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Contents

03 06 29
Chapter 1 Chapter 2 Chapter 3
India: Location and India: Structure and India: Drainage
Extent Physiography

52 70 97
Chapter 4 Chapter 5 Chapter 6
India: Climate India: Vegetation, India: Natural
Wildlife and Soils Disasters and
Management

1
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115 135 145

Chapter 7 Chapter 8 Previous Year
India: Agriculture India: Minerals and Questions
Energy Resources

2
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CHAPTER - 1
INDIA: LOCATION AND EXTENT
India - Location
• India is the part of South Asia located
in the Northern Hemisphere.
• Extends from 8°4’N to 37°6’N latitude
and from 68° 7’E to 97° 25’E Longitude,
roughly about 30° distance or latitudinal
and longitudinal extent.
• The Tropic of Cancer at 23° 30’N cuts
the country in almost two equal halves.
• Indian mainland extends from Kashmir
in the north to Kanyakumari in the
south and from Arunachal Pradesh in
the east to Gujarat in the west.
• The northernmost point is Indira Col
in Siachen Glacier in the eastern
part of Karakoram ranges and the
Southernmost point is Indira Point in
the Nicobar Islands in the Andaman
Sea.
• The tiny town of Kibithu in Arunachal
Pradesh is the easternmost point of
India. The Lohit River enters India from
Kibithu.
• The westernmost point of India is the
small, inhabited village of Ghuar Moti,
located in Kutch District of Gujarat.
• Distance from South to North is 3214
km. and that from west to east is 2933
km.
• Latitudes are equidistant. The distance
between two latitudes is 111 km.
• Longitudes are basically not equidistant
from each other at all places. They
bulge at the equator and converge
at the poles. The average distance
between two longitudes is 100 km.
• Note that the distance between two
longitudes decreases towards the poles
3
whereas the distance between the two
latitudes remains the same.
• The southern part of the country, lies
within the tropics and the northern part
of the country lies in the subtropical
zone or the warm temperate zone.
• With the 30° difference or variation
between the longitudes, there is almost
a difference of two hours’ time between
the easternmost and westernmost part
of the country.
• To avoid any complications, the 82°
30’E longitude is selected as the
Indian Standard Meridian. The Indian
Standard time is 5 hours and 30 minutes
in advance of Greenwich Mean Time.
India - Extent and
Size
• India accounts for 2.4% of the total
geographical area of the world making
it the 7th largest country in the world.
• It comprises a total area of 3.28 million
sq. km.
• India has 7516.6 km. coastline
(including of the coastlines of the
islands of Andaman and Nicobar in Bay
of Bengal and that of Lakshadweep in
the Arabian Sea).
• Coastline of India mainland is 6100km
• India has a land boundary of about
15,200 km.
• India’s great size is blessed with great
physical diversity. In the North, India
is guarded by the mighty Himalayas,
the forested hills in the North East,
Peninsular block in the South and the
great sandy expanse of Marusthali in
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the West. Tripura and Mizoram.

• The Standard Meridian of India passes
37’ 6˚ N through 5 states of India, namely: Uttar
Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Chattisgarh,

Standard Meridian of India

JAMMU

Odisha, Andhra Pradesh.

AND
KASHMIR

82’ 30˚ E
HIMACHAL
PRADESH

PUNJAB
UTTARAKHAND

India’s Neighbours
L 97’ 25˚ E
HARYANA HA
AC H
UN ES
AR RAD
SIKKIM P

UTTAR PRADESH
RAJASTHAN ASSAM ND
LA
GA
BIHAR MEGHALAYA NA

UR
NIP
MA
• International borders: Bangladesh
A
UR
JHARKHAND

MIZORAM
IP
TR
WEST
GUJARAT MADHYA PRADESH BENGAL
68’ 7˚ E
RH

and Myanmar (East) Bhutan, Nepal,

GA
IS
TT
HA

ODISHA
CH

ARABIAN
SEA
MAHARASHTRA

BAY OF and China (North), Pakistan and

Afghanistan (North-west).
TELANGANA BENGAL

• Neighbouring island countries: Sri

ANDHRA
GOA
PRADESH

KARNATAKA

TAMIL NADU
Lanka and the Maldives.
• States with International borders:
KER

LAKSHADWEEP ANDAMAN & NICOBAR ISLANDS

ALA

INDIAN 8’ 4˚ N OCEAN Gujarat, Rajasthan, Punjab, Himachal

I m a g e 1.1: I n d i a : E x t e n t and Size Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh,
Bihar, West Bengal, Sikkim, Assam,
Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland,
• The Himalayas are bounded by Manipur, Mizoram and UT of Jammu
Hindukush and Suleiman ranges in and Kashmir.
the north-west, the Purvanchal Hills in • Coastal states: Gujarat, Andhra
the north-east and by the Great Indian Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra,
Ocean in the south. This entire area Kerala, Odisha, Karnataka, West
taken together forms the geographic Bengal, and Goa (in decreasing order
entity called “The Indian Subcontinent”. of Coastline).
• The Indian subcontinent includes • Ocean bodies: Arabian Sea, Bay of
countries like Pakistan, Nepal, Bhutan, Bengal, Indian Ocean.
and Bangladesh and the mainland of
India.
• Gulf of Mannar and Palk Strait divides
Sri Lanka and India.
• The Tropic of Cancer passes through
the eight states of India namely,
Gujarat, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh,
Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, West Bengal,

Bordering Length of No. of Indian Names of Indian State/UTs having common

country the common states having borders
border (in km.) common borders

Bangladesh 4096.7 5 West Bengal, Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura, Mizoram

China 3488 5 Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Sikkim, Arunachal

Pradesh and Union territories of Ladakh (Previously
under state of Jammu & Kashmir)

Pakistan 3323 4 UT of Jammu and Kashmir, UT of Ladakh, Punjab,

Rajasthan, Gujarat

4
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Nepal 1751 5 Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal,

Sikkim

Myanmar 1643 4 Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Manipur, Mizoram

Bhutan 699 4 Sikkim, West Bengal, Assam, Arunachal Pradesh

Afghanistan 106 1 Jammu & Kashmir (POK)

Strategic Importance Asia, Africa and Europe from the

Western coast and with the south-east
of India’s Location and south Asia from Eastern Asia.
• The vast coastline and the natural
• The maritime location of peninsular harbors have benefitted India in
India has provided links to its carrying out trade and commerce with
neighbouring regions through sea and its neighbouring and distant countries.
air routes.
• It has given India a distinct climate than
• Strategic importance due to trans- the rest of Asian countries like the way
Indian ocean routes which connect the monsoons have a unique effect on the
countries of Europe in the west and the climate of India.
countries of East Asia.
• The maritime location of India
establishes close contact with West
KAZAKHSTAN

NORTH JAPAN
KORIA
ARMENIA AZERBAIJAN TOKYO
TURKMENISTAN
TURKEY SOUTH
CHINA KORIA

SYRIA AFGHANISTAN
IRAQ IRAN
PAKISTAN
JORDAN
ISRAEL DELHI
KUWAIT NEPAL
BHUTAN
KARACHI
HONGKONG
EGYPT BANGLA TAIWAN
DESH

UNITED
SAUDI ARABIA ARAB EMIRATES KOLKATA
MYANMAR HANOI
OMAN MUMBAI LAOS

PHILIPPINES
THAILAND

SUDAN
YEMEN
ERITREA CHENNAI
BANGKOK VIETNAM
CAMBODIA

DJIBOUTI

SRILANKA

ETHIOPIA
COLOMBO
IA
AL

MALAYSIA
M

SINGAPORE
SO

INDONESIA

INDIAN OCEAN

Air Routes
Sea Routes
AUSTRALIA

I m a g e 1.2: L o c at i o n of India With Respect to Trade Routes wi t h N e i g h b o u ri n g R e g i o n s

5
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CHAPTER - 2
INDIA:
STRUCTURE AND PHYSIOGRAPHY
Introduction:
• Indian Subcontinent is the result of
interplay of endogenic and exogenic
forces and lateral movement of
plates through which the geomorphic
processes and geological structure of
the subcontinent came into being.
• Based on the different geological
structure and formations, India is
divided into three geological divisions,
as follows:
» The Peninsular Block
» The Himalayan and other Peninsular
Mountains
» Indo-Ganga-Brahmaputra Plains
Peninsular Block
• The northern limit of peninsular block
is the Kutch region, running along the
western flanks of the Aravali range
and then runs parallel to Yamuna and
Ganga to as far as Rajmahal Hills and
Ganga delta.
• In North-East India, the Karbi Anglong
and the Meghalaya Plateau are also an
extension of this block.
• This north eastern part of the block is
separated from the main block by the
Malda Fault in West Bengal from the
Chota Nagpur Plateau.
• Parts of Rajasthan desert are also an
extension of this peninsular block.
• Peninsular block is formed by ancient
gneisses and granites and has been a
rigid mass of block standing since the
cambrian period except for the western
part, where a part of it is submerged
6
beneath the sea.
• Peninsular block being a part of Indo-
Australian Plate, it has been subjected
to various vertical movements and
block faulting. The rift valleys of the
Narmada, the Tapi and the Mahanadi
and the Satpura block mountains are
some examples of it.
• Peninsula consists mostly of relics and
residuals like Aravali ranges, Nallamala
hills, Javadi hills, Veliconda hills,
Palkonda range and Mahendragiri hills.
• Many rivers flow through this Peninsular
block. Most of the east flowing rivers
like Mahanadi, Krishna and Godavari
form delta before entering into the Bay
of Bengal.
• The west flowing rivers like Narmada,
Tapi etc do not form any delta because:
» Due to the steep slope of Western
Ghats, the west flowing rivers generally
have a rapid flow. Because of this, the
rivers carry their silt into deep sea.
» There is very less silt deposition.
Concurrently, the Narmada and Tapi
rivers flow via the rift valleys and while
doing so the eroded material carried by
them gets deposited in the fractures of
the fault zones. Thus, they do not form
deltas.
» Moreover, the tides are also one reason
that the rivers of western side do not
form deltas. The west flowing rivers
form estuaries instead.
The Himalayan and other
Peninsular Mountains
• These mountains are young fold
mountains, and their geological
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structure is much weaker and more
flexible than the old and stable
peninsular block.
• The exogenic and endogenic interplay
results in the formation of different
kinds of folds, faults and thrust plains.
• These mountains are the result of
tectonic activities.
• In fact, these mountains lying on the
zones of convergence along the tectonic
plate boundaries are still undergoing
the tectonic activities and are still in
their process of formation.
• The rivers cut across these mountains
during their youthful stage resulting
into marvellous features like gorges,
V-shaped valleys, rapids, waterfalls etc.
before they descend into the plains.
• The several Himalayan rivers like
Ganga, Yamuna, Brahmaputra etc. cut
across the lofty Himalayas as very fast
flowing streams in their upper reaches.
Such fast movement of running water
causes more vertical erosion that lateral
erosion and causes valleys to deepen.
• The rivers of Western Ghats too form
spectacular gorges and V-shaped
valleys which are the result of
the vertical erosional activities
of peninsular rivers like Krishna,
Ghataprabha, Tungabhadra, Periyar
etc. Many waterfalls like Dudhsagar,
Sivasamudram, Jog are the resultant
erosional features of Western Ghats.
Indo-Ganga-Brahmaputra
Plains
• As the name suggests, the floodplains
of the three most important Himalayan
rivers Ganga, Brahmaputra, and Indus
forms the third geological division.
• The floodplain was originally a geo-
synclinal depression.
• The plain reached its peak development
approximately 64 million years ago,
7
during the third phase of Himalayan
mountain formation.
Geosynclines
• A geosyncline is large troughlike or basinlike
downwarping of the crust in which thick
sedimentary and volcanic rocks accumulated.
• These are major structural and sedimentation
all units of the earth’s crust. They are elongated
trough-like depressions submerged beneath
the sea water.
• They are potential sites of mountain building
activity. These basins become filled with
great thickness of sediments and along with
the accumulation of pile of sediments; there
occurs progressive subsidence of the basin
floor resulting into plain formation at a much
later geological stage.
• The plain was the result of sediments
brought and filled by Himalayan and
Peninsular rivers.
• These plains are mostly formed of
alluvial deposits and therefore are
extremely fertile and the depth of
deposits vary between 1000-2000 m.
India - Physiography
• Physiography of a region is the outcome
of the geologic structure, geomorphic
processes, and stage of development of
landforms. India has great diversity in
terms of physical features. The north is
characterized by the rugged mountain
topography with high peaks, beautiful
valleys, and deep gorge. The southern
part is the solid block of rigid landmass
which is very stable and is dissected by
plateaus, denuded rocks, and resultant
scarps. The middle part is characterized
by vast rolling plains.
• India is divided into 6 physiographic
divisions:
» The Northern and the Northeastern
Mountains
» The Northern Plains
» The Peninsular Plateau
» The Indian Desert
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» The Coastal Plains of the Indian Plate with the Eurasian

» The Islands Plate.
• Himalayas are the highest mountain
INDIA ranges in the world and have the
PHYSIOGRAPHIC highest peaks, deep valleys, gorges and
DIVISIONS
glaciers.
NORTHERN • They form an arc over the Indian
MOUNTAINS
(BROWN) subcontinent, which covers a distance
GREAT
DESERT of around 2,400 km. in length and
(YELLOW)
NORTHERN varying width from 400 km. in Kashmir
PLAINS
(GREEN) to 160 km. in Arunachal Pradesh.
• The altitudinal variations of Himalaya
DECCAN are greater in the eastern part than
PLATEAU
(ORANGE) those in the western part.
• These mountains act as a physical
COASTAL barrier between Central and East Asian
PLAINS
(BLUE) countries and India and protect the
Indian subcontinent from the icy cold
winds of Central Asia.
I m a g e 2.1: P h y si o g r a p h y India
of
• They act as climatic, drainage and
cultural divide.

The Northern and • The northern mountain system is

North Eastern
Mountains
These set of mountains consist of
Himalayas and the North Eastern hills. Let
us first learn about Himalayan mountain
system in detail.
The Himalayan Mountain
System
• First it is to be noted that the Himalayas
and the Himalayan mountain system
are not the same. Himalayas are just
one part of the 3 parts of the Himalayan
mountain system.
• They are young and structurally fold
mountains and stretch over the northern
borders of India.
• The Himalayan ranges run from the
Indus to the Brahmaputra river in a
west-east direction.
• They are formed by the tectonic collision
divided into three parts, called – The
Himalayas, The trans-Himalayas and
The Purvanchal Hills.
Himalayas:
• Himalayas run from west (Indus) to
east (Brahmaputra) direction along the
northern boundary of India.
• They cover a distance of 2500 km. and
their width varies from 400 km. in the
west and 150 km. in the East.
• The Himalayas can be classified on
many bases. There is the most common
classification based on their north-
south alignment. This is called the
longitudinal division of Himalayas.
There is also a west to east division of
Himalayas based on region and height
of the mountains.
• There are three parallel ranges in the
Himalayas (longitudinal division)
» Himadri or the Greater Himalayas

8
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(They are the inner most mountain
ranges)
» Himachal or the Lesser Himalayas
(they are the middle Himalayas)
» Shivaliks or the Outer Himalayas
• The general orientation of these
mountains is northwest to southeast in
the north western side of India, towards
east-west direction in the North Bengal
and Sikkim and towards southwest to
northwest direction in the Arunachal
side and North-south direction in
Mizoram, Nagaland and Manipur
region.
• The Himalayan mountains from North-
east to Nepal are covered with lush
green thick forest but the forest cover
decreases west from Nepal following
the general pattern of rainfall which
decreases east to west.
Greater Himalayas or Himadri
• The Greater Himalayas run for 2400
km. from west to east and their width is
about 120-190 km.
• The average height of these mountains
is 6000 m. and average width is around
120 – 190 km.
• They are the most continuous range
consisting of the loftiest peaks and
contain all the prominent Himalayan
peaks. The core of this Himalayan part
is composed of granite.
• They are perennially snowbound, and
a number of glaciers descend from this
range.
• Mount Everest (8850 m.) – the highest
peak in the world, Mt. Kanchenjunga
(8586 m.), Mt. Makalu (8481 m.), Mt.
Dhaulagiri (8172 m.) are some of the
important peaks of this mountain range.
• Other prominent ranges include Kamet,
Nanga Parbat and Annapurna.
• The Ganga and the Yamuna, rivers
9
originate from this Himalaya.
Himachal or the Lesser Himalayas
• Lesser Himalayas or Middle Himalayas
or Himachal is the middle section of the
vast Himalaya Mountain.
• The range lies between the Great
Himalayas to the northeast and Shivalik
range to the southeast.
• The average height of these mountains
is 3700 – 4500 m. and average width is
50 km.
• Himachal extended for some 2,400
km. northeast to southeast across
the northern limit of the Indian
subcontinent.
• Areas included are Nepal, Bhutan,
Indian states of Himachal, Uttarakhand,
and Sikkim and UTs of Kashmir and
Ladakh.
• Pirpangal, Nag Tibba, Dhauladhar,
Mahabharat are some of the important
ranges.
• The Middle Himalayas are famous for
their valleys like Kulu, Kashmir, Kangra
etc.
• Most popular hill stations are in these
mountains are Shimla, Ranikhet,
Darjeeling, Nainital etc.
Shivalik or the Outer Himalayas
• Shivalik ranges are the southernmost
hills of the Himalayas.
• It is separated from the Lesser
Himalayas at some places by flat-
bottomed Valleys.
• The ancient name of this range was
‘Upgiri’.
• The Outer Himalayas makes almost a
continuous chain of more than 2400
km. from the Indus gorge in northwest
to the Brahmaputra in Assam.
• The width of Shivaliks is 10-50 km. and
the height seldom exceed 1300 m.
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• In Punjab and Himachal Pradesh, the
southern slopes of Shivalik ranges are
nearly lacking of forest cover. These
slopes are extremely dissected by
seasonal streams called Chaos.
• There exist many longitudinal valleys
between the Shivaliks and Himachal,
running parallel to the mountains and
are called ‘Duns’, like Dehradun, Kotli
Dun, Patli Dun.
Formation of ‘duns’ and 'duars' in Shivalik Hills:
• Shivalik Hills were formed by the
accumulation of conglomerates (sand, stone,
silt, gravel, debris etc.). These conglomerates,
in the initial stages of deposition, obstructed
the courses of the rivers draining from the
higher reaches of the Himalayas and formed
temporary lakes.
• With the passage of time, these temporary
lakes accumulated more and more
conglomerates. The conglomerates were well
settled at the bottom of the lakes.
• When the rivers were able to cut their courses
through the lakes filled with conglomerate
deposits, the lakes were drained away leaving
behind plains called ‘duns’ or ‘doons’ in the
west and ‘duars’ in the east.
On the basis of alignment of ranges, relief,
and similar geomorphological features, the
Himalayas are divided into the following
subdivisions.
• Kashmir or North-western Himalayas
• Himachal and Uttaranchal Himalayas
• Darjeeling and Sikkim Himalayas
• Arunachal Himalayas
• Eastern Hills and Mountains
Kashmir or Northwestern Himalayas:
• Karakoram, Ladakh, Zaskar, Pir Panjal,
and Dhaola Dhar are the main ranges
of this section
• The Kashmir Himalayas' northeastern
region is a cold desert located between
the Greater Himalayas and the
Karakoram ranges.
10
• The northern slopes are gentler, bare
and show plains with lakes, while the
southern slopes are steep, rugged and
forested.
• Siachen and Baltoro glaciers are part
of Kashmir Himalaya.
• The world-famous valley of Kashmir
and the famous Dal Lake are located
between the Great Himalayas and the
Pir Panjal range.
• It is also well-known for their Karewa
formations, which are useful for growing
Zafran, a local variety of saffron.
• This region also contains some of the
most important freshwater lakes, such
as Dal and Wular, as well as saltwater
lakes, such as Pangong Tso and Tso
Moriri.
• Famous pilgrimage sites such as
Vaishno Devi, Amarnath Cave, Charar-
e-Sharif, and others are also located
here, and a large number of pilgrims
visit these sites each year.
• Zojila, Rohtang, Baralacha la and Shipki
La are important passes.
• This area has the beautiful valleys of
Kullu, Kangra and Lahaul and Spiti.
• It is also home to the beautiful Kashmir
Valley and the Dal lake.
• The Dal lake presents a very unique and
interesting physical feature. The Jhelum
river in the Kashmir valley is still in its
youth stage and yet it forms meanders.
Meanders
• Meanders are a physical feature which is
associated with the mature stage of evolution
in the formation of fluvial landforms.
• In Kashmir Valley, the meanders in Jhelum
river are caused by the local base level
provided by the erstwhile larger lake of which
the present Dal Lake is a small part..
The Himachal and Uttarakhand
Himalayas:
• This region is roughly located between
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the Ravi in the west and the Kali (a
tributary of Ghaghara) in the east and
drained by two of India's major river
systems, the Indus and the Ganga.
• The rivers Ravi, Beas, and Satluj
(tributaries of Indus), and the Yamuna
and Ghaghara (tributaries of Ganga)
flow through this area.
• All three Himalayan ranges, namely the
Great Himalaya, the Lesser Himalayas
(locally known as Dhaoladhar in
Himachal Pradesh and Nagtibha in
Uttarakhand), and the Shiwalik range
from north to south, are prominent in
this section.
• The Bhotias are the majority of the
people who live in the valleys of the
Great Himalayan range. These are
nomadic groups that migrate to the
'Bugyals' (summer glasslands in the
higher reaches) in the summer and
return to the valleys in the winter.
• The Valley of Flowers is also situated in
this region.
• This region is famous for the formation
of Duns. Dehradun1 is the largest and
the most famous dun in this region.
• The region is also known to have
five famous Prayags. The places of
pilgrimage like Gangotri, Yamunotri,
Kedarnath and Hemkund Sahib are
situated in this region.
The Darjiling and Sikkim Himalayas:
• They are bounded to the west by the
Nepal Himalayas and to the east by the
Bhutan Himalayas.
• This Himalaya is renowned for its
fast-flowing rivers, such as Tista, high
mountain peaks such as Kanchenjunga
(Kanchengiri), and deep valleys.
• The higher reaches of this region are
inhabited by Lepcha tribes, whereas
the southern portion, especially the
Darjiling Himalayas, is populated by a
mix of Nepalis, Bengalis, and Central
11
Indian tribes.
• Instead of Shiwaliks, the ‘duar
formations' are significant here, and
have also been used for the growth of
tea gardens.
• This region is also known for their
scenic beauty and rich flora and fauna,
particularly various types of orchids.
The Arunachal Himalayas:
• These extend from the east of the
Bhutan Himalayas up to the Diphu pass
in the east in southwest to northeast
direction.
• Kangtu and Namcha Barwa are
important mountain peaks of the
region.
• The fast-flowing rivers from the north to
the south dissect this region and form
deep gorges.
• Ex: Bhramaputra flows through a deep
gorge after crossing Namcha Barwa.
• Kameng, Subansiri, Dihang, Dibang
and Lohit are some of the important
rivers of this region.
• These rivers have hydro-electric power
potential because of their perennial
flow with the high rate of fall.
• Numerous ethnic tribal groups,
including the Monpa, Abor, Mishmi,
Nyishi, and Nagas, live in these areas
from west to east.
• Most of these communities practise
Jhumming, known as shifting or slash
and burn cultivation.
The Eastern Hills and Mountain:
• These are part of the Himalayan
mountain system and have alignment
from north to south direction.
• In the north, they are known as Patkai
Bum, Naga hills, the Manipur hills and
in the south as Mizo or Lushai hills.
• This region is also inhabited by
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numerous tribal groups practising Jhum
cultivation.
• The majority of these ranges are
separated by numerous small rivers.
The Barak River (tributary of Meghna)
is important in Manipur and Mizoram.
• Manipur's physiography is characterised
by the presence of a large lake known as
'Loktak' lake in the middle, surrounded
by mountains on all sides. Mizoram,
also known as the 'Molassis basin,'
is composed of soft unconsolidated
deposits.
I m a g e 2.2: H i m a l aya s - W e s t e r n & C e n t r a l
Important Mountain Passes in Himalayas
• Banihal Pass: This mountain pass
separates the Kashmir Valley in the
Indian UT of Jammu and Kashmir from
the Outer Himalayas and plains to the
south.
• Jelep La Pass: It is a high mountain pass
between Tibet and India in Sikkim. The
pass connects Lhasa (Tibet) to India.
• Karakoram Pass: The Karakoram Pass
is between India and China and is
located in the Karakoram Range.
• Mana Pass: It is a one of the mountains
passes in the Himalayas located in
Uttarakhand state. It is on the border
12
between India and Tibet.
• Nathu La Pass: It connects the Indian
state of Sikkim with China’s Tibet
Autonomous Region. This pass is of
strategic importance in Indo-China
relations.
• Rohtang Pass: It connects the Kullu
valley with Lahaul and Spiti valleys
of Himachal Pradesh. Manali-Leh
Highway, a part of NH 21, transverses
Rohtang Pass.
• The Atal tunnel, the world's longest
highway tunnel (9.02 km) above a
height of 3,000 metres, was recently
built in Rohtang. It links Solang Valley in
the Manali district to Sissu in the Lahaul
and Spiti district.
• Shipki La Pass: It is located in Himachal
Pradesh and border post on the India-
Tibet border. The river Satluj enters
India from Tibet through this pass.
I m a g e 2.3: H i m a l aya n P a ss e s
• Zoji La Pass: It is one of the high
mountain pass in UT of Ladakh, located
on the Indian National Highway 1D
between Srinagar and Leh in the
western section of the Himalayan
mountain range.
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The Trans-Himalayan
Mountains
• The Trans Himalayas are the ranges
immediately to the north of the Great
Himalayan Range.
• It includes the mountain ranges of
Karakoram, Zanskar, Ladakh and
Kailash ranges.
• It is also called the Tibet Himalayas
because most of it lies in the Tibet
region.
• It stretches 1000 km. from east to west
and average height is about 3000 m.
Karakoram Range
• These range forms India’s frontier
with Afghanistan and China. It is the
northernmost range in the Trans-
Himalayan Mountains.
• The average width of this range is 120
– 140 km. Most peaks hardly ever fall
below 5,500 m. Some of the peaks have
height more than 8,000 m above sea
level.
• K2 is the 2nd highest peak in the world
& the highest in India. It is also known
as Godwin Austen.
Ladakh Range
• This part of the Trans Himalayan
Ranges lies to the north of Leh.
• The Ladakh Plateau lies to the north-
east of the Karakoram Ranges. It is
dissected into a number of plains and
mountains. It is the highest plateau of
Indian Union and has many plains like
Soda plains and Aksai Chin.
• This range merges with the Kailash
range in Tibet.
Zanskar Range:
• This part of Trans Himalayas is situated
13
in the Indian UT of Ladakh.
• The average height is about 6000 m.
• This range separates Zanskar from
Ladakh.
Kailash Mountain Range
• Kailash range is one of the highest
and most rugged parts of the Trans
Himalayas. It is located in the
southwestern part of the Tibet.
• Mount Kailash is an important holy site
for both Hindus and Buddhist.
• It is the origin of the river Indus.
I m a g e 2.4: T r a n s -H i m a l aya n M o u n ta i n s
The Purvanchal Or Eastern Hills
and Mountains
• After crossing the Dihang gorge
(Brahmaputra gorge) in Arunachal
Pradesh, the Himalayan ranges
suddenly turn southward. It forms the
series of comparatively low hills running
in the shape of a crescent with its
convex side pointing towards the west.
• Collectively these hills are called as
the Purvanchal because they are
located in the eastern part of the
country. Purvanchal hills extends from
the Arunachal Pradesh in the north
direction to Mizoram in the south
direction and forms a border between
Myanmar and India.
• From north to south the elevation of
the Eastern Hills decreases. The region
is categorized by rough terrain, dense
forests, and hasty streams. These
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Ranges are usually 2,000 m. or less in
elevation.
• This region receives the most of
monsoonal rainfall and therefore is
covered with lush dense green forests.
• Such green cover in the hills often
makes them inaccessible.
• Mawsynram, a village near Cherrapunji
in Meghalaya is the wettest place on
earth, receiving the highest annual
rainfall.
• These hills are inhabited by tribal
groups who practice Jhum cultivation.
• The Indo-Burma mountain range is a
part of Arakan Yoma Suture zone which
stretches south via Andaman– Nicobar
island chain to Sunda.
It comprises of the following hills:
• Mishmi hills – These hills contain the
loftiest range of the Purvanchal. Dapha
Bum is its highest peak.
• Patkai Bum Range – This is the
northernmost range making the
easternmost boundary of the Great
Himalaya Mountains. These ranges
have synclinal structure and is made up
of Tipam sandstone.
• Naga Hills – These hills lie south to the
Patkai Bum. The Samati (3826 m.) is its
tallest summit. Patkai Bum and Naga
hills form the watershed between India
and Myanmar.
• Manipur Hills – It lies south to Naga hills
and forms a boundary between Manipur
and Myanmar. Its central part is a great
basin which looks like a bed of an old lake,
a residue of which occupies the south-
east corner of the basin and is identified
as Loktak Lake. The Barail Range parts
Naga Hills from Manipur hills.
• Mizo Hills (Lushai Hills) – It lies south to
Manipur hills and its highest point is the
Blue Mountain (2157 m.) in the south.
Mizoram is known as the Molasses basin
14
which is made up of soft unconsolidated
deposits.
I m a g e 2.5: P u r va n c h a l H ills
Significance of Northern Mountains
• Physical barriers: It acts as a compound
wall which splits India from central
and East Asian countries. It is also
responsible for the variance in climatic
and weather forms between Indian
sub-continent from rest of the Asia.
• Natural frontier: The Himalaya acts
as a defense barricade and have been
protecting India from foreign invasions
since ancient period.
• Climatic Influence: The Himalayas play
a crucial role in influencing the climate of
India. India is a land of monsoon due to
the existence of Himalayas. It captures
the monsoon winds from Arabian Sea
and the Bay of Bengal branches and
forces it to shed their moisture content
within the Indian sub-continent in the
form of snow and rain.
• Himalaya also act as a barrier to the
cold winter storms of East Asia from
entering India, thus protecting us from
severe cold.
• Due to the huge vertical height of
Himalayas, they split the westerly jet
streams into two branches i.e., southern
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and northern branch. The southern
branch entering India plays an
important role in carrying the monsoon.
• Source Region of Rivers: Himalaya
is the plentiful reservoir of Great
Indian rivers such as Indus, Ganga,
and Brahmaputra. The snow liquefy
in summer and precipitation in winter
makes them perennial rivers (Rivers
having water all over the year). The
ample rains, massive snowfield and
huge glaciers nourish these drainage
systems. Himalayan Rivers give life to
northern India.
• Fertility of Soil: The Himalayan Rivers
carry slits on their way down and
deposit in the northern plain. In this
way the entire northern plains were
made by the Himalayas. These alluvial
deposits are the reasons behind the
high fertility of this land. Hence, it is
often said that northern great plain is a
gift of Himalayas.
• Hydro Electric Power Projects: The
Himalayan valley, due to the presence
of natural waterfalls and perennial
nature of rivers offers the best location
for construction of dams.
• Biodiversity and Vegetation: The
Himalayan ranges are well-known for
rich biodiversity. There is altitudinal
zonation of vegetation from the tropics
to the alpine. The forests provide fuel
wood, medicinal plants and various
raw materials that are needed for the
forest-based industries.
• Agriculture: The Himalayas does not
have much flat lands but offer slopes
that are terraced for cultivation. The
major crop is rice. Crops like maize,
wheat, ginger, potatoes, and tobacco
are also cultivated. Tea is a unique crop
which grows only on hill slopes. Many
fruits such as pears, mulberries, apples,
peaches, cherries along with citrus fruits
are grown in the Himalayan region.
• Mineral Resources: Himalayan region
contains many valuable mineral
15
resources. The tertiary rocks have vast
potential of mineral oil. Coal is found
in Kashmir. The minerals like Cobalt,
Copper, Zinc, Nickel, Lead, Antimony,
Tungsten, Limestone, Gypsum and
Magnetite are also present in the
Himalayan locality. The Silver, Gold,
and other semi-precious and precious
stones are also found in the region of
Himalaya.
• Tourism: The beautiful landscapes
on Himalayan mountain offer a great
tourist spot. The the cool climate,
winter sports and snowfall and, attracts
millions of tourists from the neighboring
places which are under the scorching
heat of summer and different parts of
the world. Hill stations such as Mussouri,
Shimla, Kulu, Manali, Nainital, Chamba,
Ranikhet, Darjeeling, Almora, Gangtok,
Mirik, etc provide huge scope of tourism
due to their scenic natural beauty as
well as healthy environment.
• Pilgrimage: Historically the Himalayas
is known as the house of the Gods.
Apart from its tourist places, the region
is studded with sanctified shrines.
Badrinath, Kedarnath, Vaishnodevi,
Amarnath, Kailash, Tungnath,
Uttarkashi, Gangotri, Yamunotri etc.
which are at high altitudes are famous
pilgrim centers in the Himalayas.
The Northern Plains
• The Great Plains of Northern India
exists in the south direction of the
Himalayas. It is, in actuality, bounded
by the Himalayas in the north and the
Deccan plateau on the south.
• This plain stretches for about 3,200 km.
from west to east and 200 to 400 km.
from north to south. It covers an area of
about 5,80,000 sq. km.
• The Great Plains of Northern India
was formed by the sediments or
alluvial deposits carried down by the
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Indus-Ganga-Brahmaputra and their
tributaries from the Himalayas.
• The rivers which were flowing into
Tethys sea in very early period (Before
Indian Plate collided with Eurasian
Plate) deposited enormous amount of
sediments in the Tethys Geosyncline.
• After upliftment of Himalayas,
sediments and debris carried down
by the rivers, started to gather there
to form the massive alluvial plain of
northern India.
• This widespread plain is level and
monotonous; it is characterized by
some local diversities.
From north to south, these
plains can be divided into
three major zones:
Bhabar
• Bhabar is a porous narrow belt found in
the northern-most stretch of the Great
Plains.
• It is around 8-16 km. wide running in an
east-west direction along the foothills
(alluvial fans) of the Shivaliks.
• Descending rivers from the Himalayas
deposit their load alongside the
foothills in the form of alluvial fans.
These alluvial fans merged together to
form Bhabar belt.
• The porosity of Bhabar is the very
unique feature. This porosity is because
of deposition of large number of
pebbles and rock debris through the
alluvial fans.
• The streams fade once they reach the
Bhabar region due to this porosity.
Hence, the area is noticeable by dry river
courses excluding in the rainy period.
• The Bhabar belt is reasonably narrow in
the east, however extensive in the west
and north-west mountainous region.
16
• The area is unsuitable for agriculture
and only big trees with large roots
thrive in this belt.
Terai
• South of the Bhabar belt is the Terai
belt.
• Terai is basically a poorly drained,
damp (marshy) and thickly forested
narrow tract to the south of Bhabar
running parallel to it.
• The Terai is about 15-30 kilometers
wide.
• The underground streams from the
Bhabar belt re-emerge in this region.
• This densely forested region provides
shelter to a variety of wildlife. Kaziranga
National Park in Assam and Jim
Corbett National Park in Uttarakhand
are situated in the Terai region.
• The Terai is more noticeable in the
eastern part compared to the western
part because the eastern parts
receive relatively greater quantity of
precipitation.
• Most of the Terai land, particularly in
Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, and Uttarakhand,
is turned into agricultural land which
yields good crops of sugarcane, rice
and wheat.
Alluvial Plains
• The south of Terai belt is characterized
by deposits of new and old alluvium
deposit. Now alluvial plains are divided
into Bhanger and Khadar.
• These plains have characteristic
features of mature stage of fluvial
erosional and depositional features
such as sandbars, meanders, oxbow
lakes, and braided channels.
• The Brahmaputra plains are famous
for the riverine islands and sandbars.
These regions are very prone to floods
and shifting river courses.
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Himalaya
• The UT of Delhi and State of Haryana
Bhabar
forms a water divide between the Indus
and the Ganga river system.
Terai
Bhangar
• Due to soil fertility and thriving
Khadar agriculture in this region, it supports a
large population.
River valley

I m a g e 2.6: M a j o r Z o n e s in Northern Plain

Bhanger
• Bhangar is the older alluvium beside
the riverbeds forming terraces higher
than the floodplain.
• The terraces are often saturated with
calcareous stone like pebbles termed
as ‘Kankar’.
• ‘The Barind plains’ in the delta region
of Bengal and the ‘bhur formations’ in
middle Ganga and Yamuna doab are
the regional variants of Bhangar.
• Bhur represents an elevated piece of I m a g e 2.7: N o r t h r n P l a i n s
land situated along the banks of the
Ganga river, especially in the upper
Ganga- Yamuna Doab. This is formed On the basis of region, the
due to accumulation of wind-blown Great Plains may be classified
sands during the hot dry months of the
year.
into three divisions
Khadar The Punjab plain drained by the
Indus
• Khadar is made up of novel alluvium
and makes the flood plains alongside • Western portion of the Northern plain is
the riverbanks. called as Punjab plain.
• A new stratum of alluvium is deposited • This plain is drained by the Indus and
by river floods almost every year. her tributaries, like the Satluj, Beas,
and Ravi. Only a fragment of the Indus
• This makes them the most fertile soils basin lies in India.
of Ganga region.
• The plain slopes lightly down towards
the south-west; hence the rivers follow
• It is in these plains that the world’s the slope of the land.
largest delta is formed. The Sundarbans • The plain is mostly made of silts. The soil
delta is one of the most important is porous. The plains that are shaped by
examples. the accumulation of new alluvium near
• Apart from these features, the Northern the riverbanks is termed as Bet.
Plains are overall very featureless with
general elevation of only 100-150 m.
above the mean sea level.

17
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The Ganga plain drained by the
Ganga
• It is spreads from the east margin of
the Punjab in the west to Bangladesh
border in the east. This is a widespread
plain encompassing state like Uttar
Pradesh, Bihar and West Bengal.
• It is divided into Rohilkhand Plains,
Awadh Plains and Bihar Plains.
• It is drained by the rivers like Yamuna,
Ghaghara, Ganga, Gandak, Kosi and
Tista from the Himalayas in the north
side and Chambal, Betwa, Son and
Damodar from the plateau in the south.
The entire region slopes towards south
and south- east.
Divisions of the Ganga Plains
• Upper Ganga plain: It extends from the
Yamuna river in the west to Allahabad
city in the east.
• Middle Ganga plain: It stretches from
Allahabad in the west to Rajmahal hills
in the east.
• Lower Ganga plain: It extends from
Rajmahal hill to the Bay of Bengal.
The Brahmaputra plain drained by
the Brahmaputra
• This region is located in the north-
eastern part of the country and is edged
between the Arunachal Himalayas in
the north and the Meghalaya Plateau
in south.
• Ranges of mountains are found
standing on both sides of the river.
• Innumerable Sandbars and islets are
found on the Brahmaputra and the river
flows out in different channels avoiding
obstacles of sandbar.
• Majuli Island is the India's First island
district and biggest inhabited riverine
islands in the world located in the river
Brahmaputra. It is the nerve centre of
Neo-Vaishnavite culture. It has been
18
included in the tentative list of World
Heritage Sites by UNESCO.
• The green Brahmaputra valley is
renowned for tea plantation.
Significance of Northern Plains:
• This one fourth region of the country’s
land hosts half of the Indian population.
• Flat surface, fertile alluvial soils, slow
moving perennial rivers, and favorable
climate facilitate the intense agricultural
activity in this region.
• The extensive use of irrigation and
intensive agriculture practice has made
the Punjab, Haryana and western part
of Uttar Pradesh became the granary
of India.
• The entire plain has a close network
of roads and railways which has led
to large scale industrialization and
urbanization.
• There are many religious places
present along the banks of the sacred
rivers of Ganga and Yamuna which are
very sacred to Hindus. The religions of
Buddha and Mahavira flourished here
and the movements of Bhakti and
Sufism. This makes northern plains as
destination for the cultural tourism.
The Peninsular
Plateau
• Peninsular plateau is triangular in shape
& encircled by hills, composed of oldest
rocks as it was formed from the drifted
part of Gondwanaland.
• It is a tableland made up of old
crystalline, igneous and metamorphic
rocks.
• The broad & shallow valleys and
rounded hills are the characteristic
features of this plateau.
• The Peninsular plateau stretches from
the Aravali range till the southern tip
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of India. This peninsular plateau is
bordered by Western Ghats in the west,
Eastern Ghats in the east.
• Plateau can be broadly categorized into
two regions, viz. the Central Highlands
and the Deccan Plateau.
Central Highlands:
• The Central Highlands situated to the
north of the Narmada River & covers
the major portion of the Malwa plateau
which lies in Madhya Pradesh between
Aravali and Vindhyas.
• The Satpura range is formed by
scarped plateaus on the south having
an elevation varying between 600-900
m. above the mean sea level and forms
the northernmost boundaries of the
Deccan Plateau.
• Rivers in this area flow from southwest
to northeast, which shows the slope of
this area.
• It is wider in the west side and narrower
in the east.
• Most tributaries of Yamuna have their
origin in the Vindhyan and Kaimur
ranges.
• Bundelkhand and Baghelkhand are
the eastward extension of this plateau.
They lie along the borders of UP & MP
and has been transformed into ravines
by extensive erosional activities of river
Chambal & its tributaries.
• The plateau further extends eastwards
into the Chota Nagpur plateau located
at the NE part of Peninsular plateau.
It extends up to Rajmahal hills. It
includes the states of Jharkhand, parts
of Chhattisgarh & WB. Its highest Peak
is Parasnath. Chotanagpur is famous
as Patland plateau & known as Ruhr of
India.
• There are many major and minor
plateaus in this region, as follows:
19
Mewar or Marwar Plateau
• It is the plateau of eastern Rajasthan.
• Note that Marwar Plain is to the west of
Aravalis and Marwar plateau is to the
east.
• The average altitude is 250-500 m
above sea level, and it slopes down
eastwards.
• The Banas river, along with her
tributaries (Berach river, Khari rivers)
originate in the Aravali Range and flow
towards the northwest into Chambal
river.
Bundelkhand Plateau
• This plateau is bounded by Yamuna
River to the north direction, Madhya
Bharat Pathar to the west, Vindhyan
to the east and south-east and Malwa
Plateau to the south.
• It is the old divided upland (divided
by a number of deep valleys) of the
‘Bundelkhand Gneiss’ comprising of
granite and gneiss rocks.
• It is spreads over five districts of Uttar
Pradesh and four districts of Madhya
Pradesh.
• Average elevation of 300-600 m.
above the sea level. This region slopes
down from the Vindhyan Scarp in the
direction of Yamuna River.
• The area is marked by a chain of
hillocks (small hill) composed of granite
and sandstone.
• Erosional work of the rivers flowing here
have transformed it into an undulant
area and rendered it unfit for cultivation.
• Rivers like Betwa, Dhasan and Ken flow
through the plateau.
Malwa Plateau
• Malwa Plateau approximately develops
a triangle based on the Vindhyan Hills,
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bounded by the Aravali Range in the
west side and Madhya Bharat Pathar to
the north and Bundelkhand to the east
side.
• The plateau has two drainage systems:
one towards the Arabian sea (Narmada,
Tapi and Mahi), and the another in the
direction of Bay of Bengal (Chambal
and Betwa, joining the Yamuna).
• In the north it is drained by the Chambal
and many of its right bank tributaries
like the Kali, Sindh and the Parbati.
It also includes the upper courses of
Sindh, the Ken and the Betwa.
• It is made up of extensive lava flow and
is shielded by black soil.
• It is a rolling plateau dissected by
rivers. In north direction, the plateau is
noticeable by the Chambal ravines.
Baghelkhand Plateau
• North of Maikal Range is the
Baghelkhand.
• It is made of limestones and sandstones
on the west and granite in the east.
• Son rivers makes the boundary in the
North side.
• Central part of plateau act as a water
divide between the Son drainage system
in the north side and the Mahanadi
river system in the south direction.
• The general horizontal nature of the
strata displays that this area has not
underwent any major disturbance.
Chotanagpur Plateau
• Chotanagpur plateau characterizes the
north-eastern projection of the Indian
Peninsula.
• It is located mostly in Jharkhand,
northern part of Chhattisgarh and
Purulia district of West Bengal state.
• Son river streams in the north-west of
20
the plateau and joins Ganga river.
• Average altitude of the plateau is 700
meter above the sea level.
• This plateau is composed mostly of
Gondwana rocks.
• The plateau is drained by various rivers
and streams in different directions and
presents a radial drainage pattern.
• Rivers like Damodar, Subarnrekaha,
North Koel, South Koel and Barkar have
developed extensive drainage basins.
• Damodar river flows over middle of this
region in a rift valley from west to east.
• Gondwana coal fields which provide
most of coal in India are located in this
region.
• North of the Damodar river lies the
Hazaribagh plateau with an average
altitude of 600 m above mean sea level.
This plateau has isolated hills.
• Ranchi Plateau lying south of the
Damodar Valley rises to near 600 m
above mean sea level. Most of the
surface is rolling in nature.
• At places it is interrupted by
Monadnocks (isolated hill of bedrock
standing conspicuously above the
general level of the surrounding area)
and conical hills.
• The Rajmahal Hills form the north
eastern edge of the Chotanagpur
Plateau and it is mostly made up of
basalt rocks.
• They run in a north-south direction and
rise to average elevation of 400 m.
Deccan Plateau
• It is the largest plateau in India, making
up most of the southern part of the
country, lies to the south of the Narmada
River & shaped as downward-pointing
triangle.
• Surrounded by Satpura hills, Mahadeo
hills, Maikal range, Amarkantak hills
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and Rajmahal hills in the north, Western
Ghats in the west side and the Eastern
Ghats in the east side.
• It is made up of horizontal layers of
solidified lava of volcanic origin forming
trap structure with step like appearance.
Sedimentary layers are too found in
between the layers of solidified lava,
making it inter-trapping in structure.
• The average altitude of Western Ghats
is 900 – 1600 meters; compared to 600
meters in case of Eastern Ghats.
• It is the home of thick dark soil (called
regur), suitable for cotton cultivation.
• Dissection of the plateau by different
rivers has further created subdivisions
in the Deccan Plateau. They are as
follows:
Maharashtra Plateau
• It forms the northern most part of the
plateau.
• As a result of the fissure eruptions
millions of years ago, basaltic rocks of
lava origin dominate most of the area.
• The region is exposed to intensive
weathering and due to this the region
looks like a rolling plain.
• The broad and shallow valleys of
Godavari, Bhima and Krishna are
flanked by flat-topped sharp sided
mountains and ridges.
Deccan Trap
• The Deccan Traps are a Large Igneous
Province i.e., an extremely large accumulation
of igneous rocks, including volcanic rock
formations, arising when hot magma extrudes
from inside the Earth and flows out.
• The term "trap" has been used in geology
since 1785–95 for such staircase like rock
formations. They consist of multiple layers
of solidified flood basalt. Deccan Trap is
prominent on the Maharashtra Plateau,
Western India.
• The entire area is shielded by black
cotton soil known as Regur which is
21
extremely beneficial for the growth of
cotton.
Karnataka Plateau
• Karnataka Plateau is also identified
as the Mysore plateau and lies to the
south of the Maharashtra plateau.
• The area has an average altitude of
600-900 meters.
• It is highly dissected by various rivers
rising from the Western Ghats.
• The plateau is separated into two parts
called Malnad and Maidan.
• The Malnad in Kannada stands for hill
country. It is divided into deep valleys
covered with dense forestry.
• The Maidan is formed of rolling plains
with low granite mountains.
• The plateau tapers between the
Western Ghats and the Eastern Ghats
in the south and merges with the Nilgiri
hills there.
Telangana Plateau
• The Telangana plateau consists of
Archaean gneisses1.
• Its average altitude is 500-600 m.
• The southern part is upper than its
northern counterpart.
• The region is drained by 3 river systems:
Godavari, Krishna and Penneru.
• The complete plateau is divided into
Ghats and the Peneplains.
Chhattisgarh Plains
• It is a saucer shaped depression drained
by the upper Mahanadi.
1 Peninsular Gneiss is a term coined to highlight the older gneis-
sic complex of the metamorphic found all over the Deccan
Plateau. Archean Gneiss and schists are the oldest rock in this
region. Archean is one of the four geologic eons which occurred
about 4000 million years ago. The archean gneiss is a meta-
morphic rock that was formed during that period.
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• The whole basin lies between the Maikal • The Western Ghats and the Eastern
Range and the Odisha hills. Ghats mark the western and the
• The basin consists of with almost eastern edges of the Deccan Plateau
horizontal beds of limestone and shales. respectively.

• The general altitude of the plain ranges

from 250 m in the east to 330 m in the
west.

I m a g e 2.9: E a s t e r n & western G h at s

I m a g e 2.8: P e n i n s u a l a r P l at e a u of India

Western Ghats Eastern Ghats

They stretch from river Tapi in the north to They stretch from Mahanadi valley in the north to
Kanyakumari in the south, running parallel to the Nilgiris in the south, following the east coastline.
west coast of India.

Average width: 50-80 km. Average width: 100-200 km.

Most peninsular rivers have their origin in the No major river has their origin in the Eastern ghats.
Western Ghats.

They are uninterrupted and can be crossed only They comprise of discontinuous and low hills.
through passes.

Average elevation: 900-1000 m. Therefore elevation Average elevation: 600 m. Therefore, elevation is
is higher. lesser than western ghats.

Western ghats receives orographic type of rainfall. Eastern ghats lie parallel to the direction of
The South-west monsoon coming from the Arabian monsoons of Bay of Bengal branch and therefore
sea brings heavy rainfall. does not cause much rainfall.

Western Ghats are locally known as Sayhadris Eastern ghats are known as Maliya and Madugula
(Maharashtra), Nilgiri (Karnataka and Tamil Nadu) Konda ranges in Odisha, Nallamalai and Palkonda
Annamalai and cardamom hills (Kerala). ranges in Andhra Pradesh.
Southwards they are presented as detached low
hills like Javadi, Chevroy, Panchaimalai, Sirumaial,
Varushnad hills.

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Highest peak: Anai Mudi.
Northeastern Plateau:
• It is an extension of the main peninsular
plateau.
• The force exerted during the movement
of the Indian plate created a huge
fault between Rajmahal hills and the
Meghalaya Plateau called the Malda
fault.
• It encompasses of Meghalaya and
Karbi Anglong plateau which are
disconnected from the main block.
• The Meghalaya plateau is separated
into 3 parts- Garo hills, Khasi hills
and Jaintia hills named after the
predominant tribes in these areas
• The Meghalaya plateau gets maximum
rainfall and stands devoid of any
permanent vegetation cover.
• It is also abundant in mineral resources
like coal, iron-ore, limestone, uranium
etc.
Indian Desert
• Thar Desert, also known by the name
Great Indian Desert, is an arid region
of rolling sand hills on the Indian
subcontinent. It is located partly in
Rajasthan, northwestern India, and
partly in Punjab and Sindh provinces,
eastern Pakistan and covers some
200,000 sq. km.
• This region receives scanty rainfall which
is less than 150 mm in a year, Hence the
climate is arid, and vegetation is scanty.
• These physical conditions lend it the
name of Marusthali.
• It is believed that during the mesozoic
era this entire region was submerged
under the sea corroborated by the fact
that wood fossils and marine deposits
23
Highest peak: Jindhagadha.
were discovered at Aakal and Bhramsar
near Jaisalmer.
• The underlying rock structure of the
desert is an extension of the peninsular
plateau, but the surface features have
been carved heavily due to wind erosion
and weathering.
• The topography is undulating with
predominance of longitudinal dunes or
Barchans2.
• Other features include mushroom rocks,
shifting dunes and oasis.
• It is the 9th biggest desert in the world.
The vegetation in the Thar is of semi-
arid kind with thorny bushes.
• Luni is the only prominent river but
certain other streams appear during
the rainy season.
• The subtropical desert climate results
from persistent high pressure and
subsidence at that latitude. The
prevailing southwest monsoon winds
which bring rain to most part of the
subcontinent in summer tends to
sidestep the Thar to the east.
• The name Thar is basically derived from
Thul, the general name for the region’s
sand ridges.
• The surface consists of aeolian (wind-
deposited) sand which is collected over
the last 1.8 million years.
• The desert consists of an undulating
surface, with high and low sand dunes
parted by sandy plains and low barren
mountains, or Bhakars, which rise
suddenly from the adjacent plains. The
dunes are in frequent motion.
• Older dunes, however, are in a semi-
stabilized or stabilized condition, and
2 Barchans are crescent shaped sand dunes. They face the wind,
appearing convex and are produced by wind action predomi-
nantly from one direction. They are a very common land form in
sandy deserts all over the world and are arc shaped.
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many rises to a height of almost 150
meters above the adjacent areas.
Several Playas (saline lake beds),
locally called as Dhands, are scattered
throughout the region.
• Soils are predominantly coarse-
textured, well-drained, and calcareous
(calcium-bearing). A thick buildup of
lime often occurs at varying depths. The
soils are generally infertile and because
of severe wind erosion, are overblown
with sand.
• The desert vegetation is mostly
herbaceous or stunted scrub; drought-
resistant trees are generally found in
the east side. On the hills, gum arabic
acacia and euphorbia may be found.
The khajri tree grows throughout the
plains.
• Rajasthan Desert comprises the three
cities - Jaisalmer, Bikaner and Jodhpur
which is commonly known as the desert
triangle.
• Based on orientation, the desert is
divided into northern (sloping towards
Sindh) and southern part (sloping
towards Rann of Kutch).
The Coastal Plains
• The Peninsular plateau is bordered by
stretch of narrow coastal strips which
run alongside the Arabian Sea on the
west side and alongside the Bay of
Bengal on the east.
• India has a total coastline of 7516.6
km, out of which mainland coastline
consists of 6100 km and islands'
coastline consists of 1197 km.
• The straight and consistent coastline
of India is due to the faulting of the
Gondwana land during the Cretaceous
period. As a result, the coast of India
does not offer many sites for good
natural harbours.
• The coastal plains in India are situated
24
parallel to the Arabian Sea and the
Bay of Bengal. On the basis of location
and active Geomorphic processes, it
is divided into Western and Eastern
Coastal Plains.
Eastern Coastal Plains:
• The east coastal plain originates from
the north with the plains designed by
the Subarnarekha River to the south
up to Kanyakumari. It thus expanses for
nearly 1500 km., with nearly a breadth
of 100 km.
• To the east of this lies the extensive
blue waters of Bay of Bengal and in the
west of the plain lies the Eastern Ghat
hills. Compared to the Western Coastal
Plain, the East Coastal Plain is wider.
• The deltas of the Mahanadi, Godavari,
Krishna and Kaveri rivers have formed
nearly 25% of the area of this plain. The
soil of the deltas is very fertile therefore
agriculture is very productive. Specially
and delta of the river Krishna is very
fertile and is known as the ‘Granary of
South India’.
• The East coastal plains show the
presence of many sand dunes, lagoons
and varieties of marshland. They are
connected to the sea very slightly, e.g.
– Chilka Lake in the Utkal coast, Kolleru
and Pulicat lakes in the Andhra coast.
• The East Coastal Plain can be
subdivided into Coromandel Coast and
North Sircar Coast
• While according to states, it can be
divided into:
Odisha or Utkal coastal plain:
• Utkal coast spreads between Chilika
Lake and Kolleru Lake.
• These coastal plains are comparatively
much wider than the western coastal
plains.
• The region is hugely affected by
immense precipitation.
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• It is also very susceptible to cyclones.
• In this region, rice, coconut and banana
are widely cultivated.
Andhra Coastal Plain:
• Andhra coast spreads between Kolleru
Lake and Pulicat Lake.
• The area is a basin area of two
particularly important rivers- Krishna
and Godavari. Due to this, the region is
very fertile.
• These coastal plains are very wide.
Tamil Nadu coastal plain:
• Coromandel coast streaches between
Pulicat Lake and Kanyakumari in Tamil
Nadu.
• This region stays dry in summer and
receives rain in the winter months from
the north-east monsoons.
Western Coastal Plains
• It stretches from the Rann of Kutch in
the north to Kanyakumari in the South.
• To the East it is surrounded by the steep
slopes of the Western Ghat and to the
west lays the Arabian Sea.
• Compared to the East Coastal Plain,
this West coastal plain is narrower.
• The west coastal plain becomes
narrower gradually from the Kutch
coast to Kanyakumari.
• Unlike the East Coastal Plain which has
large rivers and their wide mouths or
large deltas, the west coast has short
rivers coming down swiftly from the
western slopes of the Western Ghat,
draining into the Arabian Sea without
forming any deltas.
• The coastal plain is dotted with a large
number of coves (very small bay), creeks
25
(a narrow, sheltered waterway such as
an inlet in a shoreline or channel in a
marsh) and a few estuaries.
• The estuaries of Narmada and Tapi are
the major ones.
• The Kerala coast has some lakes,
lagoons and backwaters, the largest
being the Vembanad Lake.
• The western coastal plain is an example
of submerged coastal plain. Because of
this submergence, it is a narrow belt
and offers natural conditions for the
development of ports and harbours.
Following are the subdivisions of the West
Coastal Plain:
The Coastal Plains of Gujarat
• This forms the north portion of the west
coast.
• This region is also called Kutch or
Kathiawar coast. It is quite wide.
• The lowland was formed due to the
deposition of silt brought mainly by the
Indus which drained into this region in
the past.
• The lowland in the Kutch region form
marshes and are called Rann. In the
monsoon this entire Rann region lies
under water.
• Kutch is separated into Great Rann in
the north and Little Rann in the east.
• Banni Plains lies between Great Rann
and Rocky mainlands.
• Kathiawar is located to the south of
Kutch.
• The plains of Gujarat are composed of
black soil.
The Coastal Plain of the Konkan
• From Daman in the north to Goa in the
south lays the Konkan Coastal Plain.
• This plain extends for 500 km. but is
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very narrow and broken. like the 80 km. long Vembanad Kayal
• The Konkan coast is marked by near Kochi and the Ashtamudi Kayal
subduction and erosional features. near Kollan (Quilon) are famous.

• The lowlands in the region are • The kayals receive the water from a large
characterized by low hills parted by number of rivers before discharging to
river courses which end in creeks and the sea with which they are linked with
estuaries near the sea. narrow openings.

• In this area, rice and cashew are • There has been a slight emergence in
important crops. this part of the western coast.

• Through the northern part of this coast • Comparison between the two types of
flows the Baitarani River. coastal plains:

Western Coastal Plains Eastern Coastal Plains

The Coastal Plains of Karnataka
They extend from They extend from
• South of the Konkan coast begins the Kutch to Kanyakumari. Sunderbans to
coastal plains of Karnataka between Kanyakumari.
Goa in the north and Mangalore in the
south direction, for 225 km., also called They are parallel to the They are parallel to the
Western Ghats. Eastern Ghats.
the Kannada coast
• Though these coastal plain starts They are separated They are further
narrow, it is wider near Mangalore. into coastal plains divided into coastal
of Kutch, Konkan, plains of Utkal, Andhra
• At many places along the coast, the Kannada and Malabar. and Coromandel.
plain is sandy and at some places the
Western Ghat reaches the sea. To the They are narrower and They are broader than
east of this plain lies the highest waterfall elongated. the western coast.
of India, called Jog or Gersoppa (275
These are submerged These are emergent
meters.) which falls across the Sharavati coastal plains. coastal plains.
River.
• The region is rich in iron deposits. The rivers flowing Well-developed delta
through western formed by the rivers
coastal plains do not flowing through the
form any delta. eastern coastal plains.
The Coastal Plains of Malabar
• The extreme southern part of the west Important natural ports Less number of ports
are located on the and harbours are
coast plain lies in the state of Kerala western coast- Kandla, there like Chennai,
and is called the Malabar Coast. Jawaharlal Nehru Visakhapatnam.
• Compared to the Konkan and Karnataka Port Trust, Marmagao,
Mangalore, Cochin.
Coastal plains this is the widest at 25
km. on average.
• There are lagoons in the area which runs
parallel to the coast in southern Kerala.
• There are many sand dunes, lakes, or
lagoons along the Malabar Coast. The
local people call these lagoons Kayal

26

I m a g e 2.10: C o a s ta l P l a i n s
India
Significance of Coastal
Region
• These plains are very productive for
agriculture. Western coast produces
specialized tropical crops while eastern
coasts witnessed a prompt growth in
rice production.
• Coastal plains are source of salt,
monazite (used for nuclear power) and
mineral oil and gas as well as centres of
fisheries.
• Although lacking in adequate natural
harbours, with a number of major and
minor ports, coastal plains are centres
of commerce and have attracted dense
human settlements.
• The coastal regions of India are noted
for tourist centres, fishing and salt
making.
• Coconut trees grow all alongside the
coast.
• The whole length of the coast is dotted
with big and small ports which help in
carrying out trade.
Coastline of emergence
Submergence
• Coastline of emergence is formed
either by an uplift of the land or by the
lowering of the sea level. Coastline of
submergence is an exact opposite case.
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• Bars, spits, lagoons, salt marshes,
beaches, sea cliffs and arches are the
typical features of emergence.
• The east coast of India, especially its
south-eastern part (Tamil Nadu coast),
appears to be a coast of emergence. The
west coast of India, on the other hand,
is both emergent and submergent.
• The northern portion of the coast is
submerged as a result of faulting and
the southern portion, that is the Kerala
coast, is an example of an emergent
and C oa st s O f coast.
Plains
The Islands
• In the physiography of India, there are
two major Island groups. They are in
the Bay of Bengal and Arabian Sea.
• There are numerous small and large
islands, some of which are of volcanic
origin, while some are of coral origin.
• The coastal line of these islands has
coral deposits and beautiful beaches.
• They have equatorial type of vegetation
and receive convectional rainfall.
• These islands are mostly flat and hardly
a few meters above sea level.
The Bay of Bengal Islands
• They are situated between 6°N-14°N
and 92°E-94°E and consists of 572
islands.
• Andaman and Nicobar Islands have
volcanic origin. The northern part is
called Andaman and the southern part
is called as Nicobar.
and • They are separated by Ten Degree
Channel.
• The two principal groups of islets
include Ritchie’s archipelago and
Labyrinth Island.
• These islands are elevated portions of
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submarine mountain.
• Barren Island is the only active volcano
in India and is situated in the Nicobar
Islands.
The Arabian sea Island Group
• They are known as Lakshadweep and
Minicoy Islands.
• They are located near the Malabar
coast (280-480 km. off the Kerala coast)
between 8°N-12°N and 71°E-74°E.
I m a g e 2.10: A & N
28
• They are built completely on coral
deposits.
• Out of the 43 islands, Minicoy is the
largest one.
• The entire group of islands is broadly
separated by Eleven-degree Channel,
north of which is Amini island and to
the south is Cannanore islands.
• Islands of this archipelago have storm
beaches consisting of unconsolidated
pebbles, shingles, cobbles, and
boulders.
and L a k s h a dw e e p I sl a n d s
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CHAPTER - 3

INDIA: DRAINAGE
Introduction
• Drainage: The flow of water through well
defined channels is known as drainage.
• Drainage system: The network of such
channels (rivers and their tributaries) is
called a drainage system.
• River basin: A river basin is the portion
of land drained by a river and its
tributaries. It encompasses the entire
land surface dissected and drained
by many streams and creeks that flow
downhill into one another.
• Water divide: The line which separates
two adjacent drainage basins is known
as water divide. It is generally marked
by an elevated area like a mountain or
a plateau.
• Watershed: The catchment area
for rainfall that is delineated as the
drainage area producing run-off is
called watershed. Generally considered
as the area contained within a divide
above a specified point on a stream.
• The texture is governed by soil
infiltration, and the volume of water
available in a given period of time to
enter the surface.
Antecedent
Drainage
• Rivers which existed before the
upheaval of the Himalayas and cut
their courses southwards by making
gorges in the mountains are known as
antecedent rivers.
• A section of a river slope and the
surrounding area gets uplifted and the
river sticks to its original slope, cutting
from the uplifted portion like a saw
and forming deep gorges: this kind
of drainage is known as Antecedent
drainage.
• Example: Indus, Brahmaputra, Satluj,
and other Himalayan rivers which are
older than the Himalayas.
ANTECEDENT
RIVER

Drainage Patterns A

• Over a period of time, a stream system

achieves a particular drainage pattern
to its network of stream channels and
B
tributaries as it is decided by local
geologic aspects.
• Drainage patterns are classified on basis I m a g e 3.1: A n t e c e d e n t D r a i n a g e
of their texture and form. Their shape or
pattern develops in response to the local
topography and subsurface geology. Consequent Drainage
• Drainage channels develop where • Consequent streams are first streams
surface runoff is enhanced, and rock which originates in a particular region.
materials offer least resistance to
• These streams have their courses
erosion.
according to the initial slope of the

29
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land surface. In different words, the
consequent streams follow the regional
slope. These are also called dip streams.
• Rivers following the general direction
of slope are known as the consequent
rivers.
• Longest stream of the complete system
of consequent streams is called master
consequent.
• Most of the peninsular rivers of India are
basically consequent rivers. E.g., rivers
like Godavari, Krishna, and Kaveri.
Subsequent Drainage
• A tributary stream which is eroded
along an underlying belt of non-
resistant rock after the main drainage
pattern (Consequent River) has been
established is known as a subsequent
river.
• The streams originated after the master
consequent stream and following the
axis of the anticlines or ridges and the
strikes of beds are called subsequent
streams.
• Chambal, Sind, Ken, Betwa, Tons and
Son river meets the Yamuna and the
Ganga at the right angle. They are the
subsequent drainage of Ganga river
system.
• These streams have generally
developed after the original stream.
Superimposed
Drainage
• Superimposed
stream means a
drainage that is formed when the nature
and characteristics of the valleys and
flow direction of a consequent stream
developed on the upper geological
formation and structure are superim-
posed on the lower geological formation
30
of entirely different characteristics.
• When a river flowing on a softer rock
stratum reaches the harder basal rocks
and still continues to follow the initial
slope, it seems to have no relation with
the underlying harder rock bed. This
type of drainage is called superimposed
drainage.
SUPERIMPOSED
RIVER
A
B
I m a g e 3.2: S u p e ri m p o s e d D r a i n a g e
Dendritic Pattern
• Dendritic or tree shaped drainage
pattern is indeed the most common
and widespread pattern to be found on
the surface of the earth.
• The pattern is known as the dendritic
due to the network of tributaries
resembling the branches and roots and
rootlets of a tree.
• The dendritic pattern is associated with
the areas of homogeneous lithologies,
horizontal or very gently dipping strata,
flat and rolling extensive topographic
surface having extremely low reliefs.
• Ex: Indus, Godavari, Mahanadi, Kaveri,
and Krishna.
TR
IB
UT
AR
Y
RIVER
I m a g e 3.3: D e n d ri t i c P at t e r n
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Trellised Pattern • Second point of difference within these

two patterns is related to the spacing
• This drainage pattern is formed by of streams i.e., the rectangular pattern
the network of tributaries and master is characterized by widely spaced
consequent streams which follow the tributaries while trellised pattern
regional slope and are well adjusted to has a dense mesh of closely spaced
the geological structures. tributaries.
• Such patterns are developed in the • Ex: Streams found is the Vindhyan
area of simple folds characterized by Mountains of India.
parallel anticlinal ridges alternated by
parallel synclinal valleys.
• Several streams develop on both flanks ER
RIV
of the ridges and join the longitudinal
synclinal streams at right angle. These
tributary streams are called lateral
ER
consequent streams. RIV
• As such, the resultant network of
numerous longitudinal streams and
transverse or lateral consequents is
I m a g e 3.5: R e c ta n g u l a r P at t e r n
called trellised pattern.
LOGITUDINAL CONSEQUENT

Radial Pattern
• Radial drainage pattern, also known
RIDG E as centrifugal pattern, is formed by the
streams which diverge from a central
higher point in all directions.
SYNCLINE • The streams begin at the central point
of the above mentioned reliefs and
CONSEQUENT

drain down the slopes in every direction.

LATERAL

As the streams follow the slopes, they

RIDG E are basically consequent streams.
• These streams look similar to the spokes
I m a g e 3.4: T r e llis e d P at t e r n of a wheel or the radii of a circle.
• Ex: Rivers like Narmada, Son and
Mahanadi originating from Amarkantak
Rectangular Pattern
Mountain flow in different directions
• Rectangular pattern shows some and are good examples of radial
degree of resemblance to trellised pattern.
drainage pattern as tributary streams
in both the patterns join their master
streams almost at right angle.
• But the confluence angle is guided by
the strikes and dip angle of the rock
beds in case of Trellised pattern while it
is determined by the lines of weaknesses
of the rocks in rectangular pattern.

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of the master consequent streams

500m
are developed in the form of a circle.
Such pattern is developed over a
mature and dissected dome mountain
characterized by a series of alternative
DOME
bands of hard and soft rock beds.
MOUNTAIN 400m

900M • Differential erosion of soft and hard rock

beds results in truncation of the beds
300m
which produces ring belted structure
where relatively resistant beds project
outward whereas the weaker (soft) beds
300m form circular clefts.
I m a g e 3.6: R a d i a l P at t e r n 400M
500M

Centripetal Drainage
• Centripetal or inland drainage pattern DOME 500M
400M

is reverse to the radial drainage pattern MOUNTAIN

because it is categorized by the streams 900M
which converge at a point which is
usually a depression or a basin. 400M
300M
• This pattern is shaped by a series of
streams which after emerging from
adjacent uplands converge in a central 300M
low land which may be a depression, or
I m a g e 3.8: A n n u l a r P at t e r n D r a i n a g e
a basin or a crater lake.
• Ex: Loktak lake in Manipur.
Drainage System in India
• Indian drainage system can be divided
on various bases.
500M
400M
• On the basis of discharge of water, it may
DEPRESSION be divided into Arabian Sea Drainage
300M and the Bay of Bengal Drainage. They
are separated from each other by the
Delhi Ridge, Aravalis and the Sahyadris.
600M
600M • On the basis of the size of watershed,
drainage basins in India are grouped into
major river basins with catchment area
I m a g e 3.7: C e n t ri p e ta l D r a i n a g e of more than 20,000 sq. km. (drainage
basins like Ganga, Brahmaputra,
Krishna, Tapi, Narmada etc.), drainage
basins with catchment area between
Annular Pattern 2000-20,000 sq. km. (like the drainage
• Annular pattern, also known as ‘circular basins of river Kalindi, Periyar, Meghna)
pattern,’ is formed when the tributaries and minor river basins with catchment
area less than 2000 sq. km.

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• On the base of mode of origin, nature
and characteristics, the drainage system
in India is classified into the Himalayan
Drainage and the Peninsular Drainage
system.
The Himalayan
Drainage System
• Himalayan drainage system have
evolved through a long geological
history.
• Most of the Himalayan river system are
perennial in nature (rivers are fed by
melting of snow and precipitation) which
means they have water throughout the
year.
• They receive water through melted
snow from the Himalayas and also from
abundant rainfall.
• Two major Himalayan Rivers, i.e., the
Indus and the Brahmaputra originates
from the north of the mountain ranges
(trans-Himalayan Rivers).
• They cut through the mountains making
gorges.
• The Himalayan Rivers have extensive
courses from their source to the sea.
• These rivers pass through giant gorges
carved out by erosional activities
carried on simultaneously with the
uplift of the Himalayas.
• Other erosional features like V-shaped
valleys, rapids and waterfalls are
formed. Depositional features like
oxbow lakes, flood plains, braided
channels are formed in the middle and
lower courses of these rivers.
• The Himalayan Rivers have a very
winding and rapid course in the
upper reaches, but they show strong
meandering tendency and shift in their
courses in the plain regions1.
1 The Kosi river (Ganga River System) frequently changes it
course causing floods all over Bihar, earning the title of ‘sor-
33
Evolution of the Himalayan
Drainage
• The geologists believed that there
was once a mighty river called Indo-
Brahma or Shivalik that traversed the
entire length (longitudinal extent) of the
Himalayas from Assam to Punjab Plains
onwards to Sindh and finally discharged
into Gulf of Sindh during the Miocene
period (5-24 million years ago).
• The remarkable continuity of Shivalik
and its lacustrine (associated with lakes)
and alluvial deposits consisting of sand,
clay, boulders support this viewpoint.
• It is said that in due course of time this
mighty Indo-Brahma river dismembered
into three main drainage systems: Indus
with its five tributaries in the west, the
Ganga with its several tributaries in the
central part and the Brahmaputra in
the eastern part.
• This dismemberment was due to the
Pleistocene upheaval in the western
Himalayas, including the uplift of the
Potwar Plateau (Delhi Ridge), which
acted as the water divide between the
Ganga and Indus drainage systems.
• Similarly, the down-thrusting of the
Malda gap area between the Rajmahal
hills and Meghalaya plateau during
mid- Pleistocene period, separated
the Ganga river system from the
Brahmaputra and diverted these two
river flow towards Bay of Bengal.
The River Systems of the
Himalayan Drainage
Indus River System
• Area: 11,65,000 sq. km. (in total). In India,
it is 321,289 sq. km.
row of Bihar’. The Kosi brings huge quantity of sediments from
its upper reaches and deposits them in the plains. In this way,
due to overdue of sediments its course gets blocked and conse-
quently the river changes it course.
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• It flows for a total length of 2880 km.
(1114 km. in India).
• The river originates in the Bokhar
Chu glacier in Mt. Kailash range near
Mansarovar Lake in Tibet at an altitude
of 4164 m.
• It is termed as Singi Khamban or lion’s
mouth in Tibet region.
• It flows towards west and enters India in
Jammu and Kashmir (between Ladakh
and Zanskar ranges), further flows
through Himachal Pradesh, Punjab
and enters Pakistan near Chillar in the
Dardistan region.
• It cuts across the Ladakh range and
forms a spectacular gorge at Gilgit in
Jammu and Kashmir.
• It has huge number of tributaries both
in India and Pakistan and has a total
length of about 2880 km. from the
source to the point near Karachi where
it drains into the Arabian Sea.
• It crosses the Himalayas through a
5181-meter-deep gorge near Attock,
which lies north of the Nanga Parbat.
• In the Kashmir region, it links with many
tributaries – the Zaskar, the Shyok, the
Nubra and the Hunza (left bank) and
Khurram, Tochi, Sangar and Gomal
(right bank).
• River flows southwards to meet
‘Panchnad’ i.e., Satluj, Ravi, Beas,
Chenab and Jhelum, a little above
Mithankot.
• The Indus river system consists of the
following rivers: Satluj, Ravi, Beas,
Chenab and Jhelum, Zanskar, Nubra
and Shyok and Hunza.
• Jhelum is an important tributary of
Indus rising from a spring in Verinag
in South-east Kashmir valley. It flows
through Srinagar and Wular Lake
before entering Pakistan through a
deep narrow gorge. It joins Chenab
near Jhang in Pakistan.
• Chenab is the largest tributary of Indus.
34
It is formed by two streams Chandra
and Bhaga which joins at Tandi near
Keylong in Himachal. Chenab or
Chandrabhaga flows for 1180 km.
before entering Pakistan.
• The Ravi rises west of Rohtang pass
in the Kullu hills of Himachal Pradesh.
It flows through the Chamba valley of
Himachal. It enters Pakistan and joins
the river Chenab at Sarai Sindhu and
drains the area lying between the
south eastern part of Pir Panjal and the
Dhauladhar ranges.
• The Beas originates from Beas Kund
near Rohtang pass at an elevation of
4000 m. It flows through the Kullu valley
and develos gorges at Kati and Largi
in Dhauladhar range. It enters into the
Punjab plains where it meets with the
Satluj river near Harike.
• The Satluj originates near the Rakas
lake near Mansarovar at an altitude of
4555 m in Tibet, where it is known as
Langchen Khambab. It flows parallel
to Indus for 400 km. before entering
India and comes out of a gorge at
Rupar. It passes through Shipki La
pass and enters the Punjab plains. It
is an antecedent river just like Indus
and is a very important tributary. This
river feeds the canal system of Bhakra
Nangal Project.
Indus Water Treaty
• It is a water distribution treaty between
India and Pakistan.
• The treaty was signed in Karachi on
19th September 1960.
• Treaty was signed by Jawaharlal Nehru
from India and President of Pakistan
Ayub khan.
• According to Indus Water Treaty,
India can utilize 20% of total water
discharged by Indus river system.
• According to treaty, three “eastern”
rivers were given to India while control
over the three “western” rivers was given
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to Pakistan.
• Beas, Ravi and Satluj — was given to
India.
• Indus, Chenab and Jhelum — to
Pakistan.
L UM
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I m a g e 3.9: I n d u s R i v e r S y s t e m
The Ganga River System
• Ganga river system consists of master
river Ganga and large number of
tributaries. This system drains a
remarkably huge area encompassing
the middle part of the Himalayas in the
north, the northern part of the Indian
Plateau in the south and the Ganga
Plain in-between.
• The total area of Ganga basin in India is
861,404 sq. km. which stands for 26.3%
of the geographical area of India.
• This basin is shared by 10 states. These
states are Uttarakhand and Uttar
Pradesh (34.2%), Madhya Pradesh
and Chhattisgarh (23.1%), Bihar and
Jharkhand (16.7%), Rajasthan (13.0%),
West Bengal (8.3%), Haryana (4.0%)
and Himachal Pradesh (0.5%). The
Union Territory of Delhi holds 0.2% of
the total area of the Ganga Basin.
• Ganga rises as Bhagirathi from the
35
IN
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BEA SAT
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Gangotri glacier near Gaumukh in
Uttarkashi District of Uttarakhand at
an elevation of 4000 meters.
• Alaknanda joins it at Devprayag. The
other tributaries of Alaknanda like the
Pindar joins Bhagirathi at Karnaprayag
while Mandakini meets Bhagirathi at
Rudraprayag.
• The Pindar, Mandakini, Dhauliganga
and Bishenganga rivers pour into the
Alaknanda before and the Bheling flows
into the Bhagirathi before Devprayag.
• At Devprayag, the Bhagirathi meets the
Alaknanda; hereafter, it is known as the
Ganga.
• After travelling 280 kilometers from its
source, the Ganga reaches Haridwar,
debouches from the hills and enters
plain area.
• From here it flows in south and south-
east direction for 770 km. to reach
Allahabad. Here it is joined by the
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Yamuna which is its most important
tributary.
• It sweeps another 300 km. eastwards to
reach the Bihar plain. Near Rajmahal
Hills it turns to the southeast and south
of Farakka, it ceases to be known as the
Ganga.
• It bifurcates into Hugli and Bhagirathi
in West Bengal and Padma-Meghna in
Bangladesh.
• After navigating 220 km. further down
in Bangladesh, Brahmaputra (or the
Jamuna as it is known in Bangladesh)
joins it at Goalundo and after meeting
Meghna 100 km. downstream, the
Ganga drains into the Bay of Bengal.
• Before entering Bay of Bengal, the
Ganga with Brahmaputra, forms the
largest delta of the world between two
arms: the Bhagirathi/Hugli and the
Padma/Meghna covering an area of
58,752 sq. km.
• The delta of the Ganga river is a highly
indented area of about 400 km. The
delta is made of a web of dis-tributaries
and islands and covered by dense
forests called as the Sunderbans. A
significantly large part of the delta is a
low-lying swamp, which is waterlogged
by marine water at the time of high tide.
• Total length of the River Ganga from
its source to its mouth (measured along
the Hugli) is 2525 km., of which 310 km.
in Uttarakhand, 1,140 km. lies in Uttar
Pradesh, 445 km. lies in Bihar and 520
km. lies in West Bengal.
• The remaining 110 km. section of the
Ganga forms the boundary between
the states Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. The
river flows magnificently from Gangotri
gacier to Bay of Bengal with an average
gradient of 9.5 cm per km.
• Ganga is joined by numerous tributaries
both from the right as well as from the
left side. Majority of them originate from
the Himalayan ranges but few of them
have their sources in the Peninsular
36
plateau (e.g., Son which originates in
Amarkantak i.e., in peninsular India.)
• Right bank tributaries of Ganga are the
Yamuna (which is a major tributary),
and Son.
• The rivers of Gomti, Ghaghara, Gandak,
Kosi and Ramganga join Ganga on left
bank.
• River Yamuna is the largest and the
most important tributary of the Ganga.
It originates from the Yamunotri glacier
on the Bandarpunch Peak in Garhwal in
Uttarakhand. Its source is very close to
that of the Ganga itself. Main tributaries
joining the river include the Hindon,
Ken, Betwa, and Chambal. Tons is the
largest tributary of Yamuna
• The catchment area of the river covers
the states of, Himachal Pradesh, Uttar
Pradesh, Haryana, Rajasthan and
Madhya Pradesh and UT of Delhi.
• The Chambal river rises near Mhow
in the Malwa Plateau of Madhya
Pradesh. It flows northwards through
a gorge upwards of Kota in Rajasthan
where the Gandhisagar dam has been
constructed. From Kota, the Chambal
river traverse down to finally meet the
river Yamuna.
• Chambal is well-known for its badland
topography called the Chambal
Ravines.
• Gandak is a major left bank tributary
originates near the Tibet-Nepal
border receives a large number of
tributaries in Nepal Himalaya, the most
outstanding being the Kali. Others are
the Mayangadi, Bari and Trishuli. The
Gandak comprises of two streams-
Kaligandak and Trishulganga and
enters the Ganga plain in Champaran
district of Bihar and joins Ganga at
Sonpur near Patna.
• River Ghaghara originates near the Gurla
Mandhata peak, south of Mansarovar
in Tibet. Obviously, it is a river of trans-
Himalayan origin and brings sufficient
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water. It is known as Karnaili in Western
Nepal. It first flows south-east and then
south-southwest cutting across the
Great Himalaya through a succession
of steep defiles. Its major tributaries are
Tila, Seti and Beri.
• The Kali River rises in the of snow-
covered region of Milam glacier of
Trans-Himalaya. It has several feeders
in the high ranges and forms the
boundary between Nepal and Kumaon
for most of its transit across the
mountains. It is known as the Sarda or
Sarayu or Chauka once it reaches the
plains near Tanakpur. Below this point
it takes a south-easterly course and
joins the Ghaghara.
• The Kosi River is an antecedent river
with its source to the north of Mt. Everest
in Tibet and consists of seven streams
and is popularly known as Saptkaushiki
or Saptakoshi. These streams flow
through a great part of eastern Nepal
which is known as the Sapt Kaushik
region. Just after debouching onto
the plain the river becomes sluggish
and large-scale deposition of eroded
material takes place. The channel
of the river is braided, and it shifts its
course often. This resulted in frequent
devastating floods and has converted
more than 10,000 sq. km. of cultivable
AV
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I m a g e 3.10: G a n g a R i v e r S y s t e m
37
land into waste land in Bihar. As a result
of this, the river is often named as the
‘Sorrow of Bihar’. In order to tame this
river, a barrage was constructed in
1965 near Hanuman Nagar in Nepal.
Embankments for flood control have
been constructed as a joint venture of
India and Nepal.
• The Ramganga River originates in the
Garhwal district of Uttarakhand at an
altitude of 3,110 m and enters the Ganga
Plain near Kalagarh. It joins the Ganga
at Kannauj after traversing a distance
of 596 km. The Khoh, Gangan, Aril,
Kosi, and Deoha (Gorra) are important
tributaries which join the Ramganga.
• Damodar occupies the eastern margins
of the Chota Nagpur plateau where it
flows through a rift valley and finally
joins the river Hugli. Barakar is its main
tributary. Once Damodar was known
as the Sorrow of Bengal because of
frequent floods. But with Damodar
Valley Corporation, a multi-purpose
project, the problem of flooding by
Damodar has been addressed.
• The Mahananda is another tributary of
Ganga rising in the Darjeeling hills. It
joins Ganga as its left bank tributary in
West Bengal.
• The Son is another important right
bank tributary of Ganga originating in
TSANGPO
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the Amarkantak plateau. After forming with the river Padma.

series of waterfalls at the edge of the • It discharges into the Bay of Bengal
plateau, it joins Ganga at Arrah, west TSANGPO
of Patna.
SUBNSIRI
LOHIT

A BURI DIHANG
UTR
The Brahmaputra River System

TE
AP
HM

ES
A
BR

TA
• The Brahmaputra originates in the

A
Mansarovar lake in Tibet.

UN
JAM
• It is slightly longer than the Indus, but
most of its course lies outside India. BENGAL
BAY OF
• It flows eastward, parallel to the I m a g e 3.11: B r a h m a p u t r a R i v e r S y s t e m
Himalayas.
• Reaching Namcha Barwa (7757 m),
it takes a U-turn around it and enters The Peninsular River
India in Arunachal Pradesh and known
as Dihang. System
• The undercutting done by this river is • Majority of the Peninsular Rivers flow
of the order of 5500 meters. In India, eastwards and enters into the Bay of
it flows through Arunachal Pradesh Bengal, following the general slope of
and Assam, and is joined by several the land.
tributaries.
• Only Narmada, Tapti and Sabarmati
• The river is called as the Tsangpo in rivers flow westwards.
Tibet. It receives less volume of water
and has a smaller amount of silt in the • They are important for generating
Tibet region. The Rango Tsangpo is the hydro-power because these rivers form
main right bank tributary in Tibet. rapids and waterfalls.
• The river passes through a region of • They are not perennial in nature unlike
heavy precipitation inside India, and the Himalayan Rivers.
as such, the river carries large amount • The main peninsular rivers are
water during rainfall and a significant Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna and
amount of silt. Kaveri.
• It is notorious for creating the calamity
in Assam and Bangladesh. NARMADA

• The Brahmaputra has a braided channel

MA
TAP HAN
I AD
I

for most of its passage through Assam.

W
AR
DHA MAHANADI
DELTA
There is a constant shifting of the river
GODAVAR
I
INDRAYATI

channels and the sandy shoals. Majuli MANJIRA N

U
SI
GODAVARI DELTA
which is the largest river island in Asia KRISHNA DELTA
lies in this river, in Assam.
KRISHNA

A
R
D
A

• Tributaries: Buri Dihang, Dhansiri (left

H
B
A
G
N
TU
CA
U

bank tributaries), Subansiri, Manas,

VE
RY

CAUVERY
Lohit, Kameng, Tista (right bank
HASSAN
DELTA
ERODE

tributaries).
• The river then enters Bangladesh under
the name of Jamuna where it merges I m a g e 3.12: P e n i n s u l a r R i v e rs

38
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Evolution of Peninsular
Drainage
• Three major past geological events
have shaped the present drainage
system of peninsular India:
» Subsiding of western flank of the
peninsula leading to its submergence
below the sea during early tertiary
period which has disturbed the
symmetrical plan of the river on either
side of the watershed.
» Upheaval of the Himalayas when the
northern flank of peninsular block
was subjected to subsidence and
consequent trough faulting. Narmada
and Tapi flows through these trough
faults and fill the original cracks with
detritus (waste) material. Hence, there
is a lack of alluvial and deltaic deposits
in these rivers.
» Slight tilting of the peninsular block
from northwest to southeastern
direction gave the orientation of the
entire drainage system towards the Bay
of Bengal.
Rivers of Peninsular Drainage
System
Godavari River Basin
• Godavari rises in Trimbakeshwar in
the Western Ghats in Nasik district of
Maharashtra.
• It is the longest peninsular river. Its
length is about 1500 km.
• Drainage basin of Godavari is the
largest among the peninsular rivers.
• It is also known as 'Dakshin Ganga' or
Vridha Ganga because of its large lenth
and large area coverage.
• It flows in southeast direction across
south-central India through the states of
Maharashtra, Chhattisgarh, Telangana,
Andhra Pradesh and Odisha, and drains
39
into the Bay of Bengal.
• About 50 per cent of the Godavari
basin area lies in Maharashtra.
• Important tributaries of Godavari
are Purna, Wardha, Pranhita, Manjra,
Wainganga and Penganga.
• It is a seasonal river which is dried during
the summers and widened during the
monsoons.
• River creates a fertile delta at
Rajahmundry.
• There are many pilgrimage sites on
the banks of this river like Nasik,
Bhadrachalam, and Trimbakeshwar.
Krishna River Basin
• River Krishna rises from a spring near
Mahabaleshwar in the Western Ghats.
• Drainage basin of this river is shared by
Maharashtra, Karnataka and Andhra
Pradesh.
• It flows around 1,401 km. and finally
drains into Bay of Bengal.
• Tungabhadra, Koyna, Ghataprabha,
Musi and Bhima are some of its
tributaries.
• River Tungabhadra is the main tributary
which itself is formed by the Tunga and
Bhadra rivers those originate in the
Western Ghats.
Cauvery/Kaveri River Basin
• The Kaveri rises in the Brahmagiri range
of the Western Ghats.
• Total length of the river is around 800
km.
• Its drainage basin lies in Karnataka
(41%), Kerala (3%) and Tamil Nadu
(56%).
• At last, it reaches the Bay of Bengal in
the south of Cuddalore in Tamil Nadu.
• The river Kaveri makes the second
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biggest waterfalls in India, known as
Sivasamudram.
• The upper catchment area receives
rainfall during the   summer season
(southwest monsoon), and the lower
catchment area receives rainfall during
the winter season (northeast monsoon).
So, the river carries water throughout
the year with less fluctuation than the
other Peninsular rivers.
• The river has many tributaries called
Arkavathy, Shimsha, Hemavati,
Amaravati, etc.
Mahanadi River Basin
• Mahanadi is a river in the eastern India.
It originates from the Satpura mountain
range of central India.
• It flows through Odisha and discharge
its water into the Bay of Bengal.
• Total length of the river is 851 km. and
has catchment area over 1.42 lakh sq.
km.
• Rivers drainage basin consist of the
state of Maharashtra, Chhattisgarh,
Jharkhand and Odisha.
• Cuttack city is located at the apex of
the Mahanadi delta.
Narmada River Basin
• The Narmada rises in the Amarkantak
plateau of Maikal hills in Madhya
Pradesh.
• It is also known as lifeline of Madhya
Pradesh.
• It flows westwards in a rift valley
formed due to faulting.
• On its way to the sea, the Narmada
creates many picturesque locations. Ex:
Dhuandhar waterfall.
• It forms the traditional frontier between
North India and South India. It is one of
the important rivers of peninsular India.
40
• The river flows through the states of
Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra and
Gujarat.
• It drains into the Arabian Sea in the
Bharuch district of Gujarat.
• The Narmada River Valley Project is
composed of 3,000 small, 135 medium
and 30 large dams. The Sardar Sarovar
Project, the Indira Sagar Project and
the Maheshwar Dam are mega dams.
• Local citizens formed the Narmada
Bachao Andolan (Save the Narmada
Movement), a grassroot coalition of
farmers, fisherfolks, landless farmers
and urban citizens in India. The
movement strongly opposed to the
projects and political agenda on water
and energy of the governments of the
three Indian States.
Tapi River Basin
• It is one of the major west flowing
peninsular river.
• It rises in the Eastern Satpura Range (at
Multai in the Betul district) of southern
Madhya Pradesh.
• It flows in a westward direction, draining
some important historic places like
Madhya Pradesh’s Nimar region, East
Vidarbha region and Maharashtra’s
Khandesh in the northwest corner of
the Deccan Plateau and South Gujarat
before draining into the Gulf of Cambay
of the Arabian Sea.
• The River Basin of Tapi River lies mostly
in eastern and northern districts of
Maharashtra.
• The river also covers some districts of
Madhya Pradesh and Gujarat.
• Main tributaries of Tapi River are
Waghur, Aner, Girna, Purna, Panzara
and Bori.
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Difference Between Himalayan and Peninsular Rivers

Himalayan River System Peninsular River System

Most Himalayan rivers are perennial in

They are seasonal in nature and are not
nature. They always have water throughout
perennial.
the year.

They receive water from the rain as well as

They receive water only from rain.
from melting of snow.

These rivers are young and in a youthful These are old rivers with graded profiles
stage. Active and deepening in the valleys. and have almost reached their base levels.

These rivers have a long course,

flowing through the rugged mountains, They have shorter and fixed courses with
experiencing headward erosion and river well-adjusted valleys.
capturing.

Superimposed and rejuvenated pattern

Antecedent and consequent drainage
resulting into radial, trellis and rectangular
leading to dendritic pattern.
pattern.

Very large basins. Comparatively smaller basins.

Some of the Peninsular rivers, such as the

The Himalayan rivers form big deltas at Mahanadi, the Godavari, the Krishna, and
their mouths. Ex: The Ganga-Brahmaputra the Kaveri form deltas.
delta is the largest in the world. While other rivers such as the Narmada
and the Tapi form estuaries.

Little scope for the formation of meanders

Characterised by formation of meanders
due to hard rock surface. So, follow with
in plains and shifting of course.
more or less straight courses.

Smaller Rivers and some notable examples.

• There are many lakes in India formed
Lakes out of different origins like volcano
lakes, crater lakes, tectonic lakes etc.
• Beside the major rivers of India, there are • Divisions are also made on the basis of
some smaller rivers, both of Himalayan freshwater lakes or saline lakes, natural
and Peninsular origin. lakes or artificial lakes, inland lakes or
• The Damodar, Brahmani, Baitarani, lagoons.
Sabarmati, Luni and Subarnarekha are

41
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Smaller Rivers Flowing
Towards the East
Damodar River
• This river rises in the Palamau hills of
Chota Nagpur plateau at an elevation
of about 609 m.
• It flows in a south-eastern direction
entering the deltaic plains below
Raniganj.
• Catchment area of the river above the
confluence is fan shaped and therefore
it is susceptible to the concentration of
flood flows but the catchment below
the confluence is narrow.
• There are no irrigation facilities in the
upper catchment and the cultivation is
solely dependent on monsoon rains.
• The river is famous all over the world for
the Damodar Valley Corporation (DVC).
Subarnarekha River
• The Subarnarekha basin extends
over states of Jharkhand, Odisha and
comparatively smaller part in West
Bengal having a total area of 29,196 sq.
km. with a maximum length of 297 km.
and width 119 km.
• Situated in the north-east corner of
Peninsular India, the basin is bounded
by the Chota Nagpur plateau on
the north and the west, by the ridges
separating it from Baitarani basin on
the south, by the Bay of Bengal on the
south-east and by the Kasai Valley of
Kangsabati River on the east.
• The Subarnarekha River originates
near Nagri village in the Ranchi District
of Jharkhand at an altitude of 600 m.
• It flows for 395 km. before falling into
the Bay of Bengal.
Baitarani - Brahmani Rivers
• Baitarani is an important east flowing
river of peninsular India and joining
42
the Bay of Bengal. The river originates
in the hill ranges of Keonjhar District
of Odisha at an elevation of about
900 m. The basin is surrounded by the
river Brahmani on the south and west,
the Subarnarekha on the North, the
Burhganbalang and the Bay of Bengal
on the east. The river is flashy in nature
having a whole length of 355 km., with
the upper reach up to Anandpur in the
hilly region.
• The Brahmani is a main inter-state east
flowing river amongst the peninsular
rivers in India. The basin is surrounded
in the North by Chota Nagpur plateau
in the South by the Mahanadi basin
and in the West and in the East by the
Bay of Bengal. The basin consists of
Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh and Odisha
and drains into the Bay of Bengal.
Smaller Rivers Flowing towards
the West
• The rivers flowing towards Arabian Sea
have smaller and short courses.
Sabarmati River
• The Sabarmati basin extends over
states of Gujarat and Rajasthan with
an area of 21,674 Sq. km. with length
and width of 300 km. and 150 km.
respectively.
• The basin is surrounded by Aravalli hills
on the north and north-east side, by
Rann of Kutch on the west and by Gulf
of Khambhat on the south.
• The basin is roughly triangular in shape
with the Sabarmati River as the base
and the source of the Vatrak River as
the apex point.
• Sabarmati rises from Aravalli hills at an
altitude of 762 m in Rajasthan.
• The total length of the river from origin
to outfall into the Arabian Sea is 371 km.
and its principal tributaries joining from
left are the Wakal, the Hathmati and
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the Vatrak whereas the Sei joins the
river from right.
• The Shetrunji is one such river which
rises in the Dalkahwanin Amreli district.
• The river Bhadra originates near Anaiali
village in Rajkot district.
• The Dhadhar rises near Ghantar village
in Panchmahal district. This river rises
from the Trimbak hills in Nasik district
at an elevation of 670 m.
• Kalinadi rises from Belgaum district
and falls in the Karwar Bay.
• The Sharavati originates in Shimoga
district of Karnataka and drains a
catchment area of 2209 sq. km.
• Mandovi and Juari are two important
rivers in Goa.
• Bharathapuzha rises in the Annamalai
hills in Kerala. Also known as Ponnani, it
drains a catchment area of about 5397
sq. km.
• The Periyar is the second largest river
in Kerala with catchment area of 5243
sq. km.

• The source of Bedti river lies in Hubli • Another Important river is Pamba
Dharwar and transverse a course of 161 which drains into Vembanad lake after
km. traversing a course of 177 km.

Lakes of India
1. Wular Lake
2. Dal Lake
3. Mansar Lake 1 25
4. Bhimtal Lake
5. Naini
3
2
26 Lakes of India
6. Sambhar 27
7. Pushkar 28
8. Pachprada 4
9. Dhebar 5
6 26
10. Rajsamand
7
11. Wular Lake
12. Dal Lake
8
13. Kankaria 9 24
14. Bhimtal Lake 10
15. Naini 11 23
16. Sambhar
17. Pushkar 14
12 13
18. Sholavaram
19. Pulicat
20. Kallen
15 22
21. Osman Sagar
22. Chilika
23. Loktak 21
24. Nokrek
25. Pangong 20
26. Tsomori
27.Chandratal
28. Suraj tal 19

* All marked highlighted

in Red are SALINE LAKE
16
18
* All marked highlighted 17
in Blue are ARTIFICIAL LAKES
I m a g e 3.13: L a k e s of India

43
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• Wular Lake in Kashmir is India’s largest
freshwater lake, formed by tectonic
activities, forms Delta with river Jhelum.
• Dal Lake, Kashmir – Freshwater lake in
Srinagar. Contains Char Chinar & Nami
islands.
• Mansar Lake, Jammu – On the Katra
highway, freshwater lake, Natural lake
used mainly for fishing
• Naini Lake, Uttarakhand – Freshwater
lake.
• Sambhar Lake, Rajasthan – most saline
lake in India, Listed in Ramsar as a
wetland.
• Pushkar Lake, Ajmer (Rajasthan) - A
freshwater lake.
• Pachpadra Lake, Badmer (Rajasthan) -
a saline lake.
• Dhebar Lake, Rajasthan – Largest
artificial lake of India, a freshwater lake
• Nakki Lake - A bowl shape lake, located
in Mt. Abu (Rajasthan)
• Nal Sarovar Lake - Saline water lake
located in Gujarat, largest bird century
of Gujarat.
• Nokrek Lake - Fresh water lake
located in Meghalaya, famous for its
Biodiversity, Nokrek National Park &
Biosphere reserve.
• Loktak Lake, Manipur – Largest
freshwater lake located in NE India,
Floating island – Phundis.
• Bhoj Wetland - A highly polluted lake
surrounded by city of Bhopal.
• Kankaria Lake - Biggest artificial lake
of Ahmedabad, built by Sultan Ahmed
Shah.
• Lonar Lake - Crater lake, located at
Maharashtra.
• Chilka Lake - Saline water lagoon
located at Odisha, Siberian bird migrate
here in winters.
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• Usman Sagar - Artificial lake of
Hyderabad, by creating a dam on river
Musi.
• Kolleru Lake - Freshwater lake, Situated
between deltas of Godavari & Krishna,
A bird sanctuary & a wetland under the
Ramsar list.
• Pulicat Lake - Salt water lagoon
located at the coast of Andhra Pradesh,
Separated from the sea by Sriharikota
island.
• Sholavaram - A rainfed reservoir,
located at Thanjavur in Chennai, due
to scanty rainfall for the last few years,
lake looks like a pond.
• Vembanad, Kerala - A lagoon, famous
for boat competition.
• Ashtamudi, Kerala - A lagoon, under
Ramsar convention.
• Pangong Lake, Ladakh – Located
between India & China (Tibet), Nearby
Changla Pass.
• Tsomoriri Lake - Largest high-altitude
lake, located at Ladakh.
• Chandra Tal - A high altitude lake,
located at Lahaul & Spiti districts
of Himachal nearby Kunzum Pass,
Chandra river, a major tributary of
Chenab originated from Chandra
Tal, Declared as a wetland under the
Ramsar Convention.
• Suraj Tal - Located below Baralacha
pass at Lahaul & Spiti districts of
Himachal, remains frozen during the
greater part of the year.
• Roopkund - Mystery lake of
Uttarakhand, also known as Skeleton
lake since 672 Skeletons has been found
in this shallow lake.
• Sukhna Lake, Chandigarh – Artificial
freshwater lake.
• Sat Tal - Quiet & calm group of 7
pristine lakes in lower Himalayan range
situated near Bhimtal in Uttarakhand.
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River Regimes
• The pattern of flow of water in a river
channel over a year is known as its
regime.
• The climatic condition of any place or
region controlled the flow of the river
system. The River Regime is the pattern
of the seasonal flow of water in any
river. In other words, the geographical
pattern of rivers like width, depth,
slope, distribution, and its flow and
deposition characters all together can
be considered as river regimes.
• The rivers in North India originating from
the Himalayas are perennial as they are
fed by melting snow from glaciers and
also due to adequate rainfall during the
monsoons.
• The rivers in South India which originate
in the peninsular region see more
fluctuations in terms of pereniality.
They receive water only through rainfall
during the monsoons. Therefore, river
regimes in South India see different
river regimes which vary from one part
of the plateau to the other depending
on rainfall.
• The river discharge is the volume of
water that flows through the river in a
particular time period. It is measured
either in cusecs (cubic feet per second)
or cumecs (cubic metres per second).
• The river Ganga has its minimum
flow during the months of January to
Difference between Peninsular River regime and the Himalayan River regime
Basis of
differences
The Peninsular rivers rise at much lower heights in the Western Ghats
Origin
whereas the Himalayan river originates at high elevations.
45
June. The maximum flow is attained
in monsoon months of August and
September. After September there’s
a steady decline in the flow. The river
thus has a monsoon regime during the
rainy season.
• There is a striking difference between
the river regimes of eastern and western
parts of the Ganga basin. Right after
the winters in the early parts of summer,
when the snow melts, there is sizeable
flow in Ganga, before the monsoon
rains begin.
• The maximum discharge of the Ganga
is at Farakka which is about 55000
cusec while the minimum discharge is
only 1300 cusec. This contrast is due
to maximum discharge being noted
right after monsoons and the minimum
discharge during the hottest summer
months.
• The rivers of Peninsular India are also
interesting in their pattern of river
regime. The Narmada has a very low
volume of discharge from January to
July and it suddenly rises in August
when the river has maximum flow.
The water flow again suddenly falls
during the month of October once the
monsoon is over.
• The river Godavari has a minimum
discharge in the month of May and
maximum in the months of July-August.
After August, the flow of the river
declines but it is still steady and more
than that of January-May.
Reason
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The Himalayan rivers are perennial which means they receive water
Source from glacier and rainfall whereas the Peninsular rivers are non-
perennial which means they are seasonal- dependent on monsoon.

The Peninsular river have narrow catchment area whereas the

Catchment Area Himalayan rivers have large catchment area. Larger catchment
area ensures maximum flow of water.

The Peninsular rivers have huge variations due to uneven rainfall

Variations in the Plateau region whereas all the Himalayan rivers maintain a
sizeable flow.

The Himalayan rivers has a minimum flow during Jan-June and

Gradual maximum flow during August/September and gradual steady fall
Increase/ afterwards, whereas the Peninsular rivers has very low flow from
Decrease in flow January-July and a sharp rise in August and again a sudden fall in
October.

The Peninsular river flows from the rocks of peninsular region which
Supply of are hard and impermeable, where supply of groundwater is limited
Groundwater whereas Himalayan rivers pass through plains whose alluvial soils
act as a huge reservoir of groundwater.

Extent of Usability and thus usability is less. However often

of Water
• The extent of usability of water depends
on a lot many things. Since rivers and
river waters are unevenly distributed
over both time and space, usability of
water is also variable. It depends on the
following:
» No availability in sufficient quantity -
This depends on the discharge of the
water, whether the river is perennial or
seasonal.
» River water pollution - If the river water
is extremely polluted, it is deemed unfit
for consumption and any other utility
like agricultural purposes, drinking
purposes, industrial or household
purposes.
» Load of silt in the river water - If the level
of silt in the river increases, it causes
lower carrying capacity of the river. The
amount of water discharge is reduced
it happens that when the carrying
capacity of the river is reduced due
to excess silt and the river discharge
is high, such situations often results in
flooding activities on the river-bank.
» Uneven seasonal flow of water - Flow
of water depends on the availability of
the source of water, climate, and terrain
of the region. Lesser water flow means
less usability of water.
» River water disputes between states
- The disputes between river water
usability arises when two states fight
over the usability of water. Generally, if
a river is flowing through many states,
there is often an agreement between
the states on how much water each
state can use. This often results in long
lasting disputes and this put a cap on
water usability.
» Shrinking of channels due to extension
of settlement towards the river - Often
due to overpopulation, overcrowding
and overuse of water resources the

46
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channels start shrinking. As much
as built up area increases near the
streams and channels, the groundwater
retention reduces, and the channels
begin to dry up and shrink.
Irrigation Projects
• Irrigation projects having Culturable
Command Area (CCA) of more than
10,000 hectares are classified as major
projects. Those having a CCA between
2,000 hectares and 10,000 hectares fall
under the category of medium irrigation
projects. And the projects which have
a CCA of less than 2,000 hectares are
classified as minor irrigation schemes.
• For the purpose of analysis, the major
and medium irrigation projects are
usually grouped together. These
projects include a network of dams,
bunds, canals, and other such schemes.
Such projects require substantial
financial outlay and are, therefore,
constructed by The Government or any
other agency which may draw financial
assistance form The Government and
financial institutions.
• The minor irrigation projects, on the
other hand, encompass all ground
water development schemes. Minor
irrigation projects or the groundwater
development schemes are essentially
people’s programmes implemented
primarily through individual and
cooperative efforts with finances
obtained mainly through institutional
sources.
• Creation for irrigation potential of 10
million hectares was targeted under
Bharat Nirman during 2005-06 to 2008-
09. As per information provided by
State Governments, the total irrigation
potential created during the period is
7.31 million hectares against the target
of 10 million hectares.
47
Some Important Irrigation and
Multipurpose Projects
• Bargi Project (Madhya Pradesh): It
is basically a multipurpose project
containing of a masonry dam on
Narmada river in the Jabalpur district
and a left bank canal.
• Beas Project (Joint venture of Haryana,
Punjab and Rajasthan): It comprises
of Beas-Satluj Link and Beas Dam at
Pong.
• Bhakra Nangal Project (Joint project
of Haryana, Punjab, and Rajasthan):
India’s biggest, multipurpose river
valley project comprises a straight
gravity dam across the Satluj river at
Bhakra, the Nangal dam, the Nangal
hydel channel, two power houses at
Bhakra dam and two power stations at
Ganguwal and Kotla.
• Chambal Project (Joint project of
Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan): The
project comprises Gandhi Sagar dam,
Rana Pratap Sagar dam and jawahar
Sagar dam.
• Damodar Valley Project (West Bengal
and Bihar): A multipurpose project for
the unified development of irrigation,
flood control and power generation in
West Bengal and Bihar. It comprises
multipurpose dams at Konar, Tilaiya,
Maithon and Pancher; hydel power
stations at Tilaiya, Konar, Maithon
and Panchet; barrage at Durgapur;
and thermal power houses at Bokaro,
Chandrapura and Durgapur. The
project is administered by Damodar
Valley Corporation.
• Dulhasti Power Project (Jammu &
Kashmir): It is a 390 MW power project
in Kishtwar region of Jammu & Kashmir
on Chenab river. Work for this project
started in 1981. The foundation stone
was laid on April 15, 1983 by the then
Prime Minister, Indira Gandhi. Work
on this project was suspended due to
threats of kidnapping and killings by
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Kashmiri militants resulting in long
delay in completion of project.
• Farakka Project (West Bengal): The
project was taken up for the maintenance
and preservation of Calcutta and port
and for improving the navigability of
the Hoogly. It comprises a barrage at
Jangipur across the Bhagirathi and
a feeder channel taking off from the
Ganga at Farakka and tailing into the
Bhagirathi below the Jangipur barrage.
• Gandak Project (Joint project of Bihar
and Uttar Pradesh): Nepal also derives
irrigation and power benefits from this
project.
• Ghataprabha Project (Karnataka): A
project across Ghataprabha in Belgaum
and Bijapur districts.
• Hirakund (Odisha): One of the longest
dams and it is located on the Mahanadi
River.
• Kakrapara Project (Gujarat): On the
Tapti River near Kakrapara, in Surat
district.
• Kosi Project (Bihar): A multipurpose
project, which serves Bihar and Nepal.
• Koyna Project (Maharashtra): It is built
on a tributary of river Krishna with a
capacity of 880 MW. It feeds power to
Mumbai-Pune industrial belt.
• Krishna Project (Maharashtra): Dhom
dam adjacent to Dhom village on
Krishna and Kanhar dam near Kanhar
village on Varna river in Satara district.
• Kundoh Project (Tamil Nadu): It is in
Tamil Nadu whose initial capacity of
425 MW has since been expanded to
535 MW.
• Mahanadi Delta Scheme (Odisha): The
irrigation scheme will utilize releases
from the Hirakud reservoir.
• Mahi Project (Gujarat): A two –phase
project, one across the Mahi river near
Wanakbori village and the other across
Mahi river near Kadana.
• Nagarjunasagar (Andhra Pradesh): It
48
lies on the Krishna river near Nandikona
village (about 44 km. from Hyderabad).
• Parambikulam Aliyar Project (Joint
venture of Tamil Nadu and Kerala): The
integrated harnessing of eight rivers, six
in the Annamalai Hills and two in the
plains.
• Pong Dam (Punjab): It is an important
hydro-electric project located on Beas
river.
• Rajasthan Canal (Indira Gandhi
Canal- Rajasthan): The Project utilizes
water released from Pong dam and
provides irrigation facilities to the
north-western region of Rajasthan, i.e.,
a part of the Thar desert. It consists of
Rajasthan feeder canal (with the first
167 km. in Punjab and Haryana and the
remaining 37 km. in Rajasthan) and 445
km. Rajasthan main canal entirely in
Rajasthan.
• Rajghat Dam Project (Madhya Pradesh):
The Rajghat Dam and Rajghat Hydro
Electric Projects are Inter-State projects
of MP and UP. The Rajghat Dam is
almost complete. All the three units
of Rajghat Hydro-Electric Project had
been synchronized during 1999 and
power generation has been continuing
ever since.
• Ramganga (Uttarakhand): A dam
across Ramganga, a tributary of the
Ganga river located in Garhwal district.
The project has, besides reducing
the intensity of floods in central and
western Uttar Pradesh, provided water
for the Delhi water supply scheme.
• Ranjit Sagar Dam (Thein Dam) (Punjab):
A multi-purpose highest dam in the
country, built on the Ravi river for the
benefit of Punjab, Haryana and Jammu
and Kashmir.
• Rihand Project (Uttar Pradesh and
Madhya Pradesh): It is the biggest
man- made lake in India on the borders
of Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh
with a capacity of 300 MW yearly.
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• Sabarmati (Gujarat): A storage dam
through Sabarmati river near Dhari
Village in Mehsana district.
• Salal Project (Jammu & Kashmir): With
the successful accomplishment of
the 2.5-km. long tail race tunnel, the
690-MW Salal (Stage I and II) project
in Jammu and Kashmir became fully
operational on August 6, 1996.
• Sarda Sahayak (Uttar Pradesh): A
barrage through the river Ghaghra,
a link channel, a barrage across River
Sarda and a feeder channel of two
main aqueducts over rivers Gomti and
Sai.
• Sharavathi Project (Karnataka): It is
situated at the Jog Falls with a capacity
of 891 MW. It mainly feeds Bengaluru
industrial region and Goa and Tamil
Nadu as well.
• Tehri Dam Project (Uttarakhand): Earth
and rock-fill dam on the Bhagirathi river
in Tehri district of Uttarakhand.
• Ukai Project (Gujarat): A multipurpose
scheme on the Tapi river near Ukai
village.
Interbasin Linkages
• This is the largest ever thought of
project of linking all major rivers of India
with the help of a network of canals.
The idea of linking rivers across India to
solve flood, drought, power, and other
water related problems of the country
is not new.
• Sir Arthur Cotton, who initiated the
development of water resources in
Southern India from the year 1839
onwards, had proposed a plan for
interlinking of Indian rivers for inland
navigation.
• In August 1980, the Ministry of
Water Resources formed a National
Perspective Plan (NPP) for interlinking
of rivers.
49
• A National Water Development Agency
(NWDA) was set up in July 1980 to carry
out further studies.
• The project visualizes linking 26 major
rivers of India by building 30 different
link canals. The National Perspective
Plan as well as the NWDA studies
have two constituents of the project
- Himalayan Rivers Development
Component and Peninsular Rivers
Development Component. The two can
be linked on the river Mahanadi.
• There are many smaller river and
canal linkage schemes, which are very
important from agricultural, economic
and environmental points of view. They
are as follows:
Periyar Diversion Scheme
Periyar Valley Irrigation scheme in
Ernakulam district envisions the use of
the discharge from the completed Hydel
scheme in the Muthirapuzha tributary of
river Periyar together with the controlled
release from Ennackal dam constructed
by the Kerala State Electricity Board under
Hydel scheme across the Idamalayar
tributary and the reliable run off from the
uncontrolled catchment of Periyar river.
• It is envisioned for irrigating an area of
32800 Ha (hectare) of land lying on the left
bank of Periyar river through a network of
canal system and controlling devices.
• The scheme supports in stabilization
of first and second crops in an area
of 32800 Ha and raising an additional
crop in an area of 20000 Ha of 3rd crop
(Puncha).
• Thus, the gross potential ayacut (The
area served by an irrigation project such
as a canal, dam or a tank) of the scheme
will be 85600 Ha and is spread over
in Kothamangalam, Muvattupuzha,
Kunnathunadu, Aluva, Kanayannur and
Paravur Taluk in Ernakulam district.
• Additionally, to the Irrigation on left
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bank of Periyar, the scheme also
enables in the right bank of Periyar,
supply of water to the state, supply of
minimum quantity of water through the
river to check the interloping of salinity
at lower reaches as well as to meet
the necessities of many lift Irrigation
scheme of river Periyar.
• Supply of water for drinking, industrial
purposes etc are met by a portion
of storage water by the barrage of
Bhoothathankettu.
Indira Gandhi Canal Project
• Indira Gandhi (Rajasthan) Canal Project
is the leading irrigation project in the
world to offer irrigation to semi-arid
and arid areas of Rajasthan and lift its
economy and economic development.
• The project utilizes the waters of the
Pong barrage built over the Beas River.
• It comprises Rajasthan Feeder taking
off from the Harike barrage across the
Satluj River near its convergence with
the Beas River in Punjab, Rajasthan
Main Canal and its distributaries.
• The Indira Gandhi Canal, when
completed, would provide irrigation
to about 12.58 lakh hectares of land in
Ganganagar, Bikaner, and Jaisalmer
districts of Rajasthan.
• The chief positive effects of Indira
Gandhi Canal Project after the
beginning of irrigation in 1961 include:
» The canal water is accessible for
drinking and other domestic uses.
» The crops can be grown each year with
the help of canal water.
» Change in socio-economic situations
of the people and spurt in all economic
activities.
» Improvement in household income and
expenditure structure.
» Increase in ‘heterogeneity’ of
50
population, enhanced inter and intra
community interaction and quicker
diffusion and adoption of technology
of irrigated farming.
» Control over drought conditions.
» Alteration in the fauna of the area and
introduction of fisheries.
» Improvement in the micro-climate and
decrease in the incidence of sandstorms.
» Rise in ground water table at the rate
of 0.8 meter per year. But it is also to be
noted that excessive use of canal water
in certain areas is causing the problem
of salinity and water logging.
Beas-Satluj Link Canal
• Satluj-Yamuna Link Canal (SYL Canal)
is a 214 km. water way proposed to
connect the Satluj River in Punjab to
Yamuna canal in Haryana. However,
there are a lot of controversies in the
news about the project.
• Besides water transfer, the canal will
also cater to the irrigation needs of the
agriculture-based villages of Rupar and
Patiala districts.
• Two hydel projects are also planned to
generate power.
• Another major advantage is that the
canal would make available shipping
from India’s east coast to the west
coast, thus drastically reducing the
freight related expenditure.
• The canal comes under the Bhakra- Beas
Management Board, BBMB, constituted
under the Punjab Reorganization Act,
1966, which is a central legislation
Ganga-Kaveri Link Canal
• This project was prepared by the United
Nations team at the request of The
Government of India. It was proposed
by the then irrigation minister Dr. K. L
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Rao in 1950s.
• The project aimed at reducing the
impact of floods in the Ganga basin
and supply water to central and eastern
parts of the country which suffer from
lingering problem of water shortage.
• Flood waters of the Narmada and
Godavari might also be utilized.
Nevertheless, it was pleaded that water
from the Ganga for the inter-basin
transfer could be drawn only in the
course of four months of rainy season
from July to October when the flow
of water in the Ganga river exceeds
1,00,000 cusec.
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• The planned Ganga-Kaveri Link Canal
was 2,640 km. long, withdrawing 60,000
cusec from the flood flows of the Ganga
for about 150 days annually and would
have involved a lift of a substantial part
of water over 450 meters.
• The scheme has been systematically
examined and found impractical due
to the huge financial costs and very
large energy necessities. Furthermore,
environmental matters put great
interruptions in the way of this project.
• Nevertheless, the idea continues in the
popular mind and comes up whenever
water scarcity is felt, and conflicts (such
as Kaveri dispute) become acute.
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CHAPTER - 4
INDIA: CLIMATE
Introduction
• Temperature, pressure, wind, humidity,
and precipitation interact with each
other. They influence the atmospheric
conditions like the direction and velocity
of wind, the amount of insolation, cloud-
cover and the amount of precipitation.
These are the elements of both weather
and climate. The influence of these
elements differs from place to place
and time to time.
• We very often describe this influence
in the name of weather such as sunny,
hot, warm, cold, fine, etc. depending
upon the dominant element of weather
at a place and at a point of time.
• Therefore, weather is the atmospheric
condition of a place for a short duration
with respect to its one or more elements.
Two places even a short distance apart
may have different kind of weather at
the same time.
• Climate is the state of the atmosphere
over long time periods, such as over the
years, decades, centuries or greater.
Weather Forecast
• It is important to know by some means,
the coming weather in advance. That
is why newspapers publish weather
reports and weather forecasts along
with a map showing this information.
• Now, better weather forecasts are
available with the use of weather
satellites. Weather conditions are
televised every day.
• When a cyclone or dangerous weather
52
is expected, warnings are issued over
the radio, television and newspapers
so that people can prepare to save
themselves and their property from its
hazards.
• The weather office collects data on
temperature, wind, cloud cover, rainfall
and other atmospheric phenomena
through its numerous observation
centres.
• The analysis of these data thus
collected, helps in forecasting weather
conditions for the next 48 hours or even
for a week.
Seasons
• A year is divided into seasons depending
upon variations in atmospheric
conditions. Season is a period of the
year characterized by a particular set
of weather conditions resulting from
the inclination of the earth’s axis and
the revolution of the earth round the
sun.
• Four seasons, each of three months
duration have been recognized in
temperate regions. They are spring,
summer, autumn and winter.
• The Indian Meteorological Department
has recognized four main seasons. They
are cold weather season, hot weather
seasons, rainy season, and retreating
monsoon season.
• The rays of the sun are more or less direct
on the equator throughout the year.
Hence, equatorial regions experience
the same temperature all year round.
Therefore, seasons are insignificant on
or near the equator. Near the coast, the
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oceanic influence reduces the seasonal
variations. In the Polar Regions, there
are only two seasons i.e. long winters
and short summers.
Weather Vs Climate
Weather
It is the study of atmospheric conditions of a limited
area for short duration.
Weather is influenced by any of its principal
Climate is the collective effect of all its elements.
elements i.e., temperature or humidity.
The weather fluctuates frequently.
It is experienced in some small areas of a country.
A place can have diverse types of weather
A place can have only one type of climate.
conditions in a year.
Factors Affecting
Climate
• Latitude or in other words Distance of
a location from Equator:
» Places near the equator are warmer
than the places which are farther away
from it. The reason for this is the rays
of the sun fall vertically straight on the
equator and rays are in slanting fashion
in the temperate and polar regions.
» The vertical rays are concentrated
on a small area of earth than the
slanting one. Moreover, the vertical
rays pass through a shorter distance
in the atmosphere prior to reaching
the earth’s surface. As such, lower the
latitude higher is the temperature and
vice versa.
» E.g., Malaysia, which is near the equator,
is warmer than England which is away
from the equator.
53
Climate
It is the study of the average weather conditions
observed over a long period of time for a larger
area.
It is more or less permanent.
It is experienced over large areas of the continent.
• Altitude or the Elevation from the
mean sea level:
» We are aware of the fact that mountains
are cooler than the plains.
» The temperature decreases with the
altitude of a place. For a vertical
increase of 165 meters, the average
decrease in temperature is around 1°C.
» E.g.: Shimla situated on a higher altitude
is cooler than Jalandhar, although both
are almost on the same latitude.
• Continentality or in other words the
Distance of a location from the Sea:
» The water is a poor conductor of heat
i.e., it takes longer time to heat and
longer time to cool. Because of this
moderating effect of the sea, places
nearer to the coast have low range of
temperature and high humidity.
» The places which lie in the interior of the
continent do not experience moderating
effect of the sea. These places generally
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have extreme temperatures.
» Places which are far from the seashore
have higher diurnal (daily) and annual
temperature range.
» Mumbai has comparatively lower
temperature and greater rainfall than
Nagpur, even though both are situated
on the same latitude approximately.
• Nature of Prevailing Winds:
» The onshore winds bring the moisture
from the sea and cause rainfall on the
area through which they pass. The off-
shore winds coming from land are dry
and helps in vaporization.
» In India, the on-shore winds of summer
monsoon bring rains and on the other
hand off-shore winter monsoon winds
are generally dry.
• Cloud Cover:
» In areas of cloudless sky such as deserts,
temperature is very high because of the
day-time sunshine.
» In the night, this heat radiates back
from the ground rapidly. It results in a
large diurnal range in temperature.
» On the other hand, under cloudy skies and
heavy rainfall at Thiruvananthapuram
(Kerala) the range of temperature is
very small.
• Ocean Currents:
» Water in ocean move from one place
to the other partially as an attempt to
balance temperature and density of
water. Ocean currents are in general
large movements of water typically
from a place of warm temperature to
that of cooler temperature or vice-
versa.
» Warm ocean currents increase
the temperature of the coast and
sometimes bring rainfall, while the cold
currents lower the temperature and
create fog near the coast.
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» On-shore winds passing over a warm
current transfer warm air to the interior
and increase the temperature of the
inland region. Similarly, the winds
blowing over cold current carry cold air
to the inner side and generates fog and
mist.
» Port Bergen in the Norway is free from
ice in winter too, because of the warm
North Atlantic Drift, however, Port
Quebec in Canada stay frozen during
winter because of the chilling effect of
the Cold Labrador Current in spite of
the fact that Port Quebec is situated in
much lower latitude than Port Bergen.
• Direction of Mountain Chains:
» The mountain chains act as a natural
barrier for the wind. On-shore moisture
laden winds are forced to go up after
striking the mountain; and contribute
to hefty rainfall on the windward side.
These winds descending on the leeward
side results in very low rainfall.
» The giant Himalayas stops the moisture
laden monsoon winds from crossing
over to Tibet. This mountain chain also
checks extremely cold polar winds
from entering into India. This is the
reason behind the northern plains of
India getting rains but Tibet remaining
a perpetual rain shadow area with
slighter quantity of rainfall.
• Slope and the Aspect:
» As the concentration of heat is more
on the gentler slope, it increases the
temperature of the air above them.
The lesser concentration of heat
along sharper slopes depresses the
temperature.
» At the same time, mountain slopes
fronting the sun are warmer than the
slopes that are away from the sun-
rays. For example, southern slopes of
Himalaya are warmer than the northern
slopes.
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• Nature of the Soil and Vegetation Cover:
» The nature of soil depends upon its
texture, structure and composition.
These qualities vary from soil to soil.
» Stony soils are good conductor of
heat while black clay soils absorb the
heat of the sun’s rays quickly. The bare
surface radiates the heat effortlessly.
The deserts are hot during the day and
cold at nighttime.
» The forest areas have lesser range of
temperature all over the year in contrast
to non-forested areas.
Factors Affecting
India’s Climate
The climate of a country depends on
several factors like location, latitude,
altitude, size, wind, distance from the sea,
location of hills and mountains etc. The
influence of these factors on climate of
India is concisely described below:
• Location: The Tropic of Cancer passes
through middle of India and the country
north of the tropic of cancer lies in the
temperate belt and south of it lies in the
tropical belt. However, the northern wall
of the Himalaya mountains prevents
the influx of cold northern wind. As a
result, the temperature does not fall
appreciably on North Indian Plains
even during winter months. India is
usually treated as a hot country.
• Size: Being a vast country, it is natural
that South India lying closer to the
equator is warmer than the northern
counterpart, especially in winter.
• Altitude: Even though average
temperature remains generally high
throughout India, owing to altitudinal
effect the Himalayas and other high
mountains have lower temperatures
even in summer.
• Distance from the sea: The winds
55
coming from oceans have a moderating
effect on temperature and the coastal
places experience lower range of
temperature, both diurnal and seasonal
in comparison to places of interior or
continental location away from the
oceanic influence.
• Winds: The climate and associated
weather conditions in India are
governed by the following atmospheric
conditions:
» Pressure and surface winds
» Upper air circulation
» Western cyclonic disturbances and
tropical cyclones
» The effect of the monsoon winds in India
is extraordinary. In Arabic language
the word `Mausim’ stands for season
and if the wind changes its direction
seasonally, then it is termed as a
monsoon wind. India remains under the
effect of a humid oceanic South- west
monsoon in summer and comparatively
dry North-east Monsoon of land origin
in winter.
» Besides, in winter some cyclones of
the Mediterranean, called Western
Disturbances, enter India from the
north-west via Iran and Afghanistan
and travel eastward causing a small
amount of rainfall in North India.
• Alignments of hills and mountains: The
moisture laden South-west Monsoon
wherever faces a mountain is forced to
rise and brings about heavy relief rain
on the windward slope of the mountains.
As for example, the South-west
Monsoon is forced to ascend the south
facing steep slope of the Meghalaya
plateau. This factor combined with the
funneling action of the wind caught
between the Meghalaya Plateau and
the Indo- Burmese Bordering Hills make
the Cherrapunji-Mawsynram area the
wettest corner of the world with average
annual precipitation of about 1100 cm.
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But Shillong, which is situated in the
rain shadow area of the southern face
of the Meghalaya Plateau, experiences
a much lower rainfall of 225 cm.
Factors Related to
Air Pressure and
Wind
• To understand the differences in local
climates in India, the mechanism of the
following three factors are needed to
be understood.
» Distribution of air pressure and winds
over the surface of the earth.
» Upper Air flow generated by factors
leading global weather and the inflow
of various air masses as well as jet
streams.
» Inflow of western cyclones called as
disturbances during the winter season
and tropical depressions during the
southwest monsoon period into India,
creating weather conditions favourable
to rainfall.
Jet Streams
• Jet streams are proportionately narrow
bands of strong winds in the upper
levels of atmosphere. The winds flow
from west to east in jet streams, but the
flow often shifts to the north and south.
Jet streams follow the boundaries
between hot and cold air.
• Since these hot and cold air boundaries
are most pronounced in winter, jet
streams are the strongest for both the
northern and southern hemisphere
winters.
• Jet streams are represented by wind
motions that generate strong vertical
56
shearing action, which is thought to
be largely responsible for clear air
turbulence.
• First discovered by airmen during World
War II, the jet streams have speeds of
up to 90 m/s (200 miles per hour) along
hundreds of kilometers at their centers,
but velocities decrease very sharply
both laterally and vertically, that's why
the high speeds are limited to narrow
bands at heights between 6 to 14 km.
(20,000 ft and 45,000 ft).
• The jet stream develops from
horizontal differences in temperature
that exist over a substantial vertical
distance through the troposphere. The
temperature differences result in a
horizontal pressure gradient that brings
geostrophic and gradient winds. With
the increasing horizontal temperature
difference, the jet stream becomes
stronger.
• Jet streams flows in circles around the
Earth in meandering paths, shifting
position and speed with the seasons.
In winter, their positions are nearer
the equator and the speeds are higher
than that during the summer. There
are often two, fewer times three jet-
stream systems in each hemisphere.
One is related to the Polar Front, which
lies in mid-latitudes where the air-
mass contrast (the fronts) advance
the formation of squalls, storms, and
cyclones.
• Another separate system, the
Subtropical Jet Stream, which lies above
the subtropical high-pressure belt and
is often associated with fair weather.
In the summer season, a third system
occurs over Southeast Asia, India, the
Arabian Sea, and tropical Africa. This
tropical jet stream characterizes the
formation and duration of Indian and
African summer monsoons.
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Western Cyclonic
Disturbance
• During the winter season, the
subtropical jet (STJ) is bisected into two
branches due to physical obstruction
of the Himalayas as well as Tibetan
Plateau. One branch flow to the south
of the Himalayas, while the second
branch is positioned to the north of the
Tibetan Plateau.
• The ridge of the jet stream creates anti-
cyclonic (with clockwise air circulation)
situations over North-West India.
Therefore, the winds tend to descend
over the north-western parts of India,
resulting into the development of
atmospheric stability and dry conditions
(anticyclonic condition = no rainfall).
• But the subtropical jet (STJ) results in
periodic changes in general weather
conditions. The STJ creates the
temperate low pressures over the
Mediterranean Sea towards east across
Afghanistan, Pakistan and near north-
west India.
• These storms are excess frontal cyclones
which move at the height of 2000 m
from the mean sea level. Averagely 4
to 6 cyclonic waves reach near north-
western India during October and April
each year.
The Indian Monsoons
• Monsoon is a wind regime operating at
a level of 20 kilometers from the earth’s
surface. It is characterized by seasonal
reversal of wind direction at orderly
intervals.
• However, the monsoon is a global
phenomenon influenced by a variety of
factors. The monsoon rains cover mainly
the South Asian region, represented by
India, Myanmar, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh,
57
Bhutan and parts of Southeast Asia.
• Along with the monsoons, the Indian
climate is majorly influenced by two
more factors. The Himalayas provide
a continental nature to the climate,
recognized by land winds, dry air, large
diurnal range and scanty rainfall as
well. On the other hand, the Indian
Ocean, contributes a tropical character
to the Indian climate characterized by
regularity of temperature throughout
the year, short diurnal range, damp air,
and frequent rainfall as well.
• The monsoon system of the Indian
subcontinent distinguishes considerably
from that of the rest of Asia. the
Indian monsoon is different from other
monsoon in the centres of action, air
masses involved, and the mechanism
of precipitation.
Classical Theory (Thermal
Concept) of Indian Monsoons:
• Theory states that the differential
heating of land as well as sea at the
time when the sun moves towards the
north is the main cause of the Indian
monsoonal order.
• Two factors are majorly responsible
for this very strong development of
monsoons:
» First one is the vast size of the Indian
subcontinent and adjacent seas
» Very high as well as extensive mountain
systems of the Himalayas lies in the
north, thus constituting a formidable
physical barrier between tropical and
polar air masses.
• The second factor is of the great
meteorological significance.
• The high mountain chains of the
Himalayas that border the subcontinent
on three sides act as both a break and
motor at the same time. In the winter,
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they avert the penetration of the cold
polar air masses from Siberia into the
subcontinent, and while in summer, the
Himalayas do not allow the equatorial
maritime air masses to cross the
Himalayas and force them to curve
round the north-west.
• The mighty Himalayas cause hydro-
dynamic effects that characterize the
type of precipitation in India.
• As per the thermal concept, after the
Spring Equinox (March 23), the sun
starts its northward shift. Subsequently,
the areas in the north of the equator
(tropics and sub-tropics)- get a high
incidence of solar radiation.
• The effect of this on the Indian
subcontinent is observed in the form of
intense heating of the great northern
plains and the adjoining highlands.
Therefore, a massive low-pressure
trough is created extending from the
Punjab plains in the north-west to the
Bengal delta in the east.
• This low-pressure zone attracts wind
regimes from the adjoining areas, from
short distances in the beginning. But
progressively solar incidence reaches
its peak during May-June, the pressure
gradient between the low-pressure
trough and the adjoining seas is so
high that it attracts winds from the
very far south of the equator. Along
with the process and helping this pull
of wind patterns is the development of
few high-pressure centers in the Indian
Ocean, Arabian Sea as well as over the
Australia (it being the winter season).
• The wind patterns which are prevalent
to the south of the equator are actually
the south-east trade winds which
blow from the south-east to the north-
west. These winds are driven by the
low-pressure trough on the Indian
subcontinent, along with moving to the
north of the equator, turn towards the
right in clockwise direction following
Ferrel's law. This shift in direction is
58
caused by the earth's rotation. Now,
the originally south- east trade winds
become south-west monsoons blowing
towards the north- east.
• At this point, the Inter- Tropical
Convergence Zone (ITCZ) moves
northwards. The ITCZ is the theoretical
line where the north-east trade winds
from the northern hemisphere and
the south-east trade winds from the
southern hemisphere meet. The south-
west winds that approaching the Indian
peninsula have to cover the distance on
the Indian Ocean.
• In their long travel, these winds
absorb large amounts of moisture and
when they reach India, they are over
saturated. Hence, they are known as
the south-west monsoons which get
diverged into the Arabian Sea Branch
and the Bay of Bengal Branch caused
by the shape of peninsular India. There
moisture-laden winds produce heavy
rainfall on the windward sides.
India
Formation of Monsoon Winds
LOW PRES
SURE
THROUG
H DUE TO
INTENSE
HEATING
LAND SU OF
RFACE
SW MONSOON
SW MONSOON
WINDS
WINDS
BAY OF
BENGAL
ARABIAN
SEA
SW MONSOON
WINDS
SW MONSOON
WINDS - Arrows denote wind regimes
( Low pressure zone attracts
winds from adjoining areas
of high pressure zones )
HIGH PRESSURE
INDIAN OCEAN
TROUGH IN OCEAN
I m a g e 4.1: F o r m at i o n of Monsoon Winds
The Arabian Sea Branch
• This branch of the south-west monsoons
hits the highlands of the Western Ghats
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at almost 90 degrees. The windward
slopes of the Western Ghats encounter
heavy orogenic precipitation. However,
the western currents of the monsoon
spike further into the Indian mainland
the rainfall starts weakening on the
leeward side.
• Although the windward slopes of the
Western Ghats are the regions receiving
the highest rainfall, the leeward slopes
form a well-marked rain-shadow belt
which is drought-prone. For example,
the average annual rainfall at Mumbai
and Pune is 188 cm and 50 cm
respectively, despite the fact that they
are only 160 km. apart.
• After traversing the Western Ghats, the
rain- bearing air currents descend
the eastern slopes where they get
warmed up adiabatically. This causes
a pronounced rain-shadow area. The
higher the mountains, the larger the
rain-shadow effect. In the north, where
the Western Ghats are not so very high,
the difference in the amount of rainfall
between the windward as well as the
leeward side is rather negligible.
• Why there is no Precipitation in Kutch
and Western Rajasthan?
» There is no mountain barrier to trap the
advancing winds. As the Aravalis have
an almost north-south axis, they fail to
block the passage of these monsoon
currents (which rather blow parallel to
the Aravalis) and uplift them.
» The monsoon currents going towards
Rajasthan are rather shallow and are
superimposed by stable anti- cyclonic
air.
» These conditions are not good for
precipitation in Kutch and western
Rajasthan where desert conditions
prevail.
» However, a few air currents from the
main Arabian Sea branch are diverged
northward in the direction of Kutch
and the Thar Desert, these currents
59
continue till Kashmir without causing
rain anywhere on their way. Actually, an
east-to- west line drawn near Karachi
in Pakistan practically marks the limit
of the monsoon rainfall.
Bay of Bengal Branch
• Likewise, the Western Ghats of India
in the case of the Arabian Sea branch,
the windward slopes of the West Coast
Mountains of Myanmar (Arakan and
Tenasserim mountains) get heavy
rainfall when the main monsoon
currents of this branch strike the
Myanmar coast. Like the case of the
leeward sides of the Western Ghats in
India, here also the rain shadow effect
is noticeable on the leeward side.
• A northern current of the branch attacks
the Khasi hills in Meghalaya and results
in very heavy rains. Mawsynram (near
Cherrapunji), located on the southern
slopes of Khasi hills, has the distinction
of recording the highest annual average
precipitation in the world.
• This is because of its peculiar
geographical location. Mawsynram
is surrounded all sides by the Garo,
Khasi and Jaintia hills except for a gap
through which the rain- bearing winds
enter and are simulated to rise, hence
yielding the heaviest rainfall. Shillong,
just 40 km. away on top of the Khasi
hills, observes only about 140 cm of
rainfall between June and September.
• The other current of the Bay of Bengal
branch turns left at the eastern end of
the low-pressure trough (roughly the
Bengal delta). After reaching here, it
blows in a south-east to north-west
direction by the orientation of the
Himalayas. This current results in the
rainfall on the northern plains.
• The monsoon rainfall on the northern
plains is served by west moving
monsoon or cyclonic depressions
known as 'Westerly Disturbances’.
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INDIA
These are created in the Bay of Bengal DATES OF ONSET OF
and travel along the southern fringe of SOUTH WEST MONSOONS
the northern plains resulting in copious
rains there which are important for the

15
L
JU
rice crop. JU
L1

• The intensity of rainfall weakens from JUL 15

east to west and from north to south JU

N
1
JUL 10
in the northern plains. The decrease N
5
JU
in westwards are proportional to the JUN 5
increasing distance from the source of
the moisture. However, the decrease in N
1
JU
rainfall intensity from north to south,
on the other hand, is due to increasing
distance from the mountains which
are responsible for lifting the moisture-
laden winds and causing orogenic I m a g e 4.3: N o r m a l d at e s o f o n s e t o f s o u t h
west Monsoons
rainfall in the plains, especially in the
foothills.

INDIA Retreating Or North-East

MONSOONS WINDS
Monsoons
HIM

• By the end of September, the low

ALA
YAS

pressure centre in the north-west starts

HI
MA
to disintegrate and eventually moves
LA
YA
S NE HILLS to the equatorial region. The cyclonic
conditions are restored by anti-cyclonic
ones. Therefore, winds start blowing
away from the northern region. Similar
WES

S
AT

anticyclonic winds flow from the Tibetan

GH
TERN

ian
Arab highlands and beyond.
ER

Sea BAY OF
ST
GHA

ch BENGAL BRANCH
EA

Bran
• This is also the time when the sun
TS

makes an apparent movement

INDIAN OCEAN
I m a g e 4.2: I n d i a n M o n s o o n W i n d s
• These conditions continue from October
south of the equator. The ITCZ also
moves equatorwards. Now the winds
that dominate the sub-continental
landscape are the ones which move
from the north-east to the south-west.
until mid-December and are known as
the Retreating monsoons or the north-
east monsoons. Towards the end of the
December, the monsoons have entirely
withdrawn from India. The retreat of
the monsoons is remarkably gradual
in contrast to the ‘sudden burst’ of the
south-west monsoons.

60
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INDIA
RETREATING MONSOONS PROCESS winds cause dry and fine weather.
Although certain areas in the north get
winter precipitation from sources far
away.

GRADUAL
• The north-western parts of India—
WEAKENING OF
LOW PRESSURE Punjab and Ganga plains—are invaded
by shallow cyclonic disturbances moving
TROUGH

from west to east and having their origin

in the Mediterranean Sea. These are
called “Westerly Disturbances” which
* Arrows cross West Asia and Afghanistan before
denote reversal of
monsoon winds due to change
in pressure conditions.
they reach India. These disturbances
High pressure on plains during
Oct - Nov and
Low pressure over oceans.
come with cloudiness as well as rising
Low pressure zone attracting winds
from mainland temperature in the front and cold wind
WEAKENING OF HIGH PRESSURE
OVER OCEANS
GRADUALLY, LEADING WAY TO LOW
in the rear.
• These disruption cause up to 5 cm
PRESSURE IN
OCT -NOV
INDIAN OCEAN

rainfall in Punjab, Kashmir and up to

I m a g e 4.4: F o r m at i o n o f R e t r e at i n g 2.5 centimeters on the Uttar Pradesh
Monsoons plains. These rains are very good for the
Rabi crop, especially wheat and gram,
• The retreating monsoons on the Bay and are very effective because of less
of Bengal bring moisture on their way runoff, less evaporation (because of low
which is released on the eastern or winter temperatures) and the fact that
coastal Odisha, Tamil Nadu and parts moisture from these showers is confined
of Karnataka in October and November. to the root area of the crops.
This is the important season of rains
over these areas as they almost always INDIA
situated in the rain-shadow area of the DATES FOR RETREATING
MONSOONS
south-west monsoons.
• In the October, easterly depressions
occur at the head of the Bay of
Bengal which course southwards and 1S
EP
P
in November get drawn into Odisha 15
SE

and Tamil Nadu coasts causing heavy

rains along with devastating cyclonic 1O
CT

winds in coastal and interior areas. The T

OC
depressions weaken southwards and in 15
OV
the interiors. 1N
V
NO
15
EC
1D
C
DE
Winter Rainfall due to Western 15

Disturbance
• The stable and dry anticyclonic winds I m a g e 4.5: R e t r e at i n g M o n s o o n s
persuading on the subcontinent after
the retreat of the south-west monsoons
is unable to cause precipitation since
they are free of moisture. Instead, these

61
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INDIA
eastwards to the coast of northern South
RETREATING MONSOONS America. The central and eastern Pacific
areas warm up for over six months
and result in an El Nino condition. The
temperature of the water could rise up
to 10 degrees Fahrenheit above normal.
• Warmer surface waters increase
precipitation and bring above-normal
rainfall in South America, and droughts
to Indonesia and Australia.
• This change of wind direction leads
* Arrows represent
Retreating Monsoons
to warmer winters and summers
and a decrease in rainfall during the
of Arabian Sea
Branch

* Arrows represent
Retreating Monsoons winds
of Bay of Bengal Branch
• There is also an opposite of an El Nino,
I m a g e 4.6: R e t r e at i n g M o n s o o n s
El Nino/La Nina (ENSO) and
monsoon. Most of the time, it also leads
to drought.
called La Nina. This refers to times when
waters of the tropical eastern Pacific
are colder than normal and trade winds
blow more strongly than usual.

Monsoons • Collectively, El Nino and La Nina are

parts of an oscillation in the ocean-
• The surface temperatures of the sea atmosphere system called the El Nino-
play main role in global weather which Southern Oscillation or ENSO cycle.
influences two extreme phases of a
• El Nino affects global weather. It favors
naturally occurring climate cycle. I.e., El
eastern Pacific hurricanes and tropical
Nino/Southern Oscillation and La Nina.
storms.
• Both terms refer to large-scale changes • It recorded unusual rainfall in Peru,
in sea-surface temperatures over the
Chile, and Ecuador which are linked to
eastern tropical Pacific.
the change in climate pattern.
• These are popular for altering the • El Nino reduces the upwelling of cold
climate across more than half of the
water, reducing the uplift of nutrients
planet that also impact the weather
from the bottom of the ocean. This
patterns.
upsets marine life and sea birds. The
• El Nino phenomenon in which a warm fishing industry is also affected.
ocean current that flows past the
• Drought caused by El Nino can be
Peruvian Coast, in place of the cold
extensive affecting southern Africa,
Peruvian current, every 2 to 5 years. The
India, Southeast Asia, Australia, and the
warmer waters of the Pacific Ocean
Pacific Islands. Countries dependent on
affect the winds in various regions to
agriculture are affected.
reverse, like the trade winds that come
towards India. • WHO report on the health issues of El
Nino forecasts a rise in vector borne
• El Nino sets in when there is an diseases which includes those lay out
abnormality in the pattern. The
by mosquitoes, in Central and South
westward-blowing trade winds decrease
America. Also, the cycles of malaria in
along the Equator and due to changes
India are linked to El Nino.
in air pressure, the surface water shifts

62
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• Over India, the El Nino has usually been
the harbinger of drought and the La
Nina of rain.
• Effect on monsoon due to El Nino is
always adverse. Due to changing wind
patterns, the rainfall reduces a great
deal and monsoon winds are also
weakened leading to a poor monsoon
and often a drought like condition.
For India, where the entire agricultural
and allied industry is dependent on
monsoon rainfall, a poor monsoon is
extremely harmful.
• During La Nina years, rainfall is
abundant, and it is considered a good
monsoon year. Therefore, La Nina is
beneficial for Indian monsoons.
Interesting Facts about
Monsoons/Pre-Monsoon
• The rains causing coffee flowers
blossom in Kerala and nearby areas is
known as blossom shower.
• Norwesters are the dreaded evening
thunderstorms in Bengal and Assam.
• The notorious nature of NorWesters
can be understood from the local
nomenclature of Kalbaisakhi, meaning
a calamity of the month of Baisakh.
• In Assam, Norwesters are called as
Bardoli Chheerha.
• Hot, dry, and oppressing winds flowing
in the Northern plains from Punjab to
Bihar are called as Loo.
• The rain in the southwest monsoon
season starts rather abruptly.
• During the south-west monsoon, the
period after rain for a few days, if rain
fails to occur for one or more weeks, it is
known as break in the monsoon.
• Sudden onset of the moisture-laden
winds along with violent thunder and
lightning, is often termed as the “burst”
of the monsoon.
63
• Tamil Nadu coast stays dry during the
monsoon season because it is located
parallel to the Bay of Bengal branch of
southwest monsoon.
• The Bay of Bengal branch of monsoon
moves towards the eastern part of India
and causes heavy rainfall. North- east
India receives heavy rainfall during the
monsoon season.
• Cherrapunji as well as Mawsynram
(two places of Meghalaya) are world’s
wettest place.
• However, there are great spatial
variations in India; the average annual
rainfall in India is 125 centimeters.
• The entire India has a monsoon type
of climate, but because of the regional
variations, there are various types of
climate in India.
Seasons in India
• The monsoon type of climate is classified
by a distinct seasonal pattern.
• The weather conditions greatly change
from one season to the other. These
changes are particularly noticeable in
the interior parts of the country.
• The coastal areas do not experience
much variation in temperature though
there is variation in rainfall pattern.
• Four main seasons can be identified in
India:
» The cold weather season.
» The hot weather season.
» The advancing monsoon.
» The retreating monsoon with some
regional variations.
Winter Season
• Winter is the season from autumn to
spring. By the end of the monsoon the
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temperature falls, and it is the coldest
season of the year.
• Meteorological winter is the season
that witnesses shortest days and the
lowest average temperatures.
• The year’s coldest months are December
and January.
• In winter, temperatures average around
10–15 °C in the northwest; temperatures
rise as one proceeds towards the
equator, peaking around 20–25°C in
mainland India's southeast.
General
Duration Temperature
Characteristics
Mid Clear skies, fine Mean daily
November to weather, low temperature
February humidity below 21°C in
North India. Some
parts experience
temperatures
below freezing
point. Temperature
increases from north
to south.
Summer Season
• In the summer, the temperature rises
due to Sun’s vertical rays directly
reaching Tropic of Cancer.
• Entire India witnesses summers between
March and June, while the Northern
India observes it from April to July.
• April is the warmest month in most of
South and Central India while it is May
for Northern India.
• Norwesters or the Pre-Monsoon
Thunderstorms result to hailstones that
are dropped during this season.
• In May, most of the Indian interior
experiences mean temperatures over
32°C while maximum temperatures
often exceed 40 °C. While entire India
experiences higher temperatures,
the higher altitudes or hill stations
offer relief from heat due to their high
altitude.
64
• A common phenomenon during winters
is “Western Disturbances” that causes
rains in winters. The main cause behind
Western Disturbances is the prevailing
of low pressure near Mediterranean
Sea. These winds then move towards
India. These winds cause heavy
precipitation towards the Southern
Himalayas especially in the states
of Jammu & Kashmir, Uttarakhand,
Himachal Pradesh. Also, the two
Himalayan states of Assam and Sikkim
also witness heavy snowfall.
Wind Disturbances Rainfall
High pressure Westerly disturbances
over northwestern cause rainfall in northern
India. Winds blow plains. Rainfall decreases
from northwest to from west to east in plains
southeast. Around but increases in north-
four or five westerly east again as it catches
disturbances are water from Bay of Bengal.
carried by westerly Northeast monsoon
jet stream. causes winter rainfall in
southern Andhra Pradesh,
Tamil Nadu etc.
Monsoon Season
• Monsoon winds are strong as well
as violent that usually changes the
direction with season. The winds always
flow from colder regions to hotter
regions. Monsoons flow from the land
to the sea in winter and from the sea to
the land in the summer.
• The rainfall in India is caused by the
South West trade winds that born from
High Pressure areas.
• The South west monsoon winds occur in
two branches, such as the Bay of Bengal
Branch and Arabian Sea Branch. The
Arabian Sea Branch is much stronger
(almost 3 times) than the Bay of Bengal
Branch.
• The monsoon typically falls on the
Indian Territory around 25 May, when
it blows the Andaman and Nicobar
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Islands in the Bay of Bengal. It hits
the Indian mainland around 1st June
near the Malabar Coast of Kerala. It
reaches Mumbai around 9th-10th June.
It reaches to Delhi by 29th June.
• The Bay of Bengal branch, which in
the beginning tracks the Coromandel
Coast northeast from Cape Comorin to
Odisha, twists to the northwest towards
the Indo-Gangetic Plain. The Arabian
Sea branch advances northeast
towards the Himalayas. In the first week
of July, the entire country experiences
monsoon rain.

General Wind
Duration Temperature Rainfall
Characteristics Disturbances
June – Whole of India June is the hottest Winds are India receives its
September. under southwest month. Temperature southwesterly 80% precipitation
monsoon. India faces remains low during July over mainland in this season. There
severe cyclones, and August which rises India. is decline of rainfall
thunderstorms etc. high in September with from east to west in
decreasing amount of plains.
precipitation.

Post-Monsoons and the precipitation also decreases.

The North East monsoons carry winds
• The months from October to December that have already lost their moisture
considered as the Post-Monsoon while traveling across Central Asia.
season.
• However, the states of Tamil Nadu and
• During these months there is a different Kerala receive good precipitation during
monsoon cycle called the North-east the season. Parts of West Bengal, Odisha,
monsoon brings dry and cool air masses Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, and North-
to India. East India also receive minor precipitation
• As South west monsoons begin to from the northeast monsoon.
decrease, climate begins to be drier

General Wind
Duration Temperature Rainfall
Characteristics Disturbances
October - Monsoon winds are Day temperature is Winds are Southern Peninsular
November retreating gradually high, and the nights northeasterly. region (Tamil Nadu,
and sudden rise of are cool and pleasant. Clear skies and Kerala, and Southern
temperature with The average minimum gentle breeze are Andhra Pradesh)
October heat. temperature falls characteristics of receives rain. Cyclonic
below 20°C. this season. activities are more
frequent in Peninsular
region.

Traditional Indian experience and age-old perception of

Seasons
weather phenomena.
• However, this system does not match
with the seasons of south India where
• In the Indian tradition, a year is divided there is little variation in the seasons.
into six two-monthly seasons.
• This cycle of seasons, which the
common people in north and central
India follow is based on their practical

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Months According to Indian Months According to English

Season
Calendar Calendar

Vasanta Chaitra-Vaisakha March-April

Grishma Jyaistha-Asadha May-June

Varsha Sravana-Bhadra July- August

Sharada Asvina-Kartika September-October

Hemanta Margashirsa-Pausa November-December

Shishira Magha- Phalguna January-February

India
Annual Rainfall
Distribution of 50
-1
RF
less

Annual Rainfall
00 than
cm 50 cm

• The distribution of average annual RF

less than
RF
more than
200 cm
rainfall in India is shown in map. 50 cm Rain fall
50-100 cm Rain fall
100-200 cm
• A glance on this map indicates that the Rain fall RF more
100-200 cm
distribution of rainfall in India is uneven. than 200 cm

RF
• On the basis of the distribution of 100-200
cm
rainfall, India can be divided into the
following regions as shown. Rain fall
100-200 cm
RF
more Rain fall
than less than
200 cm 50 cm

I m a g e 4.7: A n n u a l R a i n fa ll D is t ri b u t i o n in
india

Rainfall Type Rainfall in cm Regions

Heavy rainfall More than 200 cm Western coast, western ghats, sub-Himalayan region of north-
east, Garo, Khasi and Jaintia hills of Meghalaya. In some parts,
rain exceeds 1000 cm

Moderate rainfall Between 100-200 The isohyet extends from Gujarat to south up to Kanyakumari
cm parallel to western ghats. Northern Andhra Pradesh, eastern part
of Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Odisha, some parts of Jammu
and Kashmir

Low rainfall Between 60-100 Maximum parts of Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh,
eastern Rajasthan, southwestern Uttar Pradesh

Inadequate Less than 60 cm Punjab, Haryana, northwestern Rajasthan, Kutch, Kathiawar

rainfall

Isohyet - an imaginary line on a map connecting points having the same amount of rainfall in a given
period of time.

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» A very large part of India falls in

Variability of Annual the category of 15 to 30 per cent

Rainfall annual variability of rainfall. Tamil

Nadu, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh,
Maharashtra etc. fall in this category.
• Variability of rainfall refers to variations
in rainfall from the average amount.
The variability of a rainfall is computed • Variability of annual rainfall increases
with the help of the following formula: from the western coast to the interior
• C. V. = (Standard Deviation/Mean) x of the Peninsular region and from West
100 (*Where C. V. is the coefficient of Bengal and Odisha towards north and
variation). north-west.
• Study of variability of rainfall in an
Climatic Regions of
agricultural country such as India is
particularly important. The rainfall in
India is extremely variable. The actual
rainfall of an area in a year deviates India
from its average rainfall by 10 to over
60 per cent.
• India is often referred to as a country
with tropical monsoon type of climate.
• Description of annual rainfall’s
variability is detailed as:
• However, the large latitudinal extent, the
presence of Himalayas in the north, the
» The highest variability is found in the Indian Ocean in the south have resulted
areas where the average annual rainfall in great variations in the distribution of
is the lowest such as desert areas of temperature and precipitation in India.
Rajasthan. Here, variability of rainfall is • The climate of north is different from
around 60 per cent. that of south and so is the climate of
» Contrary to this, in the areas where the east from that of the west.
average annual rainfall is over 200 cm • To study the variations of climate in
(Meghalaya plateau, Western Ghats), various parts, India is divided into a
the annual variability of rainfall is less large number of climatic regions of
than 10 per cent. small size.
India
Annual Rainfall variability • A climatic region is that area which
N.A. possesses a broad uniformity of
Area in red climatic conditions caused by the
RF variability is
more than
60%
combined effects of climatic elements –
temperature, pressure, winds, humidity,
Rainfall RF
and precipitation.
variability Variability less
30-60% than 15%
Area in Area in
light green Rainfall variability dark green
15-30%
Area in blue
Koeppen’s Climate
Classification
RF
• Temperature and rainfall are two main
Variability
less than 15%
elements which are considered to be
Area in
dark green decisive in all the schemes of climatic
I m a g e 4.8: R a i n fa ll va ri a b ili t y i n i n d i a
classification.

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• Koeppen, on the basis of his scheme » E – Polar Type

of Climatic classification on monthly » Et – Polar type with no true summer
values of temperature and precipitation,
identified five major climatic types. » Bshw – Steppe
They are: » BWhw – Hot Desert type

» Tropical climates » Cwg – Monsoon type with dry weather

» Dry climates » Aw – Tropical Savanna type

» Warm temperate climates » Amw – Monsoon type with short dry

season
» Cool temperate climates
» As – Monsoon with dry summer season
» Ice climates (polar)
» Dfc – Cold humid winters with short
• Climate Zones as per Koppen, identified summers
in India:

Polar
Type
(E)
Hot Dessert Cold Human Winters
Type (Et) Polar Type With Short Summer
with No True
(Bshw) Summer
(Bwhw) Dfc
pe
ep

Monsoon Type
St

with Dry Weather Cwg

(Cwg)

Tropical Savannam
Type
(Aw)

Steppe
(Bshw)

(Amw)
(As) Monsoon Type
Monsoon
Type with with Dry
Short Dry Summer Season
Season

I m a g e 4.9: C li m at i c Z o n e s A c c o r d i n g to K o e p p e n C l a ssi f i c at i o n

Agro-Climatic classified based on the altitude.

Classification
• The agro-climatic classification is an
extension of the climate classification
keeping in view the suitability to
agriculture.
• Generally, the climate types may
be distinguished on the rainfall,
temperature. As these two
characteristics are influenced by
altitude, the climate can also be
• National Commission on Agriculture
(1971) classified the country into 127
agro-climatic zones. The planning
commission divided the nation into 15
broad agro-climatic zones based on
physiography and climate.
• The emphasis was given on the
development of resources and their
optimum utilization in a suitable
manner within the framework of
resource constraints and potentials of
each region.

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India
Agro-Climatic Zones
1

6
5
14
4 2
8
13 3
7 1. Western Himalayan
9 2. Eastern Himalayan
3. Lower Ganga Plains
4. Middle Ganga Plains
11 5. Upper Ganga Plains
12 15 6. Trans-Gangetic Plains
10 7. Eastern Plateau and Hills
8. Central Plateau and Hills
9. Western Plateau and Hills
10. Southern Plateau and Hills
15 11. Eastern Coastal Plains and Hills
12. Western Coastal Plains and Hills
13. Gujarat Plains
14. Western Dry Region
15. Island Region

I m a g e 4.10: A g r o - c li m at i c zones in India

Importance of for approximately 64% of the people in

India, and agriculture is dependent on

Monsoon: the southwest monsoon.

• India gets around 70 percent of its
annual rainfall during the monsoon
season. It helps to replenish reservoirs
and groundwater resources.
• The monsoon is the axis around which
India's entire agricultural cycle revolves.
It is because agriculture provides a living
• Regional differences in monsoon
climate assist in the cultivation of
various crops.
• A delayed monsoon can trigger supply
issues and exacerbate food inflation.
• A good monsoon season, on the other
hand, results in bumper farm production,
which keeps food prices under control.

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CHAPTER - 5
INDIA: VEGETATION, WILDLIFE AND
SOILS
Introduction
• Natural vegetation refers to the plants
and trees that grow by themselves in a
particular area.
• This natural vegetation can form forests
or jungles.
• Due to a various types of climatic
conditions, a wide range of natural
vegetation can be found in India.
Natural vegetation varies according
to altitude, soil and climate. A study of
the distribution of the forests in India
reveals that there is a marked relation
between the rainfall zones and their
belts of natural vegetation.
• India comes tenth in the world and
fourth in Asia in plant diversity with over
47,000 plant species. It includes 15000
or 6% of the world’s total flowering
plants.
• India is also one of 12 mega bio-diverse
countries of the world.
• In terms of animal species, there are
89000 animal species in India as well
as a rich variety of fish in its marine and
fresh waters.
• The term fauna denotes species of
animals and flora denotes plants in a
specific region.
Factors Affecting
Natural Vegetation
• Relief:
» Land: Land affects the natural
vegetation directly as well as indirectly.
The type of land influences the type
70
of vegetation. The fertile level land is
normally utilized for farming. The rough
and undulating terrains are areas where
woodlands and grassland develop and
offers shelter to a variety of wildlife
species.
» Soil: The soils also differ over regions.
Various types of soils become basis for
various types of flora. The sandy soils
of the desert support thorny bushes
and cactus while marshy, wet, deltaic
soils favours deltaic and mangroves
vegetation. The hilly slopes with some
depth of soil have conical trees.
• Climate:
» Temperature, photo-period and
precipitation are the three climatic
determinants of natural vegetation.
» The character and extent of flora are
primarily depending on temperature
along with humidity, rainfall, and type
of soil. On the Himalayan slopes and the
hills of the Peninsula above the height
of 915 meters, the fall in the temperature
affects the types of vegetation and its
growth, and changes it from tropical
to subtropical temperate and alpine
vegetation.
» Duration of exposure to sunlight is
different for different trees which results
into their different growth rates. During
summer as the duration of sunlight is
longer, trees grows faster.
» Heavy rainfall areas have more dense
vegetation as compared to other areas
of less rainfall.
» On the other hand, an area with scanty
rainfall is suitable for thorny bushes.
» Temperature Characteristics in
Vegetation Zones.
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Mean Annual Average Mean Temperature in

Vegetation Zones Remarks
Temp (° C) Jan (° C)

Tropical Above 24° C Above 18° C No Frost

Subtropical 17° C-24° C 10° C - 18° C Frost is rare

Temperate 7° C - 17° C -1° C - (-10)° C Frost and some snow

Alpine Below 7° C Below -1° C Snow

• It provides humus to soil and shelter to

wildlife.

Natural Vegetation
in India
• Soil, topography and climate are the
primary factors which influence Natural
Vegetation of a region.
• The main climatic factors are
temperature and rainfall. The annual
rainfall pattern has a great influence on
the type of vegetation.
• Temperature is the major factor in the
Himalayan region and other hilly areas
I m a g e 5.1: V e g e tat i o n & A lt i t u d e
where an elevation is more than 900
meters. As the temperature declines with

Importance of altitude in the Himalayan region, the

vegetation cover changes with altitude
Forests from tropical to subtropical, temperate,
and alpine type of vegetation.
Forests are renewable resources that play • Soil plays an equally determining factor
a major role in enhancing the quality of in few areas. Swamp forests, Mangroves
environment. are such examples where soil plays
• They modify the local climate major role. Topography is responsible
for certain minor types of vegetation
• Control soil erosion e.g., tidal forests, alpine flora, etc.
• Regulate stream flow • In India, Vegetation or Forests are
• Provide livelihood for many communities widely divided into these categories:
• Offer panoramic or scenic view for
» Tropical Evergreen Rain Forests -
recreation.
Rainfall more than 200 cm.
• It controls wind force, temperature and » Deciduous or Monsoon Type of Forests
bring rainfall

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- Rainfall 100-200 cm. • Natural Vegetation of India is primarily

» Dry Deciduous Forests - Rainfall 50 - classified based on spatial and annual
100 cm. variations in rainfall. Temperature, soil
and topography are also considered.
» Mountain Forests.
• India’s vegetation types can be divided
» Littoral and Swamp Forest. into 5 main types and 16 sub-types as
» Semi-Desert and Desert Vegetations - given below.
Rainfall 25-50 cm.

A. Moist Tropical B. Dry Tropical C. Montane D. Montane E. Alpine Forests

Forests Forests Subtropical Temperate Forests
Forests
1. Tropical Wet 1. Tropical Dry 1. Subtropical 1. Montane Wet 1. Sub-Alpine
Evergreen Evergreen broad leaved Temperate 2. Moist Alpine
hill
2. Tropical Semi- 2. Tropical Dry 2. Himalayan scrub
Evergreen Deciduous 2. Subtropical Moist 3. Dry Alpine
moist hill (pine) Temperate
3. Tropical Moist 3. Tropical Thorn scrub
Deciduous 3. Subtropical 3. Himalayan Dry
dry evergreen Temperate
4. Littoral and
Swamp

Natural Vegetation stratified strands. Layers closer to the

ground are covered with creepers and

and Distribution of shrubs, with short trees followed by tall

Forests in India -
Classification 1
• (For the sake of clarity, we will be studying
in details the broad classification of
forests. Depending upon the marks of
the question that are asked, you can
choose either of the classifications).
Tropical Evergreen and Semi
Evergreen Forests
• These forests are predominantly found
in the western slopes of the Western
Ghats, northeastern hills and the
Andaman and Nicobar Islands. These
are found in humid and warm areas
with an annual rainfall of 200 cm or
more and mean annual temperature
above 22°C.
• Tropical evergreen forests occur in well
variety of tree species. In these forests,
trees extend up to great heights of 60
m or more.
• There is no definite period or season for
trees to shed their leaves, flowering, and
fruition. As such these forests appear
green all year round, hence earning the
title ‘evergreen’.
• Species found in these forests include
Mahogany, Rosewood, Ebony, Aini etc.
• In the less rainy parts of these areas
semi evergreen forests are found. Such
forests consist of mixed evergreen and
moist deciduous forests. The under
growing climbers give an evergreen
appearance to these forests.
• Main species are White Cedar, Hillock
and Kail. However, this kind of forest in
India had been subjected to rampant
exploitation1.
1 The British were well acquainted with the economic value of
the forests in India; thus they exploited the forest indiscriminate-
ly. The structure of forests was also undergone a rapid change.
The oak forests in Kumaon and Garhwal were replaced by pine
(Chirs) which was used for laying railway lines. Forests were
cleared for plantations of coffee, rubber and tea. The British

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Tropical Deciduous Forests
• These forests constitute most
widespread forests in India. These are
also known as the monsoon forests.
They spread over regions with rainfall
between 70-200 cm. These forests
are again divided into moist and dry
deciduous depending on the availability
of water.
• The Moist deciduous forests are more
predominant in the areas with rainfall
between 100- 200 cm. These forests are
found in eastern slopes of the Western
Ghats and Odisha, the northeastern
states along the Himalayan foothills.
• Sal, Teak, Hurra, Shisham, Mahua, Amla,
Semul, Sandalwood and Kusum etc. are
the primary species of these forests.
• Dry deciduous forest spans vast areas
of the country, where rainfall is between
70-100 cm.
• On the wetter sides, it transitions
towards the moist deciduous, while on
the drier sides thorn forests are found.
• These forests predominate rainier parts
of the Peninsula and the plains of Bihar
and Uttar Pradesh.
• In the higher rainfall areas of the
northern Indian plain and the
Peninsular plateau, these forests
represent parkland landscape with
open stretches where Teak and other
trees interspersed with patches of grass
are commonly found.
• With the beginning of dry season, the
trees shed their leaves completely and
the forest appears like a vast grassland
with leafless trees all around.
• Palas, Tendu, Amaltas, Bel, Axlewood,
Khair, etc. are the commonly found
trees. In the southern and western
regions of Rajasthan, vegetation cover
is very scarce because of less rainfall
and over usage of land for grazing.
also utilized timber for construction purposes as it acts as an
insulator of heat.
73
Tropical Thorn Forests
• Tropical thorn forests found in the
regions where rainfall is less than 50
cm.
• These consist of a variety of shrubs and
grasses. It includes semiarid areas of
south west Punjab, Rajasthan, Haryana,
Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh and Madhya
Pradesh.
• Plants are leafless for most part of the
year and appears like scrub vegetation.
• Important species found are Ber,
Babool, and Khair, wild date palm,
Khejri, Palas, Neem. A grass known as
Tussocky grows up to a height of 2 m.
as the undergrowth.
Mountain Forests
• In mountainous areas, due to the
fall in temperature with increasing
altitude, natural vegetation changes
correspondingly.
• Mountain forests can be divided into
two broad types, the southern mountain
forests and the northern mountain
forests.
• The Himalayan ranges represent a
succession of vegetation from the
tropical to the tundra, with altitudinal
change in.
• Deciduous forests are found in the
Himalayan foothills. It is followed by
the wet temperate forests between
the altitudes of 1,000 to 2,000 m. In
the higher hill ranges of northeastern
region, hilly areas of West Bengal and
Uttarakhand, evergreen broad-leaf
trees such as Oak and Chestnut are
predominant.
• Between 1,500-1,750 m., Pine forests are
also well-developed in this region, with
Chir Pine as a very useful for commercial
species. Deodar which is a highly
valued endemic tree grows primarily in
the western Himalayan range. Deodar
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is mostly used in construction activity.
Similarly, the Walnut and the Chinar
belong to this zone which is used in
various types of Kashmiri handicrafts.
• Spruce and blue pine appear at altitudes
of 2,225 to 3,048 m. At many places,
temperate grasslands are also seen.
• But at the higher altitudes there is a
transition towards Alpine forests and
pastures.
• Junipers, silver firs, Pines, rhododendrons
and birch etc. found between 3,000
to 4,000 m. These pastures are used
widely for transhumance by tribes like
the Bakarwals, the Gujjars, the Gaddis
and the Bhotiyas.
• Because of relatively higher rainfall
than the drier north-facing slopes the
southern slopes of the Himalayas carry
a thicker vegetation cover. At higher
reaches, lichens and mosses represents
the tundra vegetation.
• The southern mountain forests include
the forests in three distinct regions of
Peninsular India viz; the Nilgiris, the
Vindhyas and the Western Ghats.
• As they are nearer to the tropical areas,
and only 1,500 m above the sea level,
vegetation is temperate in the higher
areas, subtropical on the lower regions
of the Western Ghats, especially in
Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Kerala.
• The temperate forests are known as
Sholas in the Palani hills, Anaimalai
and Nilgiris. Some other trees of this
forest of economic significance include
Laurel, magnolia, wattle and cinchona.
Such forests are also found in the Maikal
and the Satpura ranges.
Semi-deserts and Deserts
vegetation
• This type of forest grows in regions of
where rainfall is less than 50 cm. mostly
Acacia, thorny bushes, sand binding
74
grasses (Graminoids) and Babul are
found in this zone. The Indian wild date,
known as “Khejur” is most common in
these desert areas.
• These plants grow far away from each
other. They have deep roots and thick
fleshy stems in which they store water
to survive during the long drought.
• These vegetations are found in
Rajasthan and parts of Karnataka,
Punjab and Gujarat. The leaves of short
trees, shrubs, herbs and grasses that
are found in Thar Desert have high
nutritional values.
• Thorny Shrubs grow where rainfall is
low the soil is dry.
• Plants growing in such dry soil absorb
water from the soil after a lot of search
and great difficulty. To conserve
this water, plants in dry areas adapt
themselves by not growing large leaves,
as transpiration or loss of water occurs
through them mainly; or the leaves
are small in size or thorns occur. These
thorns act as leaves and at times
protect it from herbivorous animals.
• In arid areas the natural vegetation
is mainly of Cacti, Babla, Date, Palm,
Khair, Babul, Acacias, etc. In India
the distribution of thorny bushes and
scrubs are found in areas where rainfall
is low, average annual rainfall varying
between 25-50 cm and temperatures
are high.
• E.g., the semiarid regions – near desert
areas of Rajasthan, Kutch – Kathiawad
areas of Gujarat, rain- shadow area of
the Deccan, i.e., interior of the Peninsula.
Littoral and Swamp Forests
• India has a rich variety of wetland
systems. Nearly 70% of this wetlands
are under paddy cultivation. The total
area under wetland is near about 3.9
million hectares.
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• Two sites- Chilika Lake (Odisha) and shelter to a wide variety of birds.
Keoladeo National Park (Bharatpur)
are protected as water-fowl habitats INDIA
under the Convention on Wetlands TYPE OF FOREST
of International Importance which is
also known as Ramsar Convention of MONTANE
FOREST
Wetlands.
• The wetlands of country have been
grouped into eight categories, viz.:
TROPICAL TROPICAL
DECIDUOUS EVERGREEN
» The reservoirs of the Deccan Plateau in FOREST FOREST

the south along with the lagoons and TROPICAL

other wetlands of the west coast of THORN

FOREST

southern region;
» The vast saline expanses of Gujarat and
the Gulf of Kutch and Rajasthan; TROPICAL EVERGREEN
FOREST

» Freshwater lakes and reservoirs from

Gujarat through Madhya Pradesh and
Rajasthan (Keoladeo National Park); I m a g e 5.2: N at u r a l V e g e tat i o n of India

» The deltaic wetlands and lagoons of • Another classification of forests in

east coast of India (Chilika Lake); India can also be attempted. This is
» The freshwater marshy lands of the much more detailed than the previous
Ganges Plain; classification.
» The Brahmaputra floodplains; the
swamps and marshes in the hills of
northeast India and the Himalayan Natural Vegetation
foothills;
» The lakes and rivers of the mountain
and Distribution of
region of Ladakh and Kashmir; Forests in India -
» The mangrove forests and other
wetlands of the Andaman and Nicobar Classification 2
Islands grow along the coasts in the salt
marshes, tidal creeks, mud flats and Moist Tropical Forests
estuaries2. They consist of a number of Tropical Wet Evergreen Forests or
salt-tolerant plant species. Rainforests
• Criss crossed by creeks of stagnant • Climatic conditions: Annual rainfall
water and tidal flows, these forests give more than 250 cm, the annual
2 These forests grow along the coast and on the edges of the temperature ranges between 25°-27°C,
deltas, e.g. the deltas of the Ganga, Mahanadi, Godavari, Krish-
na and Kaveri. Tides play an important role in the formation of
the average annual humidity exceeds
mud and silt along these coastal mangrove forests. They are 77 % and the dry season is distinctly
called ‘Tidal Forests’ because their dense growth depends upon
tidal water which submerges the deltaic lands during high tides.
short.
They are also known as Littoral Forests. In West Bengal these
forests are known as ‘Sundarbans.’ The ‘Sundri’ is the most sig-
• Evergreen: Due to high temperature and
nificant tree in these forests. The other notable trees of these for- high humidity, the trees of these forests
ests are Hogla, Garan, Gewa, Golpata, Pasur, etc. These forests
supply timber and firewood. Palm and coconut trees adorn the
do not shed their leaves together.
coastal strip. In India, the mangrove forests spread over 6,740 sq.
km. which is 7 % of the world’s mangrove forests. These forests
• Mesophytic: Plants adopted to neither
too, are being encroached upon, and hence, need conservation.

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too wet nor too dry type climate3.
• Lofty: The trees more or less reach 45 –
60 meters in height.
• Thick Canopy: From the space, the
tropical rain forest looks like a thick
canopy of foliage, broken only if it is
intersected by large rivers or cleared for
cultivation.
• All plants struggle upwards for
sunlight which forms a peculiar layer
arrangement. When viewed from
above the entire morphology looks like
a green carpet.
• Less undergrowth: The sunlight cannot
reach the ground due to thick canopy.
The undergrowth is formed mainly of
Bamboo, ferns, climbers, orchids, etc.
• Such type of forests are found in
Western side of the Western Ghats (500
to 1370 meters above sea level), some
regions in the Purvanchal hills and in
the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
• The timber of these forests is fine-
grained, durable and hard.
• Though it has high commercial value
it is challenging to exploit due to the
dense undergrowth, absence of pure
stands and lack of transport facilities.
• The important species of these forests
are Canes, Mahogany, Mesua, Jamun,
Bamboo, White Cedar etc.
Tropical Semi-Evergreen Forests
• They are transitional forests between
tropical deciduous forests and tropical
wet evergreen forests. They are
comparatively drier regions compared
to tropical wet evergreen forests.
• Climatic Conditions: Annual
precipitation is 200-250 cm, mean
annual temperature varies from 24°C to
3 Unlike hydrophytic plants, such as water lily or pond-weed,
that grow in saturated soil or water, or xerophytic plants, such
as cactus, that grows in extremely dry soil, mesophytes are or-
dinary plants that exist between the two extremes. Mesophytic
environments are marked by average to hot temperatures and
soil that is neither too dry nor too wet.
76
27°C, the relative humidity is about 75
%. The dry season is not short like in
tropical evergreen forests.
• Such type of forest is found on the
Western coast of India, Assam, lower
slopes of the Eastern Himalayas, Odisha
and Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
• The semi-evergreen forests are less
dense. They are more gregarious (living
in colonies or flocks – more pure stands)
than the wet evergreen forests.
• These forests are characterized by many
species. Trees usually have buttressed
trunks with abundant epiphytes4.
• The important species are Rosewood,
Laurel, Mesua, thorny Bamboo –
Western Ghats, White Cedar, Indian
Chestnut, Champa, Mango, etc. –
Himalayan region.
• Hardwood or timber is similar to found
in tropical evergreen regions except
that these are less dense with more
pure stands (timber industry here is
more viable as compared to evergreen
forests).
Tropical Moist Deciduous Forests
• Climatic Conditions: Annual rainfall 100
to 200 cm, mean annual temperature of
about 27°C, the average annual relative
humidity ranges between 60 to 75 %.
Summer and spring (between winter
and summer) are dry.
• The trees shed their leaves during the
spring and early summer when there is
a decrease in moisture.
• The appearance is generally bare in
extreme summers (April-May).
• Heavily buttressed trees and fairly
complete undergrowth.
• These forests occupy a much larger
region than the evergreen forests but
4 An epiphyte is an organism that grows on the surface of a plant
and derives its moisture and nutrients from the air, rain, water or
from debris accumulating around it. Epiphytes take part in nu-
trient cycles and add to both the diversity and biomass of the
ecosystem in which they occur, like any other organism
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large tracts under these forests have
been cleared for cultivation.
• Found in the stretch running along the
Western Ghats surrounding the stretch
of evergreen forests, a stretch along
the Shivalik range including bhabar
and terai from 77° E to 88° E, Mizoram
and Manipur, hills of Chhattisgarh
and eastern Madhya Pradesh, most
of Odisha, Chota Nagpur Plateau,
Andaman and Nicobar islands and
parts of West Bengal.
• These provide valuable timer like Teak.
The main tree species found in these
forests are sal, Teak, Laurel, Rosewood,
amla, Bamboo, Jamun.
• It is comparatively easier to exploit
these forests as pure strands gives high
volume of wood.
Littoral and Swamp Forests
• They can survive and grow both
in brackish water (The mixture of
seawater and fresh water in estuaries
is called brackish water and its salinity
can range from 0.5 to 35 ppt) as well as
fresh water.
• Occur in and around the estuaries,
creeks and deltas which are under tidal
influence (tidal or delta forests).
• Littoral forests grow at several regions
along the coastal stretches.
• Swamp forests are majorly confined
to the deltas of Mahanadi, Ganga,
Godavari, Kaveri and Krishna.
• Dense mangroves can be found all
along the coastline in tidal creeks,
sheltered estuaries, salt marshes,
mudflats and backwaters. It provides
useful fuel wood.
• The densest and the pronounced is the
Sunderban in the Ganga delta where
the predominant species is Sundri.
• Mangroves provide durable and hard
timber which is used for making boats,
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building purposes and construction.
• The important tree species found
in these forests are agar, Sundri,
rhizophora, screw Pines, palms and
Canes.
Dry Tropical Forests
Tropical Dry Evergreen Forests
• Climatic Conditions: Annual
precipitation of 100 cm mostly from the
north-east monsoon winds in October –
December), mean annual temperature
is about 28°C; the mean humidity is
about 75 %.
• They are found along the coasts of
Tamil Nadu. The growth of evergreen
forests in such low rainfall region is a
bit strange.
• Short trees, up to 12 m height, with
complete canopy cover.
• Bamboos and grasses are not
conspicuous. The important species are
Jamun, Neem, Tamarind, etc.
• Most of the lands under these forests
have been cleared for agriculture or
casuarina plantations5.
Tropical Dry Deciduous Forests
• They are similar to moist deciduous
forests and shed their leaves in the dry
season. The major difference is that
these can grow in comparatively less
rainfall regions. Annual rainfall is 100-
150 cm.
• They represent a transitional type –
thorn forests on the drier side and moist
deciduous on the wetter side.
• They have closed but uneven canopy
cover.
5 Casuarina is the most famous farm forestry in Andhra Pradesh,
Tamil Nadu, West Bengal, Odisha, Maharashtra, Gujarat, and
Karnataka. They are rapid-growing, carefree species and cli-
mates as varied as high mountain slopes, coastal sand dunes,
semi-arid regions and hot humid tropics. They fix the atmo-
spheric nitrogen. It reaches 15 to 25 meters in height on average.
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• The forests consist of a mixture of a
few species of deciduous trees rising as
high as 20 meters.
• Undergrowth: Enough sunlight reaches
the ground to permit the growth of
grass and climbers.
• They occur in an irregular wide stretch
running from the foot of the Himalayas
to Kanyakumari except in Western
Ghats, West Bengal and Rajasthan.
• The important species are Axlewood,
Teak, Rosewood, common Bamboo, red
sanders, satinwood, Laurel.
• Large spans of this forest are cleared
for agricultural purposes.
• These forests have suffered from
overgrazing and fire.
Tropical Thorn Forests 6
• Climatic Conditions: Annual
precipitation less than 75 cm, humidity
is less than 50 %, mean temperature is
25°-30°C.
• The trees are small (6 to 10 meters)
and widely scattered. Euphorbias and
Acacias are prominent.
• The Indian wild date is most common.
Some grasses also thrive during the
rainy season.
• Found in south-western Punjab,
Rajasthan, Kutch and neighbouring
parts of Saurashtra, western Haryana.
• In this region they degenerate into
desert type in the Thar desert.
• Such forests also grow on the leeward
side of the Western Ghats covering
large areas of Karnataka, Maharashtra,
Telangana, Tamil Nadu and Andhra
Pradesh.
Reduces damage in the event of natural disasters. Shelter belts
in the coastal areas helps to break the winds. Because of its
ornamental appearance, it is also used for tourism purposes. It
is a source of high quality firewood. The wood is used for paper
pulp and is useful raw material for the manufacture of paper for
printing, writing, and wrapping. It has some medicinal values
as well.
78
• The important species are Cactii, Babul,
Neem etc.
Montane Subtropical Forests
Sub-tropical Broad-leaved Hill
Forests
• Climatic conditions: Mean annual
precipitation is 75 cm to 125 cm, average
annual temperature is 18°-21°C, and
humidity is 80 %.
• Found in the Eastern Himalayas to
the east of 88°E longitude at altitudes
varying from 1000 to 2000 m.
• Forests of evergreen tree species.
Commonly found species are Chestnuts,
Evergreen Oaks, Ash, Beech, Pines and
Sals.
• Epiphytes [any plant that grows non-
parasitically on a tree or other plant]
and climbers are common.
• These forests are not so distinctive
in the southern regions of India. They
occur only in the Palni hills and Nilgiri
at 1070- 1525 meters above sea level.
• It is a “stunted rain-forest” thus it is
not so luxuriant like the true tropical
evergreen forests.
• The higher regions of the Western Ghats
such as Mahabaleshwar, the summits
of the Satpura and the Maikal Range,
highlands of Bastar and Mt. Abu in the
Aravali Range carry sub-types of these
forests.
Subtropical Moist Pine Forests
• Found in the Western Himalayas
between 73°E and 88°E longitudes
at elevations between 1000 to 2000
meters above sea level.
• Spread across some hilly regions of
Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur, Naga
Hills and Khasi Hills.
• Chir or Chil is the most dominant
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species occurs in pure stands.
• It provides valuable timber for buildings,
boxes and furniture and also used for
producing resin and turpentine.
Subtropical Dry Evergreen Forests
• Climatic Conditions: Annual
precipitation is 50-100 cm. (15 to 25 cm.
in December-March), the summers are
sufficiently hot and winters are very
cold.
• Found in the western Himalayas up to
about 1000 meters above sea level,
Bhabar, the Shivaliks regions.
• Low scrub forest in which small
evergreen stunted trees and shrubs are
found.
• Pistacia, Acacia Modesta and Olive are
the most common trees.
Montane Temperate Forests
Montane Wet Temperate Forests
• Climatic Conditions: Grows at a height
of 1800-3000 m. above mean sea level,
mean annual rainfall is 150 cm. to 300
cm., mean annual temperature is about
11°C to 14°C and the average relative
humidity is over 80%.
• Higher hills of Kerala and Tamil Nadu,
in the Eastern Himalayan region.
• These are closed evergreen forests
regions. Trunks develop large girth.
• Branches are clothed with ferns, mosses
and other numerous epiphytes.
• The trees rarely reach a height of more
than 6 meters.
• Chilauni, Deodar, Indian Chestnut,
Birch, Plum, Machilus, Cinnamomum,
Litsea, Magnolia, Blue Pine, Hemlock,
Oak, etc. are important species.
79
Himalayan Moist Temperate Forests
• Annual precipitation varies from 150
cm. to 250 cm.
• They occur in the temperate zone of
the Himalayas between 1500 and 3300
meters and cover the entire length of this
mountain range in Kashmir, Himachal
Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Darjeeling and
Sikkim.
• These forests are mainly composed of
coniferous species and these species
occur in mostly pure strands.
• Trees are 30 to 50 meters high.
• Pines, cedars, spruce, silver fir are most
significant species.
• They are high but fairly open forest
with shrubby undergrowth including
rhododendrons, oaks and some
Bamboos.
• It provides fine wood which is used for
construction, timber and railway sleepers.
Himalayan Dry Temperate Forests
• Rainfall is below 100 cm and is mostly
in the form of snow. Temperatures are
below 10°C.
• Coniferous forests with xerophytic
shrubs in which Oak, Deodar, Ash, Olive,
etc. are the main trees.
• Such forests are seen in the inner dry
ranges of the Himalayas where south-
west monsoon is very less.
• Areas like Ladakh, Lahul, Chamba,
Kinnaur, Garhwal and Sikkim consist of
these forests.
Alpine Forests
• Altitudes ranging from 2,900 to 3,500.
• These forests can be divided into: (1)
sub- alpine; (2) moist alpine scrub and
(3) dry alpine scrub.
• The sub-alpine forests found in lower
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alpine scrub and grasslands.
• It is a mixture of coniferous and broad-
leaved trees in which the coniferous
trees attain a height of about 30 m while
the broad leaved trees reach only 10 m.
• Firs, rhododendron, spruce, etc. are
significant trees.
• The moist alpine scrub forest is a low
evergreen dense growth of birch,
rhododendron which occurs at 3,000
meters and reaches up to the snow-
line.
• The dry alpine scrub represents the
uppermost limit of dwarf shrubs, scrub
xerophytic, over 3,500 meters above sea
level and found in dry zone. Artemesia,
honeysuckle, juniper etc. are important
species.
Importance of
Forests
• The trees are extremely significant
and have always been necessary for
improving the human life – both during
its lifetime and after harvest. It is not a
strange to believe that without trees we
humans would not exist on this beautiful
planet.
• Forests are commonly known as the
lungs of the earth. It is majorly because
of the variety of plants produce massive
amount of Oxygen which sustains
the other species. Forests of one acre
provides over 6 tons of Oxygen every
year.
• Forests provide home to diverse fauna
and plant species, which not only
provide biodiversity on earth, but each
species has a vital role to perform in the
ecosystem.
• About 25% of all the medicines are
produced from rainforest plants. For
example Curare (toxic plant) is used
as an anesthetic and to relax muscles
80
during surgery comes from a tropical
vine. Similarly, Quinine is used to treat
Malaria which is derived from the
‘Cinchona Tree’.
• Forests provide timber, which is used
for building houses, furniture.
• Forests are the most important part
of earth’s ecosystem. It prevents soil
erosion, maintains water cycle, check
global warming etc. Without all these
roles performed by forests, the earth
would be uninhabitable.
• Wildlife tourism generates lots of
capital, which in turn increases the
revenue of The Government.
• Forests still harbor various species of
living organisms which are still being
discovered. Each animal insects and
plants contain its individual genetic
material that has been evolving for
thousands of years.
• Protecting the forests not only preserves
a process of life that started billions of
years ago but it also gives us missing
clues to various riddled aspects of life
itself.
Forest Cover in India
• India has recorded a one percent
increase (8,021 sq. km.) in overall forest
and tree cover between 2015 and
2017 despite population and livestock
pressures, even as the green footprint in
the northeast region shrunk by 630 sq.
km., according to the latest India State
of Forest Report, 2018.
• Based on satellite data, the biennial
assessment – conducted by the Forest
Survey of India (FSI) and released by
the Ministry of Environment, Forest
and Climate Change (MoEFCC) – has
put the total forest and tree cover at
802,088 sq. km., which is 24.39 percent
of the geographical area of the country.
• India’s goal is to bring 33 % of its
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geographical area under forest cover. INDIA

Almost 15 states and union territories TYPE OF FOREST
have forest cover more than 33 % of
4
their geographical area. Among these,
seven states have more than 75 percent 1
forest cover while eight states have 1
forest cover between 33 percent and 75 5 1
percent. 4 2
• Three southern states have attributed to 3 4 1
the overall increase in forest cover. They
are: Kerala (1,043 sq. km.) Karnataka 2
(1,101 sq. km.) and Andhra Pradesh (2,141
3 Forest Cover
sq. km.). According to report much of
1. More than 75%
the expansion is due to plantation and 2. 60 - 75 %
conservation activities both within and 3. 30 - 60%
4. 15 - 30%
outside the recorded forest areas. 5. Less than 15%
• In terms of area, Madhya Pradesh has
the largest forest cover of 77,414 sq. km.,
followed by Arunachal Pradesh with
66,964 sq. km. and Chhattisgarh with I m a g e 5.3: F o r e s t C ov e r in India
55,547 sq. km. However, these states
have reported decline in forest cover.
• The biodiversity-rich northeast region
(NER), which accounts for 25% of India’s Medicinal Plants
forest cover, has shown decline in forest
cover. In Mizoram, the loss is due to • India is famous for its spices and herbs
“shifting cultivation and developmental since ancient period. Some 2,000 plants
projects”. Rise in forest cover in certain have been mentioned in Ayurveda while
pockets is due to “regeneration of at least 500 are regularly used. Red list
Bamboo and other plantations”. In of the World Conservation Union has
Nagaland and Arunachal Pradesh, named 352 medicinal plants among
the loss has also been due to “shifting which 52 are critically endangered and
cultivation and developmental 49 are endangered. The commonly
projects”. Shifting cultivation, rotational used herb plants in India are:
felling and developmental projects are
the factors influencing the decline in » Sarpagandha: Used to treat
forest cover in Meghalaya. hypertension (blood pressure); Only
India is home for Sarpagandha.
» Jamun: The juice of ripe Jamun is
used to make vinegar which is diuretic
and carminative, and has digestive
properties. The powder of its seeds is
used for controlling diabetes.
» Arjun: The fresh juice of leaves is used
to cure earache and to regulate blood
pressure.
» Neem: Has high antibiotic and
antibacterial properties.

81
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» Babool: Leaves are used to cure sore
eyes. Its gum is used as a tonic.
» Kachnar: It is effective in treating
asthma and ulcers. The roots and buds
are good for digestive problems.
» Tulsi Plant: Is used to cure cough and
cold.
Forest Conservation
• Forests have an intricate relationship
with environment and life. These provide
various direct and indirect advantages
to our society and economy. Thus,
forest conservation is significant to
the survival and prosperity of whole
humanity.
• Accordingly, the Indian Government
has proposed a country-wide forest
conservation policy, and released a
Forest Policy in 1952, which was further
amended in 1988. According to the new
policy, The Government will emphasize
on sustainable forest management in
order to conserve and expand forest
cover on the one hand, and to meet the
needs of local people on the other.
• The forest policy aimed at:
» 33 % of the geographical area to be
under forest reserve;
» Maintaining stability of environment
and restore forests where ecological
balance was disturbed;
» Conserving the natural heritage of our
country, its biodiversity and genetic
pool;
» Check soil erosion, desertification of
land and controlling of droughts and
floods;
» Practices like social forestry and
afforestation on degraded lands to
increase the forest cover;
» Increasing the productivity of forests
to make fuel, timber, food and fodder
82
available to rural population dependent
on forests and encourage the
substitution of wood; creating a massive
people’s movement involving women
to encourage the tree plantation, stop
deforestation, and hence, reduce the
pressure on existing forest.
• Based on the forest conservation policy
following initiatives have been taken:
• Social Forestry:
» The National Commission on
Agriculture of The Government of India
used the term “social forestry” for the
first time in 1973. Social Forestry refers
to the management and protection of
forests as well as afforestation of barren
lands with the purpose of helping in
the environmental, social and rural
development. Social forestry is forestry
for community development. Thus,
it is a people oriented, value based
management of forests with a major
objective of satisfying the needs, wants
and aspirations of both the people and
The Government.
• Urban forestry:
» This is the art and science of managing
forest resources and trees in and
around urban ecosystems for availing
sociological, physiological, aesthetic,
and economic benefits. Urban Forestry
focuses on all tree-dominated as well
as other green resources in and around
urban areas, such as woodlands, public
and private urban parks and gardens,
street tree and square plantations,
botanical gardens and cemeteries.
• Even though both social forestry
and urban forestry concentrates on
afforestation, their relevant importance
is different. The scope of ecological,
social, economic and energy security
as its end goals, for Social and Urban
forestry are different.
» Social Forestry fosters ecological
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balance with proper utilization of
farm resources. It provides efficient
conservation of water and soil and
utilize wasteland and degraded lands.
It helps to reduce pressure on natural
forests.
» Urban forestry improves the air quality
and can mitigate the heat island effect
by giving green lungs to cities. Urban
forests can sequester huge quantity of
carbon by capturing carbon dioxide
from the atmosphere. Urban forests
play major roles in supporting water
management in and around urban
settlements.
» Social forestry, just like urban forestry
also provides employment opportunities
to the rural people.
» Urban forestry helps to check haphazard
urbanization bringing about aesthetic
benefits.
» Social Forestry helps to increase in levels
of farm income due to improved and
sustained productivity. It also helps to
achieve an all-round rural development
as a part of integrated rural
development programme. Participation
of different rural communities provide
social cohesion. Biofuel, biogas and
other sources of renewable energy can
be extracted out of social forestry.
» Urban forestry offers significant benefits
in reducing energy consumption.
Social and Urban forestry is, in effect,
an integral part of the Gandhian
philosophy of economic growth and
community development.
• Farm Forestry:
» Farm forestry is the name attributed
to the programmes which promote
commercial tree growing by farmers
on their own land. Farm forestry was
defined by the National Commission
on Agriculture (1976) as the practice of
forestry in all its aspects in and around
the farms or village lands integrated
83
with other farm operations. Farm
forestry is any sustainable land-use
system that maintains or increases the
total yields by combining food crops
with tree crops and/or livestock on the
same unit of land, either alternately or
at the same time, using management
practices that suit the social and
cultural characteristics of the local
people and the economic and eco-
logical conditions of the area.
Wildlife in India
• India’s Wildlife is a great natural
heritage. It is estimated that about
4-5 % of all known animal and plant
species on the earth are found in India.
• As per the International Union for
Conservation of Nature and Natural
Resources (IUCN), we can classify as
follows-
» Normal Species: Species whose
population levels are normal for their
survival, such as sal, Cattle, Rodents,
Pine etc.
» Endangered Species: These species are
in danger of extinction. The survival of
these species is difficult if the negative
factors responsible for their decline
continue to operate. The examples of
such species are Crocodile, Black Buck,
Indian Wild Ass, Indian Rhino, Lion
Tailed Macaque, Sangai (Brow Antlered
Deer in Manipur) etc.
» Vulnerable Species: Population of
such species has declined to such
levels from where it is likely to become
endangered in the distant future if the
negative factors continue to influence.
The examples of such species are Nilgiri
Langur, Barasingha, Nicobar Flying Fox,
etc.
» Rare Species: Species with very
few population may move into the
endangered for vulnerable category
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if the negative factors continue to
operate. The examples of such species
are Wild Asiatic Buffalo, the Himalayan
Brown Bear, Hornbill and Desert Fox.
» Endemic Species: These species are
only found in some particular areas
usually isolated by geographical or
natural barriers. Examples of such
species are Nicobar pigeon, the
Andaman teal, Andaman Wild Pig,
Mithun in Arunachal Pradesh.
» Extinct Species: These species are not
found after searches of known or likely
areas where they may occur. A species
may become extinct from a local place,
region, country, continent or even the
entire earth. Examples of such species
are the pink head duck, Asiatic cheetah.
• There are more than 89,000 animal
species in India.
• There are more than 1200 species of
birds in India.
• Elephants are more commonly seen in
the hot wet forests of Kerala, Karnataka
and Assam.
• One-horned rhinos are found in the
swampy and marshy lands of Assam
and West Bengal.
• Wild asses and camels are found in the
Rann of Kutch and Thar Desert.
• Indian Bison, Nilgai, Chousingha, Gazel
and many other species of deer and
some other animals are found in India
• India is the only country in the world
which has both tigers and lions.
• India boasts a variety of species and
organisms.
• The region’s diverse and rich wildlife
is preserved in 120+ national parks,
18 Bio- reserves and 500+ wildlife
sanctuaries in the country. India has
some of the most biodiverse regions of
the world and hosts three of the world’s
36 biodiversity hotspots – or treasure-
houses – that are the Western Ghats,
the Eastern Himalayas and Indo-Burma
84
hills. 42 wetlands are registered under
the Ramsar Convention.
• As India is home to a number of rare
and threatened animal species, wildlife
management in the country is essential
to preserve these species.
• India is one of the seventeen mega-
diverse countries.
• According to one study, India along
with other 16 mega diverse countries is
home to about 60-70% of the world’s
biodiversity. India, lying within the Indo-
Malaya ecozone is home to about 7.6%
of all mammalian, 12.6% of avian (bird),
6.2% of reptilian, and 6.0% of flowering
plant species.
• There are eighteen biosphere reserves
in India. Four out of these, Nanda
Devi in Uttarakhand, the Sunderbans
in West Bengal, the Gulf of Mannar in
Tamil Nadu and the Nilgiris (Kerala,
Karnataka and Tamil Nadu) have
been included in the world network of
Biosphere reserves.
• The eighteen biosphere reserves are:
Sunderbans, Gulf of Mannar, the Nilgiris,
Nanda Devi, Nokrek, Great Nicobar,
Manas, Simlipal, Dihang-Dibang,
Dibru Saikhowa, Agasthyamalai,
Kanchenjunga, Pachmari, Achanakmar-
Amarkantak, Cold Desert, Panna, Rann
of Kutch, Seshachalam.
• Project Rhino, Project Tiger, Project
Great Indian Bustard and many other
eco-developmental projects have been
introduced.
• In past few decades, encroachment
by human has threatened our wildlife
extensively. To reverse this trend,
the national parks and protected
areas, first established in 1935, were
comprehensively expanded.
• India enacted the Wildlife Protection
Act in 1972 and Project Tiger to
safeguard crucial habitat; further
federal protections were promulgated
in the 1980s.
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Extinction of Species
• The exploitation of forest and land
resources by humans along with
capturing and trapping the animals for
sport and food has caused extinction of
many species in India in recent decades.
• These species include mammals like
the Indian wild zebu, Indian/Asiatic
cheetah, Northern Sumatran rhinoceros
and Javan Rhinoceros.
• While some of the large mammal
species are confirmed extinct, there
have been many smaller plant and
animal species whose status is difficult
to ascertain.
• Gir forest in Gujrat has the only surviving
population of Asiatic lions in the world.
• Some species of birds have gone extinct
in recent period, including the pink-
headed duck and the Himalayan quail.
• A species of Warbler known earlier from
a single specimen collected by Allan
Octavian Hume from near Rampur in
Himachal Pradesh, was rediscovered
after 139 years in Thailand.
Wildlife
Conservation
• Wildlife Conservation is the practice
of protecting wild animals and plants
and their habitat in their pristine
form. Wildlife plays significant role
in balancing the environment and
provides stability to various natural
processes of nature.
• The aim of wildlife conservation is to
ensure that benefits of nature should
be available for future generations to
sustain the life and also to recognize the
significance of wildlife and wilderness
for humans and other species in same
manner.
85
• Wildlife conservation has become an
increasingly significant practice due to
the negative effects of human activity
on wildlife.
The Wildlife Protection Act,
1972
• The Wildlife Protection Act, 1972 enacted
by Indian Parliament for the protection
of plants and animal species. Before
1972, India had only five National Parks.
• The Act established schedules of
protected animal and plant species;
harvesting or hunting these species was
largely prohibited.
• The Act provides for the protection
of wild plants, birds, and animals. It
extends to the whole of India, except
Jammu and Kashmir which has its
own wildlife act. The act contains
six schedules which provide varying
degrees of protection.
• Schedule I and part II of Schedule II
gives absolute protection - highest
penalties are prescribed for offenses
under this schedule.
• Species listed in Schedule III and
Schedule IV are also protected, but
lower penalties are prescribed.
• Schedule V includes the animals which
may be hunted.
• The endemic plants specified in
Schedule VI are prohibited from
planting and cultivation.
• The Enforcement agencies have the
power to compound offenses under this
Schedule (i.e. they can impose fines).
• The Wildlife (Protection) Act (WLPA),
1972 provides a powerful legal
framework for:
» Prohibition of hunting
» Protection and management of wildlife
habitats
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» Establishment of protected areas and • The Indian government has established

management of zoos.
» Regulate and control the trade in parts
and products made from wildlife.
» The act provides for several categories
of Protected Areas/Reserves:
− National Parks and Tiger Reserves,
Conservation Reserves and
Community Reserves.
• Protection is granted not only to the
− Wildlife Sanctuaries.
National Parks and Tiger
Reserves
• National parks and Tiger Reserves are
more strictly protected under the law,
18 Biosphere Reserves in India,
(categories roughly corresponding to
IUCN Category V Protected areas),
which protect larger areas of natural
habitat (than a National Park or Wildlife
Sanctuary), and often include one or
more National Parks or reserves, along
with buffer zones that are open to some
community and economic activities.
fauna and flora of the protected region,
but also to the human communities
who inhabit these regions, and their
ways of life.
INDIA
BIOSPHERE RESERVES
COLD DESERT

allowing no human activity except NANDA DEVI

activities for the wildlife conservation.

DIHANG-DIBANG
KANCHENZONGA

• Grazing and private tenurial rights

MANAS DIBRU-SAIKHOWA
NOKREK
RANN OF
are not allowed in the National Parks
PANNA
KUTCHH

while these can be permitted in wildlife ACHANAKMAR-

SUNDERBANS

sanctuaries at the discretion of the Chief PANCHMARIAMARKANTAK SIMPIPAL

Wildlife Warden of the state. The Act

prohibits any commercial exploitation
of forest produce in both national parks
SESHACHALAM

and wildlife sanctuaries, and local NILGIRI

communities can collect forest produce AGASTHYAMALAI

ANDAMAN &
NICOBAR ISLANDS

only for their bona fide needs.

• The 2006 amendments introduced a
GULF OF MANNAR
GREAT NICOBAR

new chapter (IV B) for establishment

of the National Tiger Conservation
Authority and notification of Tiger
Reserves.
Biodiversity Reserves
• Biosphere reserves are established
by countries and recognized under
UNESCO’s Man and the Biosphere
(MAB) Programme to promote
sustainable development based on
local community efforts and sound
science.
• The programme of Biosphere Reserve
was initiated by UNESCO in 1971.
I m a g e 5.4: B i o s p h e r e R e s e r v e s in India
Ramsar Convention
• The Ramsar Convention on Wetlands
of International Importance is an
international treaty for the conservation
and sustainable use of wetlands
especially Waterfowl Habitat.
• It is named after the Ramsar city in Iran,
where the Convention was signed in
1971.
• Every three years, representatives of
the Contracting Parties meet as the
Conference of the Contracting Parties
(COP), the policy-making organ of the

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Convention which adopts decisions are able to implement its objectives.

(Resolutions and Recommendations) to • There are 42 wetlands listed under the
administer the work of the Convention Ramsar Convention in India.
and improve the way in which the Parties

I m a g e 5.5: R a m s a r W e t l a n d si t e s i n India

International Union for

Conservation of Nature
Soils
• The International Union for Soils in India
Conservation of Nature is an
• Soil is the thin topmost layer on the
international organization working in
crust of earth comprising rock particles
the field of nature conservation and
mixed with organic content.
sustainable use of natural resources.
• Pedology is the study of soils in its natural
• Over the past decades, IUCN has
environmental setting. Pedogenesis
expanded its focus beyond conservation
is the process of soil formation which
ecology and now incorporates issues
includes a variety of processes such as
related to sustainable development in
calcification, leaching, weathering etc.
its projects.
• The Soil formation is mainly related to
• It tries to influence the Government
the parent rock material, surface relief,
actions, businesses and other
climate and natural vegetation.
stakeholders by providing information
and advice, and through building • The soil is developed by the breaking
partnerships. down of rocks by the action of water,

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wind and glaciers.

• The soil is categorized on the basis of
the proportion of particles of different LITTER
O (ORGANIC)
HORIZON
sizes.
HUMAS A HORIZON
• If soil contains greater proportion of (SURFACE)

large particles it is referred as sandy

HUMAS B HORIZON
soil. MIXED (SUBSOIL)
WITH
• If the proportion of fine particles is MINERALS
relatively higher, then it is called clayey
C HORIZON
soil. HUMAS
WITH VERY (SUBSTRATUM)
LITTLE HUMUS

Soil Profile
• A vertical section consisting of different
layers of soil is known as soil profile.
• Each layer differs in texture, colour,
depth and chemical composition. These
layers are referred to as Soil Horizon.
• A soil horizon is a layer normally parallel
to the soil surface, whose physical
characteristics differ from the other
layers.
• Horizons are defined in most cases by
physical features, majorly texture and
colour.
• The uppermost horizon is normally dark
in colour as it is rich in minerals and
humus. The humus increases the soil
fertility and provides nutrients to plants.
• This layer is generally porous, soft and
can retain more water. It is called as the
A-horizon or the topsoil.
• The next layer contains less quantity of
humus but minerals occur in sufficiently
large quantity. This layer is normally
harder and more compact and is called
the middle layer or the B-horizon.
• The third layer is known as the
C-horizon, which is made up of small
lumps of rocks with cracks.
BEDROCK
I m a g e 5.6: S o il P r o f il e
Major Soil Types of India
• Geologically, Indian soils can broadly
be classified into soils of peninsular
India and soils of extra-peninsular India.
• The soils of Peninsular India are formed
due to the in situ decomposition of
rocks, i.e. directly from the underlying
rocks. Peninsular Soils are transported
and re-deposited to a limited extent
and are called as sedentary soils.
• The Extra-Peninsular soils are formed
due to the depositional function of wind
and rivers. They are very deep. They
are often referred to as transported or
azonal soils.
• Major groups:
» Alluvial soils,
» Black soils,
» Red soils,
» Laterite soils,
» Forest and Mountain soils,
» Arid and Desert soils,
» Saline and Alkaline soils,
» Peaty and Marshy soils.

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Alluvial Soil
• Alluvial soils are formed mainly
because of silt deposited by Ganga,
Brahmaputra, Indus rivers and their
tributaries. In coastal areas some
alluvial deposits are formed because of
wave action.
• Rocks of the Himalayas constitute
the parent material. Thus the parent
material of these soils is of transported
origin.
• They are the largest soil group covering
about 46 per cent of the total area
which is roughly 15 lakh sq. km.
• They support more than 40% of India’s
population by providing the most
productive agricultural lands.
• These are not mature and contains
weak profiles as they are formed very
recently.
• Pebbly and gravelly soils are rare.
Kankar (calcareous concretions) layers
are present in some regions along the
river terraces.
• The soil is porous as it is loamy (equal
proportion of clay and sand) nature.
• Porosity and texture provide good
drainage and other conditions
favorable for agriculture.
• These soils get constantly replenished
because of the recurrent floods.
• They occur all along the Indo-Gangetic-
Brahmaputra plains except in a few
areas where the top layer is consisting
of desert sand.
• They also occur in deltas of the
Godavari, Mahanadi, Krishna and
Kaveri, where they are called deltaic
alluvium or coastal alluvium.
• Some alluvial soils are found in the
valleys of Tapi, Narmada and Northern
areas of Gujarat.
• They are generally flat and regular soils
and are best suited for agriculture.
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• They are best suited for irrigation and
respond well to well/tube-well and
canal irrigation.
• They yield splendid crops of wheat, rice,
sugarcane, tobacco, cotton, jute, maize,
oilseeds, fruits and vegetables.
• Geologically, the alluvium of the Great
plains of India is divided into newer or
younger khadar and older bhangar
soils.
Black Soils
• The parent material of most of the
black soils is the volcanic rocks that
were formed on the Deccan Plateau.
• In Tamil Nadu, schists and gneisses
form the parent material. The former
are sufficiently deep while the latter are
mostly shallow.
• These are the areas of low rainfall and
high temperature. It is, thus, a soil group
typical to the dry and hot regions of the
Peninsula.
• A typical black soil is highly argillaceous
(of rocks or sediment) consisting of
large clay, 62 % or more.
• Generally, black soils of valleys have
high fertility while those in the uplands
are less fertile.
• The black soil is highly hygroscopic. It
swells greatly on absorbing water. Lots
of efforts are required to work on such
soil in the rainy season because it gets
very sticky.
• In summer, with loss of moisture, the soil
shrinks and develops deep and broad
cracks. The lower layers can still have
moisture. The cracks allow oxygenation
of the soil to sufficient depths and the
soil has extraordinary fertility.
• The black colour is because of the
presence of a small proportion of iron
or Titaniferous Magnetite and black
constituents of the parent rock material.
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• Various shades of the black colour like
deep black, shallow black, medium
black, a mixture of red and black may
be found in this group of soil.
• Extend over 46 lakh sq. km. (16.6 per
cent of the total area) across Madhya
Pradesh, Maharashtra, parts of
Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana,
Tamil Nadu and Gujarat.
• These soils are best suited for cotton.
Hence these soils are called black
cotton and Regur soils.
• Other major crops sown in the black
soils include Jowar, Wheat, Linseed,
Virginia Tobacco, Castor, Millets and
Sunflower.
• Sugarcane and rice are also preferred
where irrigation facilities are present.
• Large varieties of fruits and vegetables
are also successfully cultivated on the
black soils.
• This soil has been utilized for cultivating
a variety of crops for centuries without
adding manures and fertilizers, with
little or no exhaustion of soil.
Red Soils
• Red soils along with its minor types
constitute the India’s second largest
soil group (about 18%) after alluvial soil.
• The primary parent rocks are crystalline
and metamorphic rocks like quartzite,
gneisses and granites.
• The texture of these soils can range
from sandy to clay, the majority being
loamy.
• In the upland regions, the red soils are
poor, porous, and gravelly. But in the
lower regions these are rich, deep dark
and fertile.
• The red colour develops because of
presence of iron oxide in diffused form.
• When granites, limestone, quartzites
and gneisses are eroded the clay
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enclosed within the rocks remains intact
with other forms of insoluble materials.
• In presence of oxygen, oxidation takes
place and rust or iron oxide forms in the
soil. It gives characteristic red color to
the soil when the soil is present above
the water table.
• These soils mostly occur in the low
rainfall regions.
• They occupy about 3.5 lakh sq. km.
(10.6%) of the total geographical area
of the country.
• In almost whole of Tamil Nadu these
soils can be found.
• Other regions with red soil include
south-east of Maharashtra, parts of
Karnataka, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh,
Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Chota
Nagpur plateau, Odisha; parts of south
Bihar, West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh; parts
of North-Eastern states, Aravalis and
the eastern half of Rajasthan (Mewar or
Marwar Plateau).
• The red soils are generally loamy and
hence cannot absorb water like the
cotton soils.
• The red soils, with the proper dosage
of fertilizers and irrigation techniques,
give good yield of cotton, wheat, rice,
pulses, millets, tobacco, oil seeds,
potatoes and fruits.
Lateritic Soils
• Laterite soils are generally the end
products of weathering process.
• They are formed in regions of heavy
rainfall with alternate wet and dry
periods and high temperature.
• Heavy rainfall results into leaching
(nutrients are washed away by water)
of soil whereby lime and silica are
leached away and a soil rich in oxides
of iron and aluminium compounds are
left behind.
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• ‘Laterite’ means brick in Latin. They harden
greatly on losing moisture content.
• Laterite soils are red in color because of
little clay and more gravels of red sand-
stones.
• Laterite soils extends over an area of
2.48 lakh sq. km.
• Continuous belt of laterite soil is seen on
the summits of Western Ghats at 1000
to 1500 m above sea level, the Rajmahal
Hills, Eastern Ghats, Vindhyan, Malwa
Plateau and Satpuras.
• They also found at lower levels and in
valleys in several other regions of the
country.
• They are well developed in parts of
Karnataka, south Maharashtra etc. and
are widely scattered in other regions.
• Laterite soils infertile due to intensive
leaching.
• When manure is applied and soil is
irrigated, the soil becomes suitable for
growing plantation crops like coffee, tea,
rubber, cinchona, arecanut, coconut.
• In some regions, these soils support
grazing grounds and scrub forests.
• Laterite soils provide valuable building
material like soil for brick making.
• These soils easily cut into cakes but
when exposed to air hardens like iron.
• Since it is the end-product of weathering
process, further weathering is nearly
impossible which makes it durable
material.
Forest – Mountain Soils
• These soils cover nearly 2.85 lakh sq.
km. or 8.7% of the total land area of
country.
• They are primarily heterogeneous soils
occur on the hilly slopes covered by
forest.
• The development of these soils is
91
chiefly controlled by the type of organic
content derived from forest and their
character changes with parent rocks,
ground-configuration and climatic
conditions.
• As a result, they vary greatly even if they
occur in close proximity to one another.
• In the Himalayan area, such soils are
chiefly seen in valleys, less steep and
slopes facing north side. The south
facing slopes are very steep and
exposed to denudation and hence do
not support soil formation.
• Forest soils occur in Western and
Eastern Ghats also.
• The forest soils are heavily rich in humus
content.
• They are suitable for plantations of
coffee, tea, tropical fruits and spices in
peninsular forest area.
• Wheat, maize, barley and temperate
fruits are grown in the Himalayan forest
region.
Arid – Desert Soils
• The desert soils consist of Aeolian sand
(90 to 95%) and clay (5 to 10%).
• They span a total area of 1.42 lakh sq.
km. (4.32%).
• The presence of sand inhibits humus
growth. Desertification of adjoining
soils is common because of intrusion of
desert sand under the influence of wind
(Aeolian sand).
• Occur in arid and semi-arid regions of
Haryana, Punjab and Rajasthan. The
sand is blown from the Indus basin and
the coast by the prevailing south- west
monsoon winds.
• Sandy soils without clay are also
common in coastal regions of Kerala,
Tamil Nadu and Odisha.
• They are usually poor in organic
content.
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• Some desert soils are alkaline with
varying proportions of soluble salts
such as calcium carbonate.
• Phosphates and nitrates make this soil
fertile if moisture is present.
• These soils can be reclaimed if proper
irrigation facilities are employed.
• In large areas, only the salt tolerant and
drought resistant crops such as cotton,
barley, millets, pulses and maize are
cultivated.
Saline – Alkaline Soils
• In Alkaline and Saline Soils, the top-soil
is impregnated with alkaline and saline
efflorescence’s (become covered with
salt particles).
• Undecomposed rock fragments,
on weathering, give rise to calcium,
magnesium and sodium salts and
sulphurous acids.
• Rivers also transport some of the salts
from one region to other.
• In areas with low water table, the salts
percolate into sub soil layer and in areas
of good drainage patterns, the salts are
washed away by river water.
• However in areas where the drainage
system is poor, the water with high salt
concentration becomes stagnant and
deposits all the salts in the topsoil once
the water evaporates.
• In regions with high subsoil water table,
injurious salts are transferred from
below by the capillary action as a result
of evaporation in the dry season.
• Alkaline and Saline Soils occupy nearly
68,000 sq. km. of area.
• These soils are found in canal irrigated
regions and in regions of high subsoil
water table.
• Parts of Telangana, Andhra Pradesh,
Karnataka, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh,
Haryana, Punjab (side effects of
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improper or excess irrigation),
Maharashtra and Rajasthan have this
type of soil.
• The accumulation of these salts renders
the soil infertile and makes it unfit for
cultivation.
• In Gujarat, the regions around the Gulf
of Khambhat are influenced by the sea
tides carrying salt-laden deposits. Vast
areas comprising the estuaries of the
Tapi, Narmada, Sabarmati and Mahi
are infertile.
• Along the coast, saline waters infiltrate
into coastal areas during storm surges
(when cyclone makes landfall) and
makes the soil unfit for agriculture. The
low lying regions of coastal Tamil Nadu
and Andhra Pradesh face this kind of
soil degradation.
Peaty – Marshy Soils
• These are soils with large amounts
of organic content and considerable
quantity of soluble salts.
• The most humid areas develop this
type of soil.
• They are black, heavy and highly acidic.
• In Alappuzha and Kottayam districts of
Kerala it is known as Kari.
• Also occur in the coastal areas of Tamil
Nadu and Odisha, Sunderbans of West
Bengal, in Bihar and Almora district of
Uttarakhand.
• Most of the peaty soils are under water
during the rainy season but as soon the
rains cease, they are put under paddy
cultivation.
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Characteristics and
INDIA
Soil Types
1
Problems of Indian
1 5 Soils
6 2 1
238.407 mm
4
45 • Most soils are mature and old. Soils
2 4 of the great northern plain are much
3 younger than the soils of the peninsular
5 4 plateau.
3
5 • Indian soils are largely deficient in
5 mineral salts, humus, nitrogen and
Types of Soils
1. Forest Soil (Green) other organic contents.
2. Alluvial Soil (Pink)
4
5 3. Black Soil (Purple)
4. Laterite soil (Orange)
• Valleys and plains have thick layers
4 5. Red & Yellow Soil (Blue) of soils while plateau and hilly areas
6. Arid/desert Soil (Brown)
represent thin layer of soil.
I m a g e 5.7: M a j o r S o il T y p e s in India • Some soils like black and alluvial soils
are more fertile while some other soils
such as Alkaline, desert and desert soils
lack in fertility and the yield is very low.
• Indian soils have been used for
agriculture for hundreds of years and
have lost much of their fertility.
• Problems:
• Issue of Soil erosion. Ex: In Chambal
Ravines.
• Deficiency in fertility in Red, lateritic and
other soils,
• Increase in desertification around Thar
desert and rain-shadow regions like
parts of Karnataka, Telangana etc.
• Issue of waterlogging, increased salinity
and alkalinity in excessively irrigated
regions of Punjab-Haryana plain,
Karnataka etc.
• Over exploitation of soils due to increase
in population, wasteland, and rise in
living standards and encroachment
of agricultural land due to urban and
transport development.

I m a g e 5.8: P i c t u r e s o f D i f f e r e n t K i n d of

S o ils i n I n d i a

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Soil Erosion and Soil
Conservation
• Removal of topsoil is called soil erosion.
Intense farming, grazing, construction
activities and other human activities;
along with deforestation has led to soil
erosion.
• Soil erosion if not checked promptly
can even result into desertification.
• Soil erosion is a natural process that
affects all types of landforms. In
agriculture, soil erosion is the wearing
a way of a field’s topsoil by the natural,
physical forces of wind and water or
through processes linked with farming
activities like tillage, weeding.
• Erosion, whether it is by wind, water or
tillage, consist of three different actions
» Soil detachment
» Movement
» Deposition
• Topmost layer of soil, which is high in
organic content, fertility, is transported
elsewhere “on-site” where it builds up
over a period or is transported “off-site”
where it fills up the drainage channels.
• Soil erosion reduces productivity
of cropland and contributes to the
pollution of nearby water bodies, lakes
and wetlands.
• Soil erosion can be sometimes a very
slow process that cannot be noticed or
occur at such rate, causing huge loss of
soil cover.
• Soil compaction, low organic matter,
poor internal drainage, loss of
soil structure, salinization and soil
acidity problems are other serious
soil degradation conditions that can
accelerate the soil erosion process.
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1
INDIA
SOIL EROSION
3
12
4
3
3
3
5
5
Soil Erosion
1. Glacial Erosion (Brown)
2. Shifting Cultivation Erosion (Green)
5 3. Gully & Sheet Erosion (Pink)
5
5
4. Desert Erosion (Yellow)
5. Sheet Erosion (Blue)
Coastal Erosion
Limet of wind Erosion
I m a g e 5.9: S o il E r o si o n in india
Soil Conservation
• Soil conservation is vital to prevent soil
erosion.
• “Soil conservation is the prevention
of soil loss from erosion or reduced
fertility caused by overuse, salinization,
acidification or any other chemical
contamination of soil.
• Slash-and-burn farming and other
unsustainable subsistence farming
methods are employed in some lesser
developed regions. Deforestation leads
to typically large scale erosion, loss
of soil nutrients and sometimes total
desertification.”
• The adoption of various soil conservation
methods checks soil erosion due to
tillage, wind and water.
• Cropping and tillage methods and land
management practices, directly affect
the soil erosion process.
• When rotation of crops or changing
tillage practices are not sufficient
to check the erosion on a field, a
combination of approaches or more
extreme measures might be necessary.
• For example, contour plowing, strip-
cropping or terrace farming can be
preferred.
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• In concentrated runoff areas, it is
necessary to include structural controls.
Controls such as grassed waterways,
drop pipe and grade control structures,
rock chutes and water and sediment
control basins as part of the overarching
solution.
Terrace Farming
• On the hilly slopes, terraces act as
bunds and prevent the soil erosion.
• Cultivation is practiced on a unique
step like structure which slows the force
of running water.
• Terraced farming is mostly common on
small farm lands and in underdeveloped
countries, since mechanized equipment
is difficult to deploy in this setting.
Contour Ploughing
• Land should never be ploughed up &
down as it increases erosion.
• Ploughing along contours on a slope
prevents soil being washed away by
rainwater or by surface runoff.
• Contours act like bunds and thus
prevents soil erosion by allowing water
to slowly penetrate the soil.
• Terraces are leveled into step like small
fields with even slope.
Contour barriers/Contour
trenching
• Contour strips which intercept
downslope flowing water and soil
particles are useful measures to control
soil erosion.
• Several 2 feet by 1 foot trenches are
created across the slopes at suitable
distances and tree seedlings are
planted above these trenches.
• These barriers slow the water movement
and reduce its erosive capacity.
95
• These trenches also filter out and trap
most of the suspended soil particles,
keeping them from being washed out
of the field.
Afforestation
• Plantation of trees along the edges of
the fields, the wastelands and on steep
slopes to prevent soil erosion.
• Also it enhances the capacity of the soil
to retain water.
Shelterbelts
• A line of trees or shrubs planted to
protect an area; especially a field of
crops, from fierce weather is called
shelterbelts.
• Farmers plant trees in number of rows
to check soil erosion through wind.
• Shelterbelts are also known as
windbreaks.
Cover crops/Crop rotations
• Cover crops such as legumes, white
turnips, radishes and other species are
rotated with cash crops to blanket the
soil year-round
• Act as green manure which replenishes
nitrogen and other important nutrients.
• Also help suppress weeds & increase
soil fertility
No-till farming
• This is also called zero tillage or direct
drilling.
• It is a method of growing crops or
pastures from year to year without
disturbing the soil through tillage.
• Increases the amount of water that
infiltrates into the soil.
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• Also increases organic matter retention Construction of Dams

and cycling of nutrients in the soil.
• Rivers have major role in soil erosion.
• Keeps soils anchored in place rather
than having bare ground exposed to • Dams are constructed in the upper
wind and water. course of rivers to control erosion of soil.
• This would check the speed of water
and thereby save soil from erosion.
Strip Cropping
• Crops are sown in alternate strips of
field to reduce the impact of the winds.
• It is used when a slope is too steep or
when there is no alternative method of
preventing soil erosion.
• Contour strip cropping → Cultivation of
soil protecting crops in strips alternating
with erosion permitting crops. The strips
should be across the slope.
• Field strip cropping → Plants are
cultivated in parallel strips across the
slopes.

Mulching
• Mulches are placed over the soil to
retain moisture and improve soil fertility.
• A protective layer of a material that is
spread on top of the soil.
• Mulches can either be organic — such
as grass clippings, straw, bark chips,
and similar materials or inorganic —
such as stones, brick chips, and plastic.

I m a g e 5.10: P i c t u r e s S h owi n g D i f f e r e n t
M e t h o d s to C o n s e r v e S o il a n d P r e v e n t L a n d
D e g r a d at i o n

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CHAPTER - 6
INDIA: NATURAL
DISASTER AND MANAGEMENT
Introduction
• Disaster is an unwanted occurrence
resulting from forces that are largely
outside human control, strikes quickly
with little or no warning, which causes
or threatens serious disruption of life
and property including death and injury
to a large number of people.
• Natural Disaster is a catastrophic
incident that is caused by nature or
the natural procedures of the earth.
E.g., volcanic eruptions, earthquakes,
tsunamis, floods, hurricanes, tornadoes,
and other geological processes.
• It affects the rural society the most,
as they are vulnerable to economic
changes, and have no alternate means
of living. The destructive capability
of any natural hazard is estimated
basically by its spatial extent and
severity.
• Natural disasters in India have always
posed a challenge for The Government.
With the advent of high-end research
and development in the area of
environment and disaster management
it is now possible to predict such
natural calamities and also mitigate
the adverse effects of such calamities.
Natural Disaster Vs
Hazard
• Natural Disasters are basically naturally
occurring physical phenomena caused
either by rapid or slow onset events
which can be geophysical (earthquakes,
landslides, tsunamis and volcanic
activity), hydrological (avalanches
97
and floods), climatological(extreme
temperatures, drought and wildfires),
meteorological (cyclones and storms/
wave surges) or biological (disease
epidemics and insect/ animal plagues).
• Technological or man-made hazards
(complex emergencies/conflicts,
famine, displaced populations,
industrial accidents, and transport
accidents) are events that are caused
by humans and occur in or close to
human settlements. This can include
environmental degradation, pollution,
and accidents. Technological or man-
made hazards (complex emergencies/
conflicts, famine, displaced populations,
industrial accidents, and transport
accidents)
• There are a range of challenges
like climate change, unplanned-
urbanization, under-development/
poverty as well as the threat
of pandemics that will shape
humanitarian assistance in the future.
These aggravating factors will result in
increased frequency, complexity and
severity of disasters.
• Natural Hazard is a natural disaster
which has not yet happened. There is
a potential possibility that the disaster
might strike. Thus, hazards are potential
natural events which might negatively
affect the society, through damage of
property and loss of life.
• Related to natural hazards, natural
disasters are comparatively sudden and
cause large scale widespread death,
loss of properties and disturbances
to social systems and life over which
people have little or no control.
• There has been a change in perception
of natural disasters and hazards.
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Regions susceptible to natural hazards
were more vulnerable to disasters.
Therefore, people avoided tampering
with the delicate balance that existed
in a given ecosystem. But now,
technological advancements have
given a larger capacity to human
intervention in nature.
• Now with intensified activities even
in fragile ecosystems, human beings
are making disaster prone areas more
vulnerable.
Disasters: Natural
Or Man Made
• Earlier it was thought that disasters
were a result of natural events and
caused due to mighty forces of nature.
• However, natural forces are not the only
causes of disasters. Some disasters are
also caused by human activities.
• Some activities like Bhopal Gas
Tragedy, Chernobyl nuclear disasters,
wars, Nuclear attack on Japan, release
of chlorofluorocarbons, an increase
in greenhouse gases, environmental
pollution like oil spills etc. are activities
carried out by humans.
• While some activities of humans are
directly responsible for the disasters
there are others are indirectly
responsible and they often aggravate
the process of disaster. Landslides
and floods are often intensified due
to unrelenting human actions like
deforestation, unscientific land use,
construction activities in the fragile
ecosystem etc.
Types of Disasters in
India
• Disasters are classified as per the origin,
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into man-made and natural disasters.
As per severity, disasters are categorized
as minor or major (in impact).
• Natural disasters are sudden ecological
disruptions or threat that go beyond the
adjustment capability of the affected
community and require external
support.
• Natural disasters can be broadly
categorized into categories involving
geophysical like earthquakes and
volcanic eruptions; hydrological such
as floods; meteorological such as
hurricanes; climatological such as heat
and cold waves and droughts; and
biological like epidemics.
• Man-made disasters can consist
of hazardous material spills, fires,
groundwater contamination,
transportation accidents, structure
failures, mining accidents, explosions
and acts of terrorism.
• Atmospheric Disasters: This type of
natural disaster has its own natural
characteristics, geographic area where
it occurs (areal extent), time of year
it is most likely to occur, severity, and
associated risk. In most cases, a natural
disaster or event involves multiple
hazards: severe thunder-storms
spawn tornadoes; wind is a factor in
thunderstorms, severe winter storms,
tropical cyclones, and hailstorms;
snowfall from a severe winter storm can
prompt avalanches. Few of atmospheric
natural hazards are:
» Blizzards
» Thunderstorms
» Lightening
» Tornadoes
» Tropical cyclone
» Drought
»
»
Hailstorm
Frost, Heat, wave
» Cold Wave
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• Terrestrial Disasters are those which
occur on the land surface and may
be quite violent in nature. They are as
follows:
» Earthquakes
» Volcanic eruptions
» Landslides
» Avalanches
» Subsidence
» Soil Erosion
• Aquatic Disasters are related to water
and often are quite large scale.
» Floods
» Tidal Waves Ocean
» Storm surge
» Tsunami
• The Government and World agencies
are working to develop technology for
disaster management for early warning
system, efficient rescue operations;
relief operations; rehabilitation; and
long range planning.
Natural Disasters in
India
• India is massive and diverse in
terms of socio-cultural and physical
attributes. It is largely because of its
vast geographical area, environmental
diversities and cultural pluralities. Large
population along with different social
attributes enhances the vulnerability to
natural disasters.
• Causes for Occurrence of various
Disaster
» Environmental degradation: Removal
of forest cover and trees from a
watershed zone have caused, soil
erosion, expansion of flood plain region
99
in upper and middle course of rivers
and groundwater depletion.
» Developmental Procedure:
Exploitation of land use, development
of infrastructure, technological
development and rapid urbanization
have caused increasing pressure over
the natural resources.
» Political problems: There is rising
aspirations for nuclear power,
competition among countries to
become superpowers, and conquest
of land, sea, and skies. These have
resulted in a variety of catastrophe
incidents, such as the Syrian civil war,
the Hiroshima nuclear explosion, and
increased militarization of the oceans
and outer space.
» Industrialization: Rapid industrialization
has resulted into warming of earth and
frequency of extreme weather events
has also increased.
• Different parts of India is vulnerable,
in varying degrees, to a large number
of natural and man-made disasters.
Close to around 59% of the landmass
is prone to earthquakes of moderate to
very high intensity.
• About 12% of its land is prone to river
erosion and floods.
• Close to around 5,700 km., out of the
7,516 km. long coastline is prone to
tsunamis and cyclones.
• Nearly around 68% of its cultivable
area is vulnerable to droughts; and the
hilly regions are at risk from avalanches
and landslides.
• Additionally, India is also vulnerable to
chemical, biological, radiological and
nuclear (CBRN) crises and other man-
made disasters.
• Disaster threats in India are
further compounded by increasing
vulnerabilities related to changing
demographics and socio-economic
conditions, unplanned urbanization,
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and development within high-risk
areas, climate change environmental
degradation, geological hazards,
epidemics and pandemics.
• Clearly, all these factors contribute to
a situation where disasters seriously
threaten India’s economy, its population
and sustainable development.
Earthquakes
• An earthquake (also known as a quake,
tremor or tremblor) is the shaking of the
surface of the Earth, resulting from the
sudden release of energy in the Earth's
lithosphere that creates seismic waves.
• The release of energy happens along a
fault. A fault line is a sharp break in the
crustal rocks. Rocks beside a fault tend
to move in opposite directions.
• As the overlying rock strata press
them, the friction locks them together.
However, their tendency to move apart
at some point of time overcomes the
friction. As a result, the blocks get
deformed and eventually, they slide
past one another abruptly. This triggers
a release of energy, and the energy
waves travel in all directions.
• The point where the energy is released
is known as the focus of an earthquake.
The energy waves travel in different
directions to reach the surface. The
point on the surface, nearest to the
focus is called the epicenter.
• The intensity of the earthquake
will be highest in the epicenter and
decreases as one moves away. All-
natural earthquakes take place in the
lithosphere.
• Earthquakes are highly unpredictable
and destructive among all the natural
disasters.
• Tectonic earthquakes are the most
devastating as compared to the
earthquakes which are associated with
100
volcanic eruptions, rock fall, landslides,
subsidence etc. having limited area of
influence and scale of damage.
Earthquakes in India
• The Indian plate is shifting towards the
north and the north-eastern direction
at a speed of around one centimeter
per year and the movement of this
plate is continuously being obstructed
by the Eurasian plate from the north.
• As a result of this, both plates are said
to be locked with each other resulting
in accumulation of energy at different
points in time. Extreme accumulation
of energy results in building up of stress
which ultimately leads to the sudden
release of energy causing earthquakes
along the Himalayan arch.
• National Geophysical Laboratory,
Department of Meteorology, Geological
Survey of India, Government of India
along with the National Institute of
Disaster Management have divided
India into the following five earthquake
zones.
» Very High Damage Risk Zone.
» High Damage Risk Zone.
» Moderate Damage Risk Zone.
» Low Damage Risk Zone.
» Very Low Damage Risk Zone.
• Very High Damage Risk Zone: It includes
the region of the Western and Central
Himalayas, North and Middle Bihar, the
North-East Indian region, Kashmir, the
Rann of Kutch and the Andaman and
Nicobar group of islands. Usually, the
regions having trap rock or basaltic
rocks are prone to earthquakes.
• High Damage Risk Zone: It includes Part
of Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand,
Sikkim, Jammu and Kashmir, the
parts of Indo-Gangetic plains (North
Punjab- Chandigarh, North Bengal-
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Sundarbans, Western Uttar Pradesh- • There are also environmental impacts.

Terai) and the capital of the country Earthquakes can cause landslides.
Delhi. In Maharashtra, the Patan area It is very dangerous, especially for
(Koynanagar) and in Bihar the northern buildings in unstable area on hillsides
part of the state like Raxaul, near the or mountains where soft soils can be
border of India and Nepal is also in this liquefied by the tremors of earthquakes.
zone. During an earthquake, buildings can
• The remaining part of the country falls in fall down hills with soil and bury people
the moderate or low damage risk zone. under the soil. People will be buried
Most of these areas can be considered alive. In addition, aftershocks are also
safe. Deccan plateau which is the most effects of earthquakes. Aftershocks are
stable landform in our country is also small tremors which disperse it to other
free from the risks of earthquakes. places and other people can feel it after
the main shocks of an earthquake. Loss
of trees and vegetation also has a long-
INDIA standing effect on the environment and
5 4 EARTHQUAKE HAZARD surrounding.
ZONES
5 • Apart from social and environmental
5 impacts, earthquakes also have
negative effects on a nation’s economy.
3 2 4
5 5 Earthquakes cause infrastructure to
3 collapse; reservoirs, dams, stores, and
5 4 1 2 hospitals are all damaged after an
1 earthquake. Restoring those take a
3
1 3 Seismic Zones long time. So, earthquakes often cause
2
4
Zone 1. Very Low Damage loss of job opportunities and affect
3 Risk Zone (Purple)
3 Zone 2. Low Damage the country's income resulting into a
1 Risk Zone (Green)
Zone 3. Moderate Damage unstable economy.
Risk Zone (Blue)
Zone 4. High Damage
3 2 Risk Zone (Brown)
Zone 5. Very High Damage
Risk Zone (Pink)
Earthquake Mitigation Hazards
I m a g e 6.1: E a r t h q u a k e H a z a r d Z o n e India
in
• Mapping of more earthquakes prone
regions in India:
Socio-Environmental
» Himalayan belt – Collision between
Consequences of Earthquakes different lithological plates i.e. collision
• One of the biggest effects of between Indo-Austral plate with
earthquakes is the social impact on Eurasian plate; and Burma Plate with
survivors. Earthquakes have short term Java Sumatra plate. These collisions
impacts as well as long term impacts. amongst two continental plates
A powerful earthquake can destroy produce lots of strain in underlying
buildings, factories, shops, roads, rocks and this strain is released in form
bridges and schools. As a result, many of earthquakes.
people become homeless. Furthermore, » Andaman and Nicobar Islands- Sea
earthquakes can cause disruption floor displacement and underwater
to various public services such as volcanoes disturb the equilibrium of
transport systems and communication earth’s surface.
connections.
• According to seismologists, the

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earthquake itself is not the killer,
however it is the unpreparedness
amongst the society, in terms of
inadequate infrastructure, which kills
thousands.
• Measures Required:
» Risk recognition – The reality that there
is a risk, needs to be recognized. People
need to be made informed of this threat.
» Risk mapping – Under this, risk mapping
of the areas in the region and separate
them into zones depending upon the
total amount of risk involved.
» Risk mitigation – It required investment
in R&D to build cost effective quake-
resistant designs. As this cannot be
taken up commercially, public funding
is very crucial. Indigenous knowledge
and understanding should also be
used and disseminated. E.g.- Assam
type house or Ikora style– these houses
are made with walls of Bamboo or
reed mesh (Ikora) and plaster set in a
wooden framework. They have light tin
roofs and wooden floors that are quake
resistant. The buildings are light, flexible
and able to move with the swaying
caused by tremors, without there being
extensive casualties or damages.
• Earthquakes damages are extremely
devastating. It is not possible to stop the
occurrence of an earthquake however,
disaster mitigation and curative
measures should be undertaken.
» Set up earthquake monitoring centres
(seismological centres) for frequent
monitoring and fast dissemination of
information among the people in the
disaster-prone region.
» Preparing a vulnerability map of the
region and then circulating awareness
and educating the people in such areas
about ways and means of minimizing
the adverse impacts of disasters.
» Modifying buildings and house types
to earthquake resistant designs suit the
102
vulnerable areas.
• National Centre for Seismology launches
‘India Quake’ – An App for Earthquake
Parameter Dissemination. National
Centre for Seismology (NCS) operates
national seismological network with 84
stations. These stations are connected
to NCS headquarters through VSAT for
real time data communication. In the
event of an earthquake NCS locates
them using data from its network and
disseminate earthquake parameters
to all the concerned government
department and other stakeholders
through SMS, email, and fax.
Tsunami
• Tsunamis and earthquakes take place
after centuries of energy built up within
the earth. A tsunami (in Japanese ‘tsu’
implies harbor and ‘nami’ means wave)
is a series of water waves caused by the
displacement of a large volume of a
body of water, usually an ocean.
• Seismically generated tsunamis are
the outcome of abrupt deformation of
sea floor causing vertical displacement
of the overlying water. Earthquakes
occurring underneath the sea level,
the water above the reformed zone are
displaced from its equilibrium position.
• The release of energy generates tsunami
waves which have small amplitude but
a very long wavelength (often hundreds
of kilometers long). It may be produced
by a non-seismic event such as a
landslide or impact of a meteor.
• The speed of the wave in the ocean
depends on the depth of the water. It is
more in the shallow water as compared
to deep sea.
• Tsunami in the deep sea or ocean
may have very long waves length of
hundreds of kilometers and travels at
about 800 km. per hour, but amplitude
of only around 1 km. It remains
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undetected by ships in the deep sea.
But when it approaches the coast its
wavelength diminishes, amplitude
grows enormously, and it takes very
little time to reach its full height.
• After reaching the coastal region,
the tsunami waves release enormous
energy stored into them and water flows
turbulently on to the lands, destroying
everything coming in its way.
• Computer model can provide tsunami
arrival, usually within minutes of the
arrival time. Tsunamis have great erosion
potential, stripping beaches of sand,
coastal vegetation and dissipating
its energy through the destruction of
houses and coastal structure.
Tsunami Hazard Mitigation
• A preliminary risk assessment has been
done for the Indian Coast with respect
to tsunamis taking into account the
seismo- tectonic setting, historical
seismicity and past tsunami events.
• The east and west coasts of India
and the island regions are likely to be
affected by Tsunamis generated mainly
by subduction zone related earthquakes
from the two potential source regions,
viz., the Andaman-Nicobar-Sumatra
Island Arc and the Makran subduction
zone north of Arabian Sea.
• Depending upon the location of the
Earthquake, the response time for
evacuation of coastal population could
range between 10 minutes to a few
hours.
• The mitigation hazards created by
tsunamis are difficult because of the
fact that losses are on a much larger
scale. It is beyond the capacity of
the individual states to mitigate the
damage. Therefore, combined efforts at
the international levels are the possible
ways of dealing with this calamity.
• In India, The Government launched an
103
app called ‘Sagar Vani’ to disseminate
ocean related information and alerts
(like high waves and Tsunami early
warnings) to the user community in a
timely manner for their safety.
Tropical Cyclone
• Coastal regions of India are highly
vulnerable to tropical cyclones and the
consequent recurrent loss of life and
property.
• Tropical cyclones are caused by
atmospheric disturbances around
a low-pressure region distinguished
by swift and often destructive air
circulation.
• Geographically, cyclones are
classified into: Tropical cyclones and
Extratropical/ Temperate cyclones.
• Tropical cyclones are of thermal origin
because it owes its genesis to the
warmness of ocean water. It takes place
in between the Tropic of Capricorn and
the Tropic of Cancer. On the other side,
the temperate cyclone is of frontal
origin.
• India with a long coastline of 7516.16
km. is one of the worst affected regions,
where it is exposed to around 10% of
tropical cyclones in the world.
• Approximately 5700 km. out of around
7516 km. of India’s coastline, it is the
flat coastal terrain and high population
density is very vulnerable to tropical
cyclones.
• Recurrent cyclones account for a large
number of deaths, loss of public and
private property, severe damage to
infrastructure and loss of livelihood
opportunities.
• Tropical Cyclones are linked with Strong
Winds, Torrential rains and inland
flooding and Storm Surge.
• Cyclones occur in the months of May–
June and October–November, with
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their primary peak in November and Effects of Tropical Cyclones

secondary peak in May.
• When a tropical cyclone approaches
• 13 Indian coastal states and Union to coast, a threat of serious loss or
Territories (UTs), encompassing 84 damage arises from heavy rainfall,
coastal districts, are impacted by storm surges, severe winds, and river
tropical cyclones. floods. The impact of a storm surge is
• 4 states (Andhra Pradesh, Odisha, Tamil most pronounced in wide and shallow
Nadu, and West Bengal) and one UT bays exposed to cyclones for example in
(Puducherry) on the east coast and one the northern part of the Bay of Bengal.
state (Gujarat) on the west coast are • Strong winds/Squalls: Through high-
more vulnerable to hazards associated speed winds, tropical cyclones cause
with tropical cyclones. severe damage to the infrastructure.
• On an average, around five or six Dwellings, communication system and
tropical cyclones develop in the Bay installations etc. get destroyed resulting
of Bengal and Arabian sea and hit the in loss of property and life.
coast every year. Out of these, two or • Torrential rains and inland flooding:
three are severe1. Constant rainfalls cause floods resulting
in loss of shelter. Also, heavy rainfall due
to cyclone cause soil erosion, landslides,
1 INDIA and weaken the embankments.
5 TROPICAL CYCLONE HAZARD
ZONES • Storm surge: An unusual rise in water
level in sea along the coast due to
severe tropical cyclone results in the
3 3 2 drowning of low-lying regions in the
1 coastal area. It results in, destruction of
5 vegetation cover loss of lives and the
2 5
4 2 salt content in seawater decreases the
4 4 Cyclone Hazard Zones soil fertility.
Zone 1. Very High Damage

6
Risk Zone - A (Dark Green)
Zone 2. Very High Damage
• Apart from these disturbances, cyclone
2 Risk Zone - B (Blue)
Zone 3. High Moderate
causes great loss of lives and properties,
3 Risk Zone (Light Green) rendering people homeless, without
Zone 4. Moderate Damage
5 Risk Zone - A (Yellow) shelter and often without jobs. There
Zone 5. Moderate Damage
Risk Zone - B (Orange) is dearth of drinking water and living
Zone 6. Low Damage
Risk Zone - B (Pink)
conditions are extremely dismal.

I m a g e 6.2: T r o p i a l C yc l o n e H a z a r d Z o n e
Cyclone Hazard Mitigation
• Though it is not possible to completely
avoid natural disasters, but their effects
1 How are Cyclones named?
In the beginning, storms were named arbitrarily. The tradition of
can be reduced by taking some known
naming cyclones started with hurriCanes in the Atlantic Ocean, long and short term structural and non-
where tropical storms that reach sustained wind speeds of 39
miles per hour were given names. In 1953, the US weather service
structural mitigation measures like:
officially adopted the idea and created a new phonetic alpha-
bet (international) of women's names from A to W, leaving out Q, » Developing appropriate early warning
U, X, Y and Z. Male names were included in 1978. The procedure
of naming cyclones includes several countries in the region and systems,
is done under the aegis of the World Meteorological Organi-
zation. For the Indian Ocean region, deliberations for naming » Generating awareness at all levels in
cyclones began in 2000. A formula was adopted in 2004. the concerned populations,

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» Afforestation near coastal region,
» Construction of embankments, dikes,
Coastal roads, bridges, shelters and
canals, etc.,
» Through better preparedness,
mitigation measures and improved
response mechanisms.
• Awareness Generation: it is necessary
to prepare communities to deal with
various disasters in a manner that
people’s lives and properties are
safeguarded, and to ultimately become
resilient. Public awareness generation
will serve to empower individuals with
knowledge regarding the role and
responsibilities of the state. Focus On
schools, colleges and all educational
institutions is a very vital part of
awareness generation. It has to be
sustained through continuous updating,
upgrading and mock drills.
• Management of Cyclones: Structural
measures like construction of cyclone
shelters, construction of cyclone
resistant buildings, road links, bridges,
canals, drains, saline embankments,
communication, and power transmission
networks etc are important.
• Non-structural measures such as
management of coastal zones, early
warning dissemination systems,
awareness generation and disaster risk
management and capacity building of
all stakeholders involved is also equally
necessary.
• These types of measures are being
adopted and tackled on State-to-
State basis under National Cyclone
Risk Mitigation Project (NCRMP) being
implemented with the help of World
Bank Assistance.
• Government Initiatives:
» National Cyclone Risk Mitigation Project
(NCRMP) aim to upgrade cyclone
forecasting, tracking, and warning
systems, build capacity in multi-hazard
105
risk management, construct major
infrastructures including multi-purpose
cyclone shelters and embankments.
» Integrated Coastal Zone Management
Project (ICZMP): It is a World Bank
assisted project which aims at
national capacity development for
implementation of comprehensive
coastal management in India. Broad
objectives of the project are Cyclone
forecasting, Tracking and warning
systems, Cyclone Risk Mitigation and
Capacity Building, Major infrastructure
to be constructed under multipurpose
cyclone shelters, access roads,
underground cabling and saline
embankments, Disaster Mitigation,
Lowering loss of lives, property in
vulnerable states.
» Natural Disaster Management
Authority (NDMA) is mandated to deal
with the disaster management in India.
It has prepared National Guidelines
on the Management of Cyclone. In
2016, a proposal of National Disaster
Management Plan was unveiled to
tackle disaster. According to the
blueprint, Ministry of Earth Science will
be responsible for disaster management
of tropical cyclone. With this plan, India
joined the list of nations which follow
the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk
Reduction 2015-20302.
Floods
• India is one of the highly flood prone
nations across the world. The primary
reasons for flood lie in the very nature
2 The Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction (2015–2030)
is an international document which was adopted by UN mem-
ber states between 14th and 18th of March 2015 at the World
Conference on Disaster Risk Reduction held in Sendai, Japan
and endorsed by the UN General Assembly in June 2015. The
Sendai Framework sets four specific priorities for action:
• Understanding of disaster risk;
• Strengthening disaster risk governance to handle disaster
risk;
• Investing in disaster risk reduction for resilience;
• Improving disaster preparedness for effective response,
and to "Build Back Better" in recovery, rehabilitation, and
reconstruction.
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of natural ecological systems in this
country, namely, the monsoon, the highly
silted river systems and the steep and
highly erodible mountains, particularly
those of the Himalayan ranges.
• A flood is associated with overflow
of water that submerges land that is
usually dry.
• The floods in India are caused by
either one or multiple factors which
may be topological climatological/
meteorological, or man-made:
» Meteorological Factors: These consist
of prolonged heavy rainfall which is
usually common during the monsoon
period. Cloudbursts are quite regular in
the Himalayan area during monsoons
as well. Tropical cyclones often cause
flooding near the eastern coastline
region.
» Topological Reasons: Lack of drainage
from the area, saturated subsoil, glacial
lake outbursts because of the failure of
outward debris dams.
» Human Components: Encroachment
of floodplains and wetlands, drying
and sedimentation of natural drainage
channels due to human activities,
deforestation, damming and diversion
of rivers, destruction of natural barriers
to flooding like forest and mangrove
belts.
• Flash floods are the extremely dangerous
kind of floods since they combine
the destructive power of a flood with
unpredictability and incredible speed.
Flash floods take place when excessive
water fills normally dry creeks or
riverbeds along with currently flowing
creeks and rivers, causing quick rises of
water in a short period of time. It can
take place with little or no warning.
• Densely populated regions are at a high
risk for flash floods. The construction of
buildings, parking lots and highways
increases runoff by decreasing the
106
amount of rain absorbed by the
surface. This runoff raises the flash
flood potential. Sometimes, streams
through cities and towns are channeled
underground into storm drains. During
heavy rainfall, the storm drains can
become overwhelmed and flood
roads and buildings. Low spots, for
example underground parking garages,
underpasses, and basements can
become death traps.
• Flood affected regions in India:
» The Brahmaputra River Region:
This area comprises of the rivers
Brahmaputra & Barak and their
tributaries, and covers the states of
Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya,
Manipur, Tripura, Nagaland, Mizoram,
Sikkim and the northern parts of West
Bengal. The catchments of these rivers
collect very heavy rain and therefore
floods in this area are severe and quite
frequent. Further the hill regions, where
these rivers originate, are fragile and
prone to erosion and thereby cause
exceptionally high silt discharge in the
rivers.
• The Ganga River Region: In this region
most of the damage by floods is caused
by the northern tributaries of the
Ganga river. They spill over their banks
and shift their courses very frequently.
In general, the flood challenge
increases from the west to the east
and from south to north. The problem
of drainage congestion and flooding is
getting accentuated because of large-
scale encroachment of flood plains of
the rivers for habitation and various
developmental activities. Bihar and UP
are the worst affected in this region.
• The North-west River Region: In this
region, the Indus river and its tributaries
carry quite substantial discharges during
the monsoon period and large volumes
of sediment. They adjust their courses
frequently and leave behind enormous
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tracts of sandy waste. This area covers as the accumulation of fertile silt over
the states of Haryana, Rajasthan, agricultural fields, which is beneficial to
Jammu and Kashmir, Punjab and parts crops, are also a result of flooding.
of Himachal Pradesh. Indiscriminate
consumption of water for irrigation and INDIA
development of low-lying ragions and FLOOD HAZARD
depressions has established problem of ZONES
drainage congestion and waterlogging
over vast areas.
• The Central India and Deccan Region:
The region does not have serious flood
problem except that some of the rivers
in Odisha State namely Mahanadi,
Brahmini, Baitarani, and Subarnarekha
are prone to floods every year. The
delta and coastal areas of the states on
the east coast periodically face flood
and drainage problems in the wake
of monsoon depression and cyclonic
storms.

Consequences of Flood
• Loss of lives and livelihoods of the
population.
• Damage of basic infrastructural
capacities like sanitation and
transportation leading to risk of spread
of diseases and isolation.
• Risk of violence against vulnerable
sections of society, especially women.
• Destruction of biodiversity and ecology
of a region that may take years and
even decades to recuperate.
• Floods destroy not only many valuable
crops every year but also physical
infrastructure like roads, rails, bridges,
and human settlements.
• Hundreds of people are rendered
homeless and are washed down along
with their cattle during the floods.
• The spread of diseases like cholera,
gastroenteritis, hepatitis and other
water borne diseases in the flood
affected regions.
• However, positive contributions such
I m a g e 6.3: F l o o d P r o n e Z o n e in India
Flood Hazard Mitigation
• Flood mitigation strategies consist of
the following factors:
» Floodplain zoning by the respective
government of states. Even after the
suggestions of the Rashtriya Barh Ayog
(RBA) in 1976, only three such states
have passed these acts - Rajasthan,
Manipur, and Uttarakhand and even in
these states, the implementation is lax.
» RBAs suggestions on identification
and assessment of flood-prone regions
have been overlooked to a large extent.
These can be followed to allow for
superior flood forecasting.
» Planting of the tree and mangrove belts
near the riverbanks and coastlines.
» Planned settlement expansion and
economic empowerment of the poor
people so that they can build back
better structures. Housing for All
scheme includes the disaster resilience
component.

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» Shared flood warning mechanisms
with both downstream and upstream
neighbours across international
frontiers.
» Recharge and rejuvenation of wetland
regions and prevention of any
encroachment upon their areas.
» Structural measures like Dams &
Reservoirs – Flood Cushion/ storage
of flood waters, Embankments, Sea
Walls - restricting flow of water, Natural
Detention Basins - retarding & absorbing
flood waters, Channel Improvement -
increasing flood carrying capacity of
rivers, Drainage Improvement, Flood
Ways/ Spill Channels - diversion of flood
water from one channel to another etc
should be undertaken.
» Non-structural measures like Flood
Forecasting & Warning, temporary
evacuation, Flood Plain Zoning/
management – regulation of land use,
Flood Proofing & removal of flood
prone structures, Public Awareness
campaigns & people participation
drills, Financial Mechanism - Disaster
Relief, Rehabilitation & Flood Insurance.
• Government Initiatives:
» National Flood Risk Mitigation
Project (NFRMP): It aims at ensuring
that arrangements are in place to
mobilise the resources and capability
for relief, rehabilitation, reconstruction,
and recovery from disasters besides
creating awareness among vulnerable
communities.
» Flood Management Programme: The
scheme provides financial assistance to
the state governments for undertaking
flood management works in critical
areas.
» National Commission for water
resources 1999: It had also noticed that
storage dams and embanks provided
effective protection to large flood prone
regions. It also proposed the urgent
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need to enact floodplain zoning act.
» National Water Policy (NWP-2012): The
aim of this Policy is to take cognizance
of the existing condition, to propose a
framework for formation of a system
of laws and institutions and for a
plan of action with a unified national
perspective. It had recommended that
reservoir operation processes should be
evolved and executed in a manner so as
to have flood cushion and to decrease
trapping of sediment during flood time.
Droughts
• Droughts are consequence of variability
of climate. Though drought causes
small structural damage and has
slow onset, it is considered as natural
hazard. Drought in India is related to
both water resource management and
scarcity of rainfall.
• IMD defines Drought as situation
occurring in any area when mean
annual rainfall is less than 75% of the
normal rainfall. It is a dry situation
characterized by deficit rainfall, lack of
water for household use or agriculture,
or a deficiency of surface or subsurface
water leading to an acute shortage of
water.
• Following are the kinds of droughts:
» Meteorological drought: It is the
general lack of moisture in the weather
like insufficient precipitation, and the
play of other weather conditions for
example high temperatures and dry
winds etc.
» Agricultural drought: This drought
occurs when atmospheric moisture is
lowered to an extent that soil moisture
is affected. This affects crops, animals
and also evapo-transpiration. It is also
known as soil-moisture drought.
» Hydrological drought: It takes place
when there is a deficiency in the
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surface and groundwater supply in a
region, often due to less precipitation,
unrestrained reliance on surface water
for farming, energy, and other needs.
» Ecological Drought: When productivity
of a natural ecosystem fails due to
shortage of water and as a consequence
of ecological distress, damage is
induced in the ecosystem.
» Socioeconomic drought: It takes
place when the supply of some goods
and services such as food, drinking
water and energy are threatened or
diminished by changes in hydrological
and meteorological conditions.
Sometimes it is even made worse by
growing populations and excessive
demands of such goods, to the point
that it creates stress on the little water
available. It takes a very long time for
this kind of drought to get into full gear,
and a long time to recover from it.
Drought Prone Areas in India
• Drought issues in India have their own
peculiarities requiring appreciation of
some basic facts. Some of the important
facts are:
» India has an average annual rainfall
of nearly around 1150 mm; no other
nation has such a high annual average,
however, there is considerable annual
variation.
» Over 80% of rainfall is received in less
than 100 days during the South- west
monsoon and the geographic spread is
uneven.
» 21% area receives less than 700 mm
rain annually making such areas the
hot spots of drought.
» Inadequacy of rains coupled with
adverse land-man ratio compels the
farmers to practice rain-fed agriculture
in large parts of the country.
» Irrigation, using groundwater
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aggravates the situation in the long run
as ground-water withdrawal exceeds
replenishment; in the peninsular region
availability of surface water itself
becomes scarce in years of rainfall
insufficiency.
» In India, per capita availability of water
is steadily declining.
• In India, the distribution of drought can
be categorized under three heads:
» Conditions of extreme drought: This
category includes around 12% of total
drought prone region i.e., Gujarat,
Western Uttar Pradesh, North-West
Madhya Pradesh, Western Rajasthan.
» Conditions of severe drought: It covers
around 42% of total drought prone
region i.e., leeward side of Maidan
plateau, Rayalaseema and Telangana
regions of Andhra Pradesh and
Marathwada and Vidarbha regions of
Maharashtra.
» Conditions of moderate drought: It
prevails over around 46% of total
drought prone region i.e., Central-north
Madhya Pradesh, Chhota Nagpur,
Odisha, Jammu and Kashmir and
central- east Tamil Nadu.
INDIA
DROUGHT PRONE ZONES
3
1
2 3
2
3
Drought prone Zones
2 Zone 1. Extreme
Zone 2. Severe
Zone 3. Moderate
Rest of India - Drought free
3
I m a g e 6.4: D r o u g h t P r o n e A r e a s in India
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Impact of Drought
• Impacts of drought on Farmer
community: The crops are damaged,
and there is a shortage of fodder and
water to feed their cattle.
• Drought affects Poor Families: Constant
drought season reduces agricultural
production. This leads to inadequate
availability or supply of crops in
the market. Food- grains become
expensive, and poor people suffer due
to inadequate purchasing power.
• Drought affects Women: Even today,
particularly in rural India, women do
not have the similar status as men in
society. This implies that they are not
given their fair share in access to good
living conditions, education, health,
and nutritious food etc. In a drought
condition, when there is a dearth of
food, women who are generally the
last to eat at home, eat the least, and
therefore suffer from issues related to
malnutrition. Drought situation also
increases their work burden because
they have to work for longer time to
earn the same wages, and often travel
longer to fetch water, fodder and fuel
wood.
• It affects people living in a desert region:
People in desert area depend more on
animal husbandry than on agriculture.
Severe shortage of fodder and water
and degradation of vegetation leads
to their dependence on support from
outside, in some areas.
• It affects employment: A fall in
agricultural production also leads to
a fall in employment opportunities
for rural populations who depend on
agricultural labour for a living. It also
causes individuals to migrate to other
locations in search of employment.
These are called ‘distress migrations’.
• Drought affects Children: Lack of
nutritious food in drought affected
areas results in malnutrition, which
110
makes them more prone to various
infections and diseases. It affects their
health and education since migrations
take them away from school and health
camps that also provide vaccinations.
School- dropouts most often become
wage earners, leading to higher child-
labour.
Drought Hazard Mitigation
• There are a few strategies to overcome
drought. They are as follows:
» Periodical assessment of water
shortage.
» Individual state specific drought
proofing methods to be devised.
» Crop diversification, farm pond
construction, adoption of micro
irrigation.
» Promotion of water storage,
conservation and rejuvenation.
» Incentivize solar pumps for irrigation
» Harvesting rainwater, recharging
ground water, desiltation of irrigation
tanks.
» Check dam’s maintenance, prevention
of leakage and pilferation of water from
distribution network.
» Reviving traditional and historical step
wells.
» Availing crop advisories to farmers
with the help of mobile app in their
language.
» Locating ground water resources using
different satellite technology and
remote sensing.
» Promotion of alternate livelihood such
as dairy, poultry, beekeeping. Timber
farming and floriculture.
» Crop Insurance against drought.
• There are a few drought Mitigation
schemes adopted by The Government
of India. They are as follows:
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» India has managed droughts through
measures such as Desert Development
Programme (DDP), Integrated
watershed Development Programme
(IWDP), the National Watershed
Development Programme for Rainfed
Areas (NWDPRA) and Drought Prone
Areas Programme (DPAP) etc.
» The Integrated Watershed
Management Programme (IWMP) is
a very comprehensive initiative which
brings under it DPAP, DDP, and IWDP
together.
» Pradhan Mantri Gram Sinchai Yojana:
This is introduced so that more land is
irrigated and ensure water supply to
farmers round the year.
» Krishi Amdani Beema Yojana: This
scheme is introduced so that farmers
don’t bear any financial burden if their
produce gets destroyed because of
unexpected weather or for any reason.
» Soil health card scheme is introduced
to determine the existing status of soil
health and to determine changes in soil
health and suggest nutrients for farms
to enhance productivity.
» Pradhan Mantri Fasal Beema Yojana:
The Central Government has approved
a cheaper crop insurance scheme
known as Pradhan Mantri Fasal Bima
Yojana (PMFBY) on 13th January 2016.
The Government’s move came in an
effort to check the problem of rising
cases of suicide by the farmers.
» Central ground water board and
Central water commission to monitor
water storage, hydrological data, and
ground water level.
Landslides
• It refers to the movement of mass of
rock, debris or earth down the slope,
once the shear stress exceeds the shear
strength of the material.
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• Landslides primarily affect the
Himalayan area and the western ghats
of India. Landslides are also common in
the Nilgiri mountain range.
• It is estimated that around 30% of
the world’s landslides occur in the
Himalayas. The Himalayan Mountains,
which constitute the youngest and
most dominating mountain system in
the world. Due to its unique nature, the
Himalayas have a history of landslides
that has no comparison with any other
mountain range in the world.
• Landslides are also common in Western
Ghat.
• It happens when the consequence of a
complex field of forces (stress is a force
per unit area) active on a mass of rock
or soil on the slope. It happens because
of geological causes, morphological
causes, physical causes and human
causes.
• There are two parameters that
determine the landslides are as follows:
» Increase of shear stress: It happen due
to the removal of lateral and underlying
support; increase of lateral forces
as well as load; transitory stresses
like blasting, earthquakes etc. and
geological movement.
» Decrease of material strength: It
happens due to weathering, pore water
pressure and changes in structure.
• The different causes of landslides are:
Natural factors:
• Landslides are usually associated with
natural calamities like earthquakes,
volcanic eruptions, floods, and
cloudburst, etc.
• Long spell of rainfall
• Sloping terrain and loose soil cover
• Anthropogenic factors like:
• Rapid urbanization process and
changes in land use patterns.
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• Widespread deforestation and mining
activities like blasting and quarrying,
etc.
• Growing industrialization leading
to climate change and weather
disturbances.
• Change in river flow because of
construction of dams, barriers, etc.
Landslide Vulnerability Zones
• Very High Vulnerability Zones: These
areas are highly unstable, relatively
young mountainous areas in the
Himalayas and the Andamans and
Nicobar Islands, high rainfall regions
with steep slopes in the Western Ghats
and the Nilgiris and the North-east
hills. These areas experience frequent
ground shaking due to earthquakes
and intense human activities.
• High Vulnerability Zones: Areas that
have similar conditions to those of
the very highly vulnerable zone are
also included in this category. The
only difference is the combination,
intensity and controlling factors. All the
Himalayan states including Assam are
included in this high vulnerability zone.
• Moderate to Low Vulnerability Zone:
This zone receive less precipitation
and it includes region such as Trans-
Himalayan regions of Ladakh and
Spiti, undulated yet stable relief and
low precipitation areas of Aravali,
rain shadow areas of Western and
Eastern Ghats and the Deccan Plateau
experience occasional landslides.
Landslides due to mining activities are
also common in states like Jharkhand,
Odisha, Chattisgarhh, Andhra Pradesh,
Karnataka and Tamil Nadu
Landslide Hazard Mitigation
• Different measures required to mitigate
landslides are-
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» Hazard mapping by demarcating
regions prone to landslides and avoiding
stress on those areas for settlement.
» Construction of retention walls to
prevent land from slipping.
» Increasing afforestation and vegetation
cover.
» Exercise various measures to check
soil erosion such as terrace farming,
contour ploughing, etc.
» Implementing surface drainage control
which works to control the movement
of landslides along with rainwater and
spring flows.
» Proper planning of developmental
processes following sustainable
techniques.
• Other remedial steps for landslides
» Modification of Slope Geometry: In
order to improve the stability of the
unstable or potentially unstable slopes,
the profile of the slope is sometimes
altered by excavation or by filling at the
toe of the slope.
» Control of drainage: The existence of
water in joints or in soil slope has a
fundamental influence on the slope
stability.
» Internal Slope Reinforcement Systems:
The purpose of rock slope stabilization
with structural elements is to assist the
rock mass to support itself by applying
external structures which are not part of
the rock mass but support it externally.
» Retaining Walls: Construction of wall
along the problematic slopes area.
Disaster
Management
• Disaster Risk Management refers to
the systematic procedure of using
administrative decisions, operational
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skills, organization, and capacities to
implement strategies policies, and
coping capacities of the communities
and society to decrease the impact
of natural hazards and associated
environmental and technological
disasters.
• These consist of all forms all activities
involving structural and non- structural
methods to avoid (prevention) or to limit
(mitigation and preparedness) adverse
effects of various hazards.
• There are three important stages of
activities in disaster management:
» Prior to a disaster: to reduce the potential
for human, material, or environmental
losses triggered by hazards and to make
sure that these losses are minimized
when disaster strikes.
» During a disaster: to make sure that the
requirements and provisions of victims
are met to alleviate and minimize
overall suffering; and
» After a disaster: to attain rapid and
durable recovery which does not
reproduce the original vulnerable
circumstances.
• Disaster management Act, 2005 defines
Disaster Management as an integrated
process of planning, organizing,
coordinating and implementing
measures which are necessary for:
» Prevention of risk of any disaster
» Reduction of threat of any disaster or
its consequences
» Readiness to deal with any disaster
» Promptness in dealing with a disaster
» Assessing the severity of effects of any
disaster
» Rescue and relief
» Rehabilitation and Reconstruction
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Disaster Prevention and
Mitigation
• Mitigation measures besides proper
planning of developmental work in
the risk prone area, would prevent
hazards like earthquakes, floods and
cyclones turn into disasters. These are
the important areas which should be
addressed to accomplish this objective:
» Risk Assessment and Vulnerability
Mapping: Hazard zonation, mapping
and vulnerability analysis in a multi-
risk structure will be conducted
utilizing Geographic Information
System (GIS) based databases like
the National Database for Emergency
Management (NDEM) and National
Spatial Data Infrastructure (NSDI).
The NSDI established by the Survey of
India, to collect, compile, analyze and
prepare value-added maps for use by
various agencies in the area of DM
for management of natural resources,
industrial applications etc.
» Increasing Trend of Disasters in Urban
Areas: Unplanned urbanization should
be prevented and the action plan to
meet this end should be given the
top priority. UTs/State Governments
concerned on the other hand focus on
urban drainage systems with special
attention on non-obstruction of natural
drainage systems. Urban mapping
of infrastructure of spatial resolution
should be initiated for development
of Decision Support System (DSS) for
managing the urban challenges.
» Critical Infrastructure: Critical
infrastructure like roads, dams, flyovers,
irrigation canals, bridges, power stations,
railway lines, water storage towers, delta
water distribution networks, ports and
river and coastal embankments should
be continuously checked for safety
standards with respect to worldwide
safety benchmarks and fortified where
lacking.
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» Environmentally Sustainable Development: frequency and intensity of natural

Environmental considerations and disasters like cyclones, floods and
developmental efforts should be droughts should be tackled in a
handled simultaneously for ensuring sustained and effective manner with
sustainability. promotion of strategies for climate
» Climate Change Adaptation: The change adaptation and disaster risk
challenges of an increase in the reduction.

114
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CHAPTER - 7
INDIA: AGRICULTURE
Agriculture
• Agriculture and its allied sectors
continue to play an important role
in employment, revenue, and, most
significantly, in national food security.
• Agriculture, with its allied sectors, is
unquestionably the largest livelihood
provider in India.
• Its contribution to national income
has slowly declined from 18.2 per cent
in 2014-15 to 16.5 in 2019-20, reflecting
the development process and the
structural transformation taking place
in the economy.
• Around two-thirds of India’s population
is involved in agricultural activities.
• Agriculture is a primary economic
activity, which produces most of the
food that we consume. Along with food
grains, it also produces raw material for
a variety of industries.
• Indian agriculture and allied activities
have witnessed a green revolution, a
white revolution, a yellow revolution
and a blue revolution.
Salient features of Indian
Agriculture
• Subsistence agriculture: The farmer
owns a small piece of land, grows crops
with the help of his family members
and consumes almost the entire farm
produce with little surplus to sell in the
market. This kind of agriculture has
been practiced in India for the last
several hundreds of years.
• Source of livelihood for huge
population: As per 2011 Census, more
115
than 30% of Indian population lived
in urban area and it is estimated to
reach that half of the Indian population
will live in urban areas by 2025. As per
a Survey, more than 4 lac hectares of
agricultural land are being diverted
annually for non- agricultural purposes
• Importance of animals: Animals
in Indian agriculture have played
a huge role in different operations
like ploughing, irrigation, threshing,
transportation, etc. This is one of the
important reasons why agricultural
production and productivity is very less
in India, even compared to developing
countries.
• Dependent upon monsoon: In India,
agriculture is rain fed farming, i.e.,
is mostly relies on Monsoon and its
distribution. Despite the development
of irrigation facilities, less than 1/3rd
of the total cropped area is under
irrigation while the rest still dependent
upon vagaries of the monsoon.
• Variety of crops: India is a vast country
with varied types of relief, climate, and
soil conditions. There both tropical
crops as well as temperate crops can
be grown in India
• Predominance of food crops: More
than two-thirds of the total cropped
area is devoted to the cultivation of
food crops. Area under food grains
increased from 120 mha to 125 mha.
This is the reason why India requires to
focus more on productivity rather than
production.
• Seasonal pattern.
• India has three major crop seasons:
» Kharif season- It is mainly grown during
the monsoon season and harvested
during the onset of monsoon. Major
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crops of this season are Rice, Maize,
Jowar, Bajra, Cotton, Sesarnum,
Groundnut, etc.
» Rabi season– It starts with the onset
of winter and harvest in the summers
Major crops of this season are Wheat,
Barley, Jowar, Gram and Oil Seeds such
as Linseed, Rapeseed, etc.
» Zaid season– It refers to summer
crops and mainly includes fruits and
vegetables. Recently, some pulses have
also been grown during this season.
Cropping Major Crops Cultivated
season Northen States Southern States
• Mixed Cropping: Mixed cropping is one
of the chief characteristics of Indian
agriculture particularly in the rain-fed
areas. Sometimes four to five crops
are grown simultaneously in the same
field. This is done to ensure that farmers
are left with some production in the
background of uncertainty of monsoon.
If the amount of rainfall is good, rice
crop will give better output and if there
is failure of the monsoon rains, then less
water requiring crops such as maize,
millets and pulses will give better yields.
• High percentage of reporting area
under cultivation: India has a net sown
area of around 142 mha. This amounts
to 46% of land being under cultivation.
This is a very high percentage when
compared to some of the advanced
countries like 16.3% in U.S.A., 14.9% in
Japan, 11.8% in China, and only 4.3% in
Canada.
• Labour intensive: Around half of
the Indian population is dependent
on agriculture. This goes on to show
India’s dependence on agriculture
for the purpose of food as well as
116
employment. Mechanisation of farming
is prevalent mostly in the Northern
states like Punjab, Haryana, West UP,
etc. Farm mechanism- in packing up in
Uttarakhand, Gujarat and Maharashtra
as well.
DETERMINANTS OF AGRICULTURE
The following are the factors which determine
the cropping pattern, yield of crops and overall
agricultural development:
• Physical factors – Topography, Climate and
Soil
• Institutional factors – size of farm holdings,
land tenure, land reforms.
• Infrastructural factors – Irrigation, Electricity,
Roads, Storage
• Technological factors – High Yielding Variety
(HYV) seeds, fertilizers, insecticides, pesticides,
farm machinery
Problems with Indian
Agriculture
• Small and fragmented landholdings:
» From an average land holding size of
around 2.28 mha in 1970’s it reduced
to around 1.16 mha in 2010-11. The size
of the holdings will definitely decrease
with time.
» The issue of unfeasible and small land
holdings is more prevalent in the states
like Kerala, West Bengal, Bihar, and
eastern part of Uttar Pradesh where
the average size of land holdings is less
than one hectare. The problem lies with
the inheritance law.
» A father’s land holding is divided
equally among sons, which are then
again further sub-divided among their
sons. This makes farming unproductive.
» Irrigation also becomes very difficult
on such small and fragmented fields.
In addition to this, a lot of fertile
agricultural land is wasted in providing
boundaries, although legislation for
consolidation of holdings has been
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enacted by almost all the states, it has
been implemented only in few states
e.g. Punjab and Haryana
• Seeds:
» Seed is the basic input of agricultural
production. A good network of seed
distribution is required for quality
agricultural production. Unfortunately,
good variety seeds are out of reach of
the majority of farmers, particularly
small and marginal farmers primarily
because of exorbitant prices of better
seeds.
» In order to solve this issue, The
Government of India has taken several
steps so that quality seeds are made
available to farmers in sufficient
quantity at reasonable prices. But the
benefits of schemes launched by The
Government still remain out of reach of
the small and marginal farmers.
• Usage of Fertilizers:
» Excessive usage of manures and
fertilizers over the years has led to
depletion and exhaustion of soils
resulting in their low productivity. The
average yields of almost every crop are
among the lowest in the world.
» One of the reasons behind this is
unscientific usage of fertilizers. For
example, as per scientific analysis,
fertilizers should have NPK ration of
about 4:2:1. But in India, it is around
8.2:3.2:1.
• Irrigation:
» Only one-third of the total cropped
area is under irrigation. Irrigation is
the most significant agricultural input
in a tropical monsoon nation like India
where rainfall is uncertain, unreliable,
and erratic.
» States like Punjab, Haryana and West
UP has been successful in bringing half
of its area under irrigation. However,
117
excessive use of fertilizers in these states
has resulted in the issues of water-
logging, salinity and alkalinity.
• Agricultural Marketing:
» The problem with agricultural marketing
in India is the presence of middlemen
between farmers and the markets. The
middlemen pay very little amount for
the agricultural produce of the farmers
and sell it at a very high rate in the open
markets.
• Inadequate storage facilities:
» Storage facilities in the rural areas
are either totally absent or grossly
inadequate. Under such conditions
the farmers are compelled to sell their
produce immediately after the harvest
at the prevailing market prices which
are bound to be low. Such distress sale
deprives the farmers of their legitimate
income.
» At present principal agencies involved
in providing storage facilities include
The Food Corporation of India (F.C.I.),
the Central Warehousing Corporation
(C.W.C.) and State Warehousing
Corporation. They help in building up
buffer stock as well.
• Inadequate transport:
» Even today there are lakhs of villages
which are not well linked with main
roads or with market centres. Most
roads in the rural region are Kutcha
and are rendered useless during rainy
season. Under these conditions the
farmers cannot carry their produce to
the main market and are forced to sell
it in the local market at low price.
• Scarcity of capital:
» Most of the farmers till date rely on
money lenders to provide them with
capital. This is mainly due to lack of
formal capital or presence of banking
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system in such remote areas in India.
» All India Rural Credit Survey Committee
showed that in 1950’s the share of money
lenders stood at as high as 68.6 per cent
of the total rural credit and in 1970’s
their share declined to 43 per cent of the
credit needs of the farmers. Hence even
if it is decreasing, moneylender’s hold in
rural India is still strong.
• Tradition Bound:
» Despite some breakthroughs, Indian
agriculture remains tradition bound even
at the dawn of 21st century. Established
centuries ago, the structures of a self-
contained rural economy, founded in
caste- drain occupational laud tenure,
made complex by absentee and
parasitic landlords still continues. The
tradition bound institutions have been
the greatest hindrance in the way of
modernization and Indian agriculture
has been rather slow in responding to
new innovative ideas.
• Primitive Technology:
» Only in a few states such as Punjab and
Haryana use of modern technology can
be seen. But in most states, reliance on
primitive technology is still prevalent.
This harm both production and
productivity.
• Lack of Crop Diversification:
» Crop diversification means growing a
large number of crops and reducing
dependency on a single crop. Even
though in India mixed cropping is done,
it is mainly biased towards food crops
and as a result other crops like pulses
lose out.
» This is harmful for balanced growth of
agriculture. This is evident from the fact
that just around 4% of area is under
fodder crop cultivation, despite having
the largest population of livestock in
the world.
118
Priority Areas for Support
• Enhancing agricultural productivity,
competitiveness and rural growth:
» Major reform and strengthening of
India’s agricultural research and
extension systems is one of the
most crucial needs for agricultural
development.
» Modernizing Irrigation and Drainage
Departments to integrate the
participation of farmers and other
agencies in managing irrigation water.
» Improving cost recovery.
» Streamlining public expenditures, with
priority to completing schemes with the
highest returns;
» Allocating sufficient resources for
operations and maintenance for the
sustainability of investments.
» Encouraging cultivators to diversify
to higher value commodities will be a
significant factor for higher agricultural
growth, particularly in rain-fed areas
where poverty is high.
» Promoting high growth commodities:
Some agricultural sub-sectors have
particularly high prospective for
expansion, notably dairy. The livestock
sector, primarily because of dairy,
contributes over a quarter of agricultural
GDP and is a source of income for
around 70% of India’s rural families,
mostly those who are poor and headed
by women.
» Developing markets, agricultural credit
and public expenditures.
• Poverty alleviation and community
actions:
» While agricultural growth will provide
the base for increasing incomes, for
rural people that are below the poverty
line, additional measures are needed to
make this growth inclusive.
» For instance, a rural livelihoods
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program that empowers communities
to become self-reliant has been found
to be particularly effective and well-
suited for scaling-up. This program
encourages the formation of self-help
groups, increases community savings,
and promotes local initiatives to
increase employment and incomes.
» These self-help groups are particularly
effective at reaching women and
impoverished families.
• Sustaining the environment and future
agricultural productivity:
» In parts of India, the over-pumping of
water for agricultural use is leading to
falling groundwater levels. Conversely,
water-logging is leading to the build-
up of salts in the soils of some irrigated
regions.
» In rain-fed regions on the other hand,
where most of the rural population live,
agricultural practices need adapting
to reduce soil erosion and increase the
absorption of rainfall.
» The most comprehensive is through
watershed management programs,
where communities participate in
land planning and adopt agricultural
practices that protect soils, increase
water absorption and raise productivity
with the help of higher yields and crop
diversification.
Types of Farming
» Agriculture is an age-old economic
occupation in our country. Over these
years, cultivation techniques have
changed significantly depending
upon the characteristics of physical
environment, technological know- how
and socio-cultural practices. Some of
the important farming practices are:
• Primitive Subsistence Farming:
119
» This kind of agriculture depends upon
monsoon rainfall, natural fertility
of the soil and suitability of other
environmental situations to the crops
grown.
» It is a ‘slash and burn’ agriculture in
which cultivators clear a patch of land
and produce cereals and other food
crops to sustain their family. When the
soil fertility reduces, the farmers shift
and clear a fresh patch of land for
farming.
» This kind of shifting permits Nature to
replenish the soil fertility with the help
of natural processes; land productivity
in this type of agriculture is low as the
farmer does not use fertilisers or other
type of modern inputs. It is identified by
different names in different parts of the
country.
JHUMMING
• The ‘slash and burn’ farming is called as
‘Conuco’ in Venzuela, ‘Roca’ in Brazil, ‘Masole’
in Central Africa, ‘Milpa’ in Mexico and
Central America, ‘Ladang’ in Indonesia, ‘Ray’
in Vietnam.
• In India, this primitive form of agriculture is
called ‘Podu’ or ‘Penda’ in Andhra Pradesh,
‘Bewar’ or ‘Dahiya’ in Madhya Pradesh, ‘Pama
Dabi’ or ‘Koman’ or Bringa’ in Odisha,
• ‘Valre’ or ‘Waltre’ in South-eastern area
of Rajasthan, ‘Khil’ in the Himalayan belt,
‘Kuruwa’ in Jharkhand, ‘Kumari’ in Western
Ghat region, and ‘Jhumming’ in the North-
eastern states.
• Intensive Subsistence Farming
» This kind of agriculture is practiced in
regions of high population pressure
on land. It is labour-intensive farming,
where high doses of biochemical inputs
and irrigation are utilized for obtaining
higher production.
• Commercial Farming:
» The main feature of this type of
agriculture is the utilization of higher
doses of modern inputs such as chemical
fertilizers, high yielding variety (HYV)
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seeds, insecticides, and pesticides to
obtain higher productivity.
» The degree of commercialization of
agriculture fluctuates from one area to
another. E.g., rice is a commercial crop
in Punjab and Haryana, however in
Odisha, it is a subsistence crop.
PLANTATION AGRICULTURE
• Plantation is also a kind of commercial
agriculture. In this type of cultivation, a
single crop is cultivated on a large area. The
plantation agriculture has an interface of
agriculture and industry sectors. Plantations
cover huge tracts of land, utilizing capital
intensive inputs, through migrant labourers.
All the produce is utilized as raw material in
respective industries.
• In India, coffee, rubber, sugarcane, tea,
banana, etc., are valuable plantation crops.
Tea in North Bengal and Assam, coffee in
Karnataka is some of the major plantation
crops grown in these states.
• Since the production is primarily for market,
a well- developed network of transport and
communication connecting the plantation
fields, processing industries and markets
plays a significant role in the development of
plantations.
• Dry Agriculture
» Dry farming or dry-land farming may
be defined as a practice of growing
crops without irrigation in areas which
receive an annual rainfall of 750 mm –
500 mm or even less.
» Key elements of effective combat with
perils of Dryland agriculture:
» Capturing and Conservation of Moisture
» Effective Use of Available Moisture
» Soil Conservation
» Control of Input Costs
• Mixed and Multiple Agriculture:
» Denotes the practice of growing two or
more crops together.
• Crop rotation:
120
» This refers to growing of number of
crops one after the other in a fixed
rotation to maintain the fertility of the
soil.
• Terrace Cultivation:
» In this type of cultivation, the hill and
mountain slopes are cut to form terraces
and the land is used in the same way as
in permanent agriculture.
» Due to terrace formation on hill slopes,
soil erosion can be checked.
Agriculture Land use
in India
Land resource is more important to the
livelihood of the people depending on
agriculture:
• Agriculture is a solely land based
activity unlike various secondary and
tertiary activities. In other words, role
of land in agricultural output is more
as compared to its contribution in the
outputs in the other sectors. Therefore,
lack of access to land is directly
correlated with incidence of poverty in
rural regions.
• Quality and fertility of land has a direct
bearing on the productivity of agriculture,
which is not true for other activities.
• In rural regions, aside from its value
as a productive factor, land ownership
has a social value and serves as a
security for credit, natural hazards, or
life contingencies, and also adds to the
social status.
• For a land scarce but labour abundant
nation like India, a high cropping
intensity is desirable not only for fuller
utilization of land resource, but also for
reducing unemployment in the rural
economy.
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50
45.5 around 187.7 million tons in 2018-19 and
Changes in Shares of Land-use Categories in India
registered a growth rate of about 6.5%
41.7
40 1950-51 and 2014-15

over the previous year.

• The per capita availability of milk has
30
23.5

20 17
attained a level of 394 grams/day
13.4 during 2018-19.
10 8.7
6.9 8
5.5 6.1
4 4.9
3.2 2.3 3.3 3.63 .7
1.0
0
Forest Area under Barren and Permanent Area Under Culturable Fallow other Current Net Area
non- unagriculturable pasture Misc. Waste than fallow Shown
agricultural waste and Tree crops Land Current
use Land grazing land and groves fallow

1950-51 2014-15

I m a g e 7.1: L a n d - u s e in India

Allied Sectors:
Animal Husbandry, I m a g e 7.2: M il k P r o d u c t i o n in India

Dairying and • As per NSSO 66th Round Survey (July

2009-June 2010) on Employment and
Fisheries Unemployment, close to around 15.60
million workers as per usual status
• Animal Husbandry, Dairying and (Principal status plus subsidiaries status)
Fisheries related activities, along with were engaged in farming of animals,
agriculture, continue to be an important mixed farming, and fishing.
part of human life. • Fisheries:
• These various types of activities have
» Fisheries remain a valuable source of
contributed to the food basket and
nutrition, food, income, and employment
draught animal power and maintain
in India.
ecological balance along with
generating gainful employment, mostly » This sector provides livelihood to around
among the landless, small and marginal 16 million fishers and fish farmers at
farmers and women, besides providing the primary level and almost twice the
nutritious food to millions of people. number along the value chain.
• Livestock sector has expanded at » Recognising the importance of the
a compound annual growth rate of sector, an independent Department
around 7.9% during last five years. of Fisheries has been created in 2019
Indian Government has launched new to provide sustained and focused
Central Sector Scheme “National Animal attention towards the development of
Disease Control Programme (NADCP) fisheries sector.
for control of Foot & Mouth Disease » The sector has been showing a steady
(FMD) and Brucellosis”. This program growth in the total GVA and accounts for
envisages complete control of FMD by 6.58 per cent of GDP from agriculture,
2025 with vaccination and its eventual forestry, and fishing.
eradication by 2030 Milk production:
» The fish production in India has
• India continues to be the leading registered an average annual growth
producer of milk in the world. rate of more than 7 per cent in the
• Milk production in the country was recent years.

121
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» India has rich and diverse fisheries
resources. The marine fisheries resources
are dispersed along the country’s vast
coastline region and 2.02 million sq. km
Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) and 0.53
million sq. km. continental shelf area.
» The overall fish production in the country
stood at around 13.42 million metric
tonnes (provisional) during 2018-19. Of
this, the marine fisheries contributed
around 3.71 million metric tonnes and
the inland fisheries contributed 9.71
million metric tonnes.
FISHERIES AND AQUACULTURE
INFRASTRUCTURE DEVELOPMENT FUND
• To address the gaps in fisheries infrastructure,
The Government has created the Fisheries
and Aquaculture Infrastructure Development
Fund (FIDF) during 2018-19 with a total fund
size of 7,522.48 crore.
• The FIDF provides concessional finance/ loan
to the Eligible Entities (EEs), including State
Governments/Union Territories (UTs) and
State entities for development of identified
fisheries infrastructure facilities.
• The concessional finance under the FIDF is
provided by the Nodal Loaning Entities (NLEs)
namely (i) NABARD, (ii) National Cooperatives
Development Corporation (NCDC) and (iii) All
scheduled Banks.
Some of the recent Important
Government initiatives
• Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchai Yojana
(PMKSY):
» The Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee
Yojana (PMKSY) was launched during
the year 2015-16 with the motto of ‘Har
Khet Ko Paani’ for providing end-to end
solutions in irrigation supply chain, viz.
water sources, distribution network and
farm level applications.
» The PMKSY not only focuses on
creating sources for assured irrigation,
but also creating protective irrigation
by harnessing rainwater at micro level
through ‘Jal Sanchay’ and ‘Jal Sinchan’.
» PMKSY has the following components:
122
» Accelerated Irrigation Benefit
Programme (AIBP): being implemented
by Ministry of Jal Shakti.
» PMKSY- Har Khet Ko Pani: being
implemented by Ministry of Jal Shakti
» PMKSY- Watershed: being implemented
by Department of Land Resources.
• National Mission for Sustainable
Agriculture (NMSA):
» It is envisaged as one of the eight
Missions mentioned under National
Action Plan on Climate Change
(NAPCC) and it aims at promoting
Sustainable Agriculture through climate
change adaptation measures.
» The major thrust is enhancing
agriculture productivity particularly in
rainfed regions focusing on integrated
farming, soil health management, and
synergizing resource conservation.
Besides, NMSA also a committed target
to fulfill National and International
commitments on Sustainable
Development Goals (SDG) &Intended
Nationally Determined Contribution
(INDC).
» All the components of NMSA such
as Rainfed Agriculture, Soil Health
Management, Organic Farming, etc.
have significant role in achieving SDGs
& INDC.
» NMSA as a programmatic interference
caters to Mission Deliverables that
emphasizes primarily on conservation
agriculture to make farm sector more
productive, sustainable, remunerative
and climate resilient by promoting
location specific integrated/composite
farming systems; soil and moisture
conservation measures; comprehensive
soil health management and
mainstreaming rainfed technologies.
» NMSA has one of the components of
Rainfed Area Development.
• Soil Health Card Scheme:
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» It was Launched in 2015 and it has
been introduced to support State
Governments to issue Soil Health Cards
to all cultivators in the country.
» The Soil Health Cards give information
to farmers on nutrient status of their
soil along with recommendation on
appropriate dosage of nutrients to be
utilized for improving soil health and its
fertility.
• Paramparagat Krishi Vikas Yojana
(PKVY):
» PKVY is implemented with a view to
encourage organic farming in the
country.
» To enhance soil health and organic
matter content and increase net income
of the farmer to realize premium prices.
• National Agriculture Market (e-NAM)
» It gives e-marketing platform at national
level and support establishment of
infrastructure to enable e-marketing.
» This innovative market procedure is
revolutionizing agriculture markets by
guaranteeing better price discovery.
It also brings in transparency and
competition to enable cultivators to
get improved remuneration for their
produce moving towards ‘One Nation
One Market’.
• Pradhan Mantri Kisan Sampada
Yojana (PMKSY):
» It provides subsidy-based support to
establish robust modern infrastructure
for agriculture and agro-based industries
along the entire value/supply chain.
It is anticipated to decrease wastage
of agriculture produce, increase the
processing level, enhance the export of
the processed foods, enable availability
of hygienic and nutritious food to
consumers at reasonable prices.
» The scheme components are: Mega
Food Parks, Integrated Cold Chain and
123
Value Addition Infrastructure, Creation/
Expansion of Food Processing &
Preservation Capacities, Infrastructure
for Agro-processing Clusters, Creation
of Backward and Forward Linkages,
Food Safety and Quality Assurance
Infrastructure, Human Resources and
Institutions, and Operation Greens.
• Pradhan Mantri Fasal Bima Yojana
(PMFBY):
» Pradhan Mantri Fasal Bima Yojana
(PMFBY) is The Government sponsored
crop insurance scheme that integrates
multiple stakeholders on a single
platform.
• Micro Irrigation Fund (MIF):
» The Government approved a dedicated
Rs5,000 crore fund to bring more land
region under micro-irrigation as part of
its objective to improve farmers income
and agriculture production.
» This fund has been set up under
NABARD, which will provide this
amount to states on concessional rate
of interest to promote micro-irrigation,
which currently has a coverage of
only 10 million hectares as against the
potential of 70 million hectares.
Suggestions/Solution
• The issues such as investment in
agriculture, water conservation,
improved yields through better farming
practices, access to market, availability
of institutional credit, increasing the
linkages between agricultural and
nonagricultural sectors, etc. need
urgent attention.
• Allied sectors like animal husbandry,
dairying and fisheries sectors need to
be given a boost to provide an assured
secondary source of employment and
income especially for the small and
marginal farmers. Coverage of food
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processing sector needs to be scaled
up to create an additional source of
market for agricultural commodities.
• As the overall proportion of small and
marginal holdings is significantly large,
land reform measures like freeing
up land markets can help farmers in
improving their income. Small holdings
of India can be better harnessed through
appropriate use of farm mechanization
as the degree of farm mechanization
is low as compared to the other major
developing countries like Brazil and
China.
• The coverage of irrigation facilities
requires to be extended while ensuring
an efficient water conservation
mechanism. An inclusive method to
provision for agricultural credit has to
be undertaken to address the issue of
skewness in its regional distribution.
• There is a requirement to give increased
focus on exploring global markets for
agricultural commodities to give another
source of market for the surplus of
agricultural produce India currently has.
• There is also a need to reallocate labour
resources to other sectors. Though, the
structural transformations involved
a falling share of agriculture sector
and rising share of services sector
jobs, more needs to be done to create
manufacturing jobs to absorb the large
pool of workers
• The rates fixed under the National Food
Security Act (NFSA) initially for a time
of three years have not been revised
since 2013, resulting in burgeoning food
subsidy. The rates under NFSA and the
coverage require to be revisited.
124
Major Crops
• Different variety of food and non-food
crops are cultivated in different parts
of the country dependent upon the
climate, variations in soil, and cultivation
practices. Main crops grown in India are
Rice, Wheat, Pulses, Millets, Tea, Coffee,
Sugarcane, Oilseeds, Cotton,and Jute
etc.
» The major crops can be divided into
four main groups depending on their
usage.
» Food Crops (Rice, Wheat, Maize,
Pulses,and Millets, etc.)
» Cash Crops (Sugarcane, Tobacco,
Cotton, Jute and Oilseeds etc.)
» Plantation Crops (Coffee, Coconut, Tea
and Rubber etc.)
» Horticulture crops (fruits and vegetables)
Rice
• Climatic condition:
» Rice is a Kharif crop which needs high
temperature, (above 25°C) and high
humidity with annual rainfall above 100
cm.
» Rice grows best in areas of warm, humid
climate, fertile soil.
» Delta and valley soils are the most
suitable.
» Soils with higher clay content are
preferred for its cultivation due to their
better moisture retention capacity.
» In the regions of less rainfall, it grows
with the help of irrigation.
• Techniques Used:
» Transplantation technique, Japanese
Transplantation technique, new SRI
technique.
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• Major producers:
» It is cultivated in the plains of north and
north-eastern India, coastal regions
and the deltaic areas.
» West Bengal (highest producer), Uttar
Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Punjab
(highest per hectare yield), Bihar,
Odisha, Chhattisgarh, Assam, Tamil
Nadu, Haryana.
» Expansion of dense network of canal
irrigation and tube-wells have made
it possible to grow rice in areas of less
rainfall such as Punjab, Haryana and
western Uttar Pradesh and parts of
Rajasthan.
» In West Bengal and southern states,
the climatic circumstances permit
cultivation of two or three crops of rice
in an agricultural year. In West Bengal
cultivators grow three crops of rice
known as ‘aus’, ‘aman’ and ‘boro’.
• Important varieties:
» Aman, Sali, Afghani, Aus, Boro, and
Palua.
INDIA
RICE
MAJOR AREA
MINOR AREA
I m a g e 7.3: R e g i o n of R i c e C u lt i vat i o n
125
Wheat
• Climatic condition:
» It is a crop of temperate climate.
» It needs a cool growing season and a
bright sunshine at the time of ripening.
» It needs around 50 to 75 cm of annual
rainfall evenly distributed over the
growing season.
» It can be grown in the drier areas with
the help of irrigation.
» Well drained loamy and clayey soils are
ideal.
• Major producing areas:
» There are two important wheat- growing
areas in the country – the Ganga-Satluj
plains in the northwest and black soil
region of the Deccan.
» The main wheat-producing states are
Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar,
Rajasthan and parts of Madhya Pradesh.
» Around 14% of the total cropped area in
the country is under wheat cultivation.
» The yield level of wheat is very high
(more than 4,000 kg. per hectare)
in Punjab and Haryana while, Uttar
Pradesh, Bihar and Rajasthan have
moderate yields. The states such as
Madhya Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh
and Jammu and Kashmir cultivating
wheat under rainfed conditions have
low yield.
• Important varieties: Sonalika, Kalyan,
Sona, Sabarmati, Lerma, Roso, Heera,
Shera, and Sonara-64.
• Wheat is the second most valuable
cereal crop in India after rice.
• India produces around 12.3 per cent of
total wheat production of world (2016).
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INDIA
WHEAT
MAJOR AREA
MINOR AREA
I m a g e 7.4: R e g i o n of W h e at C u lt i vat i o n
Millets
• Jowar, Bajra and Ragi are the valuable
millets grown in India. Though, these are
identified as coarse grains, they have
very high nutritional value. For instance,
Ragi is very rich in iron, calcium, other
micro-nutrients and roughage.
Jowar:
• Climatic condition:
» Jowar is main food crop in semi-arid
regions of central and southern India.
» This crop requires moderate rainfall
of 30-100cms and high temperatures
ranging from 20 to 32°C.
» Both excessive moisture and prolonged
drought are harmful.
• Major producers/ area covered:
» The coarse cereals together occupy
around 16.50% of total cropped area
in the country. Amongst these, jowar
or sorghum alone accounts for nearly
around 5.3 per cent of total cropped
area.
126
» Maharashtra state alone produces
more than half of the entire jowar
production of the country. Other
prominent producer states of jowar are
Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Andhra
Pradesh and Telangana.
» In southern states, it is sown in both
Kharif and Rabi seasons. However, it is
a Kharif crop in northern India where it
is mostly cultivated as a fodder crop.
South of Vindhyachal it is a rainfed
crop and its yield intensity is very low
in this zone.
Bajra:
• Climatic condition:
» It develops well on sandy soils and
shallow black soil.
» It needs an annual rainfall of around 45
cm and temperature ranging between
25 to 30°C.
» It is sown in hot and dry climatic
circumstances in northwestern and
western parts of the country.
» It is a hardy crop which resists repeated
dry spells and drought in this region.
• Major producers/area covered:
» It is grown alone as well as part of mixed
cropping. This coarse cereal occupies
around 5.2% of total cropped area in
the country.
» Prominent producers of bajra are the
states of Maharashtra, Gujarat, Uttar
Pradesh, Rajasthan, and Haryana.
Being a rainfed crop, the yield intensity
of Bajra is low in Rajasthan and varies a
lot from year to year.
» Yield of this crop has improved during
recent years in Haryana and Gujarat
because of introduction of drought
resistant varieties and expansion of
irrigation under it.
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Ragi
• It is a crop of dry areas and grows well
on red, black, loamy, sandy, and shallow
black soils.
• Most important Ragi producing states
are Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Himachal
Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Sikkim,
Jharkhand, and Arunachal Pradesh.
• It is very rich in iron, calcium, other
micro-nutrients and roughage.
Maize
• Climatic condition:
» It is a food as well as fodder crop
cultivated under semi-arid climatic
situations and over inferior soils.
Foodgrain Carbohydrates (g) Protein (g)
Pulses
• They are a very valuable ingredient
of vegetarian food because these are
rich sources of proteins. These are
leguminous crops which increase the
natural fertility of soils with the help of
nitrogen fixation.
• Being leguminous crops, pulses (except
Arhar) assist in restoring fertility of soil
by fixing nitrogen from the air. Thus,
these are mostly grown in rotation with
127
» It is a kharif crop which needs
temperature between 21°C to 27°C.
» In some states such as Bihar maize is
also grown in Rabi season.
• Major producers/ Area covered:
» Maize cultivation occupies only around
3.6% of total cropped area. It is not
concentrated in any particular area.
» Except Punjab and eastern and north-
eastern regions, it is sown all over India.
» The leading producers of maize crop are
the states of Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh,
Bihar, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana,
Rajasthan, and Uttar Pradesh.
» Yield level of maize is higher as compare
to other coarse cereals. It is high in
southern states and decreases towards
central parts of India.
Fat (g) Energy (Kcal) Calcium(mg) Iron(mg)
Source: National Institute of Nutrition Hyderabad
other crops.
• India is a leading producer of variety of
pulses in the world. The pulses cultivation
in the country is mostly concentrated
in the drylands of Deccan region and
central plateaus and northwestern
parts of India.
• Pulses occupy around 11 % of the entire
cropped area in the country. Being
the rainfed crops of dryland areas, the
yields of pulses are low and vary from
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year to year. Gram and tur are the
major pulses cultivated in India.
• Important pulse producing states
in India are Madhya Pradesh, Uttar
Pradesh, Rajasthan, Maharashtra, and
Karnataka.
(million tonnes )
Year Production Imports
Gram
• It is cultivated in subtropical regions. It
is primarily a rainfed crop grown during
Rabi season in central, western, and
northwestern parts of the country.
• Only one or two light showers or
irrigations are needed to grow gram
successfully. Gram has been displaced
from the cropping pattern by wheat in
Punjab, Haryana, and northern part of
Rajasthan after the green revolution.
• Currently, gram covers only around
2.8% of the total cropped area in
the country. Madhya Pradesh, Uttar
Pradesh, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh,
Telangana, and Rajasthan are the
major producers of this pulse crop.
• The yield of gram continues to be low
and varies from year to year even in
irrigated regions.
Tur (Arhar)
• It is the 2nd important pulse crop in
128
the country. It is also known as pigeon
pea or red gram. It is cultivated over
marginal lands and under rainfed
conditions in the dry areas of central
and southern states of the country.
• This crop uses only around 2% of total
cropped area of India. Maharashtra
alone contributes nearly around one-
third of the total production of Tur.
• Other top producer states are Uttar
Pradesh, Karnataka, Gujarat, and
Madhya Pradesh. Per hectare output of
Tur is very low and its performance is
inconsistent.
Food Crops other than Grains
Sugarcane:
• Sugarcane cultivation is done in tropical
as well as a subtropical region. It
develops well in hot and humid climate
with a temperature of 21°C to 27°C and
an annual rainfall between 75cm. and
100cm. Irrigation is necessary in the
areas of low rainfall.
• India is the 2nd largest sugarcane
producing country in the world (only
after Brazil). It is the major source of
sugar, gur (jaggary), khandsari and
molasses.
• Under rainfed circumstances, it is grown
in sub-humid and humid climates.
However, it is largely an irrigated crop
in India. In Indo-Gangetic plain region,
its cultivation is largely concentrated
in Uttar Pradesh. Sugarcane growing
region in western India is spread over
Gujarat and Maharashtra.
• In southern part of India, it is grown
in irrigated tracts of Karnataka, Tamil
Nadu, Telangana and Andhra Pradesh.
• It accounts for about 19% of the world
production of sugarcane. However, it
occupies only around 2.4% of total
cropped area in the country.
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Sugarcane farming/industry in north and south India

North India South India
• The yield per hectare is low because of • The yield per hectare is high because of tropical
unfavorable climatic conditions. climatic conditions.
• The crushing season is small in northern India. • The crushing season is longer than northern
India.
• The factories are old and obsolete machineries
are used • Most of the mills in the south are new which are
equipped with modern machinery
• During British-Raj, North India used to cultivate
indigo as cash crop but then invention of • In South India, farmers have better cash-crop
synthetic dyes and farmers switched to alternatives e.g., cotton, tobacco, coconut,
sugarcane. groundnut etc. so you do not see a large sugar
belt unlike UP.
• Sugar industries are mostly cooperatives
and cooperatives are more successful in the • The co-operative sugar mills are good
Southern states. managed in Sorth India.

Oilseed
• In 2008, India was the 2nd largest
groundnut producing country in
the world after china. In rape seed
production India was third largest
producer in the world after Canada
and China in 2008.
• Different oil seeds are grown covering
approximately around 12% of the total
cropped area of the country. Major
oilseeds produced in India are mustard,
groundnut, sesamum (til), soyabean,
castor seeds coconut, cotton seeds,
sunflower and linseed.
• Most of these are edible and utilized as
cooking mediums. But some of these
are also used as raw material in the
production of cosmetics, soap, and
ointments.
Some Important Oilseeds:
Groundnut
• India produces around 16.6% of the
total groundnut production in the world
(2016). It is primarily a rainfed kharif
crop of dryland regions. However, in
southern part of India, it is cultivated
during rabi season as well. It covers
nearly around 3.6% of total cropped
area in India.
• The leading producers are Gujarat,
Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, Telangana,
Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and
Maharashtra.
• Yield of groundnut is relatively high in
Tamil Nadu where it is partly irrigated.
However, its yield is low in Andhra
Pradesh Karnataka and Telangana.

Rapeseed and Mustard

• These consist of several oilseeds as Rai,
Sarson, Toria, and Taramira. These are
subtropical crops grown during Rabi
season in north-western and central
regions of India. These are frost sensitive
crops and their yields vary from year to
year.
I m a g e 7.5: V e g e ta b l e
o il p r o d u c t i o n a n d
import in India
• However, with the expansion of irrigation
and progress in seed technology, their

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yields have improved and stabilized to
some extent.
• Around two-third of the cultivated area
under these crops is irrigated. These
oilseeds together occupy only around
2.5% of entire cropped area in the
country.
• Rajasthan state contributes around
one-third production while other
leading producers are Haryana and
Madhya Pradesh. Yields of these crops
are relatively high in Haryana and
Rajasthan.
Other Oilseeds
• Sunflower and Soyabean are other
important oilseeds cultivated in India.
Soyabean is largely cultivated in
Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra.
• These two states together produce
nearly around 90% of total output of
Soyabean in the country.
• Cultivation of Sunflower is concentrated
in the states of Karnataka, Andhra
Pradesh, Telangana, and adjoining
regions of Maharashtra. Sunflower is
a minor crop in northern parts of the
India where its yield is high because of
irrigation.
Tea
• Climatic condition:
» Tea is grown over undulating topography
of hilly areas and well drained soils in
humid and sub-humid tropics and sub-
tropics.
» The tea plant grows well in deep and
fertile well-drained soil, rich in humus
and organic material. Tea bushes need
warm and moist frost-free climate all
through the year.
» Regular showers evenly distributed over
the year ensure continuous growth of
tender leaves.
• Major tea producing states:
130
» Important tea producing states are
Assam, hills of Darjeeling and Jalpaiguri
districts, West Bengal, Tamil Nadu, and
Kerala.
» Apart from these, Himachal Pradesh,
Uttarakhand, Meghalaya, Andhra
Pradesh, and Tripura are also tea-
producing states in the country. In 2008,
India was the 3rd largest tea producing
country in world after China and Turkey.
» In India, tea plantation began in 1840s
in Brahmaputra valley of Assam which
still is a main tea growing area in India.
After some time, its plantation was
introduced in the sub-Himalayan region
of West Bengal (Darjeeling, Jalpaiguri
and Cooch Behar districts).
• Tea is a labor-intensive industrial sector.
It requires abundant, cheap, and skilled
labour because Its leaves are to be
plucked numerous times in a year. Tea
is processed within the tea garden to
restore its freshness.
Coffee
• It is a tropical plantation crop. Its seeds
are roasted, ground and are utilized
for preparing a beverage. There are
three important varieties of coffee i.e.
arabica, liberica and robusta.
• India mainly grows superior quality
coffee, arabica, which is in great
demand in global market. However,
India produces only around 3.7 per cent
coffee of the world and ranks seventh
after Brazil, Vietnam, Colombia,
Indonesia, Ethiopia and Honduras in
2016.
• It is grown in the highlands of Western
Ghats in Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil
Nadu. Karnataka alone accounts for
higher than two-third of total production
of coffee in the country.
• The coffee plant was grown for the
first time on the Baba Budan Hills
(Karnataka) in India.
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Haryana and Uttar Pradesh.

INDIA
COFFEE MARKET-KEY DATA
» India ranks 2nd across the world in the
production of cotton following China.
Cotton occupies nearly around 4.7% of
entire cropped area in the country.
» There are three cotton growing zones
in India, i.e., parts of Punjab, Haryana,
and northern Rajasthan in north-
west, Gujarat and Maharashtra in the
west and plateaus of Andhra Pradesh,
100% Karnataka, and Tamil Nadu in south.
80%

60%

40%

20% INDIA
0% COTTON AND JUTE
Karnataka KeralaT amil Nadu

I m a g e 7.6: C o f f e e G r owi n g A r e a s in India

Non-Food Crops
Cotton:
• Climatic condition:
» It grows well in drier portions of the JUTE

black cotton soil of the Deccan plateau COTTON

region.
» It needs high temperature, light rainfall, I m a g e 7.7: C ot to n a n d J u t e C u lt i vat i o n in
or irrigation, around 210 frost-free days India
and bright sunshine for its growth.
Jute:
» It is a Kharif crop and requires 6 to 8
months to mature. • Jute is also known as the golden fibre.
It produces well on well-drained fertile
» Cotton requires clear sky during
soils in the flood plain areas where
flowering stage.
soils are renewed each year. High
• Major producers: temperature is needed during the time
of growth.
» During partition, India lost a large • It is utilized for making coarse cloth,
proportion of cotton growing region to bags, sacks and decorative items.
Pakistan. But its acreage has increased Jute is a cash crop in West Bengal
considerably during the past 50 years. and adjoining eastern regions of the
India produces both short staple country.
(Indian) cotton as well as long staple
(American) cotton known as ‘Narma’ in • India lost significant jute growing
north-western parts of the country. regions to East Pakistan (Bangladesh)
during partition. At present, India
» Important cotton-producing states produces about three- fifth of entire jute
are– Maharashtra, Gujarat, Madhya production of the world. West Bengal
Pradesh, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, accounts for around three-fourth of the
Telangana, Tamil Nadu, Punjab, production in the country.

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• Bihar and Assam are other important
jute growing areas. Being concentrated
only in a limited state, this crop accounts
for only around 0.5% of entire cropped
area in the country.
• Because of its high cost, it is losing
market to synthetic fibers and packing
materials, particularly the nylon.
Rubber:
• Rubber is an equatorial crop, however
under special circumstances, it is also
grown in tropical and sub-tropical
regions. It requires moist and humid
climatic condition with rainfall of more
than 200 cm. and temperature above
25°C.
• It is a crucial industrial raw material. It
is primarily grown in Kerala, Karnataka,
Tamil Nadu and Andaman and Nicobar
Islands and Garo hills of Meghalaya.
• In 2010-11 India ranked fourth among
the world’s natural rubber producers.
Horticulture Crops
• In 2008, India was the 2nd largest fruits
and vegetables producing country
of the world after China. India is a
producer of both tropical as well as
temperate types of fruit.
• Mangoes of Maharashtra, Andhra
Pradesh, Telangana, Uttar Pradesh and
West Bengal, oranges of Nagpur and
Cherrapunjee (Meghalaya), bananas
of Kerala, Mizoram, Maharashtra, and
Tamil Nadu, Lichi and Guava of Uttar
Pradesh and Bihar, pineapples of
Meghalaya, apples, pears, apricots and
walnuts of Jammu and Kashmir and
Himachal Pradesh, grapes of Telangana,
Andhra Pradesh, and Maharashtra are
in huge demand the world over.
• India produces around 13% of the
world’s vegetables. India is an important
producer of cauliflower, onion, cabbage,
tomato, pea, potato and brinjal.
132
• Over the last decade, the total area
under horticulture increased by 2.6%
per annum and annual production
increased by around 4.8%.
• India witnessed the shift in area from
food grain towards horticulture crops
over last five years (from 2012-13 to
2017-18).
Operation Green
Operation Greens was revealed in the Budget
speech of 2018-19 with an outlay of Rs 500 crores
to stabilize the overall supply of Tomato, Onion
and Potato (TOP) crops and to ensure availability
of TOP crops throughout the country round the
year without price volatility.
Objective:
• Improving value realization of TOP farmers
by targeted interventions to strengthen
TOP production clusters and their Farmer
Producers Organizations (FPOs) and linking
them with the market.
• Price stabilization for consumers and
producers by proper production planning in
the TOP clusters and introduction of dual use
varieties.
• Decrease in post-harvest losses by formation
of farm gate infrastructure, development of
suitable agro-logistics, creation of appropriate
storage capacity linking consumption centres
to increase shell life.
• Growth in food processing capacities and
value addition in TOP value chain with firm
linkages with production clusters.
• Setting up of a market intelligence network.
Some Important Fruits
• Mango: Alphanso of Maharashtra,
Banganpalli of Andhra Pradesh,
Dashehari & Langra of Uttar Pradesh,
Malda of W. Bengal are some famous
varieties.
» Uttar Pradesh is the largest producer
followed by Bihar, Andhra Pradesh,
West Bengal, and Maharashtra.
• Banana: India is the second largest
producer after Brazil. The chief
producers are Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra,
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Gujarat, M.P. and Kerala. initial learning curve to develop the

• Grape: India is the highest producer of
the famous variety “Anab-e-Shahi.
» The chief producing areas are Coorg
district of Karnataka, Wayanad
in Kerala, Nilgiri, Sholapur and
Ahmednagar districts of Maharashtra.
• Citrus: Maharashtra ranks first in citrus
production; Nagpur Mandarins is
considered to be the best in the world.
• Apple: North-west Himalayan region
covers 95% of the total area and 85%
of the total production
• Pineapple: The chief producers are
Kerala and North Eastern states.
Apple
Others
18%
3%
Papaya
6%
Mango
21%
Guava
required skills.
• High cost of inputs that burdens the
farmers.
• Low benchmark productivity adds to
unit cost of produce.
• Large scale prevalence of old and senile
orchards impacts productivity. Majority
of the orchards also have low planting
density.
• Availability of quality seed and planting
material impacts quality of produce.
• Poor tree canopy management.
• Rainfed cultivation, with majority of
the horticultural cultivation having no
access to irrigation. •
• Initial cost constraints in adoption of
improved technologies.
• Facilities for post-harvest management
Banana
32% have not kept pace with production
growth.
• Unorganized supply chain, not suitably
integrated for managing perishable
produce.
Grapes
3%

Total Citrus
4%
• Lack of appropriately trained extension
services for horticulture.
13%

Thrust areas for horticulture

Brinjal
7%
Cabbage

development
5%
Others
r
27%
5%

• Cluster approach linked with post-

harvest management and marketing.
Onion
12%

Okra
• Close gaps in post-harvest handling
Tomato
11% Peas
4%
and integrated cold chains.
• Market intelligence to promote market
3%

Potato
26%
I m a g e 7.8: F r u i t s and V e g e ta b l e s P r o d u c t i o n
in India
Challenges in horticulture
The main challenges facing those wishing
to start work in horticulture sector are
access to capital, technology, and the
led production.
• Quality seeds and planting material.
• Capacity building programmes on
latest technologies at farmers’ field.
• Adoption of better varieties and
rejuvenation with improved cultivars.
• Hi-tech horticulture and Precision
farming

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• High Density plantations.
• Enhanced water uses efficiency (micro-
irrigation and fertigation).
• Horticulture based cropping system.
• Protected cultivation and use of plastics
in horticulture.
• Mechanization and semi-mechanized
implements.
• Extensionon integrated nutrient
management and plant health
management.
• Promotion of beekeeping for effective
crop pollination.
• Promotion of mushroom cultivation for
additional income.
• Recycling of horticultural waste and
Organic horticulture.
• Enhanced ICT use to add efficiency to
input management, knowledge transfer
etc.
What type of focus does the
horticulture wing has, for Doubling
of farmer’s income?
• The first and foremost factor for
doubling farmer’s income is to create
market for farmers and provide market
access and links for growing their
business.
134
• We should have a calendar of
production for the different crops and
analyze their condition likewise.
• Different states have their distinct
capacities and agro-climatic conditions
which favour some particular product.
Such states should emphasis on their
specialty and good channels should
connect the country for the eminent
flow in market.
• Integrated markets should be
developed and shift from traditional to
modern practices should be adopted.
Complementary sources of income
along with horticultural crops should
be looked into, like Apiculture, where-
in the bees also helps in the pollination
and also draws extra income for the
farmers.
• The Indian government is also
promoting Mission for Integrated
Development of Horticulture (MIDH)
scheme to assist the different
components of horticultural crops.
Starting with nursery growth and
development, covering sustainable
irrigation practices, highlighting on
subsidies for storage structures till
market linkages, all the prospects are
taken care of, under MIDH.
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CHAPTER - 8
INDIA: MINERAL AND
ENERGY RESOURCES
What is a Mineral?
• Geologists describe mineral as a
“homogenous, naturally occurring
substance with a definable internal
structure.” Minerals are obtained in
different forms in nature, ranging from
the hardest diamond to the softest talc.
• A particular mineral that will be made
from a certain mixture of elements
depends upon the physical and
chemical properties and conditions
under which the material forms. Due to
this, the outcome is in a wide range of
colours, hardness, crystal forms, luster
and density that a particular mineral
possesses. Researchers use these
features to classify the minerals.
• Rocks are amalgamation of
homogenous substances called
minerals. Some type of rocks, for
instance limestone, consist of a single
mineral only, but large number of the
rock consist of several minerals in
varying proportions.
• Though, more than 2000 minerals
have been identified, only a few are
abundantly found in most of the rocks.
• Minerals are mostly found in “ores” and
minerals generally exist in these forms:
» In metamorphic and igneous rock
minerals may occur in cracks/
crevices faults and joints. The smaller
occurrences are known as veins and
the larger are called lodes. Generally,
in the greatest number of cases, they
are obtained when minerals in liquid/
molten and gaseous forms are enforced
upward through cavities towards the
earth’s surface. They cool and solidify
as they rise upward. Major metallic
135
minerals such as tin, copper, zinc and
lead etc. are obtained from veins and
lodes.
» In sedimentary rocks several minerals
occur in beds or layers. They have
been formed due to of deposition,
accumulation, and concentration
in horizontal strata. Coal and some
varieties of iron ore have been
concentrated because of long periods
under great heat and pressure. Another
group of sedimentary minerals comprise
gypsum, potash salt and sodium salt.
These are made because of evaporation
especially in arid regions.
• Other way of formation is due to the
decomposition of surface rocks, and the
removal of soluble constituents, leaving
a residual mass of weathered material
containing ores. Bauxite is formed this
way.
Distribution of
Minerals in India
The distribution of various mineral and
energy resources is not evenly distributed.
It’s because existence of mineral resources
is associated with certain types of
geological formation. Most of these
mineral bearing states are situated in the
peninsular plateau zone of India. Within
this peninsular plateau region of India, the
following mineral belts can be divided into:
• The North-Eastern Plateau: This
region covers the area of Chotanagpur
(Jharkhand), Odisha Plateau, West
Bengal, and parts of Chhattisgarh. the
region has different variety of minerals
like iron ore coal, manganese, bauxite,
mica.
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• The South-Western Plateau Region:
This belt stretches over Karnataka, Goa
and contiguous Tamil Nadu uplands and
Kerala. This belt has abundant of ferrous
metals and bauxite. It also comprised
of high-grade iron ore, manganese and
limestone. This region packs in coal
deposits except Neyveli lignite. Region
does not have as diversified mineral
deposits as the North-Eastern belt.
Some area of Kerala has deposits of
monazite and thorium, bauxite clay.
Goa region has iron ore deposits.
• The North-Western Region: This belt
stretches along Aravali in Rajasthan
and part of Gujarat and minerals are
linked with Dharwar system of Rocks.
Copper, zinc have been major minerals
of this region. Rajasthan region is
prosperous in building stones i.e.,
granite, sandstone, and marble etc.
Gypsum and Fuller’s Earth deposits are
also extensive. Dolomite and limestone
are the important raw materials for
the cement industry. Gujarat is known
for its petroleum deposits. Gujarat and
Rajasthan both have plentiful sources
of salt.
Other important belt
• Outside of the above mineral belts,
upper Brahmaputra valley is a
significant petroleum producing area.
• The Himalayan region is another
mineral belt where copper, lead, zinc,
cobalt, and tungsten are known to
occur. They exist on both the eastern
and western parts.
Types of Minerals
• Based on the chemical and physical
properties, minerals may be divided
into two main categories of metallics
and non-metallics. Further, metallic
136
minerals can be subdivided into ferrous
and non-ferrous minerals.
Ferrous e.g. Iron
ore, Maganese,
chomite, pyrite etc.
Metallics
Non-ferrous e.g.
Copper, Bauxite
etc.
Minerals
Fuel mineralse
e.g. Petroleum
Coal etc.
Non-Metallics
Other non-
metallics e.g.
Mica, Iimestone
I m a g e 8.1: T y p e s of M i n e r a ls
Ferrous Metallic Minerals
Ferrous minerals account for about 3/4th of
the total value of the production of metallic
minerals. Ferrous Metallic Minerals are the
most important mineral group after fuel
minerals. They include iron, manganese,
pyrite, and chromite etc. These minerals
give a strong base for the development of
metallurgical industries, particularly iron,
steel, and alloys.
Iron-ore
• India is rich in high quality Iron ores.
It has magnetite ore which contains
a very high content of Iron up to 70%
and magnetite has excellent magnetic
properties and can be used in Electrical
industry.
• Hematite ore is the most significant
industrial iron ore in terms of the
quantity used, but it has slightly lower
iron content than magnetite (50-60%).
Limonite iron ore contains 30 – 50% of
Iron content.
• Hematite and Magnetite are mainly
found in India.
• Currently Chhattisgarh is the largest
producer of Iron in India followed by
Karnataka. The Iron ore mines exist
in close proximity to the coalfields in
the North-Eastern plateau belt of the
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country which adds to their advantage. • Odisha is the largest producer of Iron-
• Largest iron ore reserve is found in India ore in India.
amongst other Asian countries. • The major Iron ore belts are as
mentioned below:

Important iron ore belt Description

In Odisha high quality hematite ore is discovered in Badampahar mines in
the Mayurbhanj and Kendujhar districts.
Odisha – Jharkhand belt
In the adjoining Singhbhum district located in Jharkhand, haematite iron ore
is also mined in Gua and Noamundi.
This belt is extended in Chhattisgarh and Maharashtra. Very high quality of
hematites is found in the famous Bailadila range of hills in the Bastar district
of Chhattisgarh.
Durg-Bastar – The range of hills consist of 14 deposits of super high-quality hematite iron
Chandrapur belt ore.
It has the finest physical properties required for steel making. Iron ore deposits
from these mines is exported to other countries e.g., Japan and South Korea
via Visakhapatnam port.
Karnataka has large reserves of iron ore. The Kudremukh mines situated in
Bellary – Chitradurga the Western Ghats of Karnataka are a 100% export unit.
– Chikmaglur – Tumkur
belt Kudremukh deposits are recognized to be one of the largest and the ore is
transported as slurry through a pipeline to a port near Mangalore.
This belt comprises the state of Goa and Maharashtra (Ratnagiri district).
Maharashtra – Goa Belt Even Though, the ores are not of very high quality, yet they are exploited
efficiently, and it is exported through Marmagao port.

are observed in almost all Geological

formation; however, it is mainly
INDIA
IRON ORE associated with Dharwar system.
• Manganese is mainly used for the
manufacturing of Steel and Ferro-
manganese alloy. Nearly 10 kg. of
Manganese is needed to produce 1 ton
Jabalpur
Singhbhum steel.
Sundergarh

Chandrapur
Durg
Mayurbhanj
• It is also utilized in the manufacturing
Ratnagiri
Bastar
of some other imp things like bleaching
Sandur
Hospet powder, insecticides, and paints.
Goa
Shimoga Chikmagalur
India’s manganese deposits found
Chikmagalur
Salem in Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh,
Chhattisgarh, Odisha, Karnataka, and
Andhra Pradesh.
• Odisha is the leading producer of
I m a g e 8.2: D is t ri b u t i o n of Iron Ore Manganese.
• Andhra Pradesh, Goa, and Jharkhand
are other minor producing region of
Manganese Ore manganese.
• Its sources lie near to the region of
Iron ores in India. Manganese deposits

137

Chhindwara
Nagpur
Bijapur Bellary
Pannji Dharwad
Chitradurga
Shimoga
Tunkur
I m a g e 8.3: D is t ri b u t i o n
Non-Ferrous
Minerals
NFM minerals are those which do not
contain iron such as gold, silver, copper,
tin, lead and zinc. India is very poor and
deficient in this mineral and production
of non- ferrous minerals is not very
satisfactory. However, these minerals play
a significant role in several metallurgical,
engineering, and electrical industries.
Bauxites
• Though, several ores contain aluminum,
it is from bauxite, a clay-like substance
that alumina and later Aluminium
is obtained. Therefore, it is used in
production of Aluminium.
• Bauxite deposits are created by the
decomposition of a different variety of
Rocks rich in Aluminium silicates.
• Aluminium is a very significant metal
because it integrates the strength
of metals such as iron, with extreme
lightness and also with finest
conductivity and great malleability.
• Bauxite is mostly occurred in tertiary
deposits (deposits are over 55 million
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years old) and is linked with laterite
INDIA
Rocks found extensively either on the
MANGANESE-ORE plateau or hill ranges of peninsular
India and also in the coastal tracts of
the country.
• India’s bauxite deposits are primarily
found in the Maikal Hills, the
Sundergarh Amarkantak plateau and the plateau
region of Bilaspur- Katni.
Durg
Cuttack
Bolangir
Koraput
Srikakulam • Panchpatmali deposits in Koraput
district (Odisha) are the most important
bauxite deposits.
• Major bauxite producing states are
Jharkhand, Odisha, Chhattisgarh,
Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Maharashtra,
and Tamil Nadu. Odisha happens to be
of Manganese ore
the largest producer of Bauxite mineral.
Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Goa are
other minor producers of bauxite.
Metallic (NFM)
Copper
• India is critically poor and deficient in
the reserve and production of Copper.
The Balaghat mines in Madhya Pradesh
produce around 52% of India’s copper.
• The Singhbhum district of Jharkhand
is a leading producer of copper and
the Khetri mines in Rajasthan are also
popular. It is also produced in Andhra
Pradesh and Karnataka.
Gold
• Kolar in Karnataka has deposits of
gold in India. These mines are among
the deepest in the world which makes
mining of this ore a very expensive
process.
• Other deposits are Sonbhadra district
of Uttar Pradesh, placer-type gold ore
in Kerala, etc.
Non-metallic Minerals
• Many non-metallic minerals are found
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in India but only a few of these are
commercially significant. They are
limestone, dolomite, mica, kyanite,
sillimanite, gypsum and phosphate
which are used in a different variety of
industries such as cement, fertilizers,
refractories and electrical goods.
Mica
• Mica is type of a mineral made up of a
various type of plates or leaves which
are tough and flexible. It fragments
easily into thin sheets.
• Its color can be clear, black, green,
red, yellow or brown. Because of its
excellent dielectric strength, low power
loss factor, insulating properties and
resistance to high voltage, mica is one
of the most crucial and indispensable
minerals used in electric and electronic
industries.
• Mica deposits mainly found in
Jharkhand, Bihar, Andhra Pradesh, and
Rajasthan.
• Mica reserves are found in the Northern
edge of the Chota Nagpur plateau.
Koderma Gaya – Hazaribagh region of
Jharkhand is the leading producer. In
Rajasthan, the major mica producing
region is around Ajmer.
• Nellore mica belt situated in Andhra
Pradesh is also significant producer in
the country.
• India occupies the top position, and it is
the largest producer & exporter of mica
in the world.
Limestone
• It is mainly found in association with
rocks composed of calcium carbonates
or calcium and magnesium carbonates.
It is occurred in sedimentary Rocks of
most geological formations.
• Limestone is the essential raw material
for the cement industry and essential
139
for smelting iron ore in the blast furnace.
• Major limestone producing states in
India are Bihar, Jharkhand, Odisha,
Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh,
Rajasthan, Gujarat, and Tamil Nadu.
Problems associated with
mining
There are several problems posed by
mineral extraction. The major problems
are as:
• Depletion of Mineral:
» Because of the excessive exploitation, a
lot of minerals are going to be depleted
in near future. Therefore, it calls for
conservation and judicious utilization.
Ex: Coal reserves.
• Ecological Problems:
» Mineral extraction has led to very
serious environmental problems.
Rapidly growing mining activities
have rendered large agricultural tracts
almost useless.
» Natural vegetation has been detached
from vast tracts. Such regions suffer
from regular floods and due to improper
drainage system, they have become
breeding grounds for mosquitoes
spreading malaria with vengenance.
» In mountainous mining areas landslide
are a common phenomenon taking toll
of life, cattle, and property. In numerous
mines, miners have to work under most
hazardous circumstances.
» Hundreds of lives are lost every year by
fire in coal mines and due to occasional
flooding etc. Existence of poisonous gas
in pockets of mines is a great enemy of
miners.
• Pollution:
» Many mineral producing zones lead
to water and air pollution in the
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neighboring region which in turn lead
to various health hazards.
• Social Problems:
» New findings of minerals often lead to
displacement of people, particularly
tribes. As various tribal areas are rich
in minerals, therefore the tribal people
of this region are most affected.
Industrialization of such regions has
badly shattered their economy, values
and lifestyle.
• Strategies for Resource Conservation:

Strategies
Reclamation: Recycling: More efficient use: Substition:

Remote sensing satellite Reuse of waste in a
has rendered a great help production process e.g.
in identifying mineral The waste papers, rags,
resources. used bottles, tins, plastic
waste material can all
be recycled to produce
paper, newsprint, plastics
glass wares, packing tin
materials etc.
E.g. engineering and
construction processes
which make automobiles
more energy efficient and
aerodynamic.
Due to advancement of
technology and new needs
have lead to many changes
in the use of minerals.
Products of petro-chemical
industry have replaced
traditional brass or clay
jars. Plastics now compete
with copper for uses such
as piping and with steel in
car bodies.

I m a g e 8.4: R e s o u r c e C o n s e r vat i o n S t r at e g i e s

Sources of Energy and their

Classification
• There are different sources of energy
which can be classified in different
ways. One way of classification of
energy is based on conventional and
non-conventional sources.

Limited, Non-
renewable, Costly,
Cause Pollution &
Exhaustible
Conventional sources
coal, petroleum,
natural gas
Sources of Energy
Renewable, Cheap,
Pollution free &
Inexhaustible
Non-Conventional
sources
sun, wind, tides, hot
springs and bio-mass.

I m a g e 8.5: T y p e s of Energy Sources

140
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Important conventional Source of Types Of Coal

Energy
Coal
• In India, coal is a most important and
abundant mineral. It gives a substantial
part of the Nation's Energy needs. Coal
is occurred in variety of forms based
on its degrees of compression and the
depth and time of burial.
• Coal in India found in two important
types of coal fields i.e., the Gondwana
coal fields (a little over 200 million
years in age) and Tertiary coal fields
(about 55 million years old). Out of the
entire coal reserves and production in
India, Gondwana coal fields contribute
98 percent and the rest 2 percent is
produced by tertiary coal fields.
• Gondwana coal fields are distributed
chiefly in the river valleys of the Damodar
(Jharkhand - West Bengal); the Son
(Madhya Pradesh–Chhattisgarh); the
Mahanadi (Odisha), the Godavari
(Andhra Pradesh) and the Wardha
(Maharashtra).
• Tertiary coalfields majorly find in the
extra-peninsular regions which consist
of Assam, Nagaland, Arunachal
Pradesh, Meghalaya, Jammu & Kashmir,
and Sikkim.
• Besides brown or lignite coal are found
in coastal zones of Gujrat, Tamil Nadu,
Types of coal (based on carbon, ash and moisture
content)
Peat:
• Decaying plants in swamps produce peat.
• First stage of transformation and it contains
less than 40 to 55 per cent carbon, more
impurities, high moisture contents and low
heating capacity.
Lignite
• 40 to 55 per cent carbon and found in
Intermediate stage
• A low-grade brown coal, which is soft with
high content of moisture. The principal lignite
reserves are found in Neyveli in Tamil Nadu
and are used for generation of electricity.
Bituminous
• It contains around 40 to 80% carbon,
Moisture and volatile content (15 to 40%)
• Dense, compact, and is usually of black in
colour
• It is the most prevalent coal in commercial use.
Metallurgical coal is high grade bituminous
coal which has a special value for smelting
iron in blast furnaces.
Anthracite
• It is the highest quality hard coal.
• It contains around 80 to 95 per cent carbon
• Very little volatile matter.
• Negligibly small proportion of moisture.
Nichotom
INDIA
MAJOR COAL FIELDS
kalakot

and in land basins of Rajasthan.

• Jharkhand ranks highest in production Mri

as well as reserves of coal in India. The Poiana Dafla

Darjeeling
Mikir Hills

coal deposits of Jharkhand mainly Rajmahale

occur in Dhanbad, Hazaribagh and

Singrauli Giridh
Umaria Raniganj
Tawa Valley Surguja

Palamau district.
Ramapur
Korba
Wardha Talcher

• In Dhanbad district the most important Konduru

Chinnur
Kondapalli

coalfields of Jharia and Chandrapura singarenle

are located.
• About 80% of the total coal deposits Neyveli

in India is of bituminous type and is of

non- coking grade.
• The bulk of lignite reserves are found in I m a g e 8.6: M a j o r C o a l F i e l d s in india
and around Neyveli in Tamil Nadu.

141
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Petroleum
• After coal, Petroleum or mineral oil is
the next important energy source in
India. Petroleum refineries perform as a
“nodal industry” for fertilizer, synthetic
textile, and several chemical industries.
• Most of the petroleum resources in India
are linked with anticlines and fault traps
in the rock formations of the tertiary
age. In areas of folding, anticlines, or
domes, it occurs where oil is trapped in
the crest of the upfold.
• The oil-bearing layer is a porous
limestone or sandstone across which oil
may flow. The mineral oil is prevented
from rising or sinking by intervening
non-porous layers.
• Petroleum also occurred in fault traps
between porous and non-porous rock
materials. Natural Gas, being lighter
usually occurs above the oil and crude
petroleum occurs in sedimentary type
of Rocks.
• About 63% of India’s petroleum
production is from Mumbai High, 18%
from Gujarat and 16% from Assam.
• Ankleshwar (in Gujrat) is the most
significant oil field. Assam is the oldest
oil producing state and Digboi, Moran-
Hugrijan and Naharkatiya are the
important oil fields in the state.
142
INDIA
PETROLEUM PRODUCTION
Naharkatia
Moran
sibsagar Digboi
Mehsana
Kotai
kosamba
Ankleshwar
Bombay high
I m a g e 8.7: P e r to l e u m P r o d u c t i o n in india
Natural Gas
• The Gas Authority of India Limited
(GAIL) was established up in 1984 as a
public sector undertaking to transport
and market natural gas.
• Natural gas is a significant clean energy
resource exist in association with or
without Petroleum. It is utilized as a
source of energy as well as an industrial
raw material in the Petrochemical
industry.
• It is considered as an environment
friendly fuel because of low carbon
dioxide emissions.
• Large number natural gas reserves have
been found in the Krishna- Godavari
basin. Along the western coast the
reserves of the Mumbai High and allied
fields are supplemented by finds in the
Gulf of Cambay.
• Andaman and Nicobar Islands are also
significant areas having large reserves
of natural gas.
• The 1700 km long Hazira-Bijaipur -
Jagdishpur cross country gas pipeline
connects Mumbai High and Bassien
with the fertilizer, power, and industrial
complexes in western and Northern
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India.
• This route has provided an impetus to
India’s gas production. The fertilizer
and power industries are the important
users of natural gas.
Gorakhpur Delhi
Narora

• Utilization of Compressed Natural Gas Rajasthan Bbimpur

(CNG) for vehicles to replace liquid Mahi Banswara

fuels is gaining wide popularity in the Mithi Virdi Kakrapar

Chutka

country. Tarapur
Mumbai
Kovvada

Jaitapur

Kaiga

Atomic Minerals Madras

Kalpakkam

• Atomic energy can be produced by the

process fission or fusion of the atoms or Operating
New sites
Kudankulam

rather the nuclear segments of radio-

active minerals like uranium, thorium
and radium.
• India is having the world’s largest
reserves of monazite, the principal
source of thorium and some reserves of
uranium.
Uranium
• In India, uranium is embedded in the
metamorphic and igneous types of
rocks in Jharkhand, Rajasthan, Andhra
Pradesh, and some region of Himalaya.
A significant amount of uranium
deposits is also occurred in the monazite
sands along the Kerala coasts.
• The production of uranium at present is
confined to the mines at Jaduguda in
Singhbhum district of Jharkhand. The
total reserves of uranium in the country
are enough to support 5,000-10,000
mw of electricity generating capacity.
Thorium
• It is principally obtained from monazite.
The beach sands of Kerala in Palghat
and Quilon district contain the world’s
richest monazite deposits.
• It also occurs on the sands of
Visakhapatnam in Andhra Pradesh.
I m g a e 8.8: N u c l e a r P ow e r P l a n t s in India
Non-Conventional Sources of
energy
• Different conventional sources of
power e.g. coal, petroleum and natural
gas are likely to exhaust in near future.
The development of hydel power plants
alone cannot meet the requirement
of electricity for the future. Therefore,
there is a need to discover and develop
alternative sources of power. Natural
source of energy like Sun, wind, tides,
biologoical wastes and hot springs are
such sources which can be developed as
the alternative sources of power. They
are knowns as the non-conventional
sources of energy.
Solar energy
• The Sun is the main source of all energy
for our earth. It is the most important,
abundant and direct source of energy.
India situated in the tropical zone and
has plenty of sunshine, for long hours of
a day.
• Hence, there are huge possibilities to
develop and use solar energy in the
country and that too without much cost.

143
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• Solar energy is tapped through the
process of Solar Photo Voltaic (SPV)
cells. The thermal heating system can
be utilized for water heating, solar
cookers for cooking meals and drying
food grains etc.
• Solar energy can be developed in
almost every part of the country but
mostly in hot, dry and cloud free region
like Rajasthan.
• Important solar power plants in
India: Bhadla Solar Park (2,250MW),
Rajasthan, Ultra Mega Solar Park
(1,000MW), Andhra Pradesh, and Rewa
Solar Power Project (750MW), Madhya
Pradesh.
Wind Energy
• Wind can be utilized as a source of
energy in those areas where powerful
and constant winds blow throughout
the year. it can be utilized for pumping
water for irrigation and also for
generating electricity. India has around
45,000 MW estimated wind power
potential. Important Prospective sites
for generating electricity wind are
situated in Tamil Nadu, Gujarat, Andhra
Pradesh, Karnataka, and Kerala.
• Likely potential that can be tapped
at present is limited to around 13,000
MW. However, at present 2,483 MW is
generated through wind which places
India in the fifth position globally after
Germany, USA, Denmark, and Spain.
Biogas
• Biogas is produced by using variety
of raw materials such as agricultural
waste, manure, and green waste etc.
It is mostly used in rural areas mainly
as domestic fuel. Lots of initiatives are
being made to popularize the biogas
plants in the country.
• Urban and industrial waste is other
144
source of biological energy in big cities
and industrial centres. These materials
can be used for electricity or biogas.
The process of work in this direction is
still in its initial stage. Such plants have
been installed in Delhi and few other
cities in India.
Tidal Energy
• Energy can also be generated with
the help high tidal waves. Some of the
significant sites identified for generating
tidal energy are located in the Gulf
of Kuchch and Cambay in Gujarat
state and the coast of Kerala. 150 MW
capacity plant has been installed on
the Kerala coast.
Geothermal energy
• Geothermal energy refers to the
energy (heat and electricity) produced
by using the heat from the interior of
the Earth. Geothermal energy occurs
because; the Earth grows progressively
hotter with increasing depth. Where
the geothermal gradient is high, high
temperatures are observed at shallow
depths. Groundwater in such regions
absorbs heat from the neighboring
rocks and becomes hot. It is so hot
that when this water rises to the Earth’s
surface, it transforms into steam. This
steam is used to produce electricity
and drive turbines.
• The potential of geothermal energy is
very limited in India. Important sites
selected for generating geothermal
power are located in Himachal Pradesh
(Mani Karan) and Jammu and Kashmir
(Puga valley in Ladakh).
• Assessment of geothermal energy
potentials of selected sites in
Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and
Kashmir, Uttarakhand, Jharkhand and
Chhatisgarh is being undertaken.
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PREVIOUS
YEAR
QUESTIONS

145
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Mains
1. How will the melting of Himalayan
glaciers have a far- reaching
impact on the water resources of
India? 2020
2. Account for the present location
of iron and steel industries away
from the source of raw material,
by giving examples. 2020
3. The interlinking of revivers can provide
viable solutions to the multi-dimensional
inter-related problems of droughts,
floods, and interrupted navigation.
Critically examine. 2020
4. Account for the huge flooding of million
cities in India including the smart ones
like Hyderabad and Pune. Suggest
lasting remedial measures. 2020
5. India has immense potential
of solar energy though there
are regional variations in its
developments. Elaborate. 2020
6. Examine the status of forest resources
of India and its resultant impact on
climate change. 2020
7. Why is Indian Regional Navigational
Satellite System (IRNSS) needed? How
does it help in navigation? 2018
8. “The Himalayas are highly prone
to landslides.” Discuss the causes
and suggest suitable measures of
mitigation. 2016
9. There is no formation of deltas by rivers
of the Western Ghat. Why? 2013
10. Bring out the causes for more frequent
landslides in the Himalayas than
in Western Ghats 2013
146
Prelims
1. Consider the following statements:
[2005]
1. The forest cover in India constitutes
around 20% of its geographical
area. Out of the total forest cover,
dense forest constitutes around
40%.
2. The National Forestry Action
Programme aims at bringing one
third of the area of India under tree
forest cover.
Which of the statements given above
is/are correct?
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only
(c) both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
2. Consider the following statements :
[2005]
1. Area-wise, Chhattisgarh is larger
than West Bengal.
2. According to the population Census
2001, population of West Bengal is
larger than that of Chhattisgarh.
Which of the statements given above
is/are correct?
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only
(c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
3. Match List-I with List-II and select the
correct answer using the code given
below the lists. [2005]
List-I List-II
(Atomic Power Plants/Heavy Water
Plants) (State)
A. Thal 1. Andhra Pradesh
B. Manuguru 2. Gujarat
C. Kakrapar 3. Maharashtra
D. Kaiga 4. Rajasthan
5. Karnataka
Codes:
 https://www.pdfnotes.co/
(a) A-2; B-1; C-4; D-5
(b) A-3; B-5; C-2; D-1
(c) A-2; B-5; C-4; D-1
(d) A-3; B-1; C-2; D-5
4. Which one of the following statements
is not correct? [2005]
(a) There is no definition of the
Scheduled Tribe in the constitutions of
India.
(b) North-East India accounts for a
little over half of the country's tribal
population.
(c) The people known as Todas live in
the Nilgiri area.
(d) Lotha is a language spoken in
Nagaland.
5. Consider the following statements: (d) The Narmada and Tapti river valleys
[2005]
1. India is the second country in the
world to adopt a National Family
Planning Programme.
2. The National Population Policy
of India 2000 seeks to achieve
replacement level of fertility by 2010
with a population of 111 crores.
3. Kerala is the first state in India to
achieve replacement level of fertility.
Which of the statements given above
is/are correct?
(a) 1 only (b) 1 and 2
(c) 2 and 3 (d) 1, 2 and 3
6. Which one of the following statements
is true on the basis of Census - 200l? (c) Nallamalai Hills–Javadi Hills–Nilgiri
[2005]
(a) Bihar has the highest percentage of
the scheduled castes of its population.
(b) The decadal growth of population of
India (1991-2001) has been below 20%.
(c) Mizoram is the India state with the
147
least population.
(d) Pondicherry has the highest sex
ratio among the Union Territories.
7. According to the census 2001, which
one of the following Indian States
has the maximum population in India
after Uttar Pradesh? [2005]
(a) West Bengal (b) Maharashtra
(c) Bihar (d) Tamil Nadu
8. Which one of the following
statements is not correct? [2005]
(a) The Western Ghats are relatively
lower in their northern region.
(b) The Anai Mudi is the highest peak in
the Western Ghats.
(c) Tapi river lies to the south of Satpura
are said to be old rift valleys.
9. Gandhi Sagar Dam is a part of which
one of the following? [2005]
(a) Chambal Project
(b) Kosi Project
(c) Damodar Valley Project
(d) Bhakra Nangal Project
10. Which one of the following is the correct
sequence of hills starting from the north
and going towards the south? [2005]
(a) Nallamalai Hills–Nilgiri Hills–Javadi
Hills– Anamalai Hills
(b) Anamalai Hills–Javadi Hills–Nilgiri
Hills– Nallamalai Hills
Hills – Anamalai Hills
(d) Anamalai Hills–Nilgiri Hills–Javadi
Hills– Nallamalai Hills
11. Which one of the following is
not a Biosphere reserve? [2005]
(a) Agasthyamali (b) Nallamalai
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(c) Nilgiri (d) Panchmarhi
12. Which one of the following is the
correct sequence of Indian cities in
the decreasing order, of their normal
annual rainfall? [2005]
(a) Kochi–Kolkata–Delhi–Patna
(b) Kolkata–Kochi–Patna–Delhi
(c) Kochi–Kolkata–Patna–Delhi
(d) Kolkata–Kochi–Delhi–Patna
13. Which of the following states border
Uttar Pradesh? [2005]
1. Punjab 2. Rajasthan
3. Chhattisgarh 4. Jharkhand
Select the correct answer using the
codes given below:
(a) 1, 2, 3 and 4 (b) 2, 3 and 4
(c) 1 and 4 (d) 1 and 3
14. Match items in the List-I with List-II
and select the correct answer using
the codes given below the lists. [2005]
List-I List-II
(Power Station) (State)
A. Kothagudem 1. Andhra Pradesh
B. Raichur 2. Gujarat
C. Mettur 3. Karnataka
D. Wanakbori 4. Tamil Nadu
Codes:
(a) A-4; B-2; C-1; D-3
(b) A-1; B-3; C-4; D-2
(c) A-4; B-3; C-1; D-2
(d) A-1; B-2; C-4; D-3
15. Consider the following statements:
[2005]
1. Silent Valley National Park in the
Nallamalai range.
2. Pathrakkadavu Hydroelectric
project is proposed to be built near
148
the Silent Valley National Park.
3. The Kunthi river originates in Silent
Valley's rainforests.
Which of the statements given above
is/are correct?
(a) 1 and 3 (b) 2 only
(c) 2 and 3 (d) 1, 2 and 3
16. Match List-I with List-II and select the
correct answer using the codes given
below the lists: [2005]
List-I List-II
(National Park/Wildlife Sanctuary)
(State)
A. Bondla Wildlife Sanctuary
1. Odisha
B. Kangerghat National Park
2. Assam
C. Orang Sanctuary
3. Chhattisgarh
D. Ushkothi Wildlife Sanctuary
4. Goa
Sanctuary 5. Tripura
Codes:
(a) A-2; B-1; C-5; D-3
(b) A-4; B-3; C-2; D-1
(c) A-2; B-3; C-5; D-1
(d) A-4; B-1; C-2; D-3
17. Consider the following sites/
monuments: [2005]
1. Champaner-Pavagadh
Archaeological Park
2. Chhatrapati Shivaji Railway Station,
Mumbai
3. Mahallapuram
4. Sun Temple (Konark Temple)
Which of the above are included in the
World Heritage List of UNESCO?
(a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 1, 3 and 4
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(c) 2 and 4 (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
18. Consider the following statements
concerning the Indian Railways. [2006]
1. The Head Quarters of the North
Western Railway are located at
Jodhpur.
2. "Indrail Pass" –a travel as you please
ticket has been created especially for
freedom fighters and sportspersons
who have represented India in any
games/sport.
3. Fairy Queen is a train using the
world's oldest working engine and
the Indian Railways conducts a
journey of wildlife and heritage sites
on it.
Which of the statements given above
is/are correct?
(a) 2 only (b) 3 only
(c) 1 and 2 (d) None
19. Consider the following statements: by the Uranium Corporation of India
[2006]
1. Sikkim has the minimum area
among the 28 Indian States (Delhi
and Pondicherry not included).
2. Chandigarh has the highest literacy
rate among Pondicherry, National
Capital Territory of Delhi and other
Union Territories.
3. Maharashtra has the highest
population after Uttar Pradesh
among the 28 Indian States (Delhi
and Pondicherry not included).
Which of the statement(s) given above
is/are correct?
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3
(c) 1 only (d) 3 only
20. Match List-I (Centre of Handicrafts)
with List-II (State) and select the
correct answer using the codes given
below the lists: [2006]
List-I List-II
149
(Centre of Handicrafts)
(State)
A. Mon 1. Arunachal Pradesh
B. Nalbari 2. Assam
C. Naisghat 3. Meghalaya
D. Tura 4. Nagaland
Codes
(a) A-4; B-2; C-1; D-3
(b) A-1; B-3; C-4; D-2
(c) A-4; B-3; C-1; D-2
(d) A-1; B-2; C-4; D-3
21. Consider the following statements:
[2006]
1. Petronet LNG Ltd. is setting up
another LNG terminal at Mangalore.
2. The Head Office of the Dredging
Corporation of India is at
Vishakhapatnam.
3. The Narwapahar Mine is operated
Limited.
Which of the statements given above
are correct?
(a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 1 and 2 only
(c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1 and 3 only
22. Consider the following statements:
[2006]
1. Appellate Tribunal for electricity
has been established by each state
government in India.
2. One of the component of the
Accelerated Power Development
and Reforms Programme (APDRP)
is up gradation of sub-transmission
and distribution system for electricity
in India.
Which of the statement(s) given above
is/are correct?
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only
(c) Both l and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
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23. Match List-I (Valley) with List-II (State)
and select the correct answer using
the codes given below the lists: [2006]
List-I (Valley) List-II (State)
A. Markha Valley 1. Sikkim
B. Dzukou Valley 2. Himachal Pradesh
C. Sangla Valley 3. Jammu & Kashmir
D. Yumthang Valley 4. Nagaland
Codes:
(a) A-2; B-4; C-3; D-1
(b) A-3; B-1; C-2; D-4
(c) A-2; B-1; C-3; D-4
(d) A-3; B-4; C-2; D-1
24. Which one of the following statements
is not correct? [2006]
(a) Mahanadi River rises in Chhattisgarh
(b) Godavari River rises in Maharashtra
(c) Kaveri River rises in Andhra Pradesh
(d) Tapti River rises in Madhya Pradesh
25. Match List-I (National Park/Wildlife
Sanctuary) with List-I) (Nearby Town)
and select the correct answer using
the codes given below the lists: [2006]
List-I List-II
(National Park/Wildlife Sanctuary) Myanmar via Bangladesh
(Nearby Town)
A. Chandra Prabha 1. Jaipur
B. Karera 2. Jhansi
C. Jaisamand 3. Agra
D. Nahargarh 4. Varanasi
5. Udaipur
Codes:
(a) A-4; B-4; C-1; D-1
(b) A-5; B-2; C-3; D-1
(c) A-4; B-2; C-5; D-1
(d) A-5; B-1; C-3; D-2
26. From North towards South, which one
150
of the following is the correct sequence
of the given rivers in India? [2006]
(a) Shyok-Spiti-Zaskar- Satluj
(b) Shyok-Zaskar-Spiti-Satluj
(c) Zaskar-Shyok-Satluj- Spiti
(d) Zaskar-Satluj-Shyok-Spiti
27. In which one of the following districts,
have large reserves of diamond-
bearing Kimberlite been discovered
in the recent past? [2007]
(a) Hoshangabad (b) Raipur
(c) Sambalpur (d) Warangal
28. With reference to the steel industry
in India in the recent times, consider
the following statements: [2007]
1. Vizag Steel Plant (RINL) has been
declared a Mini Ratna.
2. Merger of IISCO with SAIL has been
completed.
Which of the statements given above
is/are correct?
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only
(c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
29. The Stilwell Road, built in 1940s, which
was recently in news, connects which
of the following? [2007]
(a) Agartala in India and Yangon in
(b) Ledo in India and Kunming in China
via Myanmar
(c) Kalimpong in India and Lhasa in
Tibet via Bhutan
(d) Imphal in India and Bangkok in
Thailand via Myanmar
30. Which one of the following is also
known as Top Slip? [2007]
(a) Ismlipal National Park
(b) Periyar Wildlife Sanctuary
(c) Manjira Wildlife Sanctuary
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(d) Indira Gandhi Wildlife Sanctuary
and National Park
31. Where are Shevaroy hills located? [2007]
(a) Andhra Pradesh (b) Karnataka
(c) Kerala (d) Tamil Nadu
32. Assertion (A): River Kalinadi is an
east-flowing river in the southern
part of India. Reason (R): The Deccan
Plateau is higher along its western
edge and gently slopes towards the
Bay of Bengal in the east. [2007]
(a) Both A and R are true and R is the
correct explanation of A
(b) Both A and R are true but R is not a
correct explanation of A
(c) A is true but R is false
(d) A is false but R is true
33. Which one of the following National
Highways passes through Maharashtra,
Chhattisgarh and Odisha? [2007]
(a) NH 4 (b) NH 5
(c) NH 6 (d) NH 7
34. Consider the following statements: C. Indian Aluminium Company
[2007]
1. Balaghat is known for its diamond
mines.
2. Majhgawan is known for
manganese deposits.
Which of the statements given above
is/are correct?
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only
(c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
35. Which one of the following rivers
originates in Amarkantak? [2007]
(a) Damodar (b) Mahanadi
(c) Narmada (d) Tapi
36. Which one among the following
major Indian cities is most
151
eastward located? [2007]
(a) Hyderabad
(b) Bhopal
(c) Lucknow
(d) Bengaluru (Bangalore)
37. Out of the four southern States: Andhra
Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala and
Tamil Nadu, which shares boundaries
with the maximum number of Indian
States? [2007]
(a) Andhra Pradesh only
(b) Karnataka only
(c) Each of Andhra Pradesh and
Karnataka
(d) Each of Tamil Nadu and Kerala
38. Match List I with List II and select the
correct answer using the code given
below the lists: [2007]
List-I List-II
(Aluminium Company)
(Location)
A. BALCO 1. Hirakud
B. HINDALCO 2. Korba
3. Koraput
D. NALCO 4. Renukoot
Code :
its
(a) A-3; B-1; C-4; D-2
(b) A-2; B-4; C-1; D-3
(c) A-3; B-4; C-1; D-2
(d) A-2; B-1; C-4; D-3
39. Which one of the following is located in
the Bastar region? [2007]
(a) Bandhavgarh National Park
(b) Dandeli Sanctuary
(c) Rajaji National Park
(d) Indravati National Park
40. In which State is the Guru Shikhar
 https://www.pdfnotes.co/
Peak located? [2007]
(a) Rajasthan (b) Gujarat
(c) Madhya Pradesh (d) Maharashtra
41. Match List I with List II and select the
correct answer using the code given
below the lists: [2007]
List-I List-II
(Town) (River Nearer to it)
A. Betul 1. Indravati
B. Jagdalpur 2. Narmada
C. Jabalpur 3. Shipra
D. Ujjain 4. Tapti
Code:
(a) A-1; B-4; C-2; D-3
(b) A-4; B-1; C-2; D-3
(c) A-4; B-1; C-3; D-2
(d) A-1; B-4; C-3; D-2
42. Consider the following statements:
[2007]
1. In India, Red Panda is naturally
found in the Western Himalayas
only.
2. In India, Slow Loris lives in the dense
forests of the North East.
Which of the statements given above
is/are correct?
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only
(c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
43. Which one among the following States
of India has the lowest density of
population? [2007]
(a) Himachal Pradesh
(b) Meghalaya
(c) Arunachal Pradesh
(d) Sikkim
44. As per India’s National Population Policy,
2000, by which one of the following
years is it our long-term objective to
152
achieve population stabilization? [2008]
(a) 2025 (b) 2035
(c) 2045 (d) 2055
45. What is the approximate percentage of
persons above 65 years of age in India’s
current population? [2008]
(a) 14-15% (b) 11-12%
(c) 8-9% (d) 5-6%
46. Amongst the following States, which
one has the highest percentage of rural
population to its total population (on
the basis of the Census, 2001)? [2008]
(a) Himachal Pradesh (b) Bihar
(c) Odisha (d) Uttar
Pradesh
47. Among the following, which one has
the minimum population on the basis
of data of Census of India, 2001? [2008]
(a) Chandigarh (b) Mizoram
(c) Pondicherry (d) Sikkim
48. Which one of the following is not
essentially a species of the Himalayan
vegetation? [2008]
(a) Juniper (b) Mahogany
(c) Islver fir (d) Spruce
49. Out of all the biosphere reserves in India,
four have been recognized on the World
Network by UNESCO. Which one of the
following is not one of them? [2008]
(a) Gulf of Mannar (b) Kanchenjunga
(c) Nanda Devi (d) Sunderbans
50. With which one of the following
rivers is the Omkareshwar Project
associated? [2008]
(a) Chambal (b) Narmada
(c) Tapi (d) Bhima
51. In India, how many states share the
coastline? [2008]
 https://www.pdfnotes.co/
(a) 7 (b) 8
(c) 9 (d) 10
52. Which of the following hills are found
where the Eastern Ghats and the
Western Ghats meet? [2008]
(a) Anamalai Hills (b) Cardamom Hills
(c) Nilgiri Hills (d) Shevaroy Hills
53. Consider the following pairs: [2008]
Tributary River Main River
1. Chambal Narmada
2. Sone Yamuna
3. Manas Brahmaputra
Which of the pairs given above is/are
correctly matched?
(a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) l and 2 only
(c) 2 and 3 only (d) 3 only
54. Consider the following statements: 2. Jog Falls: Sharavathi
[2008]
1. Salt-water crocodile is found in the
Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
2. Shrew and Tapir are found in the
Western Ghats of the Malabar
region.
Which of the statements given above
is/are correct?
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only
(c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
55. In which one of the following states
are Namchik Namphuk coalfields
located? [2008]
(a) Arunachal Pradesh (b) Meghalaya
(c) Manipur (d) Mizoram
56. Which of the following minerals
found in a natural way in the state
of Chhattisgarh? [2008]
1. Bauxite 2. Dolomite
3. Iron ore 4. Tin
153
Select the correct answer using the
code given below:
Code:
(a) 1, 2 and 3 only
(b) 1 and 3 only
(c) 2 and 4 only
(d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
57. On which one of the following rivers
is the Tehri hydropower complex
located? [2008]
(a) Alaknanda (b) Bhagirathi
(c) Dhauliganga (d) Mandakini
58. Which of the following pairs are
correctly matched? [2008]
Waterfalls River
1. Kapildhara Falls: Godavari
3. Shivasamudram Falls: Kaveri
Select the correct answer using the
code given below:
Code:
(a) 1 and 2 only
(b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3
59. Which of the following pairs are
correctly matched? [2008]
Irrigation Project State
1. Damanganga: Gujarat
2. Girna : Maharashtra
3. Pamba: Kerala
Select the correct answer using the
code given below:
Code:
(a) 1 and 2 only
(b) 2 and 3 only
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(c) 1 and 3 only (a) Gujarat (b) Haryana

(d) 1, 2 and 3 (c) Madhya Pradesh (d) Rajasthan

65. In India, the ports are categorized

60. Where are Tapovan and Vishnugarh as major and nonmajor ports. Which
hydroelectric project located? [2008] one of the following is a non-major
(a) Madhya Pradesh (b) Uttar Pradesh port? [2009]
(a) Kochi (Cochin) (b) Dahej
(c) Uttarakhand (d) Rajasthan
(c) Paradip (d) New Mangalore

61. Which of the following are among the

million-plus cities in India on the basis 66. In which one of the following places
of data of the Census, 2001? [2008] is the Shompen tribe found? [2009]
1. Ludhiana 2. Kochi (a) Nilgiri Hills (b) Nicobar Islands

3. Surat 4. Nagpur (c) Spiti Valley (d) Lakshadweep Islands

Select the correct answer using the

code given below: 67. The Dul Hasti Power Station is based on
which one of the following rivers? [2009]
Code: (a) Beas (b) Chenab
(a) 1, 2 and 3 only (c) Ravi (d) Satluj
(b) 2, 3 and 4 only
(c) 1 and 4 only 68. Consider the following statements:
(d) 1, 2, 3 and 4 [2009]
1. In the world, the tropical deserts
occur along the western margins
62. Which one among the following has of continents within the trade wind
the maximum number of National belt.
Parks? [2008]
(a) Andaman and Nicobar Islands 2. In India, the east Himalayan region
gets high rainfall from north-east
(b) Arunachal Pradesh winds.
(c) Assam Which of the statements given above
(d) Meghalaya is/are correct?
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only
63. Consider the following regions: [2009] (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
1. Eastern Himalayas
2. Eastern Mediterranean region 69. Consider the following statements:
3. North-Western Australia [2009]
1. Infant mortality rate takes into
Which of the above is/are Biodiversity
account the death of infants within
Hotspot(s)?
a month after birth.
(a) 1 only (b) 1 and 2 only
2. Infant mortality rate is the number
(c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 of infant deaths in a particular year
per 100 live births during that year.
64. In India, which one of the following Which of the above statements is/are
states has the largest inland correct?
saline wetland? [2009]

154
 https://www.pdfnotes.co/
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only
(c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
70. Consider the following statements:
[2009]
1. Between Census 1951 and Census
2001, the density of the population
of India has increased more than
three times.
2. Between Census 1951 and Census
2001, the annual growth rate
(exponential) of the population of
India has doubled.
Which of the statements given above
is/are correct?
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only
(c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
71. Which one of the following rivers
does not originate in India? [2009]
(a) Beas (b) Chenab
(c) Ravi (d) Satluj
72. At which one of the following places
do two important rivers of India
originate; while one of them flows
towards north and merges with
another important rivers flowing
towards Bay of Bengal, the other one
flows towards Arabian Sea? [2009]
(a) Amarkantak (b) Badrinath
(c) Mahabaleshwar (d) Nasik
73. Consider the following statements: to 30°C.
[2009]
1. India does not have any deposits of
Thorium.
2. Kerala’s monazite sands contains
Uranium.
Which of the statements given above
is/are correct?
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only
(c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
155
74. Consider the following statements:
[2009]
1. There are no east flowing rivers in
Kerala.
2. There are no west flowing rivers in
Madhya Pradesh.
Which of the statements given above
is/are correct?
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only
(c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
75. Consider the following statements:
[2010]
1. The boundaries of a National Park
are defined by legislation.
2. A Biosphere Reserve is declared to
conserve a few specific species of
flora and fauna.
3. In a Wildlife Sanctuary, limited
biotic interference is permitted.
Which of the statements given above
is/are correct?
(a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
76. Following are the characteristics of an
area in India: [2010]
1. Hot and humid climate
2. Annual rainfall 200 cm
3. Hill slopes up to an altitude of 1100
meters
4. Annual range of temperature 15°C
Which one among the following crops
are you most likely to find in the area
described above?
(a) Mustard (b) Cotton
(c) Pepper (d) Virginia tobacco
77. With reference to the mineral resources of
India, consider the following pairs: [2010]
Mineral 90% Natural sources in
1. Copper …… Jharkhand
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2. Nickel …… Odisha
3. Tungsten …… Kerala
Which of the pairs given above is/are
correctly matched?
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 only
(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
78. Consider the following pairs: [2010]
Protected area
Well-known for
1. Bhiterkanika, Odisha ……
Salt Water Crocodile
2. Desert National Park, ……
Great Indian Rajasthan Bustard
3. Eravikulam, Kerala …… the Gondwana rocks as most
Hoolak Gibbon
Which of the pairs given above is/are
correctly matched?
(a) 1 only (b) 1 and 2 only
(c) 2 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
79. In India, which type of forest among
the following occupies the largest
area? [2010]
(a) Montane Wet Temperate Forest
(b) Sub-tropical Dry Evergreen Forest
(c) Tropical Moist Deciduous Forest
(d) Tropical Wet Evergreen Forest
80. With reference to, the river Luni,
which one of the following statements
is correct? [2010]
(a) It flows into Gulf of Khambhat
(b) It flows into Gulf of Kutch
(c) It flows into Pakistan and merges
with a tributary of Indus
(d) It is lost in the marshy land of the
Rann of Kutch
81. Rivers that pass through Himachal
Pradesh are: [2010]
(a) Beas and Chenab only
156
(b) Beas and Ravi only
(c) Chenab, Ravi and Satlej only
(d) Beas, Chenab, Ravi, Satlej and
Yamuna
82. When you travel in certain parts of
India, you will notice red soil. What is
the main reason for this colour? [2010]
(a) Abundance of magnesium
(b) Accumulated humus
(c) Presence of ferric oxides
(d) Abundance of phosphates
83. Which one of the following is the
appropriate reason to considering
important of rock systems of India?
[2010]
(a) More than 90% of limestone reserves
of India are found in them
(b) More than 90% of India’s coal
reserves are found in them
(c) More than 90% of fertile black
cotton soils are spread over them
(d) None of the reasons given above is
appropriate in this context
84. Which one of the following pairs
is not correctly matched? [2010]
Dam/Lake River
(a) Govind Sagar: Satluj
(b) Kolleru Lake: Krishna
(c) Ukai Reservoir: Tapi
(d) Wular Lake: Jhelum
85. If there were no Himalayan ranges,
what would have been the most likely
geographical impact on India? [2010]
1. Much of the country would
experience the cold waves from
Siberia.
2. Indo-gangetic plain would be devoid
of such extensive alluvial soils.
 https://www.pdfnotes.co/
3. The pattern of monsoon would be
different from what it is at present.
Which of the statements given above
is/are correct?
(a) 1 only (b) 1 and 3 only
(c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
86. The latitudes that pass through Sikkim
also pass through: [2010]
(a) Rajasthan (b) Punjab
(c) Himachal Pradesh (d) Jammu and
Kashmir
87. The approximate representation of
land use classification in India is: [2010]
(a) Net area sown 25%, forests 33%,
other areas 42%
(b) Net area sown 58%, forests 17%,
other areas 25%
(c) Net area sown 43%; forests 29%,
other areas 28%
(d) Net area sown 47%, forests 23%,
other areas 30%
88. Between India and East Asia, the
navigation-time and distance can
be greatly reduced by which of the
following? [2011]
1. Deepening the Malacca straits
between Malaysia and Indonesia.
2. Opening a new canal across the Kra
Isthmus between the Gulf of Siam
and Andaman Sea.
Which of the statements given above
is/are correct?
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only
(c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
89. The lower Gangetic plain is characterised
by humid climate with high temperature
throughout the year. Which one among
the following pairs of crops is most
suitable for this region ? [2011]
(a) Paddy and Cotton
157
(b) Wheat and Jute
(c) Paddy and Jute
(d) Wheat and Cotton
90. Which one of the following pairs of
islands is separated from each other
by the ‘Ten Degree Channel’? [2011]
(a) Andaman and Nicobar
(b) Nicobar and Sumatra
(c) Maldives and Lakshadweep
(d) Sumatra and Java
91. The Brahmaputra, Irrawady and
Mekong rivers originate in Tibet
and flow though narrow and
parallel mountain ranges in their upper
reaches. Of these rivers, Brahmaputra
makes a “U” turn in its course to flow into
India. This “U” turn is due to [2011]
(a) Uplift of folded Himalayan series
(b) Syntaxial bending of geologically
young Himalayas
(c) Geo-tectonic disturbance in the
tertiary folded mountain chains
(d) Both (a) and (b) above
92. A state in India has the following
characteristics: [2011]
1. Its northern part is arid and semi-
arid.
2. Its central part produces cotton.
3. Cultivation of cash crops is
predominant over food crops.
Which one of the following states has
all of the above characteristics?
(a) Andhra Pradesh. (b) Gujarat.
(c) Karnataka. (d) Tamil Nadu.
93. A particular State in India has the
following characteristics: [2012]
1. It is located on the same latitude
which passes through northern
Rajasthan.
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2. It has over 80% of its area under
forest cover.
3. Over 12% of forest cover constitutes
Protected Area Network in this
State.
Which one among the following States
has all the above characteristics?
(a) Arunachal Pradesh
(b) Assam
(c) Himachal Pradesh
(d) Uttarakhand
94. With reference to the wetlands of India,
consider the following statements: [2012]
1. The country’s total geographical
area under the category of wetlands
is recorded more in Gujarat as
compared to other States.
2. In India, the total geographical area
of coastal wetlands is larger than
that of inland wetlands.
Which of the statements given above
is/are correct?
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only
(c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
95. When you travel in Himalayas, you will
see the following: [2012]
1. Deep gorges
2. U-turn river courses
3. Parallel mountain ranges
4. Steep gradients causing land-
sliding
Which of the above can be said to
be the evidences for Himalayas being
young fold mountains?
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 1, 2 and 4 only
(c) 3 and 4 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
96. Consider the following statements: [2012]
1. The duration of the monsoon
decreases from southern India to
northern India.
158
2. The amount of annual rainfall in the
northern plains of India decreases
from east to west.
Which of the statements given above
is/are correct?
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only
(c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
97. Consider the following pairs: [2013]
National Park River flowing through the
Park
1. Corbett National Park: Ganga
2. Kaziranga National Park: Manas
3. Silent Valley: National Park:Kaveri
Which of the above pairs is/are correctly
matched?
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 (d) None of these
98. The Narmada river flows to the west,
while most other large peninsular
rivers flow to the east. Why?
[2013]
1. It occupies a linear rift valley.
2. It flows between the Vindhyas and
the Satpuras.
3. The land slopes to the west from
Central India.
Select the correct answer using the
codes given below.
(a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3
(c) 1 and 3 (d) None
99. Which of the following is/are the
characteristic/characteristics of Indian
coal? [2013]
1. High ash content
2. Low sulphur content
3. Low ash fusion temperature
Select the correct answer using the
codes given below.
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 only
 https://www.pdfnotes.co/
(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
100. Which of the following statements
regarding laterite soils of India
are correct? [2013]
1. They are generally red in colour.
2. They are rich in nitrogen and potash.
3. They are well-developed in
Rajasthan and UP.
4. Tapioca and cashew nuts grow well
on these soils.
Select the correct answer using the
codes given below.
(a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 2, 3 and 4
(c) 1 and 4 (d) 2 and 3 only
101. Consider the following statements:
[2013]
1. Natural gas occurs in the Gondwana
beds.
2. Mica occurs in abundance in
Kodarma.
3. Dharwars are famous for petroleum.
Which of the statements given above
is/are correct?
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 only
(c) 2 and 3 (d) None
102. Consider the following towns of
India: [2014]
1. Bhadrachalam 2. Chanderi
3. Kancheepuram 4. Karnal
Which of the above are famous for the
production of traditional sarees/ fabric?
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 1, 2 and 3 (d) 1,3 and 4.
103. Consider the following pairs: [2014]
National Highway Cities connected
1. NH 4 Chennai and Hyderabad
2. NH 6 Mumbai and Kolkata
3. NH 15 Ahmedabad and Jodhpur
159
Which of the above pairs is/are correctly
matched?
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 3 only
(c) 1, 2 and 3 (d) None
104. The seasonal reversal of winds is
the typical characteristic of [2014]
(a) Equatorial climate
(b) Mediterranean climate
(c) Monsoon climate
(d) All of the above climates
105. Consider the following rivers: [2014]
1. Barak
2. Lohit
3. Subansiri
Which of the above flows/flow through
Arunachal Pradesh?
(a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
106. Consider the following pairs: [2014]
Wetlands Confluence of rivers
1. Harike Wetlands: Confluence of Beas
and Satluj/Satluj
2. Keoladeo Ghana: Confluence of
National Park Banas and Chambal
3. Kolleru Lake: Confluence of Musi and
Krishna
Which of the above pairs is/are correctly
matched?
(a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
107. Consider the following pairs: [2014]
Hills Region
1. Cardamom Hills: Coromandel Coast
2. Kaimur Hills: Konkan Coast
3. Mahadeo Hills: Central India
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4. Mikir Hills: North-East India
Which of the above pairs are correctly
matched?
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3
(c) 3 and 4 (d) 2 and 4
108. If you travel through the Himalayas,
you are likely to see which of the following
plants naturally growing there? [2014]
1. Oak
2. Rhododendron
3. Sandalwood
Select the correct answer using the
code given below.
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
109. With reference to ‘Changpa’
community of India, consider the
following statements: [2014]
1. They live mainly in the State of
Uttarakhand.
2. They rear the Pashmina goats that
yield a fine wool.
3. They are kept in the category of
Scheduled Tribes.
Which of the statements given above
is/are correct?
(a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
110. In a particular region in India, the
local people train the roots of living
trees into robust bridges across the
streams. As the time passes, these
bridges become stronger. These unique
'living root bridges' are found in [2015]
(a) Meghalaya (b) Himachal Pradesh
(c) Jharkhand (d) Tamil Nadu
111. Consider the following States [2015]
1. Arunachal Pradesh
2. Himachal Pradesh
160
3. Mizoram
In which of the above States do 'Tropical
Wet Evergreen Forests' occur?
(a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
112. Which one of the following pairs of
States of India indicates the eastern
most and western most State? [2015]
(a) Assam and Rajasthan
(b) Arunachal Pradesh and Rajasthan
(c) Assam and Gujarat
(d) Arunachal Pradesh and Gujarat
113. Consider the following rivers: [2015]
1. Vamsadhara
2. Indravati
3. Pranahita
4. Pennar
Which of the above are tributaries of
Godavari?
(a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 2, 3 and 4
(c) 1, 2 and4 (d) 2 and 3 only
114. Which one of the following
regions of India has a combination of
mangrove forest, evergreen forest and
deciduous forest? [2015]
(a) North Coastal Andhra Pradesh
(b) South-West Bengal
(c) Southern Saurashtra
(d) Andaman and Nicobar Islands
115. Which of the following has/
have been accorded 'Geographical
Indication' status? [2015]
1. Banaras Brocades and Sarees
2. Rajasthani Daal-Bati-Churma
3. Tirupathi Laddu
Select the correct answer using the
code given below.
(a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only
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(c) 1 only 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
116. In which of the following regions
of India are shale gas resources
found? [2016]
1. Cambay Basin
2. Kaveri Basin
3. Krishna-Godavari Basin
Select the correct answer using the
code given below.
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 3 only
(c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
117. At one of the places in India, if you stand
on the seashore and watch the sea,
you will find that the sea water recedes
from the shore line a few kilometers
and comes back to the shore, twice a
day, and you can actually walk on the
sea floor when the water recedes. This
unique phenomenon is seen at [2017]
(a) Bhavnagar (b) Bheemunipatnam
(c) Chandipur (d) Nagapattinam
118. Consider the following statements: to the prevailing law in the country.
[2018]
1. In India, State Governments do not
have the power to auction noncoal
mines.
2. Andhra Pradesh and Jharkhand do
no have gold mines.
3. Rajasthan has iron ore mines.
Which of the statements given above
is/are correct?
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 only
(c) 1 and 3 (d) 3 only
119. Among the following cities, which
one lies on a longitude closest to
that of Delhi? [2018]
(a) Bengaluru (b) Hyderabad
(c) Nagpur (d) Pune
120. Which one of the following is
161
an artificial lake? [2018]
(a) Kodaikanal (Tamil Nadu)
(b) Kolleru (Andhra Pradesh)
(c) Nainital (Uttarakhand)
(d) Renuka (Himachal Pradesh)
121. Consider the following statements: [2018]
1. The Barren Island volcano is an
active volcano located in the Indian
territory.
2. Barren Island lies about 140 km.
east of Great Nicobar
3. The last time the Barren Island
volcano erupted was in 1991 and it
has remained inactive since then.
Which of the statements given
above is/are correct?
(a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 3 only (d) 1 and 3 only
122. With reference to the management
of minor minerals in India, consider
the following statements: [2019]
1. Sand is a ‘minor mineral’ according
2. State Governments have the power
to grant mining leases of minor
minerals, but the powers regarding
the formation of rules related to the
grant of minor minerals lie with the
Central Government.
3. State Government have the power
to frame rules to prevent illegal
mining of minor minerals.
Which of the statements given above
is/are correct?
(a) 1 and 3 only (b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
123. With reference to the cultivation of
Kharif crops in which in the last five years
consider the following statements: [2019]
1. Area under rice cultivation is the
highest.
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2. Area under the cultivation of jowar
is more than that of oilseeds.
3. Area of cotton cultivation is more
than that of sugarcane.
4. Area under sugarcane cultivation
has steadily decreased.
Which of the statements given above
is/are correct?
(a) 1 and 3 only (b) 2, 3 and 4 only
(c) 2 and 4 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
124. Consider the following pairs: [2019]
Famous Place River
1. Pandharpur: Chandrabhaga
2. Tiruchirappalli: Kaveri
3. Hampi: Malaprabha
Which of the pairs given above are
correctly matched?
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
125. What is common to the places known
as Aliyar, Isapur and Kangsabati? [2019]
(a) Recently discovered uranium
deposits
(b) Tropical rain forests
(c) Underground cave systems
(d) Water reservoirs
126. Consider the following pairs: [2019]
Glacier River
1. Bandarpunch: Yamuna
2. Bara Shigri: Chenab
3. Milam: Mandakini
4. Siachen: Nubra
5. Zemu: Manas
Which of the pairs given above are
correctly matched?
(a) 1, 2 and 4 (b) 1, 3 and 4
(c) 2 and 5 (d) 3 and 5
162
127. Consider the following minerals:
[2020]
1. Bentonite 2. Chromite
3. Kyanite 4. Sillimanite
In India, which of the above is/are
officially designated as major minerals?
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 4 only
(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 2, 3 and 4 only
128. Siachen Glacier is situated to
the [2020]
(a) East of Aksai Chin
(b) East of Leh
(c) North of Gilgit
(d) North of Nubra Valley
129. With reference to pulse production
in India, consider the following
statements: [2020]
1. Black gram can be cultivated as
both Kharif and Rabi crop.
2. Green-gram alone accounts for
nearly half of pulse production.
3. In the last three decades, while the
production of Kharif pulses has
increased the production of Rabi
pulses has decreased.
Which of the statements given above
is/are correct?
(a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 2 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
130. "The crop is subtropical in nature. A
hard frost is injurious to it. It requires at
least 210 frost -free days and 50 to 100
centimeters of rainfall for its growth.
A light well -drained soil capable of
retaining moisture is ideally suited for
the cultivation of the crop." [2020]
Which one of the following is that crop?
(a) Cotton (b) Jute
(c) Sugarcane (d) Tea
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131. Which of the following Protected

Areas are located in Kaveri
basin? [2020]
1. Nagarhole National park
2. Papikonda National Park
3. Sathyamagalam Tiger Reserve
4. Wayanand Wildlife Sanctuary
Select the correct answer using the
code given below:
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 3 and 4 only
(c) 1, 3 and 4 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4

ANSWER KEY:
1. B 2. C 3. D 4. B 5. C 6. D 7. B 8. A 9. A 10. C 11. B 12 C 13. B 14. B 15. C 16. B 17. D 18.
B 19. D 20. A 21. C 22. B 23. D 24. C 25. C 26. B 27. B 28. C 29. B 30. D 31. D 32. D 33.
C 34.D 35. D 36. C 37. C 38. C 39. B 40. D 41. A 42. B 43. B 44. C 45. C 46. A 47. A 48.
D 49. B 50. B 51. B 52. C 53. C 54. A 55. A 56. A 57. B 58. B 59. B 60. C 61. C 62. A 63.
A 64. B 65. D 66. B 67. B 68. B 69. A 70. D 71. D 72. D 73. A 74. D 75. D 76. C 77. C 78. B
79. C 80. D 81. D 82. C 83. B 84. B 85. B 86. A 87. A 88. B 89. B 90. A 91. B 92. B 93. B
94. A 95. D 96. D 97. C 98. D 99. A 100. C 101. B 102. B 103. D 104. C 105. B 106. B 107.
A 108. A 109. B 110. A 111. C 112. D 113. D 114. D 115. C 116. D 117. C 118. D 119. A 120. A
121. A 122. A 123. A 124. A 125. D 126. A 127. D 128. D 129. A 130. A 131. C

163
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REFERENCES
References:

NCERT: Contemporary India Part - 1 India Year Book 2021.

NCERT: Contemporary India Part - 2 https://www.nationsencyclopedia.com/

economies/Asia-and-the-Pacific/India-
AGRICULTURE.
NCERT: India: Physical Environment

http://www.ibpsa.org/proceedings/BS2019/
Book: Geography of India by Majid Husain
BS2019_211159.pdf

Book: Certificate physical and human

https://www.downtoearth.org.in/category/
geography by Goh Cheng Leong
natural-disasters/news

Book: India a Comprehensive Geography by D.

https://www.patnauniversity.ac.in/e-content/
R. Khullar
social_sciences/geography/MAGeog1.pdf

Document: DISASTER MANAGEMENT IN INDIA

(Ministry of Home Affairs, GoI)

164
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AUTHOR'S NOTE
This book tries to exhaustively cover the complete syllabus of UPSC CSE Preliminary &
Mains examination in an integrated approach for “Indian Geography”. The purpose is
to enable the learners to correctly approach and solve the questions asked and thereby
achieve top ranks in UPSC CSE Examination.

Despite being exhaustive, we have tried to be as precise and accurate as we can to

supplement your smart study. We have tried to include recent events within and outside
India relevant for the CSE examination and present it in a manner in which UPSC
examination demands. The current issues have been linked with the static portion of the
syllabus (wherever possible) so as to develop a better understanding and have a better
grasp over the subject. The aim is to ensure that learners develop a knack of identifying
important subjects and topics from newspapers and magazines thereby saving their
precious time that usually gets wasted in reading the irrelevant stuff.

All this will not only prepare learners for the examination but also give a better
understanding of events happening around us in the society, polity, economy, global
affairs and prepare them for the challenges that they will have to tackle after clearing
the examination.

However, there is always scope for further improvement. It may so happen that learners
might have some suggestions about further improving the quality of the book. Such
suggestions would not only help us in assisting better but also the future learners to
do well. Any such suggestions would be welcome and can be communicated at
upscnotessuggestions@unacademy.com

Nikhil Ganta, Mayur Kale, Suraj Singh and Rahul Patil have contributed to the creation
of the content in the book. With their profound experience in the field of UPSC and in
the field, they were responsible for selection of topics, content creation and editing of
the content in the notes.

We wish you all the success in your efforts towards UPSC CSE Examination.

Team UNACADEMY

UPSC | Indian Geography

165
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UPSC | Indian Geography