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GENERAL CHEMISTRY 2 MODULE
KINETIC
MOLECULAR
MODEL

SOLIDS LIQUIDS

CRYSTALLINE INTERMOLECULAR SURFACE TENSION

AMORPHOUS IONIC FORCES VISCOSITY
MOLECULAR DIPOLE-DIPOLE VAPOR PRESSURE
METALLIC ION-DIPOLE BOILING POINT
NETWORK LONDON DISPERSION HEAT OF
GROUP 8A HYDROGEN BONDING VAPORIZATION
 CHAPTER 1:
KINETIC MOLECULAR MODEL OF
SOLIDS AND LIQUIDS OF
ATTRACTION OF MATTER
KINETIC MOLECULAR MODEL OF SOLIDS
AND LIQUIDS OF ATTRACTION OF
MATTER
It explains the properties of solid and
liquids in terms of the intermolecular
forces of attraction and the kinetic
energy of individual particles.
SHAPE AND VOLUME OF LIQUIDS AND
SOLIDS

 The common and simple way by which the solid,

liquid, and gaseous phases of matter are
distinguished is by comparison of their shapes and
volumes.
 CHARACTERISTICS OF SOLIDS AND LIQUIDS
SOLIDS LIQUIDS GAS

• Have definite shape • Have no definite • Widely seperated

• Do not flow shape
• Virtually • Flow and take
PROPERTIES incompressible the shape of
• Expands when their container
heater, but to a • Very difficult to
lesser extent than compress
liquid and gases • Slightly expand
when heated
• Strongly attracted to • Weakly attracted • Have negligible
each other to each other; attraction for one
• Vibrated a little, but break their another
not much compared to interaction easily • Constantly moving
PARTICLES a liquid and gases • Vibrates and rapidly in all
• Vibrate faster when move more than direction
heated those in a solid
• Move faster when
heated
 The basis assumption of the kinetic molecular theory
(KMT) common to the three states of matter, they are
composed of molecules though not at all times for solids
and these molecules possess kinetic energy.
 The other assumptions are meant mainly to account
for the properties of gases, particularly those referring
to the motion, the amount of kinetic energy, the
distance, and the attraction between the molecules of
particles. However, comparison in terms of these
assumptions shows the similarities and differences of
matter existing as gases, liquids, and solids.
The shape and volume of matter in the
three states are explained as follows
Solid particles
 Closely packed because of strong attractive forces among them.
 Their low kinetic energies cause them to stay in fixed positions, resulting in definite shape
and volume.
 At atomic level, However, vibrational motion of molecules is observed.
Liquid molecules
 Close enough to touch one another.
 They have attracted forces to keep them together so that the total volume of certain
amount of them is definite.
 Since they can still move, slipping and sliding to one another, the liquid continues to
conform to the shape of its container.\
Gases molecules
 The shape and volume of gases are bot definite because the molecules are widely
separated, have negligible attraction for one another, and are constantly moving rapidly in
all directions so they can fill any shape and size of container.
 CHAPTER 2:
MATTER IN THE LIQUID PHASE
Section 1:Inter molecular forces of
matter and Properties of Liquid
Surface Tension- is the forces that causes the molecules on
surface of a liquid to “tighten their hold to one another”, creating
the effect of a thin membrane on the surface.
 The molecules occupy the least surface area possible, which
pulls the surface into spherical shape when a small amount is
dropped.
 Substances with strong attractive forces between the molecules
have a high surface tension.
 Surface tension is temperature-dependent; it decreases as
temperature increases.
Viscosity of a liquid- is a measure of its tendency to resist a
flowing motion.

 Polar molecules and molecules with complex structures (with

“branches”) tend to have higher viscosity, being less able to
slip and slide over one another than those with simple
structures and less polarity.
 A liquid with a high viscosity is said to be viscous or simply
“thick”.
 When a viscosity is so high that it cannot control flow
anymore, the matter is said to be glassy or vitreous.
 The opposite of viscosity is fluidity.
 High fluid liquid is said to be free-flowing, mobile or “thin”.
OTHER PROPERTIES OBSERVED WHEN MATTER
IS IN THE LIQUID PHASR INCLUDE:
 1. CAPILLARY ACTION- or the spontaneous rising of a liquid in a narrow tube,
it is also observed in liquid.

 2. INCOMPRESSIBILITY- under ordinary condition is another property of liquid.

- since the molecules in a liquid are already close, touching one another ,they
cannot be crowded together anymore unless they are squeezed and deformed,
which would require a great amount of energy.

 3. DIFFUSIBILITY- is much less in a liquid than a gas, but it take place at an

easily measured rate.
- one liquid ma y diffuse through another, but not rigidly held together that
they can still move at all times.
- they can slide over one another to effect diffusion.
 4. EVAPORATION- is an indication of the escape of the molecules from the
surface of the liquid.
-it is an evidence of molecular motion.
-A liquid in an open container eventually evaporates completely.

 5. COOLING EFFECT OF EVAPORATION- the molecules that escape are the

only ones with greatest velocity.
- Therefore, the average velocity and average kinetic energy (KE) of the
molecules left in the liquid are reduced as evaporation proceeds.
- The amount of heat energy for the given number of molecules is
reduced as well as their temperature; thus, evaporation always results in a
cooling effect.

 6. VAPOR PRESSURE- when a liquid vaporized in a closed container, the

space above the liquid becomes saturated with vapor and an equilibrium
states exists between the liquid vapor.
THE EQUILIBRIUM EQUATION IS:

EVAPORATION
LIQUID VAPOR
CONDESATION
 7.BOILING POINT- is the temperature at which the vapor pressure of
a liquids is equal to the external pressure (atmospheric pressure
above the liquid).
- when the boiling point is given , the pressure is also stated.
-when we express the boiling point without the pressure, it is
interpreted to be the normal boiling point at the standard atmospheric
pressure of 760 mm Hg at sea level.
-The boiling point is the most commonly used physical properties for
characterizing and identifying substances.

 8.HEAT VAPORIZATION- expressed in cal/g or kcal/kg, is the energy

required to change exactly one gram of a liquid to vapor at its normal
boiling point.
 SECTION 2: WATER AND IT’S
PROPERTIES

 1. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

-Pure water is an odorless and tasteless liquid.

- it has bluish tint.
- Standard atmospheric pressure(760mm Hg or 760torr),
it’s freezing point is 0˚C (32 ˚F) and boiling point is 100
˚C (212 ˚F).
DENSITY
 Water is at its maximum density at temperature of 4 ˚C (39 ˚F).
 It has the unusual property of contracting in volume as it is cooled to 4 ˚C, and then
expanding when cooled from 4 ˚C to 0 ˚C.
 It is the only liquid that expands when it freezes.
 This makes the density of ice lower than that of liquid water and that is why ice
floats on water.

BOILING POINT
 Water has relatively high boiling point (100 ˚C at 1atm), which indicates its
stability.
 Substance of comparable molar mass like ammonia and methane are gases at a
temperature that water is liquid.
 If water were to be similar to other liquids on Earth, it would boil at normal surface
temperature s and thus, exists only as a gas, then we would not have the much
needed water in the water in the liquid phase for drinking.
 Table 2.1 PROPERTIES OF SOME COMPOUNDS

COMPOUND MOLAR MASS BOILING POINT(˚C) SPECIFIC HEAT (cal/g)

Liquid Ammonia 17 -33 1.12

Water 18 100 1.00

Ethanol 46 78.5 0.58

Methanol 32 65 0.60

Acetone 58 56 0.53

Diethyl Ether 74 35 0.53

Hexane 86 68.7 0.54

Ethyl Acetate 88 77 0.46

SPECIFIC HEAT
 The specific heat of water is higher than any commonly known liquid
except ammonia. (table 2.1)
 This means that water takes much longer time to heat up and also to cool
down than most substances in our environment.
 It can be absorbed of large amount of heat with only a slight change in
temperature.
 Water temperature fluctuates less than land temperature such that large
bodies of water like oceans, serve as moderating influences on the earth’s
climate.

Water serves as the earth’s thermal regulator, considering that more than
70% of the earth’s surface is covered with water.
SOLVENT ACTION
 Water dissolves more substances than any other common liquid.
 That is why it is the most commonly used polar solvent.
 This property makes water the most effective liquid for transporting dissolve
nutrients, in the bloodstream, and eliminating wastes from living tissues in our
bodies.
 This dissolving ability also explains why water is the most important agent in
the erosion of weathered materials on the earth’s surface and why tropical
areas are much more eroded than deserts.
 Water that runs over and through the surface of the land dissolves many
minerals of the rocks and soil.
 Unfortunately, this ability is also the reason why water is easily polluted, stays
polluted often and remains stagnant for a long time.
 This simply shows that wherever water flows, either through the ground or
through our bodies, it takes along valuable chemicals, minerals, and nutrients.
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
  

1. Water reacts with metals.

a. Potassium, sodium, and calcium react similarly with water, producing
metal hydroxides and liberating hydrogen gas, but they differ in the
intensity or vigorousness of their reaction.
b. Aluminum, zinc, and iron react with steam at high temperature,
forming hydrogen and metallic oxides.
2. Water reacts with non-metals. The element fluorine reacts violently
with cold water, producing hydrogen fluorine and free oxygen.
3. Water reacts with metallic oxides. Soluble oxides like CaO and O reacts
with water to form hydroxide.
4. Water reacts with nonmetallic oxides. C,S, and reacts with water to
form acids.
HYDRATES

 Water can combine with some salts to form hydrates,

which are solids that contain water molecules as part of
their crystalline structure.

 Thewater in the hydrate is called water of

crystallization or water of hydration.
USES OF WATER
INDUSTIAL USES
Industries use vast amounts of water.
There is a great demand for water in various processes
involved in industrial manufacturing and production.
Thisdemand continuously increases in bulk as
industrialization continues with increases population.
Inmanufacturing industries or factories, the use of water
takes place in three ways:
1. Water is part of product.
2. Water is used in processing of the product.
3. Water is used for cooling the product.
AGRICULTURAL USES

 Lands are irrigated by water from rivers, lakes, and

artificial reservoirs, but there is unavoidable need for
manmade irrigation and dams or reservoirs.

 Dams are used by man to slow down or speed up the flow

of water or to stop its flow altogether.

 When dams stop to flow, water is usually store in lake or

reservoir so that the people can make use of it when
needed.
DOMESTIC USES

 Anadult human being has minimum daily need of

two liters of water for drinking.

 Thisis an obvious requirement, but an equally vital

one is the larger volume of water needed to sustain
his/her other domestic needs like in bathing,
household cleaning, watering the plants, and
laundry purposes.
WATER
  SUPPLY AND WATER

 Water is renewable substance. Its total amount remains constant.

 The total amount of water in earth is enormous, though only a small
part of it (less than 1%) is suitable or available for use by humans,
plants, and animals.
 Water continuously circulates from the oceans to the atmosphere, to
the land and back to the oceans, providing a renewable supply purified
water on land.
 Geologic studies revealed that as the part of cycle, about 425,000k of
ocean water is evaporates per year.
 Most of the precipitates back into the oceans, but about 40,000k fall on
the land and provide most of our water supply.
 CAHPTER 3:
MATTER IN THE SOLID
PHASE
SECTION 1: INTERPARTICLE FORCES AND
PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS
Melting Point- the temperature at which a solid melt( changes into a liquid).
 The stronger the attractive force, the higher is the melting point.

Heat Fusion- the amount of heat required to completely melt a solid, once it
has reached a melting point.

Vapor Pressure of a Solid- the attractive forces among the particles of the
solid are supposed to keep them in the solid state until it starts to melt.

Sublimation- the change from solid to gas without passing through the liquid
states.
 SECTION 2:
TYPES OF SOLID
Solids are generally classified
into two groups:

Amorphous and Crystalline

solids
1.AMORPHOUS SOLID
- The word amorphous means that the solid
does not adopt the same form.
- Its constituent particles that randomly
arranged.
- Amorphous solids do not have sharp
melting points, that is, melting with a
narrow temperature range.
- They soften first and melt little by little
over a wide temperature range.
 2. CRYSTALLINE SOLID

 It is a solid in which a constituent particles (atoms, ions, and

molecules) have an orderly arrangement.
 -Crystals shows regular shapes which reflect the arrangement of
the particles among them.
TYPES OF CRYSTALLINE
SOLIDS
TYPES OF CRYSTALLINE SOLID

METALIC MOLECULAR
CRYSTALS CRYSTALS

IONIC COVALENT
CRYSTALS NETWORK
CRYSTALS
 METALLIC CRYSTALS

Are the simplest type of structure since

single metallic atoms are the
constituent units.
 IONIC CRYSTALS
- Have ions as constituent
particles.
- This is exemplified by the
sodium chloride crystals.
- The oppositely charged Na+
and Cl- ions arranged
themselves in a regular three-
dimensional pattern of a
crystal lattice.
MOLECULAR CRYSTALS
- Are those which have
molecules as constituent
particles as well structure
units.
- Solid iodine sublimes readily
and has a rather low melting
point.
- Solids like iodine, camphor,
menthol, and naphthalene are
recognized readily by their
odor, an evidence that they
are undergoing sublimation.
COVALENT NETWORK CRYSTALS

- are giant molecules or macromolecules.

- They consist of very large numbers of atoms
linked by a network of covalent bonds.
- These molecules may be build up in one
direction as long chains which form fibrous
crystals like asbestos.
 CHAPTER 4:
PHASE CHANGES
SECTION 1: ENERGY AND
MOLECULAR ODER CHANGES:
PHASE CHANGES
The difference processes
associated with the phase changes
and the accompanying energy
changes are shown in the following
diagram:
 Heat Energy Absorbed / Kinetic Energy Increase
SUBLIMATION

FUSION VAPORIZATION

SO (MELTING) LI
Q
(BOILING) G
LI SOLIDIFICATION UI CONDENSATION A
D D
(FREEZING) (LIQUEFYING)
S
DEPOSITION
Heat Energy Released/ Kinetic Energy Decrease
THERMODYNAMICS
 The First Law of Thermodynamics

  It

is also called Law of Conservation of Energy.
 States that energy cannot be created or destroyed
but can simply be converted to other forms of
energy:
 ∆ 𝑈 =𝑞 +𝑤
 

  

 Where: is the change in internal energy of the

system and is determined by the equation:
= -
Or
= -
  
Internal Energy (V)


 is the total energy content of the system.

 Its absolute value is difficult to evaluate, but a
change in state can readily be determined.
 An exothermic reaction is characterized by a
negative ,
 An endothermic reaction has positive .
“q” symbol represents the heat absorbed or evolved by
the system.
 Itsvalue is positive when heat is absorbed and
negative when heat is evolved.

“w” symbol represents the work performed by the

system or on the system.
 Its values negative when the system performs works
on its surroundings.
 And positive when the surroundings perform work on
the system.
SAMPLE PROBLEM:

A system absorbs 50J of heat

during a transformation.
Determine the change in internal
energy if the system performs: (a)
15J and (b) 65J of work on the
surroundings.
SOLUTI
ON:
SOLUTION:
  
A system absorbs 50J of heat during a transformation. Determine
the change in internal energy if the system performs: (a) 15J and
(b) 65J of work on the surroundings.

 
GIVEN: Solution:
a).
50J of heat during a transformation
=50J + (-15J)
(a) 15J =35J
(b)65J
a).
=50J + (-65J)
FORMULA:
=-15J
Energy can exists in different forms. It can be any of the
following forms:

 PotentialEnergy – is stored energy. Matter possesses potential

chemical energy.

 Kinetic Energy- is energy in motion. Gas particles which are

always in motion possesses high Kinetic Energy. Molecules in
liquid, whole motion are more restricted is energy at work. A
man who pedals a running bicycle does mechanical energy.
 Thermal Energy- is heat energy. The warmth that you
feel on a summer day manifest heat energy caused by
the difference in temperature between your body and
environment.

 Electrical
Energy- is the energy of mobile electrons
that produce electricity.

 Other forms of energy are nuclear energy and

geothermal energy, among others.
 THERMODYNAMICS

FUNCTION SIGNIFICANCE

(+) value means an (-) value means

increase decrease

(+) value means heat (-) value means heat

q is absorbed is evolved

(+) value means work (-) value means work

w is performed on the is performed by the
system system
  

Since the amount of energy used to do

work is greater than the amount of heat
energy supplied, the additional energy
need is taken from internal energy of
the system. This causes the to decrease
as shown by the negative value of .
THERMODYNAMICS
  Is

the study of energy changes that accompany all process,
whether chemical or physical.

THERMOCHEMISTRY
 The study of the energy changes that accompany chemical
transformation in matter.
 All changes that matter undergoes, whether physical or
chemical, occur with loss or gain of energy.
 Burning of fuel gas (butane, ) releases energy in the form
of heat and light as the fuel reacts with oxygen in air.
  
 This means that the energy content of combustion
products, carbon dioxide, and water is lower compared to
that of and oxygen gas.

 Heat also referred to as thermal energy, is the energy

transferred between two bodies due to a difference in their
temperature.

 In a physical transformation such as dew formation, energy

is released during the process since the heat content of the
liquid is formed.
 Exothermic reaction- these changes that produces
or releases energy.

 Endothermic reaction- chemical and physical

changes that occurs with the absorption of the
energy.
EXOTHERMIC AND ENDOTHERMIC REACTIONS
ENERGY AND CHEMICAL REACTIONS
 ChemicalEnergy -Energy stored in the chemical bonds of a
substance.
 Chemical reactions are always involved energy changes.
 Making bonds and breaking bonds involve energy changes.

Activation Energy
 The
energy required to break the bonds in the reactants for a
chemical reaction to occur.
EXOTHERMIC AND ENDOTHERMIC REACTIONS
 Step1: Energy must be “ supplied ” to break chemical bonds of
reactants.
 Step2: Energy is “released” when new chemical bonds are made in the
products:

 A reaction is “ Exothermic ” if more energy is released than supplied.

If more energy is supplied than is released then the reaction is “
Endothermic ”.

Energy of Chemical Reaction

 Based on the type of energy (heat) change involved, chemical
reactions are classified as either “ exothermic” or “ endothermic ”.
Exothermic: energy is released
Exo = “exit”
Burning of gasoline

Endothermic: energy is absorbed

Endo = “into”
Cooking of pancakes
ENDOTHERMIC DIAGRAM
REACTION PROGRESS
 Endothermic – more energy is taken into break the
bonds in the reactants than released by the bonds
being formed in the products. Therefore, energy
is absorbed.

Endothermic
 Heat (energy) taken in
REACTANTS
 Temperature of the substance
 Products fuel cold
 Endothermic Reactions
 You may see an endothermic reaction written like
this…

 REACTANTS + ENERGY PRODUCTS

OR

 REACTANTS + HEAT PRODUCTS

EXOTHERMIC DIAGRAM
REACTION PROGRESS

 Exothermic– more energy is released when

the products where formed than energy
was used to break bonds in the reactants,
Therefore, a net released energy.
 CALORIMETRY
  
 The flow of energy (as heat) between the system and its
surroundings is measured through calorimetry.

 The amount of heat absorbed or released by the system is

a function of its change in temperature.

-
  Heat

and temperature change are related by a proportionality
constant referred to as heat capacity (C), which is the amount
of energy is needed to increase the temperature of a
substance on material by 1˚C. This constant is expressed in
the units J/˚C.
 The heat capacity of the substance can only be determined
experimentally through calorimetry.
 For a pure substance, the heat capacity is equal to the
product of its mass (m) and specific heat ( c ).
C=mc
Therefore,
q=mc
The specific heat of a substance is
the amount of energy needed to
increase the temperature of one
gram of a substance by 1˚C.
Its unit is J/g •˚C.
The specific heat of a substance is
constant.
TABLE 3-1. SPECIFIC HEAT OF COMMON PURE SUBSTANCE
SPECIFIC HEATJ/g •˚C.
SUBSTANCE

, ice 2.11

, water 4.18

, steam 2.08

0.843

0.385

0.897

0.450

2.43
A calorimetry is an insulator apparatus that contains water or
any liquid of known heat capacity.
 Incalorimeter, the system of interest can be a substance (for
which heat of solution or heat of dissociation is measured) or a
chemical reaction (for which heat reaction of heat
neutralization is measured).
 The system exchange heat with the water and the compounds
of the calorimeter.
 The heat exchange can be mathematically expressed as

q= -[q calorimeter + water]

SAMPLE PROBLEM

1. How much heat is absorbed by

liquid water that weights 550 grams as
it is heated from 25˚C to 95˚C?

2. How much is heat released by a 76

grams piece of copper as its cools from
450˚C to 28˚C?
 Solution to problem 1
 
 1. How much heat is absorbed by liquid water that weights 550


grams as it is heated from 25˚C to 95˚C?

GIVEN:  
SOLUTION :
M= 550 grams q=mc
= -25˚C q= ( 550g)(4.18 J/g •˚C)(95˚C -25˚C)
= 95˚C q= (550g)(4.18 J/g •˚C) (70˚C)
C= 4.18 J/g •˚C q= 160, 930 J
Or
161 KJ
FORMULA:
q=mc
 Solution to problem 2
 
 2. How much is heat released by a 76 grams piece of copper as its


cools from 450˚C to 28˚C?

GIVEN:  
SOLUTION :
M= 76 grams q=mc
= 450˚C q= ( 76)(0.385 J/g •˚C)(28˚C -450˚C)
= 28˚C q= (76g)(0.385 J/g •˚C) (-422˚C)
C= 0.385 J/g •˚C q= -12. 347.72 J
Or
-12.35 KJ
FORMULA:
q=mc