Introduction

Grammar is a course which teaches to students about Basic English lessons and the ways
How to use words in an appropriate sentence to make meaningful communication therefore this course will
lead you to a very pleasant and challenging journey where you can get the experience of the process of
learning English grammar need of English grammar English as an accountant.
English Speaking or writing is a terrorized and fearful thought, especially for a lot of students and young
chartered accountants. English, as lot of us believe is our weak forte and we all struggle to find it difficult to
communicate in this language. The prime reason for this fear is because English is not our first language of
communication and whatever is not base/prime, cause fear and doesn’t let us perform our best.
Those speaking is something many of us strive to make better, not many people work on improving their
grammar and therefore, when you start to write in English you are bound to make mistakes.
Imagine a situation when instead of using ‘their’ you used ‘there’ which effectively changes the meaning of
that sentence. A very embarrassing situation to be in.This can happen with you in many communication, be
it your CV or be it an email to prospective employer or to be any email to your client. And if your person
communication happens to be read by a person who is very particular regarding grammar, when you bound
to doom. Imagine what kind of impression would you leave on the person who received your
communication and the mental image he/she would frame for you as a person,. There is tendency to judge to
others by the way they right and I can assure you of not be in good books of such people if you do not
correct grammar.
So, why not to try and make improvement in us so that we use absolutely correct grammar and make very
good impression of others. Trust me this will go a long way in creating a brilliant and help you create very
brand of yourself.
Why grammar????
Writing in accounting practice is essential. This course teaches how to apply the rules of grammar to your
writing so that you can produce clear, accurate and engaging text, using the right words and constructing the
right prose.

Grammar and effective writing for accountants helps you to discover the underlying rules and conventions
of writing. The course allows you to consider the impact of your writing decisions and to develop your own
writing and editing skills.

On completion of this online course, you will gain an understanding of:

• the rules of writing and how to apply them

• how to craft effective sentences and paragraphs
• how to generate clear, accurate and engaging writing
• the common writing errors and how to correct them
• Why it is important to use the correct grammar and punctuation.

Tips and tricks to improve your English grammar

 Parts of Speech
Words are divided into different classes, called parts of speech, according to their uses; that is, according to
the work they do in the sentence.
The term ‘parts of speech’ refers to the classification of words into eight groups, that is, nouns, pronouns,
adjectives, verbs, adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions and interjections. It is easy to know the definition of
each of these groups but it is better to understand them in the proper context because these groups of words
function together to communicate meaning. The following short paragraph about fuels helps in
understanding how these word groups are used:
“Fuels can be classified according to the phases, solids, liquids or gas, in which they are available. A
gaseous fuel is most convenient to burn while a liquid fuel requires initial heating to vaporize it before the
combustion begins. A solid fuel requires much more initial heating to ignite. In addition, it requires special
equipment to handle it and to dispose off the ash formed.”
This paragraph has 64 words. If the words in this paragraph are classified, we will find all the parts of
speech except interjection, which is normally more commonly used while speaking. We also find a few
words known as articles, which are traditionally not included in the parts of speech, but definitely form an
important word class.
Exhibit 1 contains most of words used in this paragraph to understand the way they can be grammatically
classified into parts of speech:

Examples Function Word Class

Fuels, phases, solid, liquid, Words that name NOUNS
gas, heating, combustion,
equipment, ash, they, it Used for other nouns PRONOUNS
Available, convenient, initial, Qualify, modify, or add to ADJECTIVES
special the meaning of a noun
Can, classified, are, is, burn, Express action / condition, or VERBS
requires
Vaporise, begins, ignite, Tell/assert something
handle, dispose
Most, much Qualify, modify, or add to ADVERBS
the meaning of all the words
except a noun
To, in, before, of Show their relationship to PREPOSITIONS
other words
Or, which, while, in addition, Connect words, phrases, or CONJUNCTIONS
and sentences INTERJECTIONS

From the example given above, it is clear that each word class has a particular function, that is, nouns and
pronouns name something; verbs asser6the example given above, it is clear that each word class has a
particular function, that is, nouns and pronouns name something; verbs assert; adjectives and adverbs
modify other words; prepositions show relationships; and conjunctions connect words, phrases and
sentences. This understanding may help us use them more effectively.
The various types of parts of speech are as follows:
 Let us discuss each of these in detail:
1. Noun - Nouns refer to persons, animals, places, things, ideas, or events, etc. Nouns encompass most
of the words of a language.

Noun can be a/an -

i. Person – a name for a person: - Max, Julie, Catherine, Michel, Bob, etc.
ii. Animal – a name for an animal: - dog, cat, cow, kangaroo, etc.
iii. Place – a name for a place: - London, Australia, Canada, Mumbai, etc.
iv. Thing – a name for a thing: - bat, ball, chair, door, house, computer, etc.
v. Idea – A name for an idea: - devotion, superstition, happiness, excitement, etc.
The types of noun are as follows:

Let us understand each of the above in detail:

a. Proper Noun: A proper noun is a name which refers only to a single person,
place, or thing and there is no common name for it. In written English, a
proper noun always begins with capital letters.
Example of Proper Noun:
• Alex is a wonderful player.
• He plays for Sydney Sixers.
• He was born in England.
• He moved to Australia when he was young.
• He lives in Sydney.
• He plays for Kolkata in IPL.
• He plays for Dhaka in BPL.
• Michael Clarke is his mentor.
• He has a house across the Georges River.
• He goes for a walk by the river every Monday.
• His friend Max accompanies him.
• Max was born in South Africa.
• He is a fan of Hugh Jackman and the movie Wolverine.
• He has a dog named Poppy.

b. Common Noun: A common noun is a name for something which is common

for many things, person, or places. It encompasses a particular type of things,
person, or places.
Example of Common Noun:
• Alex is a wonderful player.
• Sydney Sixers is the team he plays for.
• He was not born in this country.
• Sydney is the city he lives in.
• He is a man of dream.
• He plays cricket with intensity.
• Michael Clarke is his mentor.
• He has a house across the river.
• He goes for a walk by the river every day.
• His friend accompanies him.
• They talk about movies and celebrities.
• He is a fan of Hugh Jackman and the movie Wolverine.
• He has a dog named Poppy.
• He has a house and a car also.

c. Collective Noun: A collective noun is a word for a group of things, people,

or animals, etc. Example: family, team, jury, cattle, etc. Collective nouns can
be both plural and singular. However, Americans prefer to use collective
nouns as singular, but both of the uses are correct in other parts of the world.

d. Material Noun: A material noun is a name for something which is tangible.

Example:

• I have a cricket bat in my closet.

• The bat is made of wood from a tree.
• My brother has a mobile phone.
• The phone is made of plastic and metal.
• I need some water for the cake.
• The jug is on the table.
• There is also a pen and a diary on it.
• The pen is out of ink.
• Your shirt has a button short.
• This ring is made of gold and diamond.
• The bricks are loose on this wall.
 e. Abstract Noun: An abstract noun is a name for something which is
intangible.

Example:

• Truthfulness is a virtue that is rare nowadays.

• Honesty depends mostly on truthfulness and integrity.
• Childhood is the best time to build it.
• Different people may have different ideas, opinions, and beliefs.
• But some virtues receive universal acknowledgment.
• Courage, bravery, honesty, intelligence, perseverance, etc. are the best of
virtues.
• Kindness, fidelity, justness, faithfulness, optimism, etc. are also good virtues.
• There are also some commonly acknowledged vices.
• Dishonesty, treachery, infidelity, brutality, pessimism, etc. are some of the
vices.
• Hatred, malice, vengefulness, cruelty, spitefulness, etc. are some
negative qualities.
f. Gender Noun: The Noun-Gender tells us about the sex of the noun. In Grammar-Nouns,
there are FOUR GENDERS.
i. Masculine gender: A noun is said to be in the Masculine gender if it refers to
a male character or member of a species. Man, lion, hero, boy, king, horse and
actor are nouns of masculine gender. Example:
 A boy is playing in the play-ground.
 Hero of the movie is not a native of this country.
In these sentences the words “boy" and “hero" are masculine-gender nouns.
ii. Feminine gender: A noun is said to be in the feminine gender if it refers to a
female member of a species. Woman, lioness, heroine, girl, mare, niece,
empress, cow and actress are few of the feminine-gender nouns that we use.
Example:

 A girl is playing in the play-ground.

 Heroine of the movie is not a native of this country.
In these sentences the words “girl" and “heroine" are feminine-gender nouns.

iii. Common gender: A noun is said to be in Common gender if it refers to a

member of species which can be a male or a female. Child, student, friend,
applicant, candidate, servant, member, parliamentarian and leader are few of
the common-gender nouns. Example:
 A child is playing in the play-ground.
 A Parliamentarian should have command over his language.
In these sentences the words, “child" and “parliamentarian" are nouns of
common gender.

iv. Neuter gender: A noun is said to be in the neuter gender if it refers to a

member of a species which is neither a male nor a female. Normally nouns
referring to lifeless objects are in neuter nouns. Chair, table, tree, star,
mountain, street, book, car, school, paper, pencil and computer are few of the
neuter nouns which we use regularly. Example:
 Computer has brought about drastic changes in our lives.
 Tree is cleansing the air.
 Stars are not visible in the day-time.
 Books are our best friends.
In these sentences the words, “computer", “tree", “stars" and “books"
are the neuter-gender nouns.
g. Number Noun: There are two numbers in Noun-Number: Singular and
Plural.
i. Singular: When we speak about one person and one thing, we use the noun
in singular form. Single means one. Plural means many.
Examples:
a. A man is smoking within the premises.
b. A group of cows is called Herd.
c. Joy is what we want in our lives.
d. Church is the worshipping-place of Christians.
e. This chair is made of plastic.
In these sentences, the nouns man, group, joy, church and chair are in singular
forms.
Joy, run, wife, knife, army, hero, ox, life, loaf, baby, city and tooth are few
singular-nouns which we use. We have seen the singular form of Noun-
Number.
The Noun has various dimensions in its usages.
The same Noun can be used in different manner in different contexts.
Let us go to the next form of Noun-Number.

ii. Plural: When we speak about more than one person and one thing, we use
the noun in plural form.
Examples:
a. Few men are standing in the foyer.
b. The groups of cows, coming back to their sheds, are not milch cows.
c. These chairs are made of plastic.
d. Children should be given proper guidance.
e. Keep the knives in a safe place.
In these sentences, the words men, groups, chairs, Children and knives are
plural-nouns.
Joys, runs, wives, knives, armies, heroes, oxen, lives, loaves, babies, cities and
teeth are few singular-nouns which we use.

How to form plural from singular?

1. By suffixing “s” to the singular-noun.
Examples:
• Joy-joys
• Run-runs
• Chair-chairs
• Radio-radios
• Canto-cantos
• Memento - Mementoes
• Dynamo-dynamos
• Piano-pianos
2. By suffixing “es” to the singular-noun
Examples:
• Glass-glasses
• Bench-benches
• Bush-bushes
• Church-churches
• Watch-watches
• Buffalo-buffaloes
• Negro-negroes
• Hero-heroes
• Echo-echoes
• Mango-mangoes
• Potato-potatoes
Noun-Number is another part under Noun.
3. By changing the last letter y into “ies”.
Examples:
• Baby-babies
• Lady-ladies
• Story-stories
• City-cities
• Army-armies
4. By changing the inside vowel of the singular.
Examples:
• Man-men
• Woman-women
• Foot-feet
• Tooth-teeth
• Goose-geese
5. By suffixing “en” to the singular.
Examples:
• Ox-oxen
• Child-children
6. By changing f or fe into ves.
Examples:
• Thief-thieves
• Life-lives
• Wife-wives
• Calf-calves
• Knife-knives
• Wolf-wolves
• Leaf-leaves
• Shelf-shelves
Exceptions:
• Chief-chiefs
• Roof-roofs
• Gulf-gulfs
• Safe-safes
• Proof-proofs
• Hoof-hoofs
7. Singular-nouns from foreign languages retain their original plural.
Examples:
• Erratum-errata
• Index-indices
• Radius-radii
• Formula-formulae (or formulas)
• Axis-axes
• Basis-bases
• Criterion-criteria
• Memorandum-memoranda
• Terminus-termini (or terminuses)
• Hypothesis-hypotheses
• Cherub-cherubim (or cherubs)
• Parenthesis-parentheses
8. By suffixing s to the main word in a compound word.
Examples:
• Commander-in-chief……..commanders-in-chief
• Son-in-law………………sons-in-law
 • Step-son…………………step-sons
• Maid-servant…………….maid-servants
• Passer-by………………..passers-by
• Man-servant……………..men-servant
• Man-servant……………..man-servants
h. Countable and Uncountable Nouns:
a. Countable Nouns: Countable nouns refer to items that can be counted, even if the number might be
extraordinarily high (like counting all the people in the world, for example). Countable nouns can be used
with articles such as a, an and the or quantifiers such as a few and many. Look at the sentence below and
pay particular attention to the countable noun: Here is a cat.
b. Uncountable Nouns: Uncountable nouns are nouns that come in a state or quantity that is
impossible to count; liquids are uncountable, as are things that act like liquids (sand, air). Abstract ideas
like creativity or courage are also uncountable. Uncountable nouns are always considered to be singular,
and can stand alone or be used with some, any, a little, and much. See the examples below for reference:
An I.Q. test measures intelligence.

Exercise I:

Select the correct option:

A. The fairy told the girls she could make three __________. (wish/wishes)
B. Look! The _________ has stolen that man’s hat! (monkey/monkeys)
C. I think her _________ watch far too much television. (child/children)
D. It’s difficult being a ______ these days. (parent/parents)
E. Why do _______ always come in threes? (bus/buses)
F. Does anyone know the _______ to the station?
G. _________ are usually shorter than men. (woman/women)
H. A lot of ________ use this street. (lorry/lorries)
I. He is the sort of ________ you can trust. (person/people)
J. I can hear something in the roof. Have you got _______? (mouse/mice)
K. The __________ they wanted to buy has been sold. (house/houses)
L. The most interesting _______ I have visited are in Asia. (country/countries)

2. Pronouns: A pronoun is used in place of a specific noun mentioned earlier in a sentence so that you
don’t have to keep saying/writing that particular noun.
Example:
• Michael is a good boy. He gets up early in the morning. (Here, you don’t have to mention
‘Michael’ again)
• The coach selected several key points. He wanted the team to memorize them. (‘He’
replaces ‘the coach’; ‘them’ replaces ‘several key points’)
The word or phrase that a pronoun replaces is called the antecedent of the pronoun. In the previous
example, original noun ‘the coach’ is the antecedent and the pronoun ‘he’ is the referent because it refers
back to the original noun. The antecedent and the pronoun/s must agree in terms of number and gender.
 Subject Pronoun

Object Pronoun

Reflexive Pronoun

Possessive Pronoun

Demonstrative Pronoun

Intensive Pronoun

Relative Pronoun

Interrogative Pronoun

Types and Examples of Pronouns:

a. Subject Pronouns: Subject pronouns work as the subject of the verb in a sentence. A subject
pronoun normally replaces the subject/object (a noun) of the previous sentence. Example:
• Mike can’t attend the party. He has gone to his grandparents.
• Marta is a good storyteller. She told a ghost story that scared everyone.
• Julie made some cakes. They look tasty. (Here, the subject pronoun replaced the object of
the previous sentence)

b. Object Pronouns: Object pronouns work as the object or indirect object in a sentence replacing the
antecedent object. This form of the pronoun is also used after prepositions. Example:
• I’ll give you a present on your birthday. I have a great idea for you. (after preposition)
• Tell her that you’ll take the job.
• I have a gift for your boss. Give it to your boss. (Here, ‘it’works as an object)

c. Reflexive Pronouns: Reflexive pronoun redirects a sentence or a clause back to the subject, which is
also the direct object of that sentence. A reflexive pronoun comes when the subject performs its
action upon itself. Here, ‘itself’ is a reflexive pronoun. Example:
• Since she is her own boss, she gave herself a raise. (Here, ‘herself’ is the direct object of the
clause and the same person is the subject)
• She allowed herself more time to get ready.
• The computer restarts itself every night.
• We told ourselves that we were so lucky to be alive.
 d. Possessive Pronouns: Possessive pronouns replace the nouns of the possessive adjectives: my, our,
your, her, his, their. The possessive pronouns are mine, ours, yours, hers, his, its, theirs. The pronoun
‘who’ also has a possessive form, whose. Example:
• I thought my bag was lost, but the one Kesrick found was mine. (Here, ‘mine’ refers to
‘my bag’)
• Their vacation will start next week. Ours is tomorrow. (Here, ‘ours’ refers to ‘our
vacation’)
• Those four suitcases are ours.
• Is this yours?
• You have to take either her car or theirs. Hers is better than theirs. (Here, ‘her’ is possessive
adjective and ‘hers’ and ‘theirs’ are possessive pronouns which replaced ‘her car’ and ‘their
car’)
e. Demonstrative Pronouns: Demonstrative pronouns normally indicate the closeness of or distance
from the speaker, either literally or symbolically. This, these, that, and those are the demonstrative
pronouns. They also work as demonstrative adjectives when they modify a noun. However,
demonstrative pronouns do not modify anything rather replace the nouns/noun phrases.
Sometimes neither, none and such are also used as demonstrative pronouns. Example:
• That is a long way to go. (demonstrative pronoun)
• This is my car. (demonstrative pronoun)
• Hand me that cricket bat. (demonstrative adjective)
• Neither is permitted to enter the building.
• Such are ways of life.

f. Intensive Pronouns: Intensive pronouns add emphasis/importance but do not act as the object in the
sentence. They can appear right after the subject. Example:
• I will do it myself. (Here, ‘myself’ is not an object)
• I myself saw the missing boat into the harbor.
• We intend to do all the work ourselves.
• You yourselves are responsible for this mess.

g. Relative Pronouns: Relative pronouns introduce the relative clause. They are used to make clear
what is being talked about in a sentence. They describe something more about the subject or the
object. The relative pronouns are:

Subject Object Possession Uncertainty

Which Which Whose Whichever ---- (for things)

That That ---- (for both things and people)

Who Whom Whose Whoever/whomever/whosever ---- (for person)

Example:
 • The car that was stolen was the one they loved most.
• A person who loves nature is a good person.
• Our school, which was founded in 1995, is being renovated.
• I will accept whichever party dress you buy me on Valentine's Day.
• Whoever you are behind this great initiative, I want to thank you.

h. Interrogative Pronouns: Interrogative pronouns produce questions. They are what, which, who,
whom, and whose. Who, whom, and whose refer to questions related to a person or
animal; what refers to an idea, object, or event; and which can indicate either a person/s or a thing/s.
Examples:
• What was the name of your dog?
• Which is your favorite movie?
• Who works for you?
• Whom do you prefer in this competition?
• There’s a new bike on the lawn. Whose is it?

Pronoun Chart

Subject Object Possessive Possessive Reflexive

Pronouns Pronouns Adjectives Pronouns Pronouns
1st Person I Me My Mine myself
2nd Person You You Your Yours yourself
3rd Person He Him His His Himself
(Male)
3rd Person She Her Her Hers herself
(Female)
3rd Person It It Its (not used) itself
1st Person We Us Our Ours ourselves
(Plural)
2nd Person You You Your Yours yourselves
(Plural)
3rd Person They Them Their Theirs themselves
(Plural)
Exercise II:

Put the correct pronoun in the given box in the following sentences:

He, her, him, I, it, she, them, they, us, we, you

1. I’m Sheila and this is Ram, my husband. ______ live near new Market.
2. My aunt’s coming to stay next week. I hope ______ brings me a present.
3. Would _________ like anything for dessert, Madam?
4. I bought this laptop last week and now ______ doesn’t work.
5. Salem’s quit his job. Is _____ thinking of starting a business?
6. My name is Mohan and _______ am going to be your guide for today.
7. I don’t know why I invited the Sharmas. _______ don’t really like parties.
8. Ladies and gentleman, could _______ all listen for a minute?
9. Listen here’s my number. Call _______ if you need any help.
10. Where do you want these bags? Shall I put _______ over here?
11. Don’t worry, he’s a bit strange sometimes. Just ignore _______.
12. Have you talked to a lawyer? _______ can tell you your rights.
 13. We’re going for something to eat. Do you want to come with _______?
14. I wanted to talk to someone in charge and tell _______ how I felt?
15. Where is Rani? Have you seen ______ today?

3. Articles: The words a, an and the are usually called articles. They are called articles as they have
some special significance as the part of speech. There are two types of articles:

Article

Definite Indefinite
Article Article

The A An

• If we wish to particularize the Noun, we use the Definite Article: Let us bathe in the river.
(i.e., a particular noun).
The Doctor came here. (The doctor means a particular doctor).
• If we wish to generalise the noun, we use the Indefinite Article:
A tiger lives in a forest. (i.e., any tiger or tigers and any forest or forests – in general sense).
An ox is running on the road. (Here an ox, i.e. not any particular ox, is running on a
particular road).

• Use of Articles:
As a general rule, a Common Noun in the Singular Number must have an Article before it:
Definite Article: We cannot say, “I have seen boy.” We must say “I have seen a boy or the boy.”
But a Common Noun in the Plural Number does not require the Definite Article ‘the’, unless we
wish to particularize the noun: Boys (= boys generally) are fond of sweets. The boys (= those
already referred to, or those boys before us) are playing football.
Indefinite Article: A or An only for singular number but for all genders. The choice between A and
An is determined by sound. A is used before a word beginning with a Consonant sound and An is
used before a word beginning with a vowel sound.

Vowel Sound – a-e-i-o-u

A (A before Consonant Sound) An (An before Vowel Sound)
A boy A lion An ass An elephant
A book A mango An ant An inkpot
A bag A student An apple An ice-cream
A cat A woman An arm An idiot
A chair A table An egg An ox
A tiger A dog An ear An orange
 A tree A girl An eye An umbrella

Special Use
‘A’ before Vowel sounding as ‘yu’ / ‘wa’ ‘An’ before Consonant sounding as Vowel
A European An hour (h silent)
A union An honest man (h silent)
A university An H. S. School
A U. S. Plane An M. A.
A useful book An M. Sc.
A unique scene An N. C. C.
A one rupee note An M. P.
A one-eyed deer An M. L. A.

Exercise III:
Complete the following sentences by filling in “a”, “an” or “the” as may be suitable.
1. _________ Eskimos make houses of snow and ice.
2. English is ________language of _______people of England.
3. Yesterday _________ European called at my office.
4. ______ pupil should obey his teacher.
5. People all over ____ world have heard about _____ Eiffel Tower.
6. _____ scientist should word for ______ progress of mankind.
7. I always treasure _____ advice given by my grandparents.
8. Do you know how to tune _____ guitar?
9. ______ vast ocean looked calm at night.
10. _______ Secretary and Treasurer is absent.
11. He is not _____ honorable man.
12. _____ sun shines brightly.
13. Rustum is _____ young Parsee.
14. You are _____ fool to say that.
15. French is _____ easy language.
16. Who is _____ girl sitting there?
17. Man, thou art _____ wonderful animal.
18. Which is _____ longest river in India?
19. The world is _____ happy place.
20. Yesterday _____ European called at my office.

4. Verbs: Verbs are words that express action or state of being. There are three types of verbs: action
verbs, linking verbs, and helping verbs.
 Action
Verbs
•Transitive
•Intransitive

Types
of Verbs
Helping Linking
Verbs Verbs

a. Action Verbs: Action verbs are words that express action (give, eat, walk, etc.) or possession
(have, own, etc.). Action verbs can be either transitive or intransitive.
i. Transitive Verbs: A transitive verb always has a noun that receives the action
of the verb, called the direct object. EXAMPLE: Laurissa raises her hand.
The verb is raises. Her hand is the object receiving the verb’s action.
Therefore, raises is a transitive verb. Transitive verbs sometimes have
indirect objects, which name the object to whom or for whom the action was
done. EXAMPLE: Abdus gave Becky the pencil. The verb is gave. The direct
object is the pencil. (What did he give? The pencil.) The indirect object is
Becky. (To whom did he give it? To Becky.)
ii. Intransitive Verbs: An intransitive verb never has a direct or indirect
object. Although an intransitive verb may be followed by an adverb or
adverbial phrase, there is no object to receive its action. EXAMPLE:
Laurissa rises slowly from her seat. The verb is rises. The phrase, slowly
from her seat, modifies the verb, but no object receives the action.
Transitive or Intransitive? To determine whether a verb is transitive or intransitive, follow these two steps:
1. Find the verb in the sentence.
EXAMPLE 1: Dustin will lay down What is the action? will lay
his book.
EXAMPLE 2: His book will lie there What is the action? will lie
all day.

2. Ask yourself, “What is receiving the action of the verb?” If there is a noun receiving the action of the
verb, then the verb is transitive. If there is no direct object to receive the action, and if the verb does not
make sense with a direct object, then it is intransitive.
EXAMPLE 1: Dustin will lay Dustin will lay his book. Since the verb
down his book. down what? can take a direct
object, it is
transitive.
EXAMPLE 2: His book will lie His book will lie nothing. It does not make
there all day. what? sense to “lie
something.”
Since the verb
has no direct
object, it is
intransitive.
b. Linking Verbs: A linking verb connects the subject of a sentence to a noun or adjective that
renames or describes the subject. This noun or adjective is called the subject complement. EXAMPLE:
Jason became a business major. The verb, became, links the subject, Jason, to its complement, a business
major. Lisa is in love with Jason.
The verb, is, links the subject, Lisa, to the subject complement, in love with Jason (describing Lisa).
The most common linking verb is the verb to be in all of its forms (am, are, is, was, were, etc.). This verb
may also be used as a helping verb (see next section). To become and to seem are always linking verbs.
Other verbs may be linking verbs in some cases and action verbs in others:

to appear to feel to look to remain to stay to taste

to continue to grow to prove to sound to smell to turn

LINKING: Libby appeared happy. (Appeared links Libby to the subject complement, happy.)
ACTION: Deon suddenly appeared. (Here, appeared is an intransitive action verb.)
c. Helping Verbs: Helping verbs are used before action or linking verbs to convey additional
information regarding aspects of possibility (can, could, etc.) or time (was, did, has, etc.). The main verb
with its accompanying helping verb is called a verb phrase. EXAMPLES: Teju is (helping verb) going
(main verb) to Florida. The trip might (helping verb) be (main verb) dangerous. The following words, called
modals, always function as helping verbs:
can may must shall will
could might ought to should would
EXAMPLES: Tanya could learn to fly helicopters. (Could helps the main verb, learn.)
Janine will drive to Idaho tomorrow. (Will helps the main verb, drive.)

In addition, the following forms of the verbs to be, to do, and to have sometimes serve as helping verbs.
(Note: In other cases, they may serve as action or linking verbs.)

am be being do had have was

are been did does has is were

HELPING: Jana is moving to a new house.

LINKING: Jana is ready to go.
HELPING: Dustin did eat his vegetables!
ACTION: Dustin did his homework last night.

5. Adjectives: We use adjectives to describe nouns. Most adjectives can be used in front of a Noun or
after a link verb. Example:
a. They have a beautiful house.
b. We saw a very exciting film last night.
c. Their house is beautiful.
d. That film looks interesting.
Forms of Adjectives:
a. Adjectives are generally invariable in English and do not agree with nouns in number and gender.
Example: a blue car, the great outdoors, a group of old men.
b. A few adjectives have a connotation which is slightly masculine or feminine. Example: We say that
the women is beautiful while a man would be handsome.
c. Adjectives indicating Religion or Nationality generally begin with a capital letter, whether they refer
to people or objects. Example: She is an Indian. They go to Catholic School. They enjoy Carnatic
music.
Usage of Adjectives:
The adjective will be placed, with very few exceptions, in front of the noun it modifies. When two
adjectives precede a noun, they can be connected by a comma (,) or by the conjunction “and”. In a series
of three or more adjectives, one usually uses “and” before the last adjective in the list. Examples:
 a. I like short novels.
b. That fellow will be a competent worker.
c. She writes long and flowery letters.
d. He works long, hard hours.
e. She had a mean, old and overbearing step-mother.
An adjective may follow the noun when it is in a predicate (after the verb) or in a relative clause. In
relative clauses the relative pronoun may be implicit. Examples:
a. He was a man (who was) always happy to help others.
b. She is a woman (who is) true to herself.
c. They were entirely satisfied.

The basic types of adjectives

An opinion adjective explains what you think about something(other people may not
Opinion
agree with you)an interesting movie , an exciting journey

A size adjective, of course, tells you how big or small something is. For example :
Size
large , tiny , enormous , little a large house , a big car

An age adjective, tells you how young or old something or someone is.
Age
For Example: ancient, new, young, old and old boat, a young boy.

A shape adjective describes the shape of something. For example : square , round ,
Shape
flat , rectangular an oval carpet , a round table

A colour adjective describes the shape of Something. For example : blue , pink ,
Colour
reddish , grey a grey raincoat , a green door

An origin adjective describes where something comes from. For example : French ,
Origin
lunar , American , eastern , Green French bread , a Japanese town

A material adjective describes what something is made from. For example : wooden
Material
, metal , cotton , paper a plastic bottle , a wooden treasure
A purpose adjective describes what something is used for. These adjectives often
Purpose end with ".ing" for example sleeping (as in "sleeping bag"), roasting (as in "roasting
tin")

Examples

a wonderful old italian clock.(opinion - age - origin)

a big square blue box.(dimension - shape - colour)
a disgusting pink plastic ornament.(opinion - colour - material)
Some slim new French trousers.(dimension - age - origin)

Test

Build a phrase with this noun and these adjectives

1. Book > interesting - small - Spanish
2. House > beautiful – modern – small
 3. Cap > cotton – funny – green

4. Picture > modern – ugly – rectangula

6. Prepositions: A preposition is a word which expresses relationship of a noun or a pronoun to other words of
the sentence.

E.g. ‘in , of , to , at, by , for , with, under , above , into, upon , about, behind, beside, before, after,
towards, inside , outside , below , around ‘are commonly sued example of prepositions.

There are five types of prepositions:

1. Prepositions for Place

2. Preposition for Time
3. Preposition for Direction
4. Preposition for Agent
5. Preposition for Instruments
1. Prepositions for Time:

Prepositions Time Nature

1. Months or Years
E. g. in March , In 2019
2. Particular time of a day or a month or an year
In E. g. in evening , in morning , in the 3rd week of April , in winter , in
Past.
3. A century or a specific time in past or future etc.
E. g. in the 20th century in early days, in the stone age, in future, in past
1. A day
E. g. on Sunday
2. Dates
On
E. g. on 7th of February
3. Particular days
E. g. on my birthday , on Independence Day
1. Time of a Clock
E. g. at 3 O clock , at 4.20 PM
At 2. Short & Precise times
E. g. at Night, at Sunset, at noon, at Lunch Time, at the moment, at bed
time.
Examples:
• She was born in 1986.
• His father died in 2005 in a car accident.
• I was very happy on the first day of my job.
• We went to see the glaciers in the summer.
• The party will start at 8 PM.
• They will come here on 15th February.
• Everyone takes breakfast in the morning.

2. Prepositions for Place

 Prepositions Nature of the Places

Place having some (physical or virtual) boundary

Examples:
In a hall
In a school
In the building
In the box
In
In the car
In a library
In a garden
In England
In a room
In a cupboard
Surface of things
Examples:
On the table
On the blackboard
On
On the page
On a wall
On a roof
On the map
Specific Places:
Examples:
At bus stop
At
At the entrance
At the bottom of glass
At the edge of roof

Examples:
• They live in England.
• They placed their books on a table.
• I met him at the bus stop.
• She waited for her kids at the gate of her home.
• There is a cat under the table.
• They were running on the road.

3. Prepositions for Directions:

These prepositions express the direction of something e.g. into, to, through, towards
Examples:
• They are going to classroom.
• The snake was coming towards her.
• He threw a ball into a river.

4. Prepositions for Agent:

These prepositions are used to express a casual relationship between the noun (doer) and an action. E.g.
by, with, etc.
Examples:
• A nice book was written by John Keats.
• A lot of noise was made by the kids.
• The task was finished by him.
• Some schools have been made by Government.
5. Prepositions for Instrument, Devices or Machines:
 Such prepositions are used for joining nouns (instruments, devices, machines, etc.) to other words in the
sentence. E.g. on, by, with the help of, etc.
Examples:
• He went to home by car.
• This lock cannot be opened with the key.
• She watered the plants with the help of a water-pipe.
• He broke the wall with a hammer.

Adverbs: An adverb is a word used to add something to the meaning of the verb, adjective, or another
adverb, as,
• He worked the sum quickly.
• This flower is very beautiful.
• She pronounced the word quite correctly.

Kinds of Adverbs

There are three kinds of adverbs – Simple, Interrogative and Relative. The vast majority of adverbs
belong to the first group; there are very few adverbs of the second and third types.

Simple Adverbs

Simple adverbs are of very many kinds:

Adverbs of Time

These adverbs answer the question ‘when’. Examples are: tomorrow, today, yesterday, now, then, never,
soon, already, ago, formerly, lately etc.

We are late.
She died two years ago.
I wrote to him yesterday.
Have you seen him before?
May I leave now?
I will soon return.
He will come tomorrow.
I have warned him already.
I haven’t read anything lately.

Adverbs of Place

These adverbs answer the question ‘where’.

Examples are: here, there, upstairs, downstairs, everywhere, nowhere, in, out, inside, away.

We have been living here for several years.

I searched for him everywhere.
They went upstairs.
May I come in?
She came forward.
I decided to go there.

Adverbs of Frequency

These adverbs answer the question ‘how often’. Examples are: again, frequently, always, seldom, hardly,
often, once etc.
You are always welcome.
I have gone there only once.
We visit them frequently.
I often go there.

Adverbs of Number

These adverbs answer the question ‘in what order’.

Examples are: firstly, secondly, lastly, once, never, twice etc.

I have seen him only once.

Secondly, I can’t afford to buy it.

Adverbs of Manner

These adverbs answer the question ‘in what manner’. Examples are: slowly, carefully, terribly, seriously,
well, pleasantly, really, thus etc.

The soldiers fought bravely.

Walk carefully.
I was terribly upset.
He is seriously ill.
She was pleasantly surprised.
She can speak English well.

Adverbs of Degree or Quantity

These adverbs answer the question ‘how much’ or ‘in what degree’.
Examples are: much, very, fully, partly, little, enough, so, rather etc.

He is quite strong.
She is very beautiful.
I am fully prepared.
My work is almost finished.
This is good enough.
You are absolutely right.
He is entirely wrong.
He was rather busy.

Adverbs of reason

These adverbs answer the question ‘why’.

Examples are: therefore, hence, thus, consequently etc.

He did not work hard, therefore, he failed.

Consequently he refused to come.

Adverbs of Affirmation or Negation

Examples are: surely, yes, no, certainly etc.

I will not come.

We will certainly help you.
 Note that when used alone yes or no represents a whole sentence.

Will you come? Yes. (= Yes, I will come.)

Have you finished the work? No. (= No, I haven’t finished the work.)

Interrogative and Relative Adverbs

Adverbs which are used for asking questions are called interrogative adverbs. There are several different
kinds of interrogative adverbs.

Interrogative Adverbs of Time

Examples are: when, how long, how early, how soon etc.

When will you finish this job?

How long will you stay here?
How often do you visit them?
How soon can you begin work?

Interrogative adverbs of Place

Where do you live?

Where has she come from?
Where can I find him?

Interrogative adverbs of number

Examples are: how many, how often, how much

How many students are there in the class?

How often does the committee meet?

Interrogative adverb of manner

Examples are: how

How did you arrive at the conclusion?

How are you doing?
How was the experience?
How did you do it?

Interrogative adverbs of degree or quantity

Examples are: how much, how far, how high etc.

How much did you pay?

How far can you go?
How much more do you want?

Interrogative adverbs of reason

Example: why
Why are you crying?
Why did you quit?
Why do you hate her?
Why do you want to go there?

Relative Adverbs

Read the sentence given below.

Do you know the place where the meeting will be held?

In the sentence given above, where an adverb is as it modifies the verb will be held. It is also a relative as
it connects the two clauses of the sentence and at the same time refers back to its
antecedent place. Where is therefore called a relative adverb. A relative adverb connects an adjective
clause to the main clause.

That was the reason why I decided to resign.

Here why is an adverb as it modifies the verb decided to resign. It is also a relative as it connects the two
clauses of the sentence and at the same time refers back to its antecedent reason. Why is therefore called
a relative adverb because it connects the adjective clause ‘why I decided to resign’ to the main clause
‘that was the reason’.

More examples are given below.

This is the place where the murder was committed.

Notes:

The relative adverb when can be replaced by in which/on which; where can be replaced by in which/at
which; why can be replaced by for which.

I don’t know the place where he lives. (= I don’t know the place at which he lives.)

I don’t know the reason why she hates me. (= I don’t know the reason for which she hates me.)
I still remember the day when he returned home. (= I still remember the day on which he returned home.)

Adverbs of Manner and Link Verbs:

We very often use adverbials with like after link verbs:
• Her hands felt like ice.
• It seems like fresh bread.
But we do not use other adverbials of manner after link verbs. We use adjectives instead:
• They looked happily happy.
• That bread smells deliciously delicious.

Adverbs of Time:
We use adverbials of time to say:
1. When something happened:
• I saw Mary Yesterday.
• She was born in 1978.
• I will see you later.
• There was a storm during the night.
2. For how long:
• We waited all day.
• They have lived here since 2004.
 • We will be on holiday from July 1st until August 3rd.
3. How often (frequency):
• They usually watched television in the evening.
• We sometimes went to work by car.
Adverbs of Probability:
We use adverbials of probability to show how certain we are about something. The most frequent
adverbials of probability are:
Certainly – definitely – maybe – possibly – clearly – obviously – perhaps – probably
Maybe and Perhaps usually come at the beginning of the clause:
• Perhaps the weather will be fine.
• Maybe he won’t come.
Other adverbs of possibility usually come in front of the main verb:
• He is certainly coming to the trip.
• Will they definitely be there?
• We will possibly come to Canada next year.

Adverbials of Place:
We use adverbs of place to describe:
1. Location: We use prepositions to talk about where someone or something is. Examples:
• He was standing by the table.
• You’ll find it in the cupboard.
• Sign your name here – at the bottom of the page.
2. Direction: We use adverbials to talk about the direction where someone or something is moving.
Examples:
• Walk past the bank and keep going to the end of the street.
• The car door is very small, so its difficult to get into.
3. Distance: We use adverbials to show how far things are. Examples:
• Kolhapur is 250 kilometers from Pune.
• We are in Nashik. Pune is 250 kilometers away.

Comparative Adverbs:
1. We can use comparative adverbs to show change or to make comparisons:
• I forget to get my tiffin more often nowadays.
• She began to walk more quickly.
• They are working harder now.
2. We often use then with comparative adverbs:
• I forgot things more than I used to.
• Girls usually work harder than boys.

Table adverbial of adverbs

    

Degree (How Frequency (How
Much) Manner (How) often) Place (Where) Time (When)

Perhaps, Happily , Often , Here, Yesterday ,

Maybe, Fortunately , Regularly, In the distance A few days ago ,
Totally For away from
Anxiously , Rarely , Last Week ,
overwhelmed, here,
Completely Down by the
Slowly , Occasionally , Last Year ,
exhausted, coast ,
Hardly out of Without a
Sometimes , Inside , Tomorrow ,
breath. sound ,
Out on the
Really happily , Suddenly , Never before , Next Week ,
playground,
At the bottom of
Totally , Quickly , Once , This year ,
the ,
Unbelievably , Courageously , Frequently , Garden Next Year ,
Practically , Silently , Every day , Nearby , In April ,
Overwhelmed , Nervously , Every Week , Downstairs , When ,
Underestimated , Like a lion , Daily , At the park , As soon as ,
Clearly , Unexpectedly , Weekly , Over there , Soon ,
Definitely , Mysteriously , Fortnightly , Upstairs , Shortly ,
Quite
Rapidly , Twine a Week , Outside , Suddenly ,
understandably ,
Obviously angry
Cautiously , Once in a lifetime , Under the bed , Later ,
,
Without Again , Once in blue
In a moment ,
anyone , moon,
Knowing , Eventually ,
Without
Finally ,
thinking ,
With great
Initially ,
courage
Boldly , Soon before ,
Afterword's ,

Conjunctions:
A conjunction is the glue that holds words, phrases and clauses (both dependent and independent) together.
There are three different kinds of conjunctions -- coordinating, subordinating, and correlative -- each serving
its own, distinct purpose, but all working to bring words together.
Thanks to conjunctions, we don't have to write short, choppy sentences. We can extend our lines with simple
words like "and" or "but" and perhaps a comma or two. What is a conjunction? It's a joiner and so much
more. Review the examples below and then download the handy chart as a reminder of each type of
conjunction, its definition, and examples.
What Is a Coordinating Conjunction?
Coordinating conjunctions are what come to most people's minds when they hear the word "conjunction."
They join together words, phrases, and independent clauses. With them, short and choppy sentences can be
joined into fuller lines. There are seven of them, and they're easy to remember if you can just think of
the acronym "FANBOYS."
• For - Explains reason or purpose (just like "because")
• And - Adds one thing to another
• Nor - Used to present an alternative negative idea to an already stated negative idea
• But - Shows contrast
• Or - Presents an alternative or a choice
• Yet - Introduces a contrasting idea that follows the preceding idea logically
• So - Indicates effect, result or consequence
Coordinating Conjunctions Used in Sentences
Here are some example sentences using the seven coordinating conjunctions:
• I go to the park every Sunday, for I love to watch the ducks on the lake.
• I watch the ducks on the lake and the shirtless men playing soccer.
• I don't go for the fresh air nor for the ducks; I just like soccer.
• Soccer is entertaining in winter, but it's better in the heat of summer.
• The men play on two teams: shirts or skins.
• I always take a book to read, yet I never seem to turn a single page.
• I'm dating one of the players, so I watch the soccer game each week.
What Is a Subordinating Conjunction?
A subordinating conjunction always introduces a dependent clause, tying it to an independent clause.
A dependent clause is a group of words that cannot stand alone as a complete sentence. An independent
clause, by contrast, can stand alone as a complete sentence.
Unlike coordinating conjunctions, subordinate conjunctions can often come first in a sentence. This is
because of the nature of the relationship between the dependent and the independent clause.
In English, there are lots of subordinating conjunctions. Here are the most common examples:

although as because that though until

before how if when whenever where

once since than whether while why

Examples of Subordinating Conjunctions in a Sentence

Here are some example sentences utilizing several subordinating conjunctions:
• Because of him, I learned how to start my own business.
• Everything will fall into place if you start at the beginning,
• Until you try, you'll never know.
• I add a new entry to my gratitude journal when I wake in the morning,
• As I write this letter, I know I must say goodbye.
• Life's been so happy since I moved to Chile.
What Are Correlative Conjunctions?
Correlative conjunctions are tag-team conjunctions. They come in pairs, and you have to use both of them in
different places in a sentence to make them work. These conjunctions work together (co-) and relate one
sentence to another. Correlative conjunctions connect two equal grammatical terms. So, if a noun follows
"both," then a noun should also follow "and."
Common pairs include:
• both/and
• whether/or
• either/or
• neither/nor
• not/but
• not only/but also
Example Sentences Using Correlative Conjunctions
To best understand how to use correlative conjunctions correctly, study these sentence examples:
• I want either the pink sofa or the purple one.
• I'll study both English literature and art history.
• I didn't know whether you'd want milk or cream, so I grabbed both.
• Why do you want to visit neither Ireland nor Scotland?
• I took not only the pink sofa but also the Tiffany lamp.
• Not the cheeseburger for me, but definitely the fries.
Interjections: An interjection is a kind of exclamation inserted into regular speech. Actually, it is a brief and
abrupt pause in speech for expressing emotions.
Interjections are unique and have some interesting features:
o Interjections don’t have a grammatical function in the sentence construction.
o They usually cannot be modified or inflected.
o They do not have to have a relation to the other parts of the sentence.
o They are highly context-sensitive.
In spoken language, interjections are the words we instantly use to show our reaction to something which
influences our emotion. They are the initial reaction and sometimes do not even make sense. However, for
formal speech or writing, using interjections is not appropriate.
Interjections mainly have four roles:
Rule 1: Interjections express a sudden mood, emotions, and feeling with emphasis. There are also many
taboo words that are usually used in everyday conversation but not in formal aspects. These words fall into
the category of interjections.
Example:
o Wow! That’s an amazing scene.
o Aw, I did not want him to come.
o What? You never told me that!
Rule 2: Some interjections interrupt a conversation or a thought or hold someone’s attention for a moment.
These are just sounds, not words because these sounds do not make any sense.
Example:
o Your, um, shirt has a stain on the back.
o I want to, uh, ask you out on a date.
Rule 3: Some interjections express only yes or no.
Example:
o Yes! I will most definitely do it.
o Nah, we are not going.
Rule 4: Some interjections are used to get someone’s attention.
Example:
o Yo, Alex! Get in the car!
o Hey! Will you give me that ball?
o Yoo-hoo! Is there anyone?

Degree of Comparison
Adjective change in form when they show comparison.
Positive Degree: An adjective is said to be in the positive degree when there is no comparison.
Comparative Degree: An adjective is said to be in the comparative degree when it is used to compare two
nouns/pronouns.
Superlative Degree: An adjective is in superlative degree when it is used to compare more than two
nouns/pronouns. We use the article 'the' before the superlative degrees.
Formation of Comparative & Superlative Degrees of Adjectives
Adjectives usually form their comparative and superlative degrees:
1) by addition of '-er' and '-est' to the positive degree

POSITIVE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE

Bright brighter brightest
Black blacker blackest
Bold bolder boldest
Clever cleverer cleverest
Cold colder coldest
Fast faster fastest
Great greater greatest
High higher highest
Kind kinder kindest
Long longer longest
Rich richer richest
Small smaller smallest
Strong stronger strongest
Sweet sweeter sweetest
Tall taller tallest
Thick thicker thickest
Young younger youngest
2) by addition of '-r' and '-st' to the positive degree ending in 'e'

POSITIVE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE

Brave braver bravest
Fine finer finest
Large larger largest
Nice nicer nicest
Noble nobler noblest
Pale paler palest
Simple simpler simplest
Wise wiser wisest
White whiter whitest

3) When the positive ends in 'y' and has a consonant before it, we change 'y' into 'i' and then add 'er'
and 'est'.
By deleting the final ‘y’ and adding ‘ier’ and ‘iest’
POSITIVE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE
Costly costlier costliest
Dry drier driest
Easy easier easiest
Happy happier happiest
Heavy heavier heaviest
Lazy lasier lasiest
Mercy mercier merciest
Wealthy wealthier wealthiest
4) when the positive degree ends in a consonant with a vowel before it, we double the consonant &
then add '-er' and '-est'

POSITIVE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE

Big bigger biggest
Dim dimmer dimmest
Fat fatter fattest
Hot hotter hottest
Thin thinner thinnest
5) by addition of '-er' and '-est' to the positive degree when it ends in '-y'
POSITIVE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE
Gay gayer gayest
Grey greyer greyest
5) by placing 'more' and 'most' before the positive form
POSITIVE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE
Active more active most active
attractive more attractive most attractive
beautiful more beautiful most beautiful
Brilliant more brilliant most brilliant
Careful more careful most careful
courageous more courageous most courageous
Cunning more cunning most cunning
difficult more difficult most difficult
Famous more famous most famous
Faithful more faithful most faithful
important more important most important
Proper more proper most proper
Popular more popular most popular
splendid more splendid most splendid
Suitable more suitable most suitable
Some adjectives do not follow any of the rules explained earlier. They are compared irregularly. Here are
the different forms of such adjectives.

POSITIVE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE

Bad worse worst
Evil worse worst
Good better best
Ill worse worst
Far farther farthest
Well better best
Late later latest (time)
Late later last (position)
Little less least
Much more most
Many more most
Near nearer nearest
Old older oldest
Old elder eldest

Examples

In charge of the degree of comparison

1. Superlative : - lead is the heaviest of all metals.
Comparative : - Lead is heavier than all other metals.
2. Passive : - Very few Indian towns are so big as madras
Comparative : - Madras is bigger than most other Indian towns.
Superlative : - Madras is one of the biggest of Indian towns.
3. Positive : - Radha is not so cleaver as some other girls of the class.
Comparative : - Radha is less cleave than other girls of the class.

Exercise I

Use appropriate Comparative or superlative to each of the following

1. Australia is the __________ Island in the world.
2. The times is the most ___________newspaper in England
3. The mail has a ___________ circulation than any other paper
4. A wise enemy is ___________ than a foolish friend
5. The multi-millionaire Mr Sen is the ____________man is this town.

Exersise II
Change The Degree of Comparision without changing the meaning :

1. Very few boys are so industrious as latif.

2. It is easier to preach than to practise.
3. It is better to starve than beg.
4. Iron is more useful than copper

Shapkespeare is greater than any other English Poet.

 CHAPTER – 3 SENTENCE CONSTRUCTION

Sentence

A word or a group of words having a clear meaning in a given context is called a sentence. Example: He
goes to school. (In this sentence there is a clear meaning that the subject is doing the action of going to the
school). For clear meaning, multi word sentence must have a proper order of words.
For example:
• Not a sentence for any proper order of words: Goes he to school.
• Sentence for proper order of words: He goes to school.
• Another example of a sentence for no proper order of words: Fat man the slowly walks.
• But if we put the above mentioned in a correct sequence order, then the sentence will be: The fat man
walks slowly.
• Thus, a sentence must have a proper order of words and a clear meaning.

Formation of Sentences

SENTENCE
Single Worded Multi Worded

With verbs Verb Less

Who is there Mr. Chattergee!

Have you got the tickets for the

Not at all.
movie?

I am going now. Why not?

Will you accompany me? Where to?

Where are you going now? What for?

Subject and Predicates

• Definition of Subject: The part which names the person or thing we are speaking about. This is
called the subject of the sentence.

• Definition of Predicate: The part which tells something about the subject is called the predicate of
the sentence.

The Predicate

That part of the sentence which does not include the subject is called the predicate.
The most important word in the predicate is the verb. The verb is usually modified by an adverb or its
equivalent which is called the extension of the verb or adverbial qualification. The adverbial qualification
may be of different kinds.
Read the sentence given below:
He did his job sincerely. (Subject – he; predicate – did his job sincerely)
Here the verb did is modified by the adverbial qualification sincerely.
More examples are given below:
I called them one by one. (Here the extension of the verb is the adverbial phrase one by one.)
He seemed disappointed. (Here the extension of the verb is the past participle disappointed.)
She went away crying. (Here the extension of the verb is the present participle crying.)
He decided to go. (Here the extension of the verb is the infinitive to go.)
The object
If the verb in the predicate is transitive it must have an object to complete its meaning. Read the sentence
given below:
He bought a bag.
The words ‘He bought’ by themselves do not make complete sense. But ‘He bought a bag’expresses a
complete thought. Here a bag is the object of the verb bought.
Kinds of Objects
The object is always a noun or a noun-equivalent.
He read a story. (Here the object story is a noun.)
We have invited them. (Here the object them is a pronoun.)
We should help the needy. (Here the object the needy is an adjective used as a noun.)
She loves singing. (Here the object singing is a gerund.)
She wanted to go. (Here the object to go is an infinitive.)
Like the subject- word, the object-word may also have some attributes.
He shot a tiger. (Here the article a is the attribute of the object-word tiger.)
I looked at the boy’s face. (Here the attribute boy’s is a noun in the possessive case.)
Direct and Indirect objects
Read the sentences given below:
I gave him a present.
She told me a story.
In sentence 1 present is the direct object of gave and him is the indirect object.
I gave … what? A present (direct object)
I gave … to whom? Him (indirect object)
In sentence 2 story is the direct object of told and me is the indirect object.
You will have noticed that the direct object is the answer to the question what? and the indirect object is
the answer to the question to whom?

Subject & Predicate:

A multi – word sentence with a verb may be divided into two parts:

Subject or Noun part Predicate or Verb

(about whom/what part (What is said Sentence
we are speaking) about the subject)

Eg:

1. The boy got the prize.

The Boy – Subject
 Got the prize – Predicate
2. The early bird catches the worm
The early bird – Subject
Catches the worm – Predicate

Kinds of Sentences

Sentences and their

Functions

Assertive Interrogative Imperative Optative Exclamatory

Statement Question Command Desire/Prayer Emotion

Kinds of Sentences Examples Functions

Assertive Ruma is a good girl. Statement
Interrogative Is she going to office? Question
Imperative Close the door. Command
Optative May God bless you. Desire
Exclamatory Hurray! It is a holiday today. Emotion

Affirmative Sentences: When we reply to a statement we can put an affirmative or negative tag at the end of
our comment. This short tag takes the form of a question. An affirmative comment has a negative tag and a
negative comment has a positive tag.

It’s a wonderful piece of music. → Yes, it is, isn’t it.

He runs very well. → Yes, he does, doesn’t he.
They were all happy with the result. →Yes, they were, weren’t they.
It’s not a nice day for swimming. →No, it isn’t, is it.
They weren’t happy with the food. → No. They weren’t, were they.
She’s become very attractive. → Yes, she has, hasn’t she.
They haven’t been very helpful. → No, they haven’t have they.

We can also put a short tag at the end of a statement:

It’s a wonderful piece of music, isn’t it?
He runs very well, doesn’t he?
They weren’t happy with the result, were they?
She’s become very attractive, hasn’t she?
We use ‘so’, ‘neither’, ‘not either’ or ‘nor’ when we add more information to what someone says:
I love Belgian chocolate. → So do I.
My sister’s living in Birmingham. → Really, so is my cousin.
They’ve decided to move to London. → So have we.
She doesn’t like American comedies. → Neither do I./I don’t either.
I haven’t been to the cinema in ages. → Nor have I.
We won’t be able to go to the concert. → Neither will we.

Negative Sentence:

A negative sentence means a sentence which is used to express the negative expressions in case of daily
acts, events, speeches and so.

E. g.: 1. I do not want to visit the place as soon as possible.

2. We did not get the message few days ago from John.

Assertive Sentence: