetable begin to oxidise chemicals in the cells to brown compounds known as melanins. These
melanins cause the cut surface to turn brown. In many cases, browning is undesirable as it causes
changes in appearance, flavour, quality, and tase. However, the melanins are not toxic and in some
cases their production is useful since it contributes to the colour and flavour of items such as raisins,
coffee, and cocoa.
• the preservation of food

Sodium sulphite and sulphur dioxide as used as food preservatives to enhance flavour, preserve
freshness, and reduce or prevent spoilage and discolouration of foods such as wine, fruit juices,
dried fruits, dried potatoes, and shrimp. They prevent bacteria oxidising wine to vinegar and prevent
the vitamin C in fruit juice from being destroyed by oxidation. They also prevent browning by
reducing the chemical produced during the browning process to their colourless form.
Redox reactions can be defined in terms of:
• oxidation number, where oxidation is an increase in oxidation number and reduction is a decrease
• electron transfer, where oxidation is the loss of electrons and reduction is the gain
• hydrogen, where oxidation is the loss of hydrogen and reduction is the gain
e.g.,
H2(g) + Cl2(g) → HCl(g)
The chlorine molecule Cl2 gains hydrogen, so it is reduced. The H2 molecule is oxidised.
• oxygen, where oxidation is the gain of oxygen and reduction is the loss
e.g.,
2Mg(s) + O2(g) → 2MgO(s)
The magnesium Mg gains oxygen, so it is oxidised. The O2 molecule is reduced.
Oxidation Reduction
- loss of electrons - gain in electrons
- increase in oxidation number - decrease in oxidation number
- loss of hydrogen - gain of hydrogen
- gain of oxygen - loss of oxygen
Electron transfer
In redox reactions, one element loses electrons and another gains them. Oxidation and reduction can be
defined in terms of electron transfer:
• Oxidation is the loss of electrons by an element in its free state or an element in a compound
• Reduction is the gain of electrons by an element in its free state or an element in a compound
OIL RIG: Oxidation Is Loss, Reduction Is Gain

A substance will not lose electrons unless there is another substance available to gain the electrons, i.e., for
every oxidation reaction there will always be a reduction reaction. The equation that only shows the loss of
electrons is the oxidation half equation, while the equation that only shows the gain is the reduction half.
For example,
When aluminium is heated in a stream of chlorine gas, aluminium chloride is formed:
2Al(s) + 3Cl2(g) → 2AlCl3(s)
Aluminium chloride AlCl3 is an ionic compound composed of Al3+ and Cl- ions. In the reaction:
• Each aluminium atom loses three electrons to form an Al3+ ion:

Al – 3e- → Al3+
However, since there are no minus signs in chemical equations, this is written as:
Al → Al3+ + 3e-
Overall, the oxidation half equation is: 2Al(s) → 2Al3+(s) + 6e-
Aluminium Al has been oxidised since it has lost electrons.
• Each chlorine atom in each chlorine molecule gains one electron to form a Cl- ion:
Cl + e- → Cl-
Overall, the reduction half equation is: 3Cl2(g) + 6e- → 6Cl-(s)
Chlorine Cl2 has been reduced since it has gained electrons.

OXIDATION NUMBERS
oxidation numbers
Chemists eventually recognised that redox reactions did not always involve the transfer of electrons. For
example, in the reaction between hydrogen and oxygen to form water, there is no change in the number of
valence electrons on any atoms, i.e., there is no transfer of electrons. However, the reaction is definitely a
redox reaction because the reaction involves both hydrogen and oxygen:
2H2(g) + O2(g) → 2H2O(g)
The model of redox reactions was expanded by the development of the concept of oxidation number/state.
This indicates the number of electrons lost, gained, or shared as a result of chemical bonding.
Oxidation numbers can be positive, negative, or zero. A sign is added before the number to indicate whether
it is positive or negative (e.g., +1, -3).
The rules of oxidation numbers include:
1. The oxidation number of each atom of an element in its free state is zero.
e.g.,
oxidation number of an Al atom in Al = 0
oxidation number of each N atom in N2 = 0
2. The oxidation number of each simple ion in an ionic compound is equal to the charge on the ion.
e.g.,
in Al2O3:
oxidation number of each Al3+ ion = +3
oxidation number of each O2- ion = -2
3. The oxidation number of hydrogen when present in a compound is always +1 except when bonded
to a metal in a metal hydride where it is -1 (e.g., sodium hydride NaH, calcium hydride CaH2)
4. The oxidation number of oxygen when present in a compound is always -2 except in peroxides
where it is -1 (e.g., hydrogen peroxide H2O2) and when reacted with fluorine where it is +2.
5. The oxidation number of chlorine, bromine, and iodine in a compound is always -1 except when
bonded to fluorine or oxygen where it can be positive.
6. The sum of the oxidation numbers of all elements present in a compound or molecule is zero.
e.g.,
In H2O, the oxidation number of each atom must add up to zero:
2(oxidation number of H) + (oxidation number of O) = 0
2(+1) + (-2) =0
(+2) + (-2) =0
7. The sum of the oxidation numbers of all elements present in a polyatomic ion is equal to the charge
on the ion.
e.g.,
In OH-, the oxidation number of each atom must add up to -1:
(oxidation number of O) + (oxidation number of H) = -1
(-2) + 1 = -1
Example
Determine the oxidation number of sulphur in sulphur dioxide SO2.
(oxidation number of S) + 2(oxidation number of O) = 0

(oxidation number of S) + 2(-2) =0
(oxidation number of S) + (-4) =0
(oxidation number of S) = +4
The oxidation number of sulphur S in sulphur dioxide SO2 is +4.
Example
Determine the oxidation number of manganese in the MnO4- ion.
(oxidation number of Mn) + 4(oxidation number of O) = -1

(oxidation number of Mn) + 4(-2) = -1
(oxidation number of Mn) + (-8) = -1
(oxidation number of Mn) = -1+8
(oxidation number of Mn) = +7
The oxidation number of manganese Mn in the manganese ion MnO4- is +7.
Example
Determine the oxidation number of chromium in K2Cr2O7.
2(oxidation number of K) + 2(oxidation number of Cr) + 7(oxidation number of O) = 0

2(+1) + 2(oxidation number of Cr) + 7(-2) =0
+2 + 2(oxidation number of Cr) + -14 =0
2(oxidation number of Cr) + -12 =0
2(oxidation number of Cr) = +12
(oxidation number of Cr) = +12/2
(oxidation number of Cr) = +6
The oxidation number of chromium Cr in the manganese ion K2Cr2O7 is +6.
Certain elements have more than one possible oxidation number. For this reason, when naming a compound
or ion that contains any of these elements, it is important to include the oxidation number as part of the name.
This is done by placing the oxidation number of the element in the brackets after its name as a roman numeral.
When naming ions, the name always ends in ‘ate’.
e.g.,
Compound O# Name Compound O# Name Compound O# Name

MnO2 +4 manganese NO +2 nitrogen (ii) SO2 +4 sulphur(iv)
(iv) oxide oxide oxide
KMnO4 +7 potassium NO2 +4 nitrogen(iv) SO3 +6 sulphur(vi)
manganate(vii) oxide oxide
NO2- +3 nitrate(iii) ion SO32- +4 sulphate(iv) ion
-
NO 3 +5 nitrate(v) ion SO42- +6 sulphate(vi) ion
When an atom or ion loses electrons it has been oxidised. At the same time, its oxidation number increases.
e.g.,
When a sodium atom forms a sodium ion, it loses one electron. Its oxidation number increases from 0 to +1.
The sodium atom has been oxidised:
Na → Na+ + e-
oxidation numbers: (0) (+1)
When an atom or ion gains electrons it has been reduced. At the same time, its oxidation number decreases.
e.g.,
When a chlorine atom forms a chlorine ion, it gains one electron. Its oxidation number decreases from 0 to -1.
The chlorine atom has been reduced:
Cl + e- → Cl-
oxidation numbers: (0) (-1)
By considering the change in oxidation number of each element in a reaction, it is possible to determine if it is
a redox reaction. If it is, the oxidation number of one element will increase and the oxidation number of
another element will decrease.
e.g.,
2Mg(s) + O2(g) → 2MgO(s)
The half equations for this equation are:
2Mg(s) → 2Mg2+(s) + 4e-
oxidation numbers: (0) (+2)
The oxidation number of each magnesium atom Mg has increased from 0 to +2. It has been oxidised.
O2(g) + 4e- → 2O2-(s)
oxidation numbers: (0) (-2)
The oxidation number of each oxygen molecule O2 has decreased from 0 to -2. It has been reduced.
Determine which element has been oxidised and which has been reduced in the reaction between copper(II)
oxide and hydrogen.
Hydrogen H2 has been oxidised since the oxidation number of each hydrogen atom in the molecule increased
from 0 to +1.
Copper(II) oxide CuO has been reduced since the oxidation number of the Cu2+ ion has decreased from +2 to 0.
Oxidising and reducing agents
During any redox reaction:
• one reactant causes another to be oxidised. This is the oxidising agent. The agent itself was reduced.
• one reactant causes another to be reduced. This is the reducing agent. The agent itself was oxidised.
e.g.,
2Al(s) + 3Cl2(g) → 2AlCl3(s)
In this reaction, the aluminium has been oxidised because each atom has lost three electrons to form an
aluminium ion.
2Al(s) → 2Al3+(s) + 6e-
The chlorine atoms brought about this loss by taking these electrons. Chlorine Cl2 is the oxidising agent.
3Cl2(g) + 6e- → 6Cl-(s)
The aluminium atoms brought about this gain by donating these electrons. Aluminium Al is the reducing agent.
In terms of electrons: An oxidising agent, therefore, causes another reactant to lose electrons and a reducing
agent causes another reactant to gain electrons.
In the same reaction, the aluminium has been oxidised because the oxidation number of each aluminium
atom has increased from 0 to +3. Chlorine Cl2 is the oxidising agent because it is the reactant that caused the
increase in oxidation number (oxidation).
The chlorine has been reduced because the oxidation number of each chlorine atom has decreased from 0 to
-1. Aluminium is the reducing agent because it is the reactant that caused the decrease in oxidation number
(reduction)
In terms of oxidation number: An oxidising agent, therefore, causes the oxidation number of an atom or ion in
another reactant to increase and a reducing agent causes the oxidation number of an atom or ion in another
reactant to decrease.
Common oxidising and reducing agents
Some substances always behave as oxidising agents while others always behave as reducing agents. There
are certain agents which undergo oxidation or reduction in a reaction in a very distinct way (e.g., changing
colour, giving off a gas, or forming a particular precipitate).
Oxidising agent Visible change Reason

acidified potassium purple to colourless the purple MnO4- ion forms the
manganate(VII) solution colourless Mn2+ ion
H+/KMnO4(aq)
acidified potassium orange to green the orange Cr2O72- ion forms the
dichromate(VI) solution green Cr3+ ion
H+/K2Cr207(aq)
aqueous iron(III) salts Fe3+(aq) yellow-brown to pale green The yellow-brown Fe3+ ion forms
the pale green Fe2+ ion
sodium chlorate(I) solution turns many colourless dyes dyes are oxidised to their
NaClO(aq) colourless colourless form
hot concentrated sulphuric acid a pungent colourless gas is sulphur dioxide gas SO2 is
H2SO4(l) evolved produced
dilute or concentrated nitric acid a brown gas is evolved nitrogen gas NO2 is produced
HNO3(aq)
Reducing agent Visible change Reason

potassium iodide solution KI(aq) colourless to brown iodide I2 forms which dissolves
forming a brown solution
aqueous iron(II) salts Fe2+(aq) pale green to yellow-brown the pale green Fe2+ ion forms the
yellow-brown Fe3+ ion
Hydrogen sulphide gas H2S(g) a yellow precipitate forms solid sulphur S forms
concentrated hydrochloric acid a yellow-green gas is evolved chlorine gas Cl2 is produced
HCl(aq)
Other common oxidising agents include oxygen O2, chlorine Cl2, and manganese(IV) oxide MnO2.
Other common reducing agents include hydrogen H2, carbon C, carbon monoxide CO, and reactive metals.
Certain substances can behave as both oxidising and reducing agents:
• sulphur dioxide SO2

It normally acts as a reducing agent.
e.g.,
When sulphur dioxide reacts with a stronger reducing agent than itself (such as hydrogen sulphide), it
behaves as an oxidising agent.
i.e.,
• acidified hydrogen peroxide H+/H2O2

This is hydrogen peroxide solution to which sulphuric acid has been added. It usually behaves as an
oxidising agent.
e.g.,
When it reacts with a stronger oxidising agent than itself, such as acidified potassium manganate(VII), it
behaves as a reducing agent.
i.e.,
Tests for oxidising and reducing agents
To test if a substance is an oxidising agent, add it to a known reducing agent which gives a visible change
when oxidised.
• An oxidising agent causes potassium iodide solution KI(aq) to change from colourless to brown
because it oxidises the colourless iodide ion I- to iodine I2 which dissolves forming a brown solution.
• An oxidising agent causes an aqueous solution of iron(II) salt (e.g., iron(II) sulphate) to change from
pale green to yellow-brown because it oxidises the pale green Fe2+ ion to the yellow-brown Fe3+ ion.
To test if a substance is an reducing agent, add it to a known oxidising agent, which gives a visible change
when reduced.
• A reducing agent causes acidified potassium manganate(VII) solution H+/KMnO4(aq) to change from
purple to colourless because it reduces the purple MnO4- ion to the colourless Mn2+ ion.
• A reducing agent causes acidified potassium dichromate(VI) H+/K2Cr2O7(aq) solution to change from
orange to green because it reduces the orange CrO72- ion to the green Cr3+ ion.
OF A
Which of the following statements is TRUE for this (i) A pink solution of aqueous acidified potassium
equation? manganate(VII) is decolourised by the addition of
ferrous (Fe2+) ions. The chemical equation for the
Mg(s) + H2SO4(aq) → MgSO4(aq) + H2(g)
reaction is
(A) Hydrogen is oxidised from 0 to +1.
MnO4-(aq) + 5Fe2+(aq) + 8H+(aq) → Mn2+(aq) +
(B) Hydrogen is reduced from +2 to 0.
5Fe3+(aq) + 4H2O
(C) Magnesium is oxidised from 0 to +2.
(D) Magnesium is reduced from +2 to 0. Identify the oxidising and reducing agents in the
equation and explain your answer. (4 mk)
The answer is (C) Mg is oxidised from 0 to +2. Writing the
(ii) Iron(II) oxide reacts with dilute sulphuric acid to give a
oxidation numbers, it can be seen that magnesium is
pale green solution. Write the equation for the
oxidised from 0 to +2.
0 +1 +6 -2 +2 +6 -2 0
acid. (2 mks)
(iii) State whether the reaction in (ii) above is an acid-
Typical Exam Question / 2018 CSEC Chemistry Paper 01 base reaction or a redox reaction and explain your
answer. (3 mks)
4NH(E) Alkali
3(g) + 5O2(g) → 4NO(g) + 6H2O(g)
(F) Acid i/Writing the oxidation numbers:

The change in the oxidation number of nitrogen is: +7 -2 +2 +1 +2 +3 +1 -2
(A) +3 to +2
(B) +3 to -2 Recall that the oxidising agent undergoes reduction and
(C) -3 to +2 the reducing agent undergoes oxidation.
(D) -3 to -2
Fe2+ is the reducing agent (Δ+1, loss of electrons); MnO4-
The answer is (C) -3 to +2. Writing the oxidation numbers, is the oxidising agent (Δ-5, gain of electrons)
it can be seen that nitrogen is reduced from from -3 to +2.
ii/
-3 +1 0 +2 -2 +1 -2
FeO (s) + H2SO4 (aq) → FeSO4 (aq) + H2O (l)
iii/The reaction is an acid-base reaction.
Recall (A7) acid-base reactions involve an acid and base

reacting to produce a salt and water.
FeO (a basic oxide) reacts with H2SO4 (an acid) to produce

FeSO4 (a salt) and water.
2007 CSEC Chemistry Paper 01 Typical Exam Question / 2007 CSEC Chemistry Paper 02
Which of the following reactions involve oxidation and Table 3 presents some information on the reactions of
reduction? Compound A and copper metal with various reagents.
I. Mg(s) + 2H+(aq) → Mg2+(aq) + H2(g)

II. Mg(s) + 4H+(aq) + 2NO3- (aq) → Mg2+ (aq) +
2NO2 (g) + 2H2O (l)
III. Ba2+(aq) + SO42- (aq) → BaSO4(s)
IV. Zn(s) + Cu2+(aq) → Zn2+(aq) + Cu(s)
(A) I, II, and III only

(B) I, III, and IV only
(C) I, II, and IV only (i) Classify solution A as an oxidising or reducing agent
(D) II, III, and IV only in Experiments 1 and 2. (2 mks)
(ii) Using the information given in Table 2 only, explain
The answer is (C) I, II, and IV only. Writing the oxidation
your answer to (i) above. (4 mks)
numbers, it can be seen that only equations (I), (II), and (IV)
involve oxidation and reduction. i/ Solution A is an reducing agent in Expt 1 and an
0 +1 +2 0
oxidising agent in Expt 2.
H:Δ-1
Mg:Δ+2
ii/The RA causes reduction and the OA causes oxidation.
0 +1 +6-2 +2 The chromium ions were reduced from +6 to +3
N:Δ-2
Mg:Δ+2 accounting for the change from orange to green, and the
+4-2 +1 -2
iron ions were oxidised from +2 to +3 accounting for the
change from pale green to pale yellow.
2 +2 +6-2 +2+6-2
\
0 +2 +2 0
Zn:Δ+2
Cu:Δ-2
In which of the following does hydrogen have a negative

oxidation number?
(A) CH4
(B) H2O2
(C) NH3
(D) NaH
The answer is (D) NaH. Hydrogen has a -1 oxidation

number in metal hydrides such as sodium hydride NaH.
NO2(g) + SO2 (g) → NO(g) + SO3(g) During an experiment, chlorine gas Cl2(g) is bubbled into a
green solution of acidified iron(II) sulphate. The solution
Which of the following compounds is reduced?
changes gradually from green to yellow. Write a balanced
(A) NO2 IONIC equation for the overall reaction, and identify the
(B) SO2 species being oxidised and reduced. (4 mks)
(C) NO
The change from green to yellow indicates the change
(D) SO3
from Fe2+ to Fe3+.
The answer is (A) NO2. Writing the oxidation numbers, it
The equation for the reaction is
can be seen that the N in NO2 is reduced (Δ-2) .
+4-2 +4-2 +2-2 +6-2 3Cl2(g) + 6FeSO4(aq)→ Fe2(SO4)3(aq) + FeCl3(aq)
The ionic equation is

Which of the following compounds is the oxidising agent?
3Cl2(g) + 6Fe2+(aq) + 6SO42-(aq) → 4Fe3+(aq) + 6SO42-(aq) +
(A) NO2 2Fe3+(aq) + 6Cl-(aq)
(B) SO2
3Cl2(g) + 6Fe2+(aq) → 6Fe3+(aq) + 6Cl-(aq) (÷3)
(C) NO
(D) SO3 Cl2(g) + 2Fe2+(aq) → 2Fe3+(aq) + 2Cl-(aq)
The answer is (A) NO2. The oxidising agent is the one that Writing the oxidation numbers, it can be seen that iron is
is reduced in a redox reaction. Since NO2 is reduced, it is oxidised (Δ+1) and chlorine is reduced (Δ-1).
the oxidising agent. 0 +2 +3 -1
In which of the following reactions is sulphur dioxide acting

as an oxidising agent?
(A) 2SO2(g) + O2(g) → 2SO3(g)

(B) SO2(g) + 2H2S(g) → 2H2O(l) + 3S(s)
(C) SO2(g) + H2O(l) → H2SO3(aq)
(iii) Name the THREE states of matter. (1 mk)
(D) SO2(g) + 2HNO3(aq) → H2SO4(aq) + 2NO2(g)
(iv) Which of the two temperatures, (A) and (B) in Figure 3
The answer is (B) SO2(g) + 2H2S(g) → 2H2O(l) + 3S(s). In a represents the melting point? boiling point? (2
redox reaction, the oxisiding agent is the reactant that is mks)
reduced. Sulphur dioxide has a +4 oxidation number and (v) What would be observed at (C) in Figure 3? (1 mk)
changes to +6 in (A) (oxidation), 0 in (B) (reduction), +5 in
i/Solid, liquid, and gas
(C) (oxidation), and +4 in (C) (no change).
ii/A represents the melting point; B represents the boiling
point.
One of the main active ingredients in chlorine bleach is Different halogens can combine to form compounds. One
the oxidizing agent, sodium hypochlorite (NaClO). By such compound is ICl.
adding it to water, the hypochlorous acid (HOCl) is formed
(i) Write a balanced equation for the reaction which
according to the equation below.
occurs when chlorine is reacted with aqueous
NaClO + H2O → HOCl + NaOH Equation 1 potassium iodide. (2 mks)
(ii) Based on the balanced equation in (i) above,
Hypochlorite and chlorine are in equilibrium in water; the
determine
position of the equilibrium is pH dependent and low pH
(a) the change in oxidation number that the iodine
(acidic) favours chlorine.
ions undergo (2 mks)
+
Cl2 + H2O ⇌ H + Cl + HClO
−
Equation 2 (b) whether chlorine is acting as an oxidising or a
reducing agent. State a reason for your answer.
(i) Defie, in terms of oxidation state, the terms
(2 mks)
‘oxidising agent’ and ‘oxidation’. (2 mks)
(ii) Deduce the oxidation number of Cl in the formula i/ The balanced equation with state symbols is
NaClO. (3 mks)
Cl2 (g) + 2KI (aq) → 2KCl (aq) + I2 (s)
(iii) In equation 2, chlorine gas Cl2 has become a chloride
ion. ii/
(a) What is the change in oxidation number of Cl for
a) -1 to 0
the process? (2 mks)
(b) Is this an oxidation or reduction process? (1 mk) b) The iodine is oxidised (Δ+1) by the chlorine, and the
chlorine itself is reduced (Δ-1). Hence, it acts as an
i/
oxidising agent.
Oxidising agent: A substance that causes the oxidation
state of another substance in a chemical reaction to
increase, while itself having its oxidation state decreased.
Oxidation: The process in which the oxidation state of an

element is increased.
ii/
Na + Cl + O = 0
+1 + Cl + -2 = 0
Cl = +1
iii/
(a) 0 to -1 (b) reduction (decrease in oxidation state)
d the chlorine itself is reduced (Δ-1). Hence, it acts as an

9. Electrochemistry
predict chemi
Which of the following products would be produced by the Pure water does not conduct electricity but can be
electrolysis of dilute sulphuric acid? acidified using dilute sulphuric acid for this to occur.
Predict the ions that will migrate to the anode and
At Cathode At Anode
cathode during the electrolysis of dilute sulphuric acid
(A) H2 O2
(acidified water). Write a balanced chemical equation,
(B) O2 N2
including state symbols, for the electrolysis of dilute
(C) H2 N2
(D) O2 H2 sulphuric acid (acidified water). (6 mks)

(A) The position
Candidates shouldofbe
theable
cation
to: in the electrochemical
series
• conduct investigations leading to the classification of substances as conductors or non-conductors;
(B) The concentration of the cation in solution
o Low voltage supplies only. Plastic and metals.
(C) The temperature of the solution
• distinguish between metallic and electrolytic conduction;
(D) The type of electrode (i) Name the homologous series to which Compounds
o Reference to mobile electrons in metals and mobile ions in solution.
A and B belong.
• classify electrolytes as strong or weak based on their conductivity;
(ii) State the name of EACH compound.
o Use of acids, salts, and alkalis as examples of electrolytes.
(iii) Define ‘structural isomerism’.
• define electrolysis, cathode, anode, cation, anion;
(iv) Draw the FULLY DISPLAYED structure of ONE
• identify ions present in electrolytes;
structural isomer for EACH of Compounds A and B.
• predict the electrode to which an ion will drift;
• predict chemical reactions making use of electrochemical series;
o Consideration of gain or loss of electron and formation of cation.
• discuss the electrolysis of certain substances;
o Principles related to (a) concentration of electrolyte and (B) type of electrode (active and
inert).
o Position of ions in the electrochemical series with respect to the named substances.
• define the Faraday constant;
o Approximate value of the Faraday constant as 96 500 C mol-1 of electrons.
• calculate the masses and volumes of substances liberated during electrolysis;
o Quantity of electricity dependent on the current and time. Q = It.
• describe industrial applications of electrolysis.
o Reference to (a) metallic extraction (Based on position in electrochemical series); (b)
purification; (c) electroplating; (d) anodising.
9. Electrochemistry
THE ELECTROCHEMICAL
the electrochemical series SERIES
Electrochemistry is the study of the relationship between chemical reactions and electrical energy.
Electrochemical reactions are those that either produce or require electrical energy.
The electrochemical series of metals
Recall that when atoms bond ionically, the metal atom will always lose electrons to form a positive metal
cation.
The series of metals placed in order of how easily they ionise (by losing electrons) is called the
electrochemical series of metals and can be used to predict certain chemical reactions.
The ability of metal atoms to donate (lose) their electrons to another

reactant increases going up in the series. The more easily metals
donate their electrons, the stronger their reducing power. Therefore,
the strength as a reducing agent increases going up the series. Metals
at the top of the series form very stable ions (which are hard to convert
back to atoms) whereas metals at the bottom of the series form
unstable ions (which are easy to convert back to atoms).
Potassium is the highest in the series, which means that it ionises the
most easily, forms the most stable ions, and is the strongest reducing
agent. Silver is the lowest in the series, which means that it ionises the
least easily, and is the weakest reducing agent.
Displacement of metals
A metal displaces a metal below it in the series from a compound containing ions of the lower metal. The
higher metal is a stronger reducing agent, so it readily donates electrons to the ions of the lower metal. In
doing so, the higher metal ionises to form cations. The ions of the lower metal gain these electrons and are
discharged to form atoms.
For example,
If a strip of magnesium ribbon is placed in copper(II) sulphate solution, the magnesium will displace the Cu2+
ions since magnesium is higher than copper in the electrochemical series. Magnesium is a stronger reducing
agent and it gives electrons to the Cu2+ ions. The magnesium ionises, forming Mg2+ ions and the Cu2+ ions are
discharged, forming copper atoms.
9. Electrochemistry
Mg(s) + CuSO4(aq) → MgSO4(aq) + Cu(s)
The ionic equation is:
Mg(s) + Cu2+ (aq) → Mg2+(aq) + Cu(s)
The transfer of electrons is shown in the ionic half equations:
Mg(s) → Mg2+(aq) + 2e-
Cu2+(aq) + 2e- → Cu(s)
Displacement of hydrogen
Metals above hydrogen in the electrochemical series will displace the H+ ions in an acid, forming hydrogen
gas H2(g). Metals below hydrogen will not displace H+ ions and so do not react with acids. Metals above
hydrogen are stronger reducing agents and will readily reduce (give electrons to) the H+ ions of the acid.
Metals below hydrogen are weaker reducing agents, so will not reduce the H+ ions.
For example,
If zinc is placed in hydrochloric acid, zinc will displace H+ ions from the hydrochloric acid. Zinc is a stronger
reducing agent and give its electrons to the H+ ions. The zinc ionises,, forming Zn2+, and the H+ ions are
discharged, forming hydrogen has H2(g).
Zn(s) + 2HCl(aq) → ZnCl2(aq) + H2(g)
The net ionic equation is:
Zn(s) + 2H+(aq) → Zn2+(aq) + H2(g)
The transfer of electrons is shown in the ionic half equations:
Zn(s) → Zn2+(aq) + 2e-
2H+(aq) + 2e- → H2(g)

9. Electrochemistry
The electrochemical series of nonmetals
Recall that when nonmetal atoms bond ionically, the nonmetal atom tends to gain electrons to form a
negative nonmetal anion.
The series of nonmetals placed in order of how easily they ionise (by gaining electrons) is called the
electrochemical series of nonmetals and can similarly be used to predict certain chemical reactions.
The ability of nonmetal atoms to take electrons from another reactant increases going up the series. The
more easily nonmetals remove electrons, the stronger their oxidising
power. Therefore, the strength as an oxidising agent increases going up
the series. Nonmetals at the top of the series form very stable ions (which
are hard to convert back to atoms), whereas nonmetals at the bottom of
the series form unstable ions (which are easy to convert back to atoms).
Fluorine is the highest in the series, which means that it ionises the most
easily, forms the most stable ions, and is the strongest oxidising agent. Iodine is the lowest in the series,
which means that it ionises the least easily, forms the least stable ions, and is the weakest oxidising agent.
Displacement of nonmetals
A nonmetal will displace a nonmetal below it in the series from a compound containing the lower nonmetal.
This is because the higher nonmetal is a strong oxidising agent, so it readily removes electrons from the ions
of the lower nonmetal. In doing so, the higher nonmetal ionises to form anions. The ions of the lower
nonmetal are discharged to form atoms.
For example,
If chlorine gas is bubbled into sodium iodide solution, chlorine will displace the I- ions from the sodium
iodide. Chlorine is a stronger oxidising agent and it removes electrons from the I- ions. The chlorine ionises
forming Cl- ions and the I- ions are discharged forming iodine I2(s).
Cl2(g) + 2NaI(aq) → 2NaCl(aq) + I2(s)
The net ionic equation is:
Cl2(g) + 2I-(aq) → 2Cl- (aq) + I2(s)
The transfer of electrons is show in the ionic half equations:
Cl2(g) + 2e- → 2Cl-(aq)
2I-(aq) → I2(s) + 2e
9. Electrochemistry
ELECTRICAL
electricalCONDUCTION
conduction
For a substance to conduct an electric current, it must contain charged particles which are able to move
through the substance. These charged particles can be either electrons or ions. Based on their ability to
conduct an electric current, materials can be classified as either
• conductors, which allow an electric current to pass through, such as metals, graphite, molten and
aqueous solutions of ionic compounds, and aqueous acids and alkalis; or
• non-conductors, which do not allow an electric current to pass through, such as nonmetals (except
graphite), plastics, solid ionic compounds, and covalent compounds and their aqueous solutions.
There are differences between conduction in a metal (metallic conduction) and conduction in an electrolyte
(electrolytic conduction), which is a compound that forms ions when molten or in aqueous solution.
Metallic conduction
In a metal, the valence electrons of the atoms are delocalised. These delocalised (mobile) electrons are able
to move throughout the metal. Metals are able to conduct an electric current because these mobile
electrons can move throughout the metal. Graphite, despite being a nonmetal, also has delocalised, mobile
electrons, and so is able to conduct an electric current (see A5. Structure and Bonding).
During metallic conduction, the metal remains chemically unchanged.
Electrolytic conduction
When an ionic compound melts, the ions are no longer held together by ionic bonds, and they become free
to move throughout the liquid:
∆
NaCl(s) →Na+(l) + Cl-(l)
Similarly, when an ionic compound dissolves in water, the ionic bonds break, and the ions are free to move
throughout the solution:
𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
NaCl(s) → Na+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
These electrolytes conduct an electric current because of the presence of mobile ions which are able to
move throughout the liquid or aqueous solution.
During electrolytic conduction, the electrolyte is decomposed (chemically changed).

9. Electrochemistry
Electrolytes
In terms of strength,
• strong electrolytes are fully ionised when dissolved in water, e.g., strong acids, strong alkalis, and
soluble and molten ionic compounds. These have a high concentration of ions in solution.
e.g.,
NaOH(aq) → Na+(aq) + OH-(aq)
• weak electrolytes are only partially ionised when dissolved in water, e.g., weak acids and weak
alkalis. These have a low concentration of ions in solution.
e.g.,
CH3COOH(aq) ⇌ H+(aq) + CH3COO-(aq)
Strong electrolytes are better electrical conductors than weak electrolytes. The strength of an electrolyte
can be tested with a simple circuit which has a light bulb or light emitting diode (LED) connected to a battery
and two electrodes which are dipped in the electrolyte. The greater the strength of an electrolyte, the more
brightly the bulb will glow.
A non-electrolyte is a substance which remains as molecules when in the liquid state or dissolved in water.
The liquid or solution does not contain any ions. Non-electrolytes are non-conductors and include liquids
such as kerosine and gasoline, molten covalent substances such as wax, and solutions of covalent
substances such as ethanol and glucose.
Pure water
Pure water is an extremely weak electrolyte. Water goes spontaneous ionisation into H + ions and OH- ions.
At any one time, approximately one in every 5.56 x 10 8 water molecules is ionised.
H2O(l) ⇌ OH-(aq) + H+(aq)
The concentration of H+ ions and OH- ions in pure water is 1 x 10-7 mol dm-3. The presence of these ions is
significant when an electric current is passed through an aqueous electrolyte.
9. Electrochemistry
ELECTROLYSIS
electrolysis
Electrolysis is the chemical change (decomposition) occurring when an electric current passes through an
electrolyte.
Electrolysis takes place in a piece of apparatus known as an electrolytic cell. This cell has three main
components:
• a battery, or other D.C. power supply that provides the electric current
• two electrodes connected via wires to the battery or power supply (which take the electric current
into and out of the electrolyte). These electrodes must be able to conduct an electric current and are
usually made of an inert (chemically unreactive) material such as graphite (carbon) or platinum. The
anode is the positive electrode (connected to the positive terminal of the battery), and the cathode is
the negative electrode (connected to the negative terminal).
• the electrolyte, which is a molten ionic compound or a solution containing mobile ions
9. Electrochemistry
During electrolysis:
• The negative anions are attracted to the positive anode where they are
discharged to form atoms by losing electrons to the anode:
An- → A + ne-
Oxidation occurs at the anode (oxidation is loss of electrons). The anode

behaves as the oxidising agent.
• The electrons which the anions lose at the anode move through the circuit from the anode to the
positive terminal of the battery. The electrons re-enter the circuit from the negative terminal and
move from the battery to the cathode.
• The positive cations are attracted to the negative cathode where they are discharged
to form atoms by gaining electrons from the cathode.
Cn+ + ne- → C
Reduction occurs at the cathode (reduction is gain of electrons). The cathode behaves
as the reducing agent.
9. Electrochemistry
Electrolysis of molten electrolytes
Molten electrolytes contain only two different ions: one cation and one anion. Both are discharged during
electrolysis.
For example,
In the electrolysis of molten lead(II) bromide using inert graphite electrodes:
• At the anode, the Br- ions move towards the anode where they are discharged (i.e., they lose
electrons to the anode forming bromine atoms). Pairs of bromine atoms immediately bond
covalently forming bromine molecules. Brown fumes of bromine are evolved at the anode.
2Br-(l) → Br2(g) + 2e-
• At the cathode, the Pb2+ ions move towards the cathode where they are discharged (i.e., they gain
electrons forming lead atoms). Molten lead forms around the cathode and drips off.
Pb2+(l) + 2e- → Pb(l)
Electrolysis of aqueous solutions
During the electrolysis of an aqueous solution, the ions present are not only those of the solute. Because
water undergoes spontaneous ionisation, an aqueous solution always contains H + and OH- ions from the
ionisation of water molecules as well as the ions from the solute. As a result, aqueous solutions always
contain at least two different cations and two different anions.
In the electrolysis of an aqueous solution, one type of ion of each charge will be discharged in preference to
the other. This is known as preferential discharge.
Preferential discharge of anions

Anion
The three main factors which influence the preferential discharge of anions are:
F-
• Position of the ion in the electrochemical series SO42-
In the electrochemical series of anions (to the right), the ease of discharge increases NO3-
downward. Ions at the top of the electrochemical series are the most stable and the Cl-
hardest to discharge, while those at the bottom are the least stable and the easiest to Br-
discharge. I-
OH-
For example, in the electrolysis of dilute sulphuric acid, dilute sodium chloride solution, and
copper(II) sulphate solution using inert electrodes, the OH- ion is preferentially discharged from each
solution.
9. Electrochemistry
• The concentration of the electrolyte
Of solutions containing halide ions, there is a tendency for the more concentrated ion to be
preferentially discharged.
For example, when the electrolysis of dilute sodium chloride solution is compared with the
electrolysis of concentrated sodium chloride solution, both using inert electrodes, in the dilute
solution, the OH- is preferentially discharged, but in the concentrated solution, the Cl- is
preferentially discharged.
• The type of electrode

If the anode chosen for electrolysis is inert (e.g., graphite, platinum), it does not affect the reaction
occurring. If the anode is active (e.g., copper), it can take part in the electrolysis process.
For example, when the electrolysis of copper(II) sulphate solution using an inert anode with its
electrolysis using an active copper anode, when the inert anode is used, the OH- is preferentially
discharged, but with the active anode, the anode ionises.
Cation
K+
Preferential discharge of cations Ca2+
The main factor which influences the preferential discharge of cations is the position of the ion in Na+
the electrochemical series. In the electrochemical series of cations (to the right), the ease of Mg2+
Al3+
discharge increases downward. Ions at the top of the electrochemical series are the most stable
Zn2+
and the hardest to discharge, while those at the bottom are the least stable and the easiest to
Fe2+
discharge.
Pb2+
For example, in the electrolysis of dilute and concentrated sodium chloride solution, the H+ ion is H+
preferentially discharged in both. In the electrolysis of copper(II) sulphate solution, the Cu2+ ion is Cu2+
preferentially discharged. Ag+
9. Electrochemistry
Examples
• Electrolysis of dilute sulphuric acid using inert electrodes

Ions present:
From the H2SO4: H+ (aq) and SO42-(aq)
From the H2O: H+(aq) and OH-(aq)
At the anode, the SO42- ions and the OH- ions At the cathode, the H+ ions move towards the
move toward the anode. The OH- are cathode where they are discharged:
preferentially discharged because they are 2H+(aq) + 2e- → H2(g)
lower in the electrochemical series of anions.
4OH-(aq) → 2H2O(l) + O2(g) + 4e- Effervescence occurs as hydrogen gas is
evolved at the cathode.
Effervescence occurs as oxygen gas is evolved
at the anode.
Comparing the two equations, for every 4 mol of electrons transferred from the anode to the
cathode, 1 mol oxygen and 2 mol hydrogen are produced.
The sulphuric acid becomes more concentrated because H+ ions and OH- ions are discharged from it,
i.e., water is being removed from the electrolyte. Because of the discharge of the H + ions and the OH-
ions, the electrolysis of sulphuric acid is referred to as the electrolysis of water.
• Electrolysis of dilute sodium chloride solution using inert electrodes

Ions present:
From the NaCl: Na+(aq) and Cl-(aq)
At the anode, the Cl- ions and the OH- ions move At the cathode, the Na+ ions and the H+ ions
towards the anode. The OH- ions are move towards the cathode. The H+ ions are
preferentially discharged because they are in a preferentially discharged because they are
dilute solution and are lower in the lower in the electrochemical series of cations:
electrochemical series of anions: 2H+(aq) + 2e- → H2(g)
4OH-(aq) → 2H2O(l) + O2(g) + 4e-
Effervescence occurs as hydrogen gas is
Effervescence occurs as oxygen gas is evolved evolved at the cathode.
at the anode.
9. Electrochemistry
For every 4 mol of electrons transferred from the anode to the cathode, 1 mol of oxygen and 2 mol
of hydrogen are produced.
The sodium chloride solution becomes more concentrated because H+ ions and OH- ions are
discharged from it.
• Electrolysis of concentrated sodium chloride solution using inert electrodes

Ions present:
From the NaCl: Na+(aq) and Cl-(aq)
At the anode, the Cl- ions and the OH- ions move At the cathode, the Na+ ions and the H+ ions
towards the anode. The Cl- ions are move towards the cathode. The H+ ions are
preferentially discharged because they are preferentially discharged because they are
halide ions in a concentrated solution: lower in the electrochemical series of cations:
2Cl-(aq) → Cl2(g) + 2e- 2H+(aq) + 2e- → H2(g)
Effervescence occurs as chlorine gas is evolved Effervescence occurs as hydrogen gas is

at the anode. evolved at the cathode.
For every 2 mol of electrons transferred from the anode to the cathode, 1 mol of chlorine and 1 mol
of hydrogen are produced (equal volumes).
The electrolyte becomes alkaline because H+ ions and Cl- ions are discharged from it, leaving an
excess of Na+ ions and OH- ions, which form sodium hydroxide.
9. Electrochemistry
• Electrolysis of copper(II) sulphate using inert electrodes
Ions present:
From the CuSO4: Cu2+(aq) and SO42-(aq)
At the anode, the SO42- ions and the OH- ions At the cathode, the Cu2+ ions and the H+ ions
move towards the anode. The OH- ions are move towards the cathode. The Cu2+ ions are
preferentially discharged because they are preferentially discharged because they are
lower in the electrochemical series of anions: lower in the electrochemical series of cations:
4OH-(aq) → 2H2O(l) + O2(g) + 4e- Cu2+(aq) + 2e- → Cu(s)
Effervescence occurs as oxygen gas is evolved A pink deposit of copper builds up around the
at the anode. cathode and the cathode increases in size.
The electrolyte becomes paler blue because the blue Cu2+ ions are discharged from it. It also
becomes acidic because Cu2+ ions and OH- ions are discharged, leaving an excess of H+ ions and SO42-
ions, which form sulphuric acid.
• Electrolysis of copper(II) sulphate solution using active copper electrodes

Ions present:
From the CuSO4: Cu2+(aq) and SO42-(aq)
At the anode, the SO42- ions and the OH- ions At the cathode, the Cu2+ ions and the H+ ions
move towards the anode. However, the anode move towards the cathode. The Cu2+ ions are
is active, and the copper atoms ionise, forming preferentially discharged because they are
Cu2+ ions, which requires less energy than lower in the electrochemical series of cations:
discharging the OH- ions. Cu2+(aq) + 2e- → Cu(s)
Cu(s) → Cu2+(aq) + 2e-
A pink deposit of copper builds up around the
2+
The Cu ions go into the electrolyte and the cathode and the cathode increases in size.
anode gradually decreases in size.
For every 2 mol of electrons transferred from the anode to the cathode, 1 mol of Cu2+ ions enter the
electrolyte at the anode and 1 mol of Cu2+ is discharged at the cathode. The electrolyte remains
unchanged.
9. Electrochemistry
Quantitative electrolysis
The quantity of electrical charge Q is measured in coulombs C. During electrolysis, electrons flow from the
anode to the cathode through electrical wires. Each of these electrons has an electrical charge which is
extremely small. When 1 C of electrical charge flows through a circuit, 6.25 x 10 18 electrons have flowed.
The quantity of electrical charge flowing through an electrolytic cell during electrolysis depends on two
factors:
• the rate of flow of the electrical charge, i.e., the current I measured in amperes A. A current of 1 A is
equivalent to 1 C flowing for 1 s.
• the length of time t that the current flows for, measured in seconds s.
The formula for quantity of electrical charge is calculated using the formula:
quantity of electrical charge Q/C = current I/A × time t/s
Example
Calculate the quantity of electrical charge that flows when a current of 2.0 A flows in a circuit for 20 min.
quantity of electrical charge = current x time
= 2.0 A x 20 x 60 s
= 2 400 C
One mole of electrons is equivalent to 6.0 x 1023 electrons. The charge e on one electron is 1.6 x 10-19 C.
Therefore, one mole of electrons has a total charge of 96 500 C. This value is known as the Faraday
constant: the size of the electrical charge on one mole of electrons.
One mole of electrons is required to discharge one mole of an ion with a single charge:
M+ + e- → M or N- → N + e-
Using the Faraday constant, it follows that 96 500 is the quantity of electrical charge required to discharge
one mole of ions with a single charge. The Faraday constant can be used to calculate the masses of
substances and volumes of gases formed during electrolysis.
9. Electrochemistry
Examples
> Calculate the mass of lead produced at the cathode when a current of 5.0 A flows through molten lead(II)
bromide for 16 minutes and 5 seconds.
Q = It
= 5.0 A x ((16 x 60) + 5) s
= 5.0 A x 965 C
= 4 825 C
The reaction at the cathode:
Pb2+(l) + 2e- → Pb(s)
∴ 2 x 96 500 C = 193 000 C are required to form 1 mol Pb

1
1 C forms mol Pb
193 000
1
and 4 825 C form × 4 825 mol Pb
193 000
= 0.025 mol Pb
M(Pb) =207 g mol-1
mass of 0.025 mol Pb = 0.025 mol x 207 g mol-1
= 5.175 g Pb produced
> Determine the mass of magnesium produced at the cathode when a current of 7.5 A flows through molten
magnesium chloride for 25 minutes and 44 seconds.
Q = It
= 7.5 A x ((25 x 60) + 44) s
= 7.5 A x 1544 s
= 11 580 C
9. Electrochemistry
Mg2+ (l) + 2e- → Mg(l)
2 mol of electrons are required to form 1 mol Mg
∴ 2 x 96 500 C = 193 000 C are required to form 1 mol Mg

1
1 C forms mol Mg
193 000
1
and 11 580 C form × 11 580 mol Mg
193 000
= 0.06 mol Mg
M(Mg) = 24 g mol-1
mass of 0.06 mol Mg = 0.06 mol x 24 g mol-1
= 1.44 g Mg produced
> If an electric current of 2.5 A is passed through dilute sulphuric acid for 2 hours, 34 minutes, and 24
seconds, calculate the volume of oxygen produced at the anode at rtp.
Q = It
= 2.5 A x ((2 x 60 x 60) + (34 x 60) + 44) s
= 2.5 A x 9 264 s
= 23 160 C
The reaction at the anode:
4OH- (aq) → 2H2O(aq) + O2(g) + 4e-
4 mol of electrons are lost in forming 1 mol O2
∴ 4 x 96 500 C = 386 000 C are required to form 1 mol O2

1
1 C forms mol O2
386 000
1
and 23 160 C forms × 23 160 mol O2
386 000
= 0.06 mol O2
9. Electrochemistry
volume = moles x molar volume
= 0.06 mol x 24.0 dm3 mol-1
= 1.44 dm3
> A solution of cupric sulphate is electrolysed using copper electrodes. Determine the decrease in mass of the
anode if a current of 4.0 A passes through the solution for 32 minutes and 10 seconds.
Q = It
= 4.0 A x ((32 x 60) +10) s
= 4.0 A x 1930 s
= 7720 C
The reaction at the anode:
Cu(s) → Cu2+(aq) + 2e-
2 mol of electrons are lost in forming 1 mol Cu2+ ions
∴ 2 x 96 500 C = 193 000 form 1 mol Cu2+ ions

1
1 C forms mol Cu2+ ions
193 000
1
and 7 720 C form × 7 720 mol Cu2+ ions
193 000
= 0.04 mol Cu2+ ions
M(Cu2+) = 64 g mol-1
mass of 0.04 mol Cu2+ ions = 0.04 mol x 64 g mol-1
= 2.56 g
> A steel spoon needs to be electroplated with 13 g of chromium. Calculate the length of time that a current
of 15 A would have to flow to electroplate the spoon when placed as the cathode of the electrolytic cell.
# moles of chromium needed:
M(Cr) = 52 g mol-1
mass of 1 mol Cr = 52 g
13
# moles in 13.0 g = mol = 0.25
52
9. Electrochemistry
Cr3+(aq) + 3e- → Cr(s)
3 mol of electrons form 1 mol Cr
∴ 3 x 96 500 C = 289 500 form 1 mol Cr
and 0.25 x 289 500 form 0.25 mol Cr
= 72 375 C (= quantity of electricity required)
Q = It
t = I/Q
= 72 375 A /15 A s
= 4825 s
∴ It would take 1 h 20 m 25 s to electroplate the spoon

9. Electrochemistry
Industrial applications of electrolysis
Electrolysis is used in industry in many ways such as electrorefining, electroplating, anodising, and
extracting metals from their ores.
• electrorefining (= purifying metals)

Electrolysis is useful in producing pure metals from impure samples in a process known as
electrorefining.
o The impure metal is made the anode (i.e., it is connected to the positive terminal of the
battery).
o The cathode is a very thin sample of the pure metal.
o The electrolyte is an aqueous solution which contains ions of the metal being purified.
o The active anode ionises, and ions of the metal enter the electrolyte where they join the
other metal ions.
o The metals ions are discharged at the cathode where they form pure metal which builds up
around the cathode.
o The electrolyte remains unchanged since the metal ions entering it at the anode are
removed as they are discharged at the cathode.
o Any insoluble impurities present in the anode fall to the bottom of the cell forming a
removable sludge.
For example, in the purification of copper:

The impure copper is the anode (1) and the cathode is a thin
sheet of pure copper (2). The electrolyte is copper(II) sulphate
which contains Cu2+ ions.
The copper anode ionises:
Cu(s) → Cu2+(aq) + 2e-
The Cu2+ ions enter the electrolyte and are discharged at the
cathode, forming pure copper:
Cu2+(aq) + 2e- → Cu(s)
Electrorefining is only suitable for purifying metals whose ions are below hydrogen in the
electrochemical series (copper, silver, and gold); any metal ions above hydrogen would not be
discharged as the hydrogen ions (being lower in the series) would be preferentially discharged.
9. Electrochemistry
• electroplating (= plating one method with another)
Electroplating involves depositing a thin layer of one metal on top of another metal. It is carried out
to either protect the original metal from corrosion, to improve its appearance, or to make a cheap
metal object appear more valuable. The object that is being electroplated can be made of any metal,
but it is usually made of brass, copper, or steel. The principles of electroplating are very similar to
those of electrorefining.
o The object to be electroplated is made the cathode.
o The anode is a pure sample of the metal which is being used for plating.
o The electrolyte is an aqueous solution which contains ions of the metal being used for
plating.
o The anode, being active, ionises and ions of the metal enter the electrolyte where they join
the other metal ions.
o The metal ions are discharged at the cathode where they form the pure metal which builds
up as a coating around the object.
o The electrolyte remains unchanged since the metal ions entering it at the anode are
removed as they are discharged at the cathode.
As with electrorefining, only metals whose ions are below hydrogen in the electrochemical series
can be used for plating. Examples of electroplating are chromium, silver, gold, and nickel plating.
Chromium or chrome plating gives steel The electrolytes used in nickel and silver plating
objects a shiny, silver look as well as protects are usually solutions of nickel(II) sulphate NiSO4
them from corrosion. The steel object is placed and silver nitrate AgNO3. During the process of
as the cathode, the anode is pure chromium, silver plating, the silver anode ionises:
and the electrolyte is usually a solution of Ag(s) → Ag+(aq) + e-
chromium(III) sulphate Cr2(SO4)3 .
The Ag+ ions enter
The chromium anode ionises: the electrolyte
Cr(s) → Cr3+(aq) + 3e- and are
discharged at the
The Cr3+ ions enter the electrolyte and are cathode forming a
discharged at the cathode forming a layer of layer of on the
chromium on the object: object:
Cr3+(aq) + 3e- → Cr(s) Ag+(aq) + e- → Ag(s)
9. Electrochemistry
• anodising (= coating a metal with its oxide)
On exposure to air, aluminium immediately reacts with the oxygen to form a layer of aluminium
oxide Al2O3 on its surface. This layer is relatively unreactive and it adheres firmly to the metal below
and does not flake off. As a result, it protects the metal from attack by oxygen and moisture in the
air.
The thickness of the aluminium oxide layer on the surface of aluminium oxide can be artificially
increased by anodising, which makes the objects (such as window frames and saucepans) more
resistant to corrosion.
o The aluminium article to be ionised is pre-treated with sodium hydroxide solution (to clean
and etch the surface).
o The cleaned aluminium article is made the anode.
o The cathode is inert.
o The electrolyte is usually a dilute solution of sulphuric acid.
o As soon as the electrolytic cell is connected up, the aluminium anode begins to ionise,
forming Al3+ ions, and at the same time, the SO42- ions and the OH- ions in the electrolyte
move towards the anode. The OH- ions react with the Al3+ ions forming a layer of aluminium
oxide on the surface of the aluminium:
Al(s) → Al3+(aq) + 3e-
2Al3+(aq) + 3OH-(aq) → Al2O3(s) + 3H+(aq)
The silver-grey aluminium oxide coating readily absorbs dyes so it can be attractively
coloured.
9. Electrochemistry
• extracting metals from their ores
Most metals are found not in their free state but bonded to other elements in ionic compounds
known as minerals. Minerals from which metals can be extracted are known as ores. The process of
extracting metals from their ores involves converting the metal ions to atoms (i.e., it is a reduction
process):
Mn+ + ne- → M
Metals high in the electrochemical series ionise easily and form very stable ions, so their ions are
very difficult to reduce to atoms. These metals need a powerful method of reduction to extract them
from their ores. Such a method is electrolysis of the molten ore, which is used to extract aluminium
and metals above it (potassium, calcium, sodium, and magnesium).
For example, in extracting aluminium from its molten ore aluminium oxide Al2O3 using inert graphite
electrodes, the aluminium ions move towards the cathode where they are discharged to form
molten aluminium:
Al3+(l) + 3e- → Al(l)
The molten aluminium which forms is denser than the molten electrolyte and it sinks to the bottom
of the electrolytic cell and is tapped off.
9. Electrochemistry
OF A
Which of the following products would be produced by the Pure water does not conduct electricity but can be
electrolysis of dilute sulphuric acid? acidified using dilute sulphuric acid for this to occur.
Predict the ions that will migrate to the anode and
At Cathode At Anode
cathode during the electrolysis of dilute sulphuric acid
(A) H2 O2
(acidified water). Write a balanced chemical equation,
(B) O2 N2
including state symbols, for the electrolysis of dilute
(C) H2 N2
(D) O2 H2 sulphuric acid (acidified water). (6 mks)
The ions present in dilute sulphuric acid are H+, OH-, and
The answer is (A) H2 at the cathode, O2 at the anode. During SO42-. H+ will migrate to the cathode, while OH- will
the electrolysis of dilute sulphuric acid, H+ is preferentially migrate to the anode (as it is lower in the
discharged at the cathode and OH- at the anode. electrochemical series).
(E)CSEC
TheChemistry
position ofPaper
the cation At the cathode: 2H+(aq) + 2e.- → H2(g)
2020 01 in the electrochemical
series At the anode: 4OH-(aq) → 2H2O(l) + O2(g) + 4e-
This item refers to the following apparatus which is used to
(F) The concentration of the cation in solution
measure the relative conductivity of various substances. 2016 CSEC Chemistry Paper 02
(G) The temperature of the solution
(H) The type of electrode During the electrolysis of the acidified water, hydrogen is
produced at the cathode. The equation for formation of
hydrogen is:
2H+ (aq) + 2e– → H2 (g)
Calculate the volume of hydrogen gas liberated at STP, if

If substances containing one mole of solution per dm3 are
a current of 965 A is passed through the circuit for 1
investigated, which substance should cause the bulb to glow
BRIGHTEST? hour. (5 mks)
Q = It volume = Vm x moles
(A) Water
= 965 A x 60 x 60 s = 22.4 L mol-1
(B) Ammonia
= 3 474 000 C x 18 mol
(C) Sulphuric acid
2 mol e- forms 1 mol H2 = 403.2 L
(D) Ethanoic acid
2 x 96500 = 193000
The answer is (C) Sulphuric acid. Sulphuric acid is a strong forms 1 mol H2
1
electrolyte. 3474000 C forms ×
193000
3474000 = 18 mol
Q = It
9. Electrochemistry
Which of the following does NOT take place during Electrolysis has many applications. The apparatus
electrolysis? shown below can be used to purify copper by
electrolysis.
(A) Oxidation occurs at the anode.
(B) Anions move towards the cathode.
(C) Cations move towards the cathode.
(D) Inert electrodes do not react with the product.
The answer is (B) Anions move towards the cathode. Anions

move towards the anode, the positively charged anode.
2016 CSEC Chemistry Paper 01 a) In order to adapt the electrolytic cell in the
Which of the following statements about electrolysis is NOT apparatus for the purification of copper, what
correct? material may be used as the cathode, the anode,
and as the electrolyte? (3 mks)
(A) The electrons leave the solution via the positive
b) As the electrolysis proceeds, describe the
electrode. changes expected to be observed at the
(B) The electrons enter the solution via the negative cathode, at the anode, and in the electrolyte.
electrode.
(3 mks)
(C) Decomposition of the electrolyte at the electrode
c) Write half equations for the reactions occurring
produces an electric current.
at each electrode. (2 mks)
(D) Decomposition of the electrolyte at the electrode is d) A current of 5 amperes is passed for 2 hours
due to an electric current. during the period of the electrolysis. Calculate
The answer is (C) Decomposition of the electrolyte at the the quantity of electricity passed in coulombs
electrode produces an electric current. It is the power (2 mks) and the mass of copper deposited
supply which produces an electric current. (3 mks).
e) In addition to extraction of metal from their
2015 CSEC Chemistry Paper 01 compounds, electrolytic processes are also
In which of the following substances will electrolysis NOT widely used to protect metals from corrosion, as
occur when an electrical current is passed through it? well as to make them attractive. Name TWO
such electrolytic processes. (2 mks)
(A) Dilute sulphuric acid
(B) Solid sodium chloride a) cathode – thin sample of pure copper; anode –
(C) Molten sodium chloride impure sample of copper; electrolyte –copper(II)
(D) Sodium hydroxide solution. sulphate solution
The answer is (B) Solid sodium chloride. Solid ionic b) cathode: pink deposit builds up, increase in mass;
compounds are non-electrolytes. anode: decrease in mass; electrolyte: no change
The ions present in dilute sulphuric acid are H+, OH-, and
SO 2-. H+ will migrate to the cathode, while OH- will
9. Electrochemistry
2014 CSEC Chemistry Paper 01 2007 CSEC Chemistry Paper 02 Cont’d
During the electrolysis of aqueous copper(II) sulphate c) Cathode: Cu2+(aq) + 2e- → Cu(s)
solution using inert electrodes, the ions migrating to the
Anode: Cu(s) → Cu2+(aq) + 2e-
cathode are
d)
(A) Cu2+(aq) and SO42-(aq)
(B) H+(aq) and OH-(aq) Q = It
(C) SO42-(aq) and OH-(aq)
= 5 A x (2 x 60 x 60) s
(D) Cu2+(aq) and H+(aq)
= 36 000
The answer is (D) Cu2+(aq) and H+(aq). The positive ions
migrate to the negative cathode. At the cathode:
Cu2+(aq) + 2e- → Cu(s)

2 mol e- required to form 1 mol Cu
Which element would be liberated from an aqueous solution
of its salts during electrolysis? 96500 x 2 = 193000 C required to form 1 mol Cu
(A) Cu2+(aq) and SO42-(aq) 36000 C forms

1
× 36000 = 0.1865 mol
193000
+ -
(B) H (aq) and OH (aq)
(C) SO42-(aq) and OH-(aq) mass = Mr x moles
(D) Cu2+(aq) and H+(aq) = 64 g mol-1 x 0.1865 mol
The answer is (D) Cu2+(aq) and H+(aq). The positive ions = 11.94 g Cu (2 d.p.)
migrate to the negative cathode.
e) Anodising, electroplating (respectively)
Sulphuric acid is a stronger acid than ethanoic acid (acetic
acid) in aqueous solution because sulphuric acid Aqueous sodium chloride can be electrolysed using inert
electrodes. Discuss the effect that the position of ions in
(A) is obtainable in higher concentrations
the electrochemical series has on the products of this
(B) ionises to a greater extent than ethanoic acid
electrolysis.
(C) is more corrosive than ethanoic acid
(D) causes sugar to char whereas ethanoic acid does not The ions lower in the electrochemical series (H+ and OH-)
are preferentially discharged to those higher in the
The answer is (B) ionises to a greater extent than ethanoic
series (Na+ and Cl-). For the cations, H+ has a greater
acid.
ease of discharge – it is easier to convert it back to an
atom because the ion is more unstable than Na+ (since
H+ ionised less easily). For the anions, OH- has a greater
ease of discharge – it is easier to convert it back to an
atom because the ion is more unstable than Cl- (since
OH- ionised less easily).
10. Rates of Reaction

At a flour mill, there is risk of an explosive reaction occurring (i) What is meant by the term ‘rate of reaction’?
when a match is struck. This is due MAINLY to the (1 mk)
(ii) Besides temperature, identify TWO other factors
(A) increased pressure in the area
that can affect the rate of a reaction. (2 mks)
(B) increased concentration of flour
(iii) a) If the temperature at which a reaction was
(C) high temperature caused by the light match
carried out changed from 25℃to 40℃, would the
(D) large surface area created by the large number of
rate of reaction increase or decrease?
small particles
b) Explain your answer. (2 mks)

 define rate of reaction;

o The change in concentration of a reactant or product with time at a stated temperature.
 identify the factors which can affect the rate of reaction;
o Factors:
 concentration
 temperature;
 surface area;
 presence or absence of a catalyst.
o The danger of explosive combustion of finely divided substances, for example, flour in flour
mills. Consideration of the change in rate of reaction as the reaction proceeds.
 predict the effects of factors on rates of reaction from given data;
 interpret graphical representation of data obtained in studying rates of reaction.
.

RATES rates
OF ofREACTION
reaction
The rate of reaction is the measured change in concentration of a reactant or product with time at a given
temperature.
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 (𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑑𝑚 )

𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑑𝑚 𝑠 )=
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 (𝑠)
During a reaction, the concentration of the reactants decreases as the concentration of the products
increases.
Changes in concentration often cannot be measured directly. However, property changes can be. These
property changes depend on the nature of the reactants and the products.
 If a product is a gas, the volume of gas produced over time can be measured using a gas syringe
(e.g., reaction between a reactive metal and acid)
 If a product is a gas, if the gas is allowed to escape, the decrease in mass of the reaction can be
measured over time (e.g., reaction between a carbonate and acid)
 If a precipitate forms, the appearance of the precipitate can be measured (e.g., reaction between
sodium thiosulphate and hydrochloric acid)
 if there is a distinct change in colour intensity, pressure, temperature, or pH as the reaction
proceeds, any of these can be measured over time
Collision theory
Chemical reactions involve the breaking of original bonds in the reactants and the formation of new bonds in
the products. In order for a reaction to take place, certain events must occur.
1. The reactant particles must collide with each other in order to break the original bonds.
2. The reactant particles must have enough energy upon collision (activation energy) to break the
original bonds and enable them to have enough energy to form products.
3. The reactant particles must collide with the correct
orientation so that the energy produced by the
collision can be passed on to the original bonds in
order to break them.
Not all collisions occur with the required activation energy or correct orientation of particles. Therefore, not
all collisions result in a reaction occurring. Those that do, however, are called effective collisions. The rate of
a reaction depends on the number of effective collisions.

For example, in the reaction between hydrogen and oxygen to form water:
2H2(g) + O2(g) → 2H2O(g)
The hydrogen and oxygen molecules must collide with each other to break the covalent bonds between the
atoms within the molecules. This will then allow new covalent bonds to form between the hydrogen and
oxygen atoms, forming water molecules.
For this to be an effective collision, each collision must generate enough activation energy to break the
covalent bonds within the hydrogen and oxygen molecules. The molecules must also be correctly orientated
to each other.
Rate curves
If a measured property (such as concentration) is plotted on a graph against time as the reaction proceeds
and the property changes, a rate curve is obtained.
When excess calcium carbonate reacts with hydrochloric acid, for example, the volume of carbon dioxide
released against time or the change in mass of the reaction mixture against time can be plotted.

All rate curves have shapes such as these.
 The gradient is steepest at the beginning of the reaction indicating the rate of reaction is at its
highest. This is because the concentration of the reactant particles is at its highest at the beginning
of the reaction. The frequency of collision between the particles is at its highest at the beginning.
 As the reactant proceeds, the gradient becomes shallower, indicating the rate of reaction is
decreasing. This is because the concentration of the reactant particles is decreasing as the reaction
proceeds. The frequency of collision between the particles is decreasing as the reaction proceeds.
In this image, the molecules on the left (with their higher concentration) have a greater chance of
colliding, meaning the rate of reaction will be greater
 After a period of time, the curve becomes horizontal (zero gradient), indicating the reaction has
reached completion and has stopped. One of the reactants has been used up and there are no more
of its particles left to collide. The term for a reactant which is used up in a reaction is the ‘limiting
reactant’, as it is the reactant that limits how much product can be formed. The quantity of the
products produced in a reaction, therefore, is determined by the quantity of this limiting reactant.
For example:
The reaction between magnesium and hydrochloric acid is given below.
Mg(s) + 2HCl(aq) → MgCl2(aq) + H2(g)
If magnesium ribbon is added to the hydrochloric acid, the volume of hydrogen gas given off can be
measured in a gas syringe at regular intervals using the apparatus shown below.

If the volume of gas is plotted against time, the curve shown below may be obtained.
The different values on the graph can be used to determine the average rate of reaction at different stages
in the reaction by using the formula to calculate the rate of a reaction.
𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑔𝑒𝑛

𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒
The average rate of reaction in the first minute (60 s): The average rate of reaction in the second minute:
28 𝑐𝑚 (38 − 28) 𝑐𝑚
𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 =
60 𝑠 60 𝑠
= 0.47 𝑐𝑚 𝑠 =
= 0.17 𝑐𝑚 𝑠
This shows that as the reaction proceeds, the rate of reaction decreases. This can also be seen by looking at
the gradient of the graph: it is steep at the beginning but becomes shallower as the reaction progresses.

Factors affecting rate of reaction
The rate of a reaction is mainly dependent on concentration, temperature, surface area, and the use of a catalyst.
 The concentration of the reactants

Generally, the higher the concentration of a reactant, the higher the rate of
the reaction. This applies particularly to solutions. If the concentration of a
reactant is increased, there are more reactant particles per unit volume that
collide more frequently, increasing the chances of effective collisions, in
turn increasing the rate of reaction.
The rate of the reaction is directly proportional to the concentration.
 The temperature at which the reaction is carried out

Generally, the higher the temperature at which a reaction occurs, the higher the rate of reaction. If
the temperature at which a reaction occurs is increased, the reactant particles gain kinetic energy,
causing them to move faster (resulting in more frequent collisions) and collide with more energy
(resulting in more collisions occurring with sufficient activation energy).
Therefore, as temperature increases, the chances of effective collisions
increase, in turn increasing the rate of reaction.
As temperature increases, the rate of reaction increases, but not in a

fashion that is directly proportional.
 The surface area of solid reactants (i.e., particle size)

Generally, the smaller the particles of a reactant, the higher the rate of reaction. When
solids react, the reaction occurs on the surface of the solid. Small solid particles have a
larger total surface area than the same mass of large solid particles. When particle size
is decreased, the smaller particles have a greater surface area exposed to particles of
the other reactant. Consequently, particles collide more frequently, increasing the
chances of effective collisions, in turn increasing the rate of reaction.
In flour mills and coal mines, the finely divided flour and coal are highly flammable. A
spark (from a cigarette, for example) can initiate a reaction with the oxygen in the air,
which could be explosive due to the large surface area of the fine particles of flour and
coal.

 The use of a catalyst
Catalysts (= a substance which alters the rate of a chemical reaction without itself undergoing any
permanent chemical change) are often added to speed up a reaction. Catalysts that speed up
reactions provide an alternative pathway for the reaction which requires less activation energy than
the normal pathway (more in A11. Energetics). Consequently, more of the collisions occur with
sufficient energy for the particles to react, increasing the number of effective collisions.
For example, hydrogen peroxide H2O2 decomposes very slowly at room temperature into water and
oxygen:
2H2O2(aq) → 2H2O(l) + O2(g)
This reaction can be sped up considerably by adding manganese(IV) oxide MnO2, which acts as a
catalyst and is chemically unchanged at the end of the reaction. When the reaction finishes, the
mass of MnO2 is the same as it was at the beginning of reaction.
Enzymes are biological catalysts made of protein molecules. They are present in the cells of all living
organisms where they speed up chemical reactions that would otherwise occur too slowly for life to
exist.
Not all catalysts speed up the rate of a reaction; some slow them down. These are known as
negative catalysts or inhibitors. They work by providing an alternative pathway for the reaction
which requires more activation energy than the normal pathway, decreasing the number of effective
collisions in a given length of time.
Tetraethyl lead(IV) Pb(C2H5)4 is an inhibitor that used to be added to petrol (‘leaded petrol’) to stop
premature ignition (‘knocking’). It prevented uncontrolled combustion of the gasoline. The use of
leaded fuel has been phased out almost worldwide because of the toxic nature of lead compounds.

Pressure and light can also affect the rate of certain reactions.
If the pressure on a reactant in the gaseous state Certain reactions (called photochemical reactions)
increases, its volume decreases. This means that are initiated or sped up by light. Photosynthesis,
there are more reactants particles per unit volume. the reaction between methane and chlorine are
As a result, the particles collide more frequently, examples of reactions initiated by light. As light
increasing the chance of effective collisions, intensity increases, the rate of the reaction
thereby increasing the rate of reaction. An example increases.
of this is in the reaction between nitrogen and
hydrogen to form ammonia. 6CO2(g) + 6H2O(l) ⎯⎯ C6H12O6(aq) + 6O2(g)
CH4(g) + Cl2(g) ⎯⎯ CH3Cl(g) + HCl(g)
N2(g) + 3H2(g) ⇌ 2NH3(g)
Effect of changing factors on rate curves
The effect of changing any factor which alters the rate of a reaction can be shown on the rate curve.
In each of the graphs below, the number of moles of the limiting reactant remains unchanged:
In the graph above, curve (A) is the original curve In the graph above, curve (A) is the original curve
and curve (B) shows the effect of changing any one and curve (C) shows the effect of changing any one
single factor as indicated. single factor as indicated.
The graph shows that curve (B) has a steeper The graph shows that curve (C) has a shallower
gradient because the reaction occurs at a higher gradient because the reaction is occurring at a
rate. Curve (B) also becomes horizontal sooner slower rate. Curve (C) becomes horizontal later
because the reaction takes less time to reach because the reaction takes more time to reach
completion. Both curves become horizontal when completion. Both curves become horizontal when
the same quantity of product has been made the same quantity of product has been made
because the original number of moles of the because the original number of moles of the
limiting reactant was not changed. limiting reactant was not changed.

At a flour mill, there is risk of an explosive reaction occurring (i) What is meant by the term ‘rate of reaction’?
when a match is struck. This is due MAINLY to the (1 mk)
(ii) Besides temperature, identify TWO other factors
(A) increased pressure in the area
that can affect the rate of a reaction. (2 mks)
(B) increased concentration of flour
(iii) a) If the temperature at which a reaction was
(C) high temperature caused by the lighted match
carried out changed from 25℃to 40℃, would the
(D) large surface area created by the large number of
rate of reaction increase or decrease?
particles
b) Explain your answer. (2 mks).
The answer is (D) large surface area created by the large
i/The measured change in concentrated of a reaction or
number of particles. A spark can initiate a reaction with the
product with time at a stated temperature
oxygen in the air, which could be explosive due to the large
surface area of the fine particles of flour and coal. ii/use of a catalyst, particle size, concentration, pressure,
light
iii/The rate would increase – the reactant particles gain
The rate of a chemical reaction does NOT depend on the kinetic energy, causing them to move faster (resulting in
(A) presence of catalyst more frequent collisions) and collide with more energy
(B) concentration of the reactants (resulting in more collisions occurring with sufficient
(C) energy change of the overall reaction activation energy). Therefore, as temperature increases,
(D) temperature of a reacting system the chances of effective collisions increase, in turn
increasing the rate of reaction.
The answer is (C) energy change of the overall reaction.
11. Energetics
Which of the following diagrams BEST illustrates the course (i) Distinguish between the terms ‘endothermic’ and
of an exothermic reaction? ‘exothermic’. (2 mks)
(ii) Generally, when chemical reactions take place,
existing bonds are broken and new bonds are
formed. Classify bond making AND bond breaking
as either endothermic or exothermic processes.
(A) (2 mks)
The figure below is a diagram of the enthalpy change for

an exothermic reaction showing the effect of a catalyst
(B) on the reaction pathway.
(C)
Identify the parts labelled A, B, C, D on the diagram.

(D) (4 mks)
 distinguish between exothermic and endothermic reactions;

o Energy content of products and reactants. Bond breaking being endothermic; bond forming
being exothermic; temperature change in surroundings. Use of ΔH notation.
 draw energy profile diagrams to illustrate endothermic and exothermic change;
o Simple energy profile diagrams including energy barrier. Include the action of catalyst using
energy profile diagrams.
 calculate energy changes from experiments or from experimental data.
o Reference to heat of solution and heat of neutralisation of strong acid and strong base.
o Assumptions: density and specific heat capacity of pure water; negligible heat loss/gain from
surroundings. Refer to SO A7.10.
11. Energetics
ENERGY CHANGES
energy changes
When a chemical reaction takes place, there is a change of energy in the system. Energy is either given out
to or taken in from the surroundings, usually in the form of heat (some, however, may be in the form of
light, electrical, sound, etc).
Recall that during a chemical reaction, existing bonds in the reactants are broken (which requires energy to
be absorbed) and new bonds are formed in the products (which releases energy).
i.e.,
reactants → products
existing bonds are broken new bonds are formed
energy is absorbed energy is released
 A chemical reaction that produces heat, causing the reaction mixture and its
surroundings to get hotter is an exothermic reaction. In these reactions, energy is
released to the surroundings. Exothermic reactions include neutralisation reactions,
respiration in cells, and the burning of fossil fuels.
In an exothermic reaction, the energy released when forming bonds is greater

than the energy absorbed to break bonds. The extra energy is released to the
surroundings causing the temperature of the surroundings to increase.
energy absorbed to break bonds < energy released when forming bonds
 A chemical reaction that absorbs heat, causing the reaction mixture and its surroundings
to get colder is an endothermic reaction. In these reactions, energy is absorbed from
the surroundings. Endothermic reactions include plant photosynthesis and thermal
decomposition.
In an endothermic reaction, the energy absorbed to break bonds is greater than

the energy released when forming bonds. The extra energy is absorbed from the
surroundings causing the temperature of the surroundings to decrease.
energy absorbed to break bonds > energy released when forming bonds
11. Energetics
Enthalpy
The energy content of a substance is called its enthalpy H. Enthalpy cannot be measured directly: it is a
quantity that only has meaning when there is a change in a given system. It is this change that is measured
instead in kilojoules kJ or kilojoules per mol kJ mol-1.
enthalpy change of a reaction = (total enthalpy of products) – (total enthalpy of reactants)
∆𝐻reaction = ∑ 𝐻products – ∑ 𝐻 reactants
An exothermic reaction can be described as: An endothermic reaction can be described as:
reactants → products + energy reactants + energy → products
Since energy is neither created nor destroyed, the The products have higher energy than the reactants.
total energy is the same on either side of the arrow.
Therefore, the products have lower energy than the
reactants.
In an exothermic reaction, the enthalpy of the In an endothermic reaction, the enthalpy of the
products is less than the enthalpy of the reactants products is greater than the enthalpy of the
(Hproducts < Hreactants). ∆𝐻 is thus negative. reactants (Hproducts > Hreactants). ∆𝐻 is thus positive.
Since enthalpy change is the change in a substance’s Since the reaction gains energy, the enthalpy
energy content and the reaction loses energy, the change is positive.
enthalpy change is negative.
11. Energetics
For example, the combustion of methane is an For example, the reaction between hydrogen and
exothermic reaction: iodine is an endothermic reaction:
CH4(g) + 2O2(g) → CO2(g) + 2H2O(g) H2(g) + I2(s) → 2HI(g)

∆𝐻 = -891 kJ mol-1 ∆𝐻 = +26.5 kJ mol-1
The value for ∆𝐻 indicates that 891 kJ of energy is The value for ∆𝐻 indicates that 26.5 kJ of energy is
lost when 1 mol of methane is completely burned in gained when 1 mol of hydrogen iodine is made
oxygen. during the reaction. The overall energy absorbed by
the reaction represented in the equation would be
double this value since it shows 2 mol of hydrogen
iodide being made.
In a reversible reaction, if the forward reaction is exothermic, the reverse is endothermic and vice versa. The
∆𝐻 value given for a reversible reaction is the forward reaction.
For example, in the reaction between nitrogen and hydrogen to form ammonia:
N2(g) + 3H2(s) ⇌ 2NH3(g)

∆𝐻 = -46.1 kJ mol-1
This shows that the forward reaction that produces ammonia is exothermic. The reverse reaction is therefore
endothermic. When 1 mol of ammonia is made during the reaction, 46.1 kJ energy is released.
Energy profile diagrams
The energy changes that occur during chemical reactions can be represented on graphs called energy profile
diagrams. These diagrams will show the enthalpy of the reactants and products, the change in enthalpy, and
the activation energy (= the minimum quantity of energy which the reacting species must possess in order to
undergo the reaction). However, the amount of activation energy does not affect the overall energy change
and is not included in the calculation of enthalpy change.
Energy profile diagram of Energy profile diagram of

an exothermic reaction an endothermic reaction
11. Energetics
For example, the energy profile diagram for the previous reaction is:
( N2(g) + 3H2(s) ⇌ 2NH3(g)

∆𝐻 = -46.1 kJ mol-1 )
Catalysts
Recall from A10. Rates of Reaction that a catalyst is a substance which alters the rate of a chemical reaction
without itself undergoing any permanent chemical change. Catalysts that speed up reactions provide an
alternative pathway for the reaction which requires less activation energy than the normal pathway. Although
the reaction has a lower activation energy, the energy values for the reactants and products remain
unchanged, so ∆𝐻 is unchanged as well.
Energy profile diagram of Energy profile diagram of

an exothermic reaction an endothermic reaction
with and without a with and without a
catalyst catalyst
11. Energetics
Calculating energy changes
In the laboratory, enthalpy change can be determined by measuring the heat of reaction (= heat change
occurring during a reaction), calculated by measuring the change in temperature occurring during a reaction.
To calculate energy changes, it may be necessary to know a substance’s specific heat capacity. The specific
heat capacity c of a substance is the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of a unit mass of a
substance by 1℃ or 1 K. This unit mass is usually taken as 1 g and temperature in degrees Celsius. Its unit is
hence joules per gram per degree Celsius J g-1 ℃-1. For example, the specific heat capacity of water is 4.2 J g -1
℃-1, meaning it takes 4.2 J of heat energy to raise the temperature of 1 g of water by 1℃.
If the mass of the substances reacting is known, the heat of reaction can be determined from the specific heat
capacity of the substances and the temperature change according to the formula:
ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 ( 𝐽 ) = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 (𝑔) × 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦( 𝐽 𝑔 ℃ ) × 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒(℃)
∆𝑞 = 𝑚𝑐∆𝑇
This is when:
 heat of reaction ∆𝑞 is measured in joules J

 mass 𝑚 is measured in grams g
 specific heat capacity 𝑐 is measured in joules per gram per degree Celsius J g-1 ℃-1
 change in temperature ∆𝑇 is measured in degrees Celsius ℃
To determine the heat of reaction, the reaction is carried out in a calorimeter – an insulated container
preventing heat released by a reaction escaping into the surroundings (for exothermic reactions) or heat from
the surroundings being absorbed by the reaction (for endothermic reactions). A simple calorimeter can be
made out of a polystyrene cup.
The general method for determine heats of reaction involves measuring a fixed volume of solution or water
to be used in a measuring cylinder, pouring it into the calorimeter, and measuring its initial temperature using
a thermometer. The reactants are then mixed in the calorimeter and the minimum or maximum temperature
reached in the reaction is measured. The temperature change is then calculated and the ∆𝑞 = 𝑚𝑐∆𝑇
equation is used to calculate the heat of reaction.
There are three notable assumptions made in calculating the heat of reaction:
 that the density of a dilute aqueous solution is the same as that of pure water, i.e., 1 g cm -3
 that the specific heat capacity of a dilute aqueous solution is the same as that of pure water, i.e.,
4.2 J g-1 ℃-1
 that a negligible amount of heat is lost to or absorbed from the surroundings during the reaction.
11. Energetics
Heat of solution
When a solid, liquid, or gas dissolves in a solvent, there is usually a change in enthalpy. The heat of solution is
the heat change occurring when 1 mol of solute dissolves in a volume of solvent such that further dilution by
the solvent produces no further heat change.
When a solute dissolves in a solvent:
 bonds break between the particles of the solute, causing energy to be absorbed from the
surroundings. In the case of ionic compounds, the ionic bonds break, whereas with covalent
compounds, the intermolecular forces break.
 the intermolecular forces between the solvent molecules also break, causing energy to be absorbed
from the surroundings.
 attractions are formed between the ions or molecules of the solute and the molecules of the solvent
in a process called solvation, causing energy to be released to the surroundings.
If more energy is released during solvation than is absorbed to break the bonds in the solute and solvent, the
reaction is exothermic. The opposite is the case for an endothermic reaction.
In calculating the heat of solution, the initial temperature of the water must be measured and the exact
quantity of solute dissolving must be known so that the number of moles of solute can be calculated.
Worked example
Dissolving 15.15 g of potassium nitrate in 100 cm3 of distilled water resulted in a temperature decrease of
10.2degC. Calculate the heat of solution of potassium nitrate.
Number of moles of KNO3 dissolved:
M(KNO3) = 39 + 14 + 3(16) = 101 g mol-1
moles = mass/Mr = 15.15/101 = 0.15 mol
volume of water = 100 cm3, mass of water = 100 g
final mass of solution = 100 + 15.15 = 115.15 g
Heat absorbed in dissolving 0.15 mol KNO3:
= 115.15 𝑔 × 4.2 𝐽 𝑔 ℃ × 10.2℃ = 4933 𝐽 = 4.933 𝑘𝐽
Heat absorbed in dissolving 1 mol KNO3:

11. Energetics
. .
=
𝑥 = 32.9 𝑘𝐽
heat of solution = +32.9 kJ mol-1 (positive because reaction is endothermic)
Heat of neutralisation
The neutralisation reaction between a strong acid and strong alkali is an exothermic reaction. The heat of
neutralisation is the heat change occurring when 1 mol of water is produced in a reaction between an acid and
an alkali.
In calculating the heat of neutralisation, the initial temperature of both solutions must be measured and
averaged to determine the initial temperature, and the number of moles of water produced in the reaction
must be calculated.
Worked example
A volume of 50 cm3 of sodium hydroxide solution of concentration 1.0 mol dm-3 and temperature 26.0degC is
added to 50 cm3 of hydrochloric acid of concentration 1.0 mol dm-3 and temperature 27.0degC. After mixing,
the maximum temperature of the solution is 33.2degC. Determine the heat of neutralisation for the reaction.
NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
Number of moles of NaOH made:
1000 1
=
50 𝑥
𝑥 = 0.05 mol
the mole ratio between NaOH and water is 1:1
∴0.05 mol H2O is produced
Determining the heat of neutralisation:
volume of solution = 50 + 50 = 100 cm3
mass of solution 100 g (density assumption)

. .
Average initial temperature = ℃ = 26.5degC
Final temperature = 33.2degC
temperature change = (33.2 – 26.5)degC = +6.7degC

11. Energetics
Heat evolved in forming 0.05 mol H2O:
= 100 𝑔 × 4.2 𝐽 𝑔 ℃ × 6.7℃ = 2814 𝐽 = 2.814 𝑘𝐽
Heat evolved in forming 1 mol H2O:

. .
=
𝑥 = 56.28 𝑘𝐽
heat of neutralisation = -56.28 kJ mol-1 (negative because reaction is exothermic)
The heat of neutralisation for the reaction between any strong acid and any strong alkali is always about -
56.3 kJ mol-1 as strong acids and alkali are fully ionised in aqueous solution. The common reaction that
releases heat in all cases is:
∆𝐻 = -56.3 kJ mol-1
The equation for the neutralisation reaction between sodium hydroxide and sulphuric acid is:
2NaOH(aq) + H2SO4(aq) → Na2SO4(aq) + 2H2O(l)
In this reaction, 2 mol of water is produced, but the heat of neutralisation is still about -56.3 kJ mol -1.
However, the overall heat change for the reaction shown is about double that: about -112.6 kJ.
The heat of neutralisation can also be determined from the results of a thermometric titration (A7. Acids, Bases,
and Salts). In this method, the initial temperatures of the acid and alkali must be measured and the point of
intersection of the two lines of best fit on the graph is the maximum temperature recorded during the reaction.
11. Energetics
Which of the following diagrams BEST illustrates the course (i) Distinguish between the terms ‘endothermic’ and
of an exothermic reaction? ‘exothermic’. (2 mks)
(ii) Generally, when chemical reactions take place,
existing bonds are broken and new bonds are
formed. Classify bond making AND bond breaking
(A) as either endothermic or exothermic processes.
(2 mks)
i/During an exothermic reaction, more energy is released

during bond forming than is absorbed when bond
(B)
breaking resulting in heat being released. The
temperature of the surroundings and reactant mixture
increase. The opposite is true during an endothermic
reaction – more energy is absorbed to break bonds
(C)
than released to form bonds, and heat is absorbed. The
temperature of the surroundings and reactant mixture
decrease.
(D)
ii/breaking: endo; making: exo
The answer is (A). The enthalpy change is negative in an
exothermic reaction. Typical Exam Question / 2010 CSEC Chemistry Paper 02
Typical Exam Question / 2006 CSEC Chemistry Paper 01 The figure below is a diagram of the enthalpy change for
an exothermic reaction showing the effect of a catalyst
When heat is given off to the surroundings during a chemical
on the reaction pathway.
reaction, it is because bond breaking
(A) releases energy as well as bond making

(B) requires less energy than is released when new
bonds are formed
(C) requires more energy than is released when new
bonds are formed
(D) is an endothermic process whereas bond making is Identify the parts labelled A, B, C, D on the diagram. (4)
an exothermic one
A: activation energy (without catalyst); B activation
The answer is (B). This is true during a reaction in which heat energy with catalyst; C: enthalpy change; D: products
is given off (exothermic).

(CSEC Chemistry) Section A Notes and ESQs

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CSEC CHEMISTRY / SECTION A – PRINCIPLES OF CHEMISTRY

Typical Exam Question / 2020 CSEC Chemistry Paper 01

Which of the following processes does NOT provide

See answers in the ‘Exam-style questions’ section

Candidates should be able to:

• explain how evidence supports the particulate theory of matter;

1. All matter is composed of particles

Ammonia particles are lighter, and hence diffuse faster

Osmosis is also used to:

Solid Liquid Gas

Volume fixed fixed variable

Compressibility difficult to compress can be compressed slightly very easy to compress

Closeness of very close close far apart

Arrangement of regular pattern randomly arranged randomly arranged

Attraction strong weak very weak

Energy of low energy greater energy highest energy

Solids: Liquids: Gases: Plasmas:

The changes of state include:

Heating and cooling curves

The answer is (D) Heating of iodine. Iodine crystals slowly

Typical Exam Question / 2020 CSEC Chemistry Paper 01

cellophane iii/At (C), melting is observed.

(i) Describe the strength of the forces of attraction

2. Mixtures and Separations

See answers in the ‘Exam-style questions’ section

• distinguish between pure substances and mixtures;

2. Mixtures and Separations

Pure Substances Mixtures

• a sharply defined, constant melting/freezing point

2. Mixtures and Separations

Compounds can either be covalent (molecular) or ionic.

2. Mixtures and Separations

2. Mixtures and Separations

Solute state Solvent state Example Components

• A supersaturated solution comprises a large amount of solute dissolved at a given temperature

2. Mixtures and Separations

Type of colloid Composition Examples

Solution Colloid Suspension

2. Mixtures and Separations

2. Mixtures and Separations

Solubility curves can be used to find:

2. Mixtures and Separations

The temperature at which 20 g of KClO3 saturates 100 g of water = 55°C

At 64°C, 25 g of KClO3 saturates 100 g of water

• the mass of solute to be added to resaturate a solution if its temperature is increased

At 32°C, 10 g of KClO3 saturates 100 g of water

At 74°C, 32 g of KClO3 saturates 100 g of water

2. Mixtures and Separations

This technique is used to separate a suspended or settled solid and a liquid

During evaporation, the solution is boiled, allowing the liquid to

2. Mixtures and Separations

Like evaporation, this technique is used to separate a solution

This technique is also used to separate a solution of a

The method by which the distillation apparatus works is as follows:

2. Mixtures and Separations

This technique is used to separate a mixture

The method by which the fractional distillation apparatus works is as follows:

2. Mixtures and Separations

This technique is used to separate a mixture of liquids

The method by which the separating funnel works is as follows:

This technique is used to separate a mixture of dissolved

2. Mixtures and Separations

Technique Basis of Description Diagram