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CONCRETE

Concrete is an artificial material formed by binding together the particles of natural or artificial
stones or other aggregates with a binding material. (Cement)

Or Concrete is a mixture of binding material, aggregates and water.

Other materials (Admixtures may be added in to improve or impart (add in) other properties.

Properties which can be improved are;

 Water proof ness

 Rate of setting
 Workability
 Strength

Materials commonly used are;

Cement

Sand

Coarse aggregates

Water.

PROPERTIES OF CONCRETE

 Deformation under load

 Drying shrinkage: Reduction in volume as concrete sets and hardens.
 Plastic Cracking: Development of cracks before concrete hardens and normally with in the
first 30minutes to 2hours of placing and finishing the concrete. They are either due to
shrinkage or settlement or combination of both.
 Plastic shrinkage cracks: These occur in horizontal surface and may be indentified and
distinguished from other types of cracks by the following;
 They are roughly straight and often more or less parallel.
 Are often, but not always at angle 45o.
 May vary in length from a few inches to several feet and extend to a full with of the unit
under construction.
 Occur with 2hrs of placing and finishing the concrete.

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 Occur in both unreinforced and the reinforced horizontal concrete slabs either on ground
or suspended.

The principle cause of their occurrence is an excessive rapid evaporation of water from the
concrete surface. The depth to which these cracks penetrate into concrete can vary from 25mm to
the full depth of the section.

Plastic shrinkage cracks are unlikely to affect significantly the structural performance of the
concrete section, particularly where it is reinforced and did not increase in length or width with time.
The major concern with this type of cracking is the possible corrosion of the embedded
reinforcement.

 Plastic Settlement cracks:This type of crack is normal , but not always confined to the
surface of relatively deep sections they are almost always located over the line of top
reinforcement.
 Thermal Effect: The co-efficient of thermal expansion and contraction of concrete is taken to
be 1x10-6 per oc for light weight aggregate concrete or unrestrained movement.
 Durability: The durability of concrete is its ability to resist without failure the action of
weather and surface loads from the designed service period and is limited by;
 Weathering by action of rain and frost and by expansion and contraction resulting from
alternating wetting and drying.
 Chemical attack.
 Wear by abrasion.
 Permeability: Due to the presence of voids formed during and after placing, concrete has a
tendency to be porous .For the most dense and least permeable concrete the water cement
ration should be reduced to a minimum consist compaction without segregation.
The factors that influence permeability are;
 Water cement ration
 The soundness and porosity of aggregates.
 Age-Permeability decreases with age.
 The grading of aggregates.(Well graded aggregates reduces permeability.)
 Curing has an important influence as it limits cracking.

FORMS OF CONCRETE

Concrete can be casted in place ,which is referred to as in-situ concrete or can be casted in one
place and after it has hardened it is transferred to its final place which is referred to as precast
concrete.

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In any of the above forms concrete can be;

 Plain concrete
 Reinforced concrete.
 Reinforced and pre stressed concrete
1. Pre tensioning concrete
2. Post tensioning

Materials for concrete

AGGREGATE

An aggregate is a material in granular or practicle form, such as sand, or gravel which is added to
the bidder to produce a solid mass on hardenning.

REASONS FOR MIXING AGGREGATE WITH BINDER

 To reduce material cost, where aggregate are less costly than the binder.
 To offset either the drying shrinKage or setting expansion of the binder
 To increase or decrease the density of using high or low density aggregates respectively.
 To alter appearance such as colour or texture.
 To obtain better resistance to wear by abbrasion or weathering
 To impact some other special property such as fire resistance, thermal insulation or
accoustic property

TYPES OF AGGREGATES

1. Fine aggregates
2. Coarse aggregates

FINE AGGREGATES

These are normally used together with appropriate binder to produce materials for such purposes
on rendering, plastering, dloor topping or roaad surfacing.

Also may be used in jointing the pipes.

COARSE AGGREGATES

These are normally used in concrete together with the fine and binder

Also can be used in some grades of asphalt

LIGHT WEIGHT AGGREGATES

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These are composed of particles of high porosity result in a low bulky density.

They are used to reduce the dead weight of the structure, allowing the use of smaller supporting
members and foundation to reduced costs.

Example:

Clinker – should be well burnt sintered or fused furnace residue

Foamed blast – Furnace slag – produced by water cooling of the molten slag obtained as the
residue in production of pig lion

Pulverized Flue Arsh (PFA) – powdered coal received to the flue gases of power station.

Penance – light rock of volcanic origin – sand dust and wood fiber after stabilization or treatment

HEAVY AGGREGATES

These are mainly used for special purposes of screening radio activity.

Aggregates suitable are those with specific gravity greater than four.

Example

a) Baytes (barium sulphates) of s.g 4.6

b) Haematite (iron oxide) of s.g 5
c) Metals iron
d) Steel etc

GRADING OF AGGREGATES

This refers to the various particles sizes present in a sample of the aggregate

The grading of the aggregate is found by shaking a sample through a series of sieves of different
standard master size.

The amount retained on each sieve is weighed and expressed as a percentage of the sample.

From grading results the sample can be termed as

1. Well graded
2. Uniformly graded
3. Poorly graded (gap graded)

Grading test of aggregates is carried out by sieve analysis.

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APPARATUS

British Standard Sieves (to BS 410) 200mm diameter, 4.76mm, 2.14mm, 1.20mm, 600mm,
800mm, 150mm, and physical balance, sensitive large tray

Specimen

 Dry sand
 Coarce aggregate

Method

Procedure

1. Weigh out 200g of sand

2. Stand the sieve of largest mesh size in the tv and put the weighed sample onto the sieve.
3. Shake the sieve horizontally with the jerking motion in all directions for at least two minutes
until no more particles of sand can pass through.

Ensure that all sand passing falls on the tray.

4. Weigh any material retained on the sieve

5. Pass material collection in the tray through the sieve of next smaller mesh size as in section
2 and 3 and weigh any material retained.
6. Repeat the procedure for the remaining sieve, in order of diminishing mesh size.

MACHANICAL SIEVE

- A vibrating machine is available

- Fit the sieves and pan together to form a nest mesh size diminishing towards the bottom.
- Tip the weighed (e.g. 200g) sample into the nest of sieves, fit the lod and damp the whole in
the machine.
- Operate the machine for 20 minutes
- Weigh the material which is retained on each sieve and the material which is retained in the
pan.

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RESULTS

Record these in test schedule.

BS SIEVE MESH MATERIAL RETAINED MATERIAL PASSING

SIZE Weight (g) % to 0.1% Actual to To nearest 1%
0.1%
16.2mm
38.1mm
19.0mm
9.53mm
4.76mm 0 0 100 100
2.40mm 1.6 0.8 99.2 99
1.20mm 5.0 2.5 96.7 97
600ym 27.4 13.7 83.0 83
300ym 98.0 49.0 34.0 34
150ym 60.4 30.2 3.8 4
100ym 7.6 3.8
Total 200.0 100.00

Graph of % passing Vs sieve size

%of

Passing

100mm 300ym 600ym 1.2mm 2.4mm 4.76mm 9.53mm

Size of sieve

In the above case, the sample is well graded

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Other graphs will appear as below

WELL GRADED (curve A)

Here the sample of aggregates contains almost all the particle size.

UNIFORMLY GRADED (Curve B)

Sample of aggregates contains almost the same particle size.

GAP GRADAED (curve C)

Sample of aggregates lack intermediate particle size

Note:

In order to avoid overloading and clogging of the sieve, It may at times be necessary to split a
sample into a smaller part, latter combing the results for each portion siezed.

Also the ssample must be dry.

FINENESS MODULUS

The grading of an aggregate may be expressed by a single figure the Fineness Modulus.

It is obtained by adding together the %age retained by weight of material retained on each of the
test sieze i.e 38.1m, 19.05mm, 9.53mm, 4.76mm, 2.4mm, 1.2mm, 600ym, 300ym, and 150ym,
then divide by 100.

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Example

Calculate the fineness modulus for a saond with the following grading.

Finenes modulus

= 2.07

BS SIEVE % PASSING % RETAINED

4.76mm 100 0
2.4mm 97 3
1.2mm 91 9
600ym 63 37
300ym 33 67
150ym 9 91
Total 207
Example 2

Values of fineness modulus for fine and coarse aggregate are 2.60 and 6.62 respectively.

a) The fineness modulus for a batch of 2 parts to the fine to 1 part of the coarse
(by weight)

b) The percentage of each for the batch with fineness modulus 5.0

Solution

Fine aggregate 2 parts x 2.60 = 5.20

Coarse aggregate 1 part x 6.62 = 6.62

Total for 3 parts 11.83

Finenes modules of the batch = 11.82/3

= 3.94

If p = % by weight of fine aggragates

2.6p + 6.62 (100 – p) = 5 x 100

2.6p – 6.62 – 6.62p = 500

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P = 40.3

40% fine 60% coarse.

Alternatively solved by use of the formular

P = Cm – Fm where Cm = fineness modulus

= Cm – Fm Fm = Fineness modulus of fine

Tm = required fineness modulus

USE OF FINENESS MODULUS

- it is used in the routine checks on the grading of success deliveries of

aggregates for a particular source.

- It can also be used in concrete mix design (e.g in combining aggregate)

SAND BULKING

When measuring sand by volume, allowance should be made for the fact that it can occupy a

greater volume when damp than when dry.

This effect is bulking. The extent of bulking varies with moisture content of the sand, but is
governed by the film of thickness

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of the water around its particles and the particle size (grading).

The graph below indicates the fine sand can bulky more than coarse sands

The amount of bulking is given by the standard formula

Bulking %

BULKING TEST

The test is easily made using a flat - bottom cylindrical container, steel rule, a rod and a

tray.

Proceedure

 Damp sand is loosely filled into the container ie about 2/3 of its

capacity and the depth D is measured.

 The sand is tipped into a tray

 The container is half filled with water and the damp sand returned into

it, a little time, rodding it to displace air.

 The depth d of this in undated sample is noted. The result is then

calculated from Bulking %

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Example

Calculate the percentage bulking of sample sand which the following test results apply.

Depth of sand in cylinder = 200mm

Depth of same sand in undated = 160mm

Bulking = 25%

SILT CONTENT

Bs 812 gives a field settling test as a guide to the %age of silt, clay and fine dust in natural
sands. Laboratory method given are the sieve analysis which determines the amount of

sample to pass a BS 200 mesh sieve (75ym) and the sedimentation test which gives the

amount of material less than 20ym (0.02mm) particle size.

FIELD SETTLING TEST FOR SAND (SILT CONTENT)

Material needed – common salt (sodium chloride) and natural sand.

Procedure:

1. Prepare a %age solution of salt in water

2. Pour about 50ml of the solution into 250ml measuring cylinder

3. Add sand up to the 100ml mark

4. Add more salt solution until this reaches the 150ml mark.

5. Shake the mixture vigorously and leave it to see it in measuring

cylinder for 3hrs.

6. Measure the thickness of the visible silt layer which has formed at the

surface.
7. Measure the depth of sand, excluding the silt layer.

8. Express the thickness of silt layer as %age of the depth of sand.

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Example

From the following results obtained in the setting test on natural sand, calculate the silt

content.

Thickness of visible silt layer = 5ml graduation

Depth of sand = 98ml graduation

Silt content = %age by volume = 5/98 x 100 = 5.1%

Results may be compared with sieve analysis test.

Note: when carrying out sieve analysis, materials must be dry. This is done by putting

matarials in an oven for about 16hrs.

Other tests which may be carried out on aggregates are;

- Particle shape ie flakiness index test

- Crushing strength

- Aggregate impact value

- Aggregate abrasion value

QUALITIES OF A GOOD AGGREGATE

1. A good aggregate should be clean ie free from impurities

2. A good aggregate should be hard

3. A good aggregate should be triangular in shape

4. It should have a rough texture

5. It must be chemically stable

6. A good aggregate should be strong.

WATER BS 3148

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- Reacts with cement and thus causing to set and harden.

- Facilitates mixing, placing and compaction of fresh concrete

- Washing aggregates especially coarse.

- Curing of concrete

Admixtures

Admixtures are substances introduced into a batch concrete during or immediately before its
mixing in quantities not greater than 5% by mass of the cement content, in order to alter or improve
the properties of the fresh or hardened concrete or both.

In general, changes brought about in concrete by use of admixture are affected through the
influence of admixturesom;

1. Hydration may increase hydrator or decrease it according to what you want.

2. Liberation of heat
3. Formation of pores – you can add in admixture in concrete and change it from
heavy to light by introducing the air bubble using admixture.

Development of get structure

Additives – material which is interground or brended with cement during manufucture.

Admixture may also have bad effect therefore their sustainability for concrete shouuld be carefully
evaluated before use.

The specific effect of an admixture gnerally varies with the

1. Dosage

2. Type of cement

3. Mix composition

4. Temperature

Since the quality of admixture use in both small and critical, the required donse must be carefully

determined and administered.

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Most admixtures can affect more than one property of the concrete and it is wise to evaluate the

admixture thoroughly.

Types of admixtures

1. AIR ENTRAINING AGENT

Donse 30 – 60mm/50kg of cement
The entrainment of air in a form of uniformly dispersed very small and stable bubbles of size
between 0.25 – 1mm diameter can be achieved using foaming like natural resins and
synthetic retargents.
Advantages

- Improve workability of fresh concrete

- Increase comprehensiveness of concrete
- Reduce bleeding and segregation
- It gives a better surface finish
- Reduce the permeability on concrete
- More resistant to finish action

Disadvantage

- Reduction in concrete strength

FACTORS AFFECTING AIR ENTRAINMENT ADMIXTURE

The amonut of entrained air in concrete is dependent on;

- Type of mixture

- Donsage used

- Cement type

- Aggregate type and grading

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- Type of mixer and mixing time

- Transportation

The density of air entrained concrete is decreasing in direct proporting to the amount of air
entrained.

ACCELERATORS

The main purpose of using an accelerator is to increase the rate of early hardening

Accelerators function by increasing the rate at which heat is involved as the cement hydrates thus
speeding up the strength developed.

An accelerator may be used when the temperature is between 20c – 150c. Below 20c it is better to
discontinue concrete construction unless other precautions are taken.

Types of accelerators are;

1. Setting accelerator
2. Setting and hardening accelerators

The 1st one increases the setting thus and therefore suitable for repair work

Because their advance effects on the subsequent development, these admixtures should be used
where final concrete strength is an important consideration.

Increase rate of both setting and early strength development.

Advantages of accelerators

- Where we need early strength gained e.g in (water logged areas)

- Early form work removal
- Low temperatures
- Emergency repair

Disadvantages

- Increase risks of corrosion to reinforcement

- Increase drying shrinkage.

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RETARDERS

A delay in the setting of concrete is often desirable.

Retarders don’t reduce the heat of hydration but slow down the rate of hydration hence slow down
the strength development.

USES

- Used where temperatures are so high

- Large concrete bores (massive concrete)
- Used in ready mixed concrete
- It allows time for still mixing
- Prevention of formation cold joint as well as construction joint.
- Allows an overnight stopping of formwork.

Advantages

- Allows use of less water thus increasing strength

- Reduce bleeding

Disadvantage

- Reduce cohesiveness

SUPPER PLASTICIZERS (Dosage 1 – 6 ltrs/m3% concrete)

Are commonly used to produce flowing concrete, defined as having a slump in excess of 200mm or
a flow table value within 510 – 620mm, without having to change the original mixing composition
and without caring strength reduction.

The self leveling property of flowing concrete means that it can be placed with little or no
compaction and particularly suitable fm

1. Heavy reinforced, or congestion steel sections

2. Inaccessible section
3. Where rapid placement of concrete is required
4. Pumping aid

It cannot be used where there is a slope to horizontal exceeds 30.

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Disadvantages

- Increase bleeding
- Segregation tendency
- Increased shrinkage

The concrete will always go back to its original size between 45 – 60minutes.

Other admixtures are;

Water reducers (Dosage 140m/50kg cement)

Their effect is thought to be due to increased dispersion of cement particles causing a reduction in
the viscosity of the concrete.

- Increase workability for a given water cement ratio.

- Increase strength
- Allow easier placing and compaction

Disadvantage

Same as retarders

Bonding admixtures

These are organic polymer immersions used to enhance the bonding properties for concrete.

Use for patching and remedial work.

Bonding admixture also increase the abrasion resistance of concrete and its tensile strength

Disadvantage

Reduction in compressive strength

Water proofer’s admixtures.

BATCHING CONCRETE MATERIALS

Before concrete materials are mixed ,materials are measured according to the mixing
proportions.The process of measuring concrete materials according to their mixing proportions is
termed as batching.

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Methods of batching
1.Volume Batching of Concrete

Batching of concrete means measuring different ingredients of concrete (i.e. cement, sand, coarse
aggregate and water) before mixing it. When this measurement is done on the basis of volume, we
call it Volume Batching. Below are mentioned some of important points to remember before
adopting volume batching method in field.

 Volume batching is not a good method for measuring concrete materials.

 It is not applicable in case of reinforced concrete structure where high quality standards are
required.
 This method of concrete batching may not be economical.
 It can be only used for unimportant concrete or for small concrete works.

How Volume Batching Is Done In Field?

Before batching concrete ingredients in terms of volume, we need to know two things.

1. What is the relative proportion of concrete ingredients in terms of volume?

2. What is the water-cement ratio?

After knowing these two things you can proceed to batch concrete ingredients in field.

The table shown below can be used as a reference to find out relative proportion of different
ingredients, for different grades of concrete.

Relative Proportion of Ingredients by

In General
Grade of Volume
We Specify It
Concrete Fine Coarse
Cement As
Aggregate Aggregate
M 10 1 3 6 1:3:6
M 15 1 2 4 1:2:4
M 20 1 1.5 3 1:1.5:3
M 25 1 1 2 1:1:2

The water-cement ratio to be used must be as per the contract.

Step-1-Batching of cement

Cement is always measured by weight. Mostly it is used in terms of bags. One bag of cement
weighs 50 kg and has a volume of 35 litres (or, 0.035m3). Cement should not be batched by volume
because its weight per unit volume varies according to the way the container is filled.

Step-2-Batching of aggregate (by volume)

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Gauge Box

A gauge box is used (as shown in the picture) for batching of fine and coarse aggregate by volume.
The box should not be too shallow. It should be completely filled with aggregates. The top of the
materials should be struck off level with a straight edge. The ratio of materials of concrete decides
the capacity of the box. Generally capacity of a gauge box is equal to the volume of one bag of
cement (i.e. 35 litres). Convenient sizes of gauge boxes to suit different proportions are given in the
table below.

Inside Dimensions of gauge

Capacity In
box in cm
Litres
Length Breadth Depth
35 25 25 56
35 27 27 48
35 30 30 39
35 35 35 28.5

Note: The moisture present in aggregates and bulking of sand must be accounted for while volume
batching is adopted.

Step-3-Batching of water

Water is measured either in kg or litres as may be convenient. In this case, the two units are same, as
the density of water is one kg per litre. The quantity of water required is calculated by multiplying
water-cement ratio with weight of cement.

2.Weight Batching
Weigh batching is for identifying the amount of weight being loaded/unloaded in a system.Usually
solids require weight batching.

Weigh batching is recommended as it provides greater accuracy and simplicity and avoids the
problem created by bulking of damp sand
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However, volume-batching, is used for concrete mixed in a continuous mixer and for certain places
where weighing facilities are not available.

Why volume batching of concrete is preferred in general construction works?

The reason for workers to prefer volume batching in general construction is that volume batching
which involves measuring the volume of the ingredients (cement, coarse and fine aggregates, etc.) is
easier, simpler and faster, whereas weigh batching involves tedious work- transporting the mixtures
to weighing machines, weighing; if it exceeds the desired amount, it has to be unloaded etc. And
moreover labourers at work sites are not technical and hence they tend to ignore complicated
processes.

 Weight Batching: Materials are measured using weighing scale .

For example: A concrete mix of 1:2:4 with water cement ratio 0.5 compute the materials required
if the overall weight of the concrete is 200kg.assume 2% and 5% moisture content in coarse
aggregates and sand respectively

MIXING CONCRETE

This can be carried out in small batches thus requires only simple hand held tools where as when
demand for increased output is required mixers or ready mixed supplies could be used

MIXING CONCRETE BY HAND

Procedure

- Clean the surface where concrete is to be mixed, this surface should be hard
and water tight.
- Measure/batch the amount of sand required according to the mixing ratio and
pour it on the surface to form a hop.
- Put the cement on the top of the hop of sand. Alternatively sand and cement
can be poured e.g. if the ratio is 1:2:4, when you pour 2 gauge boxes on sand, you pour
one bag of cement, until the required volume of sand is finished.
- Turn the mix of sand and cement until you get a uniform mix
- Spread the mix in uniform thickness and then add coarse aggregate on top.
- Pour water in the concrete materials and mix the materials with water until a
uniform mix is achieved.

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- Load the concrete to wheelbarrow, motar, pans, dumper etc to be transported
to final placing

MACHINE MIXING

Procedure

- Switch on the machine and start rotate.

- Pour in small quantities of water
- Add in portion of coarse aggregate
- Add cement required for the mix
- Add sand and water into the mixer
- Add coarse aggregates and check whether water is enough if not add the
remained portion of water.
- After 2 – 5 minutes check whether the mix is uniformly mixed and discharge.

SELECTION OF THE MIXER

The factors to be taken into consideration when selecting the type of concrete mixer required are;

1. Maximum output required (m3/hr)

2. Total output required (m3)
3. Type or Method of transport ting the mixed concrete.
4. Discharge height of the mixer (compatibility with transporting method)

TYPES OF MIXER

1. SMALL BATCH MIXER:

These mixers have outputs of up to 200ltrs per batch with wheelbarrow transportation an hourly
placing of 2 – 3m3 can be achieved. Most small batch mixers are tilting drum type generally these
mixers are hand loaded which makes the quality control of successive mixes difficult to regulate.

2. MEDIUM BATCH MIXERS

Output of these mixers range from 200 – 750ltrs and can be obtained at the lower end of the range
as tilting drum mixer or over the computer range as a non tilting drum mixer with either reversing
drum or chute discharge the latter usually having a lower discharge height.

These mixers usually have integral weight batching loading hoppers, scrapper shovels and water
tanks thus giving better quality control than the small batch mixer.

TRANSPORTING CONCRETE

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The usual mean of transporting mixed concrete produced in small capacity mixer is by
wheelbarrow.

The distance between the mixing and placing positions should be kept to minimum and as smooth
as possible by using planks or similar materials to prevent segregation of the mix with the
wheelbarrow.

Dumpers: These can be used for transporting mixed concrete from mixer up to 600ltrs capacity
when fitted with an integral skip and for lower capacity when designed to take a crane skip.

READY MIXED CONCRETE TRUCKS

These are used to transport mixed concrete from a mixing plant or depot to the site.

Usually capacity range as 4 – 6m3. Discharge can be direct into placing position via a chute into
some forms of the transport such as a dumper, crane skip or concrete pump.

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Concrete Pumps

These are used to transport large volumes of concrete in a short time period. E.g 100m3/hr in bo
the vertical and horizontal directions form the pump position to the ponint of placing.

Concrete pump can be trailer or lorry mounted and is usually of a twin cylinder hydraulically driven
format with a small bore pipe line (100mm diameter). With pumping range of 85.0m vertically and
200m horizontally depend on pump model and combination of vertical or horizontal distance.

Usually this concrete pumps are hired for the required period.

PLACING CONCRETE

This activity is usually carried out by hard with the objectives of filling the mould, formwork or
excavated area to the correct depth, working the concrete around any insect or reinforcement and
finally compacting the concrete to the required consolidation. The compaction of concrete can be
carried out using simple tampling rods or boards or alternatively it can be carried out with the aid of
plant such as vibration.

TYPES OF VIBRATORS

Poker vibrators

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These consists of a hallow steel tube casing in which is a rotating impettor which generates
vibrations as its head comes into contact with the casing.

Roker vibrators should be inserted vertically and allowed to penetrate 75mm into any previously
vibrated concrete.

CLAMP AND TAMPING

PREPARATION FOR CONCRETE PLACING

Surfaces to receive concrete should be prepared before placing concrete so that:

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1. A good concrete surface finish in a delivered
2. Some bondage between the hardening concrete work or rock surface and
newly placed concrete is achieved

CONCRETE SURPPOTED WITH FORMWORK

- The formwork should be cleaned of any cement grant and any loose material
e.g debris
- A thin layer of a suitable released agent should be applied to facilitate sticking
of formwork.
- Any open joint should be closed up to prevent loss of ground.
- In dry weather, the form should be moisturized to prevent absorption of water
from the concrete.
- All services to be accommodated in the concrete work should be well
inspected by responsible personnel to make sure that anything is proper and to design.
- Concrete spacers should be crosschecked to ensure a good concrete cover
to the reinforcement.

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FOUNDATION CONCRETE

For clay, loam and similar consolidated base material should be placed first to clear of the debris,
pools, of water and mud.

In dry weather the bases should be thoroughly wet.

For bases of porous materials such as gravel and sand, they should be well consolidated and
covered with a dump proof membrane to prevent the absorption of water from the concrete to
provide a good working platform, and to prevent contamination of foundation concrete by the under
laying ground.

It is advisable to key a 50 – 75mm thick layer of weather concrete blinding over the site in the
earlier stage of construction.

Blinding can also be laid in foundation trenches for the above purpose and to level the foundation
trench.

In case when concrete is to be placed in a rock foundation, the rock surface should be well keyed
and effectively cleaned of the loose rock, soft pockets and other foreign materials. sometimes its
specified that just before placing concrete, a layer of mortar of about 25mm and of similar mix to
concrete should be worked well into all the irregularities of the rock surface.

PLACING CONCRETE

This is the deposition of concrete in its final place during construction. This should carefully be
done around problems like;

- Displacement of the reinforcement

- Displacement of the formwork lies
- Movement and damage of formwork
- Segregation

To avoid the above problems, the following precautions should be made.

- Concrete should be deposited as near as practicables to its final position and

should be deposited in large quantities at any pointand allowed to follow along the forms,
failure to do so will cause honey combing segregation and proof compation
- Concrete should be deposited in horizontal layers and each layer should be
comapcted thoroughly before the secceeding layer is placed.

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- Concrete should be carried out continuously in order to avoid the appearance
of unsightly lift line on the finished structure.
- Concrete should be worked thoroughly into position around the reinforcement
and bended fixtures and into corners of the formwork.

DEEP LIFTS

This is where concrete is placed in lift more than 2m up to 15m.

The advantage of deep lift construction in the improve appearance of the concrete resulting from
the total elimination in the number of horizontal construction joints

As appearance against loss of fine to concrete from the coarse aggregates in the first few batches
of concrete, the amount of coarse aggregate in the first few batches should be reduced.

This means that proportions of fines is increased in order to compensate for the loss of mortar if
concrete is to be dropped more than 2m, it should fall freely without coming into contact with either
the reinforcements or the sides of form work. This can be achieved by directing the fall of concrete
through the middle of the member under construction or other areas sufficiently free of
reinforcements.

Down pipes can also be employed can also be employed to deliver concrete to the bottom of the
lift. Care should be taken to avoid formation of conical heaps (which can lead to segregation) by
spreading over a wide area.

In this walls and columns where there is a heavy congestion of steel reinforcement, use of made
openings in the side of formwork.

These openings are referred to as “Access doors” porthole or window, permit better control over
placing and compaction especially at the bottom part of the lift.

Access door are normally of 0.3m sqaure to about 1.0m long by 0.7m deep provided at on 1/3 – ½
the height of the lift and at 1.5 – 2.5 centers laterally.

Access doors should be closed up with rigid right fitting panels weighed in place for the compacting
and should not spot the appearance of finished concrete structures.

The concrete to be used for deep constructions should be conclusive and should have comparative
high sand content to counteract the loss of motion on the reinforcement.

Compaction of cone

The objective of compaction of concrete are;

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- To eradicate air spaces/voids from the concrete so as to give it maximum
density thus maximum strength
- To ensure good bondage between the concrete and reinforcements.
- To ensure that concrete fills all the corners of the formwork. Thus achieving
the required shape.

When compacting cone should be taken;

- Not to displace the reinforcement

- Not to damage the formwork
- To ensure that concrete is worked thoroughly in the faces of formwork so that
the finished surface is even, dense, and free from both honey combing and pronounced
blow holes.

Question?

List stages involved with the production of concrete when all items are on site up to the stage of
final depositing.

Explain how concrete covers the reinforcement specified by the Engineer are maintained and why
it is necessary cement.

CURING

Keeping the concrete moist and warm enough so that the hydration of cement can continue

Curing methods

1. Water curing:

Is the best method of curing as it satisfies all the requirements of curing i.e promotion of hydration,
elimination of shrinkage and absorption of heat of hydration

Water can be done in the following ways;

a) Immersion – items are deepened under water.

b) Ponding – the structure is poured in water in form of pond.
c) Spraying – Water is sprayed on concrete surface at certain intervals.
d) Wet covering – concrete structure is covered with wet materials

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2. Membrane curing: it is applicable in areas where water is at acute shortage.
And since curing means creation of conditions for promotion of uninterrupted and progressive
hydration. In this case water being used for mixing concrete is more than sufficient to hydrate
the cement, provided this water is not allowed to go out from concrete.
For this reason, concrete could be covered with membrane which will effectively seal off
concrete.
- Water proofing paper
- Polythene paper

Application of heat

Development of strength of concrete is a function of not only time but also that of temperature.

When concrete is subjected to higher temperature it accelerates the hydration process resulting in
faster development of strength. Concrete cannot be subjected to day heat to accelerate hydration
process of moisture is also essential requisite. Therefore subjecting the concrete to higher
temperature and maintaining the required wetness can be achieved by subjecting the concrete to
steam curing.

A faster attainment of strength will contribute to many other advantages as below.

a) Concrete is vulnerable to damage only for short time.

b) Concrete members can be handled very quickly.
c) Less space will be sufficient in the casting yard.
d) A small curing task will be sufficint.
e) A higher out line is possible for a given capital outlay
f) A fewer number of formwork will be sufficient or alternatively with the given
number of formwork move out turn will be achieved.

The exposure of concrete to higher temperature could be done in the following manners;

- Steams curing at ordinary pressure

- Steams curing at high pressure
- Curing by inter red radiation (suitable for barrow sections)

Special concreting method

(1) Cold Weather Concreting

The production of concrete in cold weather introduces special and peculiar problems, such as
delay in setting and hardening, damage to concrete in plastic condition when exposed to below

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freezing point owing to formation of ice lenses. It is better to maintain the temperature of the
concrete above 00c.

Effects of cold weather on concrete

a) Delay in setting and hardening since the rate of hydration depends up the
temperature.
b) Freezing of concrete at early age especially when temperatures are below
freezing point. Freezing of water not only prevents the hydration of cemnet, but also makes
the concrete expand and this affects strength of concrete.
c) Freezing and thawing. Fresh concrete or hardened concrete get subjected to
freezing and thawing cycles (thawing-melting))

In dealing with the aspects of cold weather concreting, the following conditions may be discussed.

1. Low temperature, but above 00c at the time of concreting and later during
hardening period. In this case the concrete is only retards the rate of development of
strength and no other bad effect on fresh concrete or hardening concrete. Concrete should
be cured at temperatures of 90c.
2. Low temparatures at the time of concreting but below 00c after concreting.
If concrete has set them, it is strong enough to resist whatever osmotic pressure resulting
form freezing. Therefore there is no immediate danger to the concrete.
3. Temperatures below 00c at the time of concreting and during hardening
period.
Precautions are necessary when concreting so as fresh concrete does not get frozen.

Concreting methods at sub zero temperatures

The following precautions can be done when concreting.

- Utilization of the heat developed by hydration of cement and practical

methods of insulation.
- Selection of suitable type of cement.
- Economic heating of material of concrete.
- Admixture of anti – freezing material at times works as accelerators e.g. Cacl2
and Nacl
- Electrical heating of concrete mass.
- Use of air entraining agent which reduces the water cement ratio.

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HOT WATER CONCRETING

Normal methods of mixing, transporting and placing of concrete will not be exactly applicable to
extreme weather conditions.

It is regarded that the concrete placed at an atmospheric temperature above 400c.

Problems experienced during hot weather concreting are;

- Rapid rate of hydration of cement, quick setting and early stiffening.

- Rapid evaporation of mixing water
- Greater plastic shrinkage
- Less time of finishing
- Reduced relative humidity
- Absorption of water from the concrete by the sub grade and formwork
- Difficult in incorporating of air entrainment
- Difficulty in continuous and uninterrupted curing.

Precautions to be taken

- Aggregate should be stock pilled in shade. Spraying of water and cold air can
be done to reduce the temperature before it is batched.
- Use of cold mixing water
- Mixing time must be maximum
- Mixer should be placed as close as possible to the placing area.
- Reinforcement formwork and sub grade should be sprinkled with cooled
water just before placing.
- Must be placed in comparatively thin layer interval between the successive
lists is reduced.
- Concrete on finishing must be covered effectively to prevent loss of moisture
from the concrete.

It should be remembered that concrete should not be allowed to become dry. At the same time,
application of water should not be commenced before the final setting of cement.

CONCRETE FOR ROAD CONSTRUSTION:

Cement: concrete is the mixture of cement coarse aggregate, fine aggregate and water which is
combined into a solid mass as a result of the chemical reaction which takes place between the

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water and the cement. In many ways concrete is an excellent material for a high pavement.
Because of its high strength qualities, it can withstand heavy wheel loads and high tire pressure.

Well designed and well made concrete roads are known to last for at least 40 years and relatively
little maintained. The principle disadvantage associated with concrete construction is that it can be
relatively high initial cost as compared to the flexible type of road construction.

Materials:

The ingredients of a concrete mixture are cement, aggregate anad water. These materials and
chemical reactions which occur when cement is hydrated have already been discussed. Emphasis
is here made on factors basic to design and construction of concrete permanent.

Cement:

OPC is the binding material most often used in concrete road slabs, but where high early strength
is required for quicker use of the road, rapid hardening cement may be used.

In cold weather or when very rapid hardening is required high alumina cement may be utilized.

Setting time:
This describes the stiffening process of the paste which begins after water is added to the cement
(i.e the change from a fluid to a rapid state). The start of this process is arbitrarily called “initial set”
while its completion is called “Final set”
Hardening of cement paste is not considered to begin until after setting has ended. The setting
properties of cement are most important in the construction of a concrete road and excellent results
are normally obtained when mixing, transporting, placing and compacting of the concrete takes
place before the initial set has occurred.
Crushing strength:
The strength of the hardened concrete is the property which is of the primary importance in the
construction of a rigid pavement. It is perhaps not surprising therefore that strength tests are
required in all cement specifications. While there are several forms of strength test, the one on
which most reliable is normally placed in the unconfined compression test.
First method:
Cubes having 70.6mm square sides are mechanically prepared in a specific way form a 1.3 cement
– and mortar. The weight of water uased in the standard mix is 10% of weight of the dry material.
Second method:
101mm concrete cubes are prepared by hand from a workable mixture of cement, coarse and fine
aggregate and water which has a slump of between 12.5 and 50mm.

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The minimum strength attained by the cubes is specified in the relative British Standards. The
concrete cube test is said to result in a smaller cube to cube variation than the mortar cube test.
Aggregate
Since aggregate from roughly 80% of the weight of a normal concrete slab, it follows that
aggregate quality is of considerable importance in concrete road – making.
Good concrete can be made with most aggregate even though they are of different mineralogical
composition and results are less depended on the type of aggregate than in the grading, size and
shapes of the parties.
Most aggregate used in concrete road are composed of crushed stone, gravel ar sand, blast
furnace slag is another material which is sometimes used.
Irrespective of whether they are natural or artificial materials, aggregate used in concrete road –
making are usually classified as coarse and fine.
Coarse aggregate is composed of particles which are retained on the 4.76mm sieve. Natural sand,
crushed gravel or crushed stone which passes the 4.76mm sieve is called fine aggregate.
As a rough rule the largest size of aggregate used in a mix should not exceed one quarter of the
thickness of the slab it is the best combination of strength and the workability is to be obtained. In
practice, maximum sizes most often used in concrete mixes are 19mm and 38mm.
While larger size can result in a reduction in the cement content required to attain the prescribed
strength, they give rise to construction problem at joints in the pavement.
Note: For a given maximum size of aggregate there is no such thing as an ideal gradation which
will satisfy all the desirable criteria. In general, the best gradation is a function of the sizes and
shapes of the particles and of the workability required of the plastic concrete mixture.
Water:
The final ingredient of a concrete mixture is water. In most instances, the specifications simply
prescribe that the water should be potable. This requirement is normally sufficient to ensure that
the water does not contain any impurities that will be detrimental to the quality of the cement paste.
Additives/Admixtures
In certain instances, a fourth ingredient may be added to a concrete mix for one of the following
reasons.
 To improve the workability of the relatively dry concrete mixture, this is rare usage in
concrete road works.
 To increase the heat of hydration during setting so that the concrete can be mixed and
placed at lower temperature than are normally possible
 To decrease the susceptibility of the hardened concrete to frost action, de-icing salt and
bleeding. This involves the addition of an air entraining agent of the concrete.

REINFORCED CONCRETE DETAILING

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REINFORCED CONCRETE
Steel Reinforcement
Concrete and steel are combined in reinforced concrete in a way which allows each to serve the
purpose for which it is particularly suitable.
Concrete is strong in compression but much weak in tension. Steel is equally strong in
compression and tension, but it is much more expensive. Reinforced concrete is economical. The
cheaper concrete is provided where it is most effective resisting crushing forces. The more
expensive is placed where it will resist the stretching forces.
Compatibility of the materials
Steel and concrete can be used together because concrete shrinks slightly on setting and grip steel
bars firmly. When they are subjected to temperature change, concrete and steel expands and
contact by almost the same amount. Concrete has high resistance to fire by protecting
reinforcements. It prevents it from distorting in high temperatures.

Reinforced concrete structures:

Main and secondary steel:

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Although areas of tension occur when on one side of a member, it is often the practice to place
reinforcement on both sides. The concrete may require strengthening on areas which are in
compression. Another reason is that reinforcement can be made up more easily in the form of a
cage.
When a slab span between a supports at each end, the main steel runs in the direction of the span
Secondary or distribution steel is tied at right angles to the main steel to maintain the proper
positions and correct centers.

Bar anchorage bond.

The reinforcing bar subjected to direct tension must be firmly enchored if it is to be pulled out of the
concrete. Bars subjected to forces induced to flexure must similarly be enchored to develop their
design stresses. The anchorage depends on bond between the bar and the concrete and the area
of contact.

Let.

L = Minimum anchorage length to prevent pull out.

Q = Bar size or nominal diameter

Fbu = Ultimate anchorage bond stress

Fs = The direct tensile or compressive stress in the bar

Considering the forces on the bar

Tensile pull – out force = Bars cross-section area x direct stress

Anchorage force = contact area x anchorage bond stress

Therefore

Hence L =

And when F2 = 0.95fy, the ultimate tensile or comprehensive stress, the anchorage length is
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The design ultimate anchorage bond stress, f bu, is obtained from the equation

Fbu = B

The coefficient B depends on the bar type and whether the bar is in tension or compression

a) Anchorage value = 4r but not greater than 12∲ - diagram

b) Anchorage value = 8r but not greater than 24∲ - diagram

Type the diameters of reinforcement

1. Smooth round mild steel bar

diagram

2. High yield round still bars

Diagram

3. The round twisted steel bar

Diagram

Standard diameter bars

6, 8, 10, 12, 16, 20, 25, 32, 40, 50mm

Standard straight 12. 19m or 40’0ft

READING REINFORCEMENT DRAWINGS

Bar Notation:

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When referring the reinforcement on the drawing, bars are indicated in a set form to ensure that the
correct bars are used in the correct locations. The sequence of the description of the bars are:.

- Number of bars
- Type of steel
- Diameter of bars
- Bar mark (type, shape, size, and length)
- Distance between centers of bars
- Location/comment

Example 1: 20 Y 10 01 150 T

20 – Number of bars

Y- High tensile bar

10 – Diameter of the bar

01 – Is the mark of the bar

150 – Spacing C/C (ie. Center to center)

T– The bar as in on top of the members.

Example 2: 23 T 12 7 150 B

23 number of high tensile twisted bars, having 12 mm diameter, with bar mark 7, and placed
at 150mm spacing (c/c) at the bottom of the diameter.

Some abbreviations

EW – Each way/either way

EF – Each face

FF – Far face

NF – Near face

B – Bottom

T – Top

RC - Reinforced Concrete

BWK - Brick Work

Drg - Drawing

FS - Full size

FFL - Finished Floor Level

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SFL - Structural Floor Level

EL - Existing Level

WHY REINFORCEMENT IS BENT

Steel reinforcement bars are manufactured in straight lengths, but there are many reasons why
they are bent before being placed in position.

For example:

1. To conform to a particular shape,

2. To resist shear forces,
3. As a convenient way of providing top reinforcement to overcome tension in slabs
over supports,
4. To fit the concrete formwork where straight steel would be too long,
5. To tie top and bottom steel in one piece or position

Detail drawing.

These are prepared to a larger scale and may be of two kinds;

1. Out line drawings: these include large scale details to be read in conjunction with general
arrangement of the drawings. They show plan, elevation and sections of all structural
members. They usually indicate positions of fittings and other details which normally can’t
be shown on the general arrangement.
2. Reinforcement drawing: these are principally produced by the steel fixer they describe
accurately the reinforcement and its location relating to the outline of the concrete
members. They generally show only those dimensions and other particulars which are
necessary for locating such reinforcement.

The information on both outline and reinforcement drawing may be given on one sheet. Also given
are special construction procedures, details, such as sequences of construction, position of joints
together with close references to other drawings and bar bending schedules.

Scales in common use:

 Site arrangement and simple general arrangement 1:200,

 General arrangement 1:100, 1:50,
 Simple walls and slab details; 1;50
 Beam and column elevations; 1:50
 Beam and column details; 1:20, 1:10

Aid to reading drawings:

 Diagrammatic key or where a job spreads over several drawings, a key diagram is given
which shows all the continuous bars at a glance.
 Orientation; a north point is shown on the drawing where necessary, find which way is north
to the job, turn the drawing round to concede.

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 Line thickness; for outlines the following may be assumed.
 Main reinforcement bars, the thickness is heavy.
 Links and stirrups, thickness is medium.
 Reference, dimension and centers, the line thickness is thinner.

Identification of particulars

1. Grid lines: These are used for determining the exact position of a member by measurement.
They are marked; as ABC etc. The system is used for regular or irregular shape structures
and the lines are not necessary always at right angles to each other. Additional grid lines
may be used for arrangement.
2. Bar notation: Already discussed
3. Levels: FFL – finished floor level

SFL – structural floor level

DETAILING OF A BASIC MEMBER OF A STRUCTURE

BEAMS:

Beams are detailed in elevation with sufficient sections to locate all bars and show arrangement of
links. All main bars in one layer are indicated by single line in elevation with half arrows to show the
end of individual bars. The half arrow should be labeled with the bar mark.

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Columns:

The main longitudinal and links are described in the same way as for beams. Columns are detailed
in elevation with sufficient section to show location of the main bars and arrangement of link. The
main bars are indicated in elevation by one bar drawn in full with half arrows to show the end when
lapping with the bars above and below. The other bars are shown as short line with a dimension
line across the sets.

Sets of links are shown by one link drawn in full at one end and a short line at the other with a
dimension line across the set.

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BASES

The bases as details in plan and elevation. The base reinforcement and column starter bars are
shown. In plan, a set of equally spaced bars is shown by one bar drawn in full at one end a short
lline at the other end with a diameter line across the set.

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