Histology

Chapter 6
Glands

Secretory Epithelia and Glands

● Epithelial cells that produce and secrete many macromolecules
○ Occur in:
1. Epithelia
Have other major functions
2. Glands
Specialized organs
● Secretory cells:
1. Synthesize macromolecules
2. Store macromolecules
3. Release macromolecules
○ Macromolecules:
1. Proteins
E.g: in pancreas
2. Lipids
E.g: adrenal glands / sebaceous glands
3. Carbohydrates and proteins complexes
E.g: salivary glands
○ Epithelia of mammary glands secrete all 3
● Cells of some glands have small synthetic activity
○ Mostly secrete water and electrolytes
—> Transferred from blood
E.g: sweat glands
● Scattered secretory glands are common in:
1. Simple cuboidal epithelia
2. Simple columnar epithelia
3. Pseudostratified epithelia
○ Also called unicellular glands
● Goblet cells are found plenty on:
1. Lining of small intestine
2. Respiratory tract
 ○ Secrete lubricating mucus
○ Help organs function
● Glands develop from covering epithelia
○ In fetus
○ By:
1. Cell proliferation
2. Growth into underlying connective tissue (penetrate it)
3. Further differentiation
○ Cells may or may not maintain connection with surface epithelium

Gland Exocrine Endocrine

Connection Maintained Lost

Forms duct No duct

Secretion substance Organ specific substances Hormones

E.g: mucus / enzymes

Capillaries Lack Rich

Structure Simple Complex

Secretion Outer surface or to some organs Into blood to reach organ

● Hormones released by endocrine cells are released out of cells into blood vessels to be
distributed around body
○ Target cells are identified by receptors for the hormones
● Endocrine glands have secretory cells arranged as:
1. Irregular cords
2. Rounded follicles
Have lumens for temporary storage of secretory product
 ● Connection of exocrine glands with surface epithelium forms tubular duct
○ Lined with epithelium
○ Deliver secreted material to where it is used
● Epithelium of exocrine glands are arranged as continuous system of many small secretory
portions and ducts
○ Transport secreted product out of glands
● Endocrine cells have thin-walled blood vessels / capillaries next to them
○ Absorb secreted hormones to transport them in blood to target cells
● Secretory units are supported by stroma of connective tissue
○ In both endocrine and exocrine glands
● Connective tissue layers are surrounded by larger ducts in larger glands
○ Form partitions / septa
● Septa separate glands into lobules
○ Branches repeatedly
○ Branching until smallest end reach secretory portions
○ Each lobule has secretary units that are connected to small part of the duct system
○ Enclose gland in capsule
Simple Exocrine Glands
● Ducts do not branch

Class Simple tubular Branched Coiled tubular Acinar / Branched

tubular alveolar acinar

Secretory long Long and Very long and Rounded and Saclike and
portion multiple coiled sac-like multiple

Duct Short and One and wide Long and Large One
straight or (for drainage) cylinder
absent

Examples Colon mucous Uterus glands Sweat glands Small mucous Sebaceous
glands Stomach glands along glands of skin
Intestinal glands urethra
glands (crypt
of Lieberkühn)

Image
Compound Exocrine Glands
● Ducts form several secretary units
○ Converge into larger ducts

Class Tubular Acinar / alveolar Tubuloacinar

Secretory portion Long, coiled, and Sac-like and multiple Tube-like and rounded
multiple

Duct Short or absent Small ducts that Converge into large

converge into large one
one

Examples Duodenum Exocrine pancreas Salivary glands

submucosal mucous
glands of Burnner

Image

● 3D morphology not clear in sections

● Glands:
1. Simple: duct not branched
2. Compound: duct with 2 or more branches
● Secretary portion:
1. Tubular: short or long and coiled
2. Acinar: round and sac-like
○ Can be branched even when duct is unbranched
● Compound glands can have:
1. Branching ducts
2. Multiple secretory portions:
I. Tubular
II. Acinar
III. Tubuloacinar
Secretion Methods
● Done to release products
1. Merocrine secretion
● Secretions leave cell by exocytosis without damaging cell
● Most exocrine glands are merocrine
● Secretion of:
I. Proteins
II. Glycoproteins
● Typical exocytosis from:
I. Membrane bound vesicles
II. Secretory granules
○ At apical ends
● Seen in mammary glands
● Classification:
I. Serous cells
Synthesize proteins (mostly not glycosylated)
E.g: Digestive enzymes
Cells have well developed RER and Golgi
Cells are filled with secretory granules apically at different maturation stages
Stain with basophilic / acidophilic stains
Example:
1. Acini of exocrine pancreas
Acinar cells are roughly pyramidal, apex at lumen
Apical ends are eosinophilic
—> plenty of secretory granules present
Basal ends are basophilic
—> contain nuclei and many RER found there
2. Parotid salivary glands
II. Mucous cells
Have heavily glycosylated glycoproteins
—> mucins
Have water binding properties
Mucous tubules are larger than serous acini
Connective tissue surrounds mucous tubules and duct
Cells have RER and Golgi
Cells are filled with secretory granules apically
Example:
1. Goblet cells of salivary glands
Larger than serous cells
Have flat basal nuclei
Most of cytoplasm is filled with secretory granules
—> contain mucinogen
 ○ Depends on secretory product nature
—> gives distinct staining properties
2. Holocrine secretion
● Accumulation of products continuously by cells
○ As cells enlarge and undergo terminal differentiation (become mature)
○ Cells become filled with product
● Lead to complete cell disruption
○ Separate and disintegrate
● Releases:
I. Product
II. Cell debris / waste
○ Into gland lumen
● Seen in sebaceous glands
○ That produce lipid-rich skin material
○ Adjacent to hair follicles
○ Lipids released protect and lubricate adjacent skin and hair
● Sebaceous glands do not have myoepithelial cells
○ Continuous proliferation in dense inelastic connective tissue capsule forces product
out
3. Apocrine secretion
● Accumulation of product at cell’s apical ends
● Ends squeezed out / extruded
○ To release:
I. Product
II. Small amount of cytoplasm in small amount of cell membrane
○ Membrane-enclosed apical cytoplasm is lost shortly after separation from cell
● Seen in mammary glands
○ In secretion of lipid droplets
● Mucins become hydrated when released from cell
○ Form layer of mucus
● Mucins are hydrophilic
○ Washed from cells in histological preparations
○ Poor / hard staining of secretory granules with eosin
● Oligosaccharides remain in mucinogen granules
○ Allow staining by PAS of mucous cells
● Some salivary glands are seromucous glands
○ Have both serous acini (at base) and mucous tubules with clustered serous cells
 ○ Secrete:
1. Digestive enzymes
2. Watery mucus
Acne Vulgaris
● Primary structure of common acne is holocrine sebaceous glands
● Testosterone (steroid hormone) surge trigger excess holocrine secretion of sebum and
keratin
○ Happen in both genders at puberty
○ Lead to blocked ducts
● Inflammation:
1. Commensal skin bacteria activity
Propionibacterium acnes
2. Blocked ducts
Myoepithelial Cells
● Found at basal ends of secretory epithelial cells
○ Of many exocrine glands
E.g: sweat, lachrymal, salivary, and mammary glands
● Have long processes
○ Embrace acinus
● Bound to basal lamina
○ By hemidesmosomes
● Connected to other cells
○ By:
1. Gap junctions
2. Desmosomes
● They are rich in:
1. Actin filaments
2. Myosins
● Provide strong contraction
○ Help push secretory products from acini into duct system
Endocrine Glands
● Lack myoepithelial cells

Specialized in synthesis of Proteins Steroids

Rich in RER SER

Secretion by Exocytosis Diffusion through membrane

 ● Cytoplasm can be stained
● Lipophilic steroid hormones are secreted for uptake by binding proteins
○ Outside of cell
● Endocrine signaling involves hormone transport in blood to target cell
○ Often in other endocrine glands
● Receptors on cells can be:
1. Paracrine
Very close to the secreting cell
2. Autocrine
On secreting cell itself
● Can be found alone (single) or in small groups
○ In epithelia of:
1. Digestive system
2. Respiratory system
3. Other organs
○ Important but unnoticeable
● Hormones secreted from cells specialized for other functions
E.g: cardiac muscle cells, fat cells
● Pancreas has both endocrine and exocrine cells
● Liver do both functions:
1. Secrete bile into duct system
2. Release products into bloodstream
○ In same cells
Transport Across Epithelia
● Many cells can transport some ions against concentration and electrical potential gradients
● Na+ extruded from cells by Na+/K+-ATPase transmembrane protein (Na+/K+ pump)
○ Allows cell to maintain required intracellular low sodium concentration
—> 5-15 mmol/L intracellularly
—> 140 mmol/L in extracellular fluid
● Some epithelial cells are specialized for transfer of:
1. Ions
By ion pumps
2. Water
By aquaporins
○ In either directions across epithelium
○ Transcellular transport
● Absorption: transport from lumen of organ / duct to capillaries near epithelial basement
membrane
○ Involves movement from apical to basolateral cell membrane domains
E.g: gallbladder epithelium —> concentrate bile
E.g: intestine epithelium obtain water and ions from digestive material
● Secretion: transport in the other direction, from capillaries into lumen
○ Removes water from neighboring interstitial fluid (found around cells) or plasma
○ Releases water into organs
E.g: in many glands and choroid plexus
● Apical occluding junctions maintain tight separation of apical and basolateral domains of
either side of epithelium
○ Prevent:
1. Paracellular diffusion
2. Backflow
● Kidney tubules epithelium are important sites of ion and water transport
○ Allow:
1. Maintenance of salts and water balance (ionic balance)
2. Excretion of excess water and salts in urine
○ Cells are specialized for transcellular transport
○ Lumen’s apical surface is freely permeable to Na+
○ Basolateral membranes have sodium pumps
—> for active extrusion of Na+ into interstitial fluid outside tubules
● Passive transfer of Cl- ion and water into cells maintain osmotic and electrical balance
○ Basal membrane is folded
—> mitochondria between folds for ATP supply for Na+/K+ pump
○ Lateral membrane folded between cells
—> intertwined to increase transport surface area more
● All cells can internalize extracellular molecules and fluids
○ Using:
1. Endocytosis
2. Cytoplasmic formation of membrane bound vesicles
○ Activity clearly seen in squamous epithelial cells lining:
1. Blood and lymphatic capillaries (endothelia)
2. Body cavities (mesothelia)
● Thin squamous cells have few organelles that cross them in both directions
○ Have many pinocytotic vesicles
—> Release contents on opposite side by exocytosis
 ● Transcytosis happen between apical and basolateral membranes
○ In simple cuboidal and columnar epithelial cells
○ Important in many physiological processes
Epithelial Cells Renewal
● Epithelial tissues are labile (can easily change)
○ Cells renew continuously by mitosis of stem cells found at basal layer in contact with
basal lamina
—> in stratified epithelium
○ Rate of regeneration varies
—> fast in intestinal epithelium —> replaced weekly
—> slow in large glands
● In some epithelia that have complex functions, stem cells are found in restricted locations
○ Away from transit amplifying cells (stem cells that differentiate a finite number) and
differentiating cells
E.g: epithelium lining small intestine comes from stem cells found in simple glands between
intestinal villi
E.g: stem cells in epidermis are found along hair follicles wall
● Epithelia can repair fastly and replace damaged and apoptotic cells
● Mitotic activity is rare in large glands (like liver)
○ Renewal happens after major organ damage
○ Undamaged cells begin proliferation to regenerate some of the tissue with normal
function
—> When part of liver tissue is removed surgically or by effect of toxins,
Tumors
● Both benign and malignant can rise from most epithelial cells types
● Carcinomas: malignant tumors of epithelial origins
● Adenocarcinomas: malignant tumors from glandular epithelial tissue
○ Most common tumor in adults > 45 years old
● Dysplasia: abnormal growth of epithelial cells
● Neoplasia: precancerous growth
○ Early neoplasia can be reversed and does not always cause cancer
● Metaplasia: epithelial cells that transform into another type
○ Reversible
● Ciliated pseudostratified epithelium that line bronchi can transform to stratified squamous
epithelium
○ In heavy smokers