BASIC CALCULUS

LESSON 1
Imagine that you are going to watch a
basketball game.

▪ Which seat do you prefer to

choose? Is it nearer or farther
from the court? Why?
LIMITS

Limits are the backbone of calculus, and calculus is

called the Mathematics of Change. The study of limits
is necessary in studying change in great detail. The
evaluation of a particular limit is what underlies the
formulation of the derivative and the integral of a
function.
LIMITS

▪ Consider a function f of a single variable x. Consider a

constant c which the variable x will approach (c may or
may not be in the domain of f). The limit, to be
denoted by L, is the unique real value that f(x) will
approach as x approaches c. In symbols,
lim 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝐿 .
𝑥→𝑐
▪ This is read, “The limit of f(x) as x approaches c is L.”
 Consider approaching 5 from its
EXAMPLE 1 left or through values less than 5.
x f(x)
4 1

▪ Investigate: 4.5 1.5

4.7 1.7
lim (𝑥 − 3) 4.9 1.9
𝑥→5
4.99 1.99
▪ One sided Limits:
lim−(𝑥 − 3) = 2 Consider approaching 5 from its right or
𝑥→5 through values greater than but close to 5.
lim+(𝑥 − 3) = 2 x f(x)
𝑥→5
▪ Two sided Limits: 6 3
5.5 2.5
lim−(𝑥 − 3) = lim+(𝑥 − 3) 5.2 2.2
𝑥→5 𝑥→5
▪ In symbols: 5.1 2.1
5.01 2.01
lim (𝑥 − 3) = 2
𝑥→5
 x f(x) x f(x)
4 1 6 3
4.5 1.5 5.5 2.5
4.7 1.7 5.2 2.2
4.9 1.9 5.1 2.1
4.99 1.99 5.01 2.01

lim (𝑥 − 3) = 2
𝑥→5
 Start by approaching 2 from left
EXAMPLE 2
x f(x)
1 2

▪ Investigate: 1.5 2.5

1.7 2.7
lim (𝑥 + 1) 1.9 2.9
𝑥→2
1.99 2.99
▪ One sided Limits:
lim−(𝑥 + 1) = 3 Approach 2 from right
𝑥→2
lim+(𝑥 + 1) = 3 x f(x)
𝑥→2
▪ Two sided Limits: 3 4
2.5 3.5
lim−(𝑥 + 1) = lim+(𝑥 + 1) 2.3 3.3
𝑥→2 𝑥→2
▪ In symbols: 2.1 3.1
2.01 3.01
lim (𝑥 + 2) = 3
𝑥→2
 Start by approaching 2 from left
EXAMPLE 3 x f(x)
1 0
1.5 1.25
▪ Investigate: 1.8 2.24
lim 𝑓(𝑥) if 1.9 2.61
𝑥→2 1.99 2.9601
𝑥 2 − 1, 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 < 2
𝑓 𝑥 =
𝑥 − 4, 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ≥ 2 Approach 2 from right

x f(x)
3 -1
2.5 -1.5
2.3 -1.7
2.1 -1.9
2.01 -1.99
▪ One sided Limits:
lim−(𝑥 2 − 1) = 3
𝑥→2
lim+(𝑥 − 4) = −2
𝑥→2

x f(x) x f(x)
1 0 3 -1
1.5 1.25 2.5 -1.5
1.8 2.24 2.3 -1.7
1.9 2.61 2.1 -1.9
1.99 2.9601 2.01 -1.99

▪ Two sided Limits:

lim−(𝑥 2 − 1) ≠ lim+(𝑥 − 4)
𝑥→2 𝑥→2
▪ In symbols:
lim 𝑓(𝑥) DNE
𝑥→2
ALWAYS REMEMBER!

▪ If c approaches from left, then we write, lim− 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝐿

𝑥→𝑐

▪ If c approaches from right, then we write, lim+ 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝐿

𝑥→𝑐

▪ Therefore we say, lim 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝐿,

𝑥→𝑐

▪ if and only if; lim− 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝐿 and lim+ 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝐿

𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐

▪ In other words, lim 𝑓 x DNE, whenever;

𝑥→𝑐
lim− 𝑓 𝑥 ≠ lim+ 𝑓 𝑥
𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐
 INVESTIGATE THE FOLLOWING

1. lim− 𝑓 𝑥
𝑥→2
2. lim + 𝑓 𝑥
𝑥→−2
3. lim 𝑓 𝑥
𝑥→−4
4. lim 𝑓 𝑥
𝑥→1
5. lim 𝑓 𝑥
𝑥→−1
THE LIMIT OF A FUNCTION
AT c VERSUS THE VALUE
OF THE FUNCTION AT c.
lim 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑓 𝑐
𝑥→𝑐
 EXAMPLE 1 lim (𝑥 − 3)
𝑥→5

lim 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑓 𝑐
𝑥→𝑐
x approaches 5 x approaches 5
from the left from the right lim (𝑥 − 3)
𝑥→5
x f(x) x f(x)
4 1 6 3 𝑓 5 =𝑥−3
4.5 1.5 5.5 2.5 𝑓 5 =5−3
4.7 1.7 5.2 2.2
4.9 1.9 5.1 2.1
𝑓 5 =2
4.99 1.99 5.01 2.01

lim (𝑥 − 3) = 2 lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓 5

𝑥→5
𝑥→5
 EXAMPLE 2 lim (𝑥 + 1)
𝑥→2

lim 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑓 𝑐
𝑥→𝑐
x approaches 2 x approaches 2
from the left from the right lim (𝑥 + 1)
𝑥→2
x f(x) x f(x)
1 2 3 4 𝑓 2 =𝑥+1
1.5 2.5 2.5 3.5 𝑓 2 =2+1
1.7 2.7 2.3 3.3
1.9 2.9 2.1 3.1
𝑓 2 =3
1.99 2.99 2.01 3.01

lim (𝑥 + 1) = 3 lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓 2

𝑥→2
𝑥→2
 𝑥 2 − 1, 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 < 2
EXAMPLE 3 lim 𝑓(𝑥) if 𝑓 𝑥 =
𝑥→2 𝑥 − 4, 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ≥ 2
lim 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑓 𝑐
𝑥→𝑐
x approaches 2 x approaches 2
from the left from the right lim (𝑥 − 4)
𝑥→2
x f(x) x f(x)
1 0 3 -1 𝑓 2 =𝑥−4
1.5 1.25 2.5 -1.5 𝑓 2 =2−4
1.8 2.24 2.3 -1.7
1.9 2.61 2.1 -1.9
𝑓 2 = −2
1.99 2.9601 2.01 -1.99

lim 𝑓(𝑥) DNE lim 𝑓(𝑥) ≠ 𝑓 2

𝑥→2
𝑥→2
Looking at the graph of 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)

▪ If one knows the graph of 𝑓(𝑥), it will be

easier to determine its limits as 𝑥 approaches
given values of 𝑐.
▪ This time we are going to observe the
behavior of the graph and the points lies on
the graph.
Consider 𝑓(𝑥) = 1 + 3𝑥

lim 1 + 3𝑥 = 7
𝑥→2
𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥2 + 1
𝑓 𝑥 = |𝑥|
 𝑥 2 −5𝑥+4
𝑓 𝑥 =
𝑥−1
 𝑥 + 1, if 𝑥 < 4
𝑓 𝑥 = 2
𝑥−4 + 3, if 𝑥 ≥ 4
Investigate the graph below:
LIMIT THEOREMS

▪ 1. The limit of the constant is itself. If k is any constant, then,

lim 𝑘 = 𝑘
𝑥→𝑐

Examples:
lim 2 = 2
1. 𝑥→𝑐
2. lim −3.14 = −3.14
𝑥→𝑐
3. lim 789 = 789
𝑥→2
LIMIT THEOREMS

▪ 2. The limit of x as x approaches c is equal to c. This may be thought

of as the substitution law, because x is simply substituted by c.
lim 𝑥 = 𝑐
𝑥→𝑐

Examples:
lim 𝑥 = 9
1. 𝑥→9
2. lim 𝑥 = 0.5
𝑥→0.5
3. lim 𝑥 = −10
𝑥→−10
LIMIT THEOREMS

▪ For the remaining theorems, we will assume that the limits of f and g
both exist as x approaches c and they are L and M, respectively. In
other words,
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 lim 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑀
𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐
LIMIT THEOREMS

▪ 3. The Constant Multiple Theorem: This says that the limit of a

multiple of a function is simply that multiple of the limit of the
function.
lim 𝑘 ∙ 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑘 ∙ lim 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑘 ∙ 𝐿
𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐

1. lim 8 𝑥
𝑥→3
2. lim −5 𝑥
𝑥→−2
LIMIT THEOREMS

▪ 3. The Constant Multiple Theorem: This says that the limit of a

multiple of a function is simply that multiple of the limit of the
function.
lim 𝑘 ∙ 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑘 ∙ lim 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑘 ∙ 𝐿
𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐
Examples, if lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 4, then:
𝑥→𝑐
lim 8 ∙ 𝑓 𝑥 = 8 ∙ lim 𝑓 𝑥 = 8 ∙ 4 = 32
1. 𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐
2. lim −11 ∙ 𝑓 𝑥 = −11 ∙ lim 𝑓 𝑥 = −11 ∙ 4 = −44
𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐

3 3 3
lim ∙ 𝑓 𝑥 = ∙ lim 𝑓 𝑥 = ∙ 4 = 6
3. 𝑥→𝑐 2 2 𝑥→𝑐 2
LIMIT THEOREMS

▪ 4. The Sum and Difference Theorem.

▪ lim 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝐿, and lim 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑀
𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐

lim 𝑓 𝑥 + 𝑔 𝑥 = lim 𝑓(𝑥) + lim 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝐿 + 𝑀

𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐

lim 𝑓 𝑥 − 𝑔 𝑥 = lim 𝑓(𝑥) − lim 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝐿 − 𝑀

𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐
LIMIT THEOREMS

▪ The Sum and Difference Theorem Examples:

▪ lim 𝑓 𝑥 + 𝑔 𝑥 = lim 𝑓(𝑥) + lim 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝐿 + 𝑀
𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐

▪ lim 𝑓 𝑥 − 𝑔 𝑥 = lim 𝑓(𝑥) − lim 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝐿 − 𝑀

𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐

1. lim 2𝑥 + 7
𝑥→2

2. lim 9 − 4𝑥
𝑥→3
LIMIT THEOREMS

▪ 5. The Multiplication Theorem:

▪ lim 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝐿, and lim 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑀
𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐

lim (𝑓 𝑥 ∙ 𝑔 𝑥 ) = lim 𝑓(𝑥) ∙ lim 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝐿 ∙ 𝑀

𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐
LIMIT THEOREMS

▪ The Multiplication Theorem Example:

▪ lim (𝑓 𝑥 ∙ 𝑔 𝑥 ) = lim 𝑓(𝑥) ∙ lim 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝐿 ∙ 𝑀
𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐

1. lim 4 3𝑥 + 2
𝑥→2

2. lim 2𝑥 + 5 4
𝑥→3
LIMIT THEOREMS

▪ 6. The Division Theorem:

▪ For example, if lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 4 and lim 𝑓(𝑥) = −5, then;
𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐

𝑓 𝑥 lim 𝑓 𝑥 𝐿
𝑥→𝑐
lim = = ;𝑀 ≠ 0
𝑥→𝑐 𝑔 𝑥 lim 𝑔 𝑥 𝑀
𝑥→𝑐

𝑓 𝑥 lim 𝑓 𝑥 4 4
𝑥→𝑐
lim = = =−
𝑥→𝑐 𝑔 𝑥 lim 𝑔 𝑥 −5 5
𝑥→𝑐
LIMIT THEOREMS

▪ The Division Theorem Examples:

𝑓 𝑥 lim 𝑓 𝑥 𝐿
▪ lim = 𝑥→𝑐
= ;𝑀 ≠0
𝑥→𝑐 𝑔 𝑥 lim 𝑔 𝑥
𝑥→𝑐
𝑀

2𝑥+5
1. lim
𝑥→2 𝑥+3
4𝑥
2. lim
𝑥→0 𝑥
LIMIT THEOREMS

▪ 7. The Power Theorem:

▪ For example, if lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 4 then;
𝑥→𝑐

lim (𝑓 𝑥 )𝑝 = (lim 𝑓(𝑥))𝑝 = 𝐿𝑝

𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐

lim (𝑓 𝑥 )3 = lim 43 = 64
𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐
LIMIT THEOREMS

▪ The Power Theorem Examples:

▪ lim (𝑓 𝑥 )𝑝 = (lim 𝑓(𝑥))𝑝 = 𝐿𝑝
𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐

1. lim 2𝑥 + 3 3
𝑥→3

2. lim 𝑥 + 4 2
𝑥→−2
LIMIT THEOREMS

▪ 8. The Radical/Root Theorem:

▪ For example, if lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 4 then;
𝑥→𝑐

𝑛 𝑛 𝑛
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿
𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐

lim 𝑓(𝑥) = lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 4 = 2

𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐
LIMIT THEOREMS

▪ The Radical/Root Theorem Examples:

𝑛
▪ lim 𝑛 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑛
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿
𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐

1. lim 𝑥 2 + 5
𝑥→2
3
2. lim 4𝑥 + 2
𝑥→−3
 SUM IT ALL UP!!!
▪ Let c, k, L and M be real numbers, and let f(x) and g(x) be functions defined on
some open interval containing c, except possibly at c.
1. If lim 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝐿 and lim 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑀, then L = M.
𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐
2. lim 𝑘 = 𝑘
𝑥→𝑐
3. lim 𝑥 = 𝑐
𝑥→𝑐
4. Suppose lim 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝐿 and lim 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑀.
𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐
i. (constant multiple)
ii. (sum and difference theorem)
iii. (multiplication theorem)
iv. (division theorem)
v. (power theorem)
vi. (root/radical theorem)