8/20/23, 5:02 PM Nondestructive Evaluation Techniques : Radiography

Skip to main content

About Careers Physics Techniques NDE Engineering Glossary

Nondestructive Evaluation Techniques > Radiography Testing > Radiograph Interpretation - Welds

Radiograph Interpretation - Welds

In addition to producing high quality radiographs, the radiographer
Radiographer - Any individual who performs or who, in attendance at the site where the sealed source or sources are being used,
personally supervises radiographic operations and who is responsible to the licensee for assuring compliance with the requirements of
these regulations and the conditions of the licenses.
must also be skilled in radiographic interpretation
Radiographic Interpretation - The determination of the cause and significance of subsurface discontinuities indicated on the radiograph.
The evaluation as to the acceptability or rejectibility of the materials is based upon the judicious application of the radiographic
specifications and standards governing the material.
. Interpretation
Interpretation - The determination of the source and relevancy of an ultrasonic indication.
of radiographs takes place in three basic steps: (1) detection, (2) interpretation
Interpretation - The determination of the source and relevancy of an ultrasonic indication.
, and (3) evaluation
Evaluation - The process of deciding the severity of a condition after an indication has been interpreted. Evaluation determines if the test
object should be rejected, repaired or accepted. See indication and interpretation.
. All of these steps make use of the radiographer's visual acuity
Visual Acuity - The space visible to an eye in a given position of gaze.
. Visual acuity
Visual Acuity - The space visible to an eye in a given position of gaze.
is the ability to resolve a spatial pattern in an image. The ability of an individual to detect discontinuities in radiography
Radiography - The process of making a radiograph
is also affected by the lighting condition in the place of viewing, and the experience level for recognizing various features in the image.
The following material was developed to help students develop an understanding of the types of defects found in weldments
eldments - Welded joints.
and how they appear in a radiograph
Radiograph - a photographic recording produced by the passage of radiation through a subject onto a film.
.

Discontinuities
Discontinuities are interruptions in the typical structure of a material. These interruptions may occur in the base metal
Metal - An opaque, lustrous elemental chemical substance that is a good conductor of heat and electricity and, when polished, a good
reflector of light. Most elemental metals are malleable and ductile and are, in general, heavier than the other elemental substances.
, weld material or "heat affected" zones. Discontinuities, which do not meet the requirements of the codes or specifications used to invoke
and control an inspection, are referred to as defects.

General Welding Discontinuities

The following discontinuities are typical of all types of welding.

Cold lap
Lap - A surface defect, appearing as a seam, caused by folding over hot metal, fins or sharp corners and then rolling or forging
them into the surface, but not welding them.
is a condition where the weld filler metal
Metal - An opaque, lustrous elemental chemical substance that is a good conductor of heat and electricity and, when polished, a good
reflector of light. Most elemental metals are malleable and ductile and are, in general, heavier than the other elemental substances.
does not properly fuse with the base metal
Metal - An opaque, lustrous elemental chemical substance that is a good conductor of heat and electricity and, when polished, a good
reflector of light. Most elemental metals are malleable and ductile and are, in general, heavier than the other elemental substances.

https://www.nde-ed.org/NDETechniques/Radiography/TechCalibrations/RadiographInterp.xhtml 1/13
8/20/23, 5:02 PM Nondestructive Evaluation Techniques : Radiography

or the previous weld pass material (interpass cold lap). The arc does not melt the base metal
Metal - An opaque, lustrous elemental chemical substance that is a good conductor of heat and electricity and, when polished, a good
reflector of light. Most elemental metals are malleable and ductile and are, in general, heavier than the other elemental substances.
sufficiently and causes the slightly molten puddle to flow into the base material without bonding.

Porosity
Porosity - The property of being porous.
is the result of gas entrapment in the solidifying metal
Metal - An opaque, lustrous elemental chemical substance that is a good conductor of heat and electricity and, when polished, a good
reflector of light. Most elemental metals are malleable and ductile and are, in general, heavier than the other elemental substances.
. Porosity
Porosity - The property of being porous.
can take many shapes on a radiograph
Radiograph - a photographic recording produced by the passage of radiation through a subject onto a film.
but often appears as dark round or irregular spots or specks appearing singularly, in clusters, or in rows. Sometimes, porosity
ty - The property of being porous.
is elongated and may appear to have a tail. This is the result of gas attempting to escape while the metal
tal - An opaque, lustrous elemental chemical substance that is a good conductor of heat and electricity and, when polished, a good
ector of light. Most elemental metals are malleable and ductile and are, in general, heavier than the other elemental substances.
is still in a liquid state and is called wormhole porosity
Porosity - The property of being porous.
. All porosity
Porosity - The property of being porous.
is a void in the material and it will have a higher radiographic density
Density - The mass of a substance per unit volume.
than the surrounding area.

Cluster porosity
orosity - The property of being porous.
is caused when flux coated electrodes are contaminated with moisture. The moisture turns into a gas when heated and becomes trapped
in the weld during the welding process. Cluster porosity
Porosity - The property of being porous.
appear just like regular porosity
orosity - The property of being porous.
in the radiograph
Radiograph - a photographic recording produced by the passage of radiation through a subject onto a film.
but the indications will be grouped close together.

https://www.nde-ed.org/NDETechniques/Radiography/TechCalibrations/RadiographInterp.xhtml 2/13
8/20/23, 5:02 PM Nondestructive Evaluation Techniques : Radiography

Slag inclusions
Slag Inclusions - Nonmetallic solid material entrapped in weld metal or between weld metal and base metal.
are nonmetallic solid material entrapped in weld metal
Weld Metal - That portion of a weld which has been melted during welding.
or between weld and base metal
Metal - An opaque, lustrous elemental chemical substance that is a good conductor of heat and electricity and, when polished, a good
reflector of light. Most elemental metals are malleable and ductile and are, in general, heavier than the other elemental substances.
. In a radiograph
Radiograph - a photographic recording produced by the passage of radiation through a subject onto a film.
, dark, jagged asymmetrical shapes within the weld or along the weld joint areas are indicative of slag inclusions
Slag Inclusions - Nonmetallic solid material entrapped in weld metal or between weld metal and base metal.
.

Incomplete penetration
Incomplete Penetration - Welding root penetration which is less than complete or failure of a root pass and backing pass to fuse
with each other.
(IP) or lack of penetration (LOP) occurs when the weld metal
Weld Metal - That portion of a weld which has been melted during welding.
fails to penetrate the joint. It is one of the most objectionable weld discontinuities. Lack of penetration allows a natural stress
Stress - Force per unit area, often thought of as a force acting through a small area within a plane. It can be divided into components,
perpendicular and parallel to the plane, called normal stress and shear stress, respectively. Usually expressed as pounds per square inc
(psi), or megapascals (MPa).
riser from which a crack
A long narrow discontinuity
may propagate. The appearance on a radiograph
Radiograph - a photographic recording produced by the passage of radiation through a subject onto a film.
is a dark area with well-defined, straight edges that follows the land or root face down the center of the weldment.

https://www.nde-ed.org/NDETechniques/Radiography/TechCalibrations/RadiographInterp.xhtml 3/13
8/20/23, 5:02 PM Nondestructive Evaluation Techniques : Radiography

Incomplete fusion
Incomplete Fusion - Welding fusion which is less than compete. Failure of weld metal to fuse completely with the base metal or
preceding bead.
is a condition where the weld filler metal
Metal - An opaque, lustrous elemental chemical substance that is a good conductor of heat and electricity and, when polished, a good
reflector of light. Most elemental metals are malleable and ductile and are, in general, heavier than the other elemental substances.
does not properly fuse with the base metal
Metal - An opaque, lustrous elemental chemical substance that is a good conductor of heat and electricity and, when polished, a good
reflector of light. Most elemental metals are malleable and ductile and are, in general, heavier than the other elemental substances.
. Appearance on radiograph
Radiograph - a photographic recording produced by the passage of radiation through a subject onto a film.
: usually appears as a dark line or lines oriented in the direction of the weld seam along the weld preparation or joining area.

Internal concavity or suck back is a condition where the weld metal

Weld Metal - That portion of a weld which has been melted during welding.
has contracted as it cools and has been drawn up into the root of the weld. On a radiograph
Radiograph - a photographic recording produced by the passage of radiation through a subject onto a film.
it looks similar to a lack of penetration but the line has irregular edges and it is often quite wide in the center of the weld image.

Internal or root undercut

Undercut - In welding, a groove melted into the base metal adjacent to the toe, or edge, of a weld and left unfilled.
is an erosion
Erosion - Destruction of metals or other materials by the abrasive action of moving fluids, usually accelerated by the presence of solid
particles of matter in suspension. When corrosion occurs simultaneously, the term erosion-corrosion is often used.
of the base metal
Metal - An opaque, lustrous elemental chemical substance that is a good conductor of heat and electricity and, when polished, a good
reflector of light. Most elemental metals are malleable and ductile and are, in general, heavier than the other elemental substances.
next to the root of the weld. In the radiographic image it appears as a dark irregular line offset from the centerline of the weldment.
Undercutting is not as straight edged as LOP because it does not follow a ground edge.

https://www.nde-ed.org/NDETechniques/Radiography/TechCalibrations/RadiographInterp.xhtml 4/13
8/20/23, 5:02 PM Nondestructive Evaluation Techniques : Radiography

External or crown undercut

Undercut - In welding, a groove melted into the base metal adjacent to the toe, or edge, of a weld and left unfilled.
is an erosion
Erosion - Destruction of metals or other materials by the abrasive action of moving fluids, usually accelerated by the presence of solid
particles of matter in suspension. When corrosion occurs simultaneously, the term erosion-corrosion is often used.
of the base metal
Metal - An opaque, lustrous elemental chemical substance that is a good conductor of heat and electricity and, when polished, a good
reflector of light. Most elemental metals are malleable and ductile and are, in general, heavier than the other elemental substances.
next to the crown of the weld. In the radiograph
Radiograph - a photographic recording produced by the passage of radiation through a subject onto a film.
, it appears as a dark irregular line along the outside edge of the weld area.

Offset or mismatch are terms associated with a condition where two pieces being welded together are not properly aligned. The
radiographic image shows a noticeable difference in density
Density - The mass of a substance per unit volume.
between the two pieces. The difference in density
y - The mass of a substance per unit volume.
is caused by the difference in material thickness. The dark, straight line is caused by the failure of the weld metal
Weld Metal - That portion of a weld which has been melted during welding.
to fuse with the land area.

Inadequate weld reinforcement is an area of a weld where the thickness of weld metal
Weld Metal - That portion of a weld which has been melted during welding.
deposited is less than the thickness of the base material. It is very easy to determine by radiograph
Radiograph - a photographic recording produced by the passage of radiation through a subject onto a film.
if the weld has inadequate reinforcement, because the image density
Density - The mass of a substance per unit volume.
in the area of suspected inadequacy will be higher (darker) than the image density
Density - The mass of a substance per unit volume.
of the surrounding base material.
https://www.nde-ed.org/NDETechniques/Radiography/TechCalibrations/RadiographInterp.xhtml 5/13
8/20/23, 5:02 PM Nondestructive Evaluation Techniques : Radiography

Excess weld reinforcement is an area of a weld that has weld metal

Weld Metal - That portion of a weld which has been melted during welding.
added in excess of that specified by engineering drawings and codes. The appearance on a radiograph
Radiograph - a photographic recording produced by the passage of radiation through a subject onto a film.
is a localized, lighter area in the weld. A visual inspection will easily determine if the weld reinforcement is in excess of that specified by
the engineering requirements.

Cracks can be detected in a radiograph

Radiograph - a photographic recording produced by the passage of radiation through a subject onto a film.
only when they are propagating in a direction that produces a change in thickness that is parallel to the x-ray beam. Cracks will appear as
jagged and often very faint irregular lines. Cracks can sometimes appear as "tails" on inclusions or porosity
Porosity - The property of being porous.
.

Discontinuities in TIG welds

The following discontinuities are unique to the TIG welding process. These discontinuities occur in most metals welded by the process,
including aluminum and stainless steels. The TIG method of welding produces a clean homogeneous weld which when radiographed is
easily interpreted.

Tungsten
Tungsten - A metal commonly used to make the plugs used for connecting metal wires to one another or to the devices in
integrated circuits.
inclusions. Tungsten
Tungsten - A metal commonly used to make the plugs used for connecting metal wires to one another or to the devices in integrated
circuits.
is a brittle and inherently dense material used in the electrode
Electrode - An electrical conductor, usually of metal or graphite, that leads current into or out of a solution (electrolyte).

https://www.nde-ed.org/NDETechniques/Radiography/TechCalibrations/RadiographInterp.xhtml 6/13
8/20/23, 5:02 PM Nondestructive Evaluation Techniques : Radiography

in tungsten
Tungsten - A metal commonly used to make the plugs used for connecting metal wires to one another or to the devices in integrated
circuits.
inert gas welding. If improper welding procedures are used, tungsten
Tungsten - A metal commonly used to make the plugs used for connecting metal wires to one another or to the devices in integrated
circuits.
may be entrapped in the weld. Radiographically, tungsten
Tungsten - A metal commonly used to make the plugs used for connecting metal wires to one another or to the devices in integrated
circuits.
is more dense than aluminum or steel, therefore it shows up as a lighter area with a distinct outline on the radiograph
Radiograph - a photographic recording produced by the passage of radiation through a subject onto a film.
.

Oxide inclusions are usually visible on the surface of material being welded (especially aluminum). Oxide inclusions are less dense than
the surrounding material and, therefore, appear as dark irregularly shaped discontinuities in the radiograph
Radiograph - a photographic recording produced by the passage of radiation through a subject onto a film.
.

Discontinuities in Gas Metal Arc Welds (GMAW)

The following discontinuities are most commonly found in GMAW welds.

Whiskers are short lengths of weld electrode

Electrode - An electrical conductor, usually of metal or graphite, that leads current into or out of a solution (electrolyte).
wire, visible on the top or bottom surface of the weld or contained within the weld. On a radiograph
Radiograph - a photographic recording produced by the passage of radiation through a subject onto a film.
they appear as light, "wire like" indications.

Burn-Through results when too much heat causes excessive weld metal
Weld Metal - That portion of a weld which has been melted during welding.
to penetrate the weld zone. Often lumps of metal
Metal - An opaque, lustrous elemental chemical substance that is a good conductor of heat and electricity and, when polished, a good
reflector of light. Most elemental metals are malleable and ductile and are, in general, heavier than the other elemental substances.
sag through the weld, creating a thick globular condition on the back of the weld. These globs of metal
Metal - An opaque, lustrous elemental chemical substance that is a good conductor of heat and electricity and, when polished, a good
reflector of light. Most elemental metals are malleable and ductile and are, in general, heavier than the other elemental substances.
are referred to as icicles. On a radiograph
Radiograph - a photographic recording produced by the passage of radiation through a subject onto a film.
, burn-through appears as dark spots, which are often surrounded by light globular areas (icicles).

https://www.nde-ed.org/NDETechniques/Radiography/TechCalibrations/RadiographInterp.xhtml 7/13
8/20/23, 5:02 PM Nondestructive Evaluation Techniques : Radiography

Nondestructive Evaluation Techniques > Radiography Testing > Radiograph Interpretation - Castings

Radiograph Interpretation - Castings

The major objective of radiographic testing of castings is the disclosure of defects that adversely affect the strength of the product.
Castings are a product form that often receive radiographic inspection since many of the defects produced by the casting process are
volumetric in nature, and are thus relatively easy to detect with this method. These discontinuities of course, are related to casting process
deficiencies, which, if properly understood, can lead to accurate accept-reject decisions as well as to suitable corrective measures. Since
different types and sizes of defects have different effects of the performance of the casting, it is important that the radiographer
Radiographer - Any individual who performs or who, in attendance at the site where the sealed source or sources are being used,
personally supervises radiographic operations and who is responsible to the licensee for assuring compliance with the requirements of
these regulations and the conditions of the licenses.
is able to identify the type and size of the defects. ASTM E155, Standard
Standard - A reference object used as a basis for comparison or calibration. - A concept established by authority, custom or agreement to
serve as a model or rule in the measurement of quantity or the establishment of a practice or procedure.
for Radiographs of castings has been produced to help the radiographer
Radiographer - Any individual who performs or who, in attendance at the site where the sealed source or sources are being used,
personally supervises radiographic operations and who is responsible to the licensee for assuring compliance with the requirements of
these regulations and the conditions of the licenses.
make a better assessment of the defects found in components. The castings used to produce the standard
Standard - A reference object used as a basis for comparison or calibration. - A concept established by authority, custom or agreement to
serve as a model or rule in the measurement of quantity or the establishment of a practice or procedure.
radiographs have been destructively analyzed to confirm the size and type of discontinuities present. The following is a brief description
of the most common discontinuity
Discontinuity - a break in the continuity of a medium or material.
types included in existing reference radiograph
Radiograph - a photographic recording produced by the passage of radiation through a subject onto a film.
documents (in graded types or as single illustrations).

Radiographic Indications for Castings

Gas porosity
Gas Porosity - A cavity caused by entrapped gas. Essentially a smooth-sided
bubble within the metal, where the metal solidified before the gas could
escape to the atmosphere. Also called gas pocket.
or blow holes
Holes - Any void remaining in a specimen as a result of improper
manufacturing processing. Often called gas holes, cavities, or air locks.
are caused by accumulated gas or air which is trapped by the metal
Metal - An opaque, lustrous elemental chemical substance that is a good
conductor of heat and electricity and, when polished, a good reflector of light.
Most elemental metals are malleable and ductile and are, in general, heavier than
the other elemental substances.
. These discontinuities are usually smooth-walled rounded cavities of a spherical,
elongated or flattened shape. If the sprue is not high enough to provide the necessary heat transfer needed to force the gas or air out of
the mold
Mold - A form or cavity into which molten metal is poured to produce a desired shape. Molds may be made of sand, plaster or metal and
frequently require the use of cores and inserts for special applications.
, the gas or air will be trapped as the molten metal
Metal - An opaque, lustrous elemental chemical substance that is a good conductor of heat and electricity and, when polished, a good
reflector of light. Most elemental metals are malleable and ductile and are, in general, heavier than the other elemental substances.

https://www.nde-ed.org/NDETechniques/Radiography/TechCalibrations/RadiographInterp.xhtml 8/13