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Recommended Texts:
Fundamentals of Physics: Resnick and Halliday
Advanced Level Physics: Nelkon and Parker
College Physics: Any Good Author
College Physics: Schaum Series (Worked Examples)
Mechanics and Properties of Matter Idowu Farai 1
Course content
➢ Useful Mathematics.
➢ Quantities, Units and Their Dimensions.
➢ Introduction to Vectors.
➢ Kinematics.
➢ Newton’s laws of motion.
➢ Gravitational Force of Attraction.
➢ Work and Energy.
➢ Dynamics of Rotating Rigid Bodies.
➢ Simple Harmonic Motion.
➢ Elastic Properties.
➢ Some Properties of Liquids.
2
Useful Mathematics
3
a) Common functions include Periodic and Sinusoidal functions.
• Since the cosine function (y2 = cos B) is a shifted sine function (y1 =
sin A), cosine function is an example of sinusoidal function. Thus,
both sine and cosine functions are examples of Sinusoidal functions.
Sine wave
5
Sine and Cosine waves: The cosine wave leads the sine wave
0 𝜋
by 90 or 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠 as seen below.
2
6
Examples of Sinusoidal wave or Sinusoidal function include AC Voltage,
AC Current, Simple harmonic motion (SHM) and Displacement in a
wave motion.
7
8
b.) Logarithm Functions and Indices
𝒅𝒚
= 𝒏𝒌𝒙𝒏−𝟏 .
𝒅𝒙
𝒅𝒚
The first derivative is = 𝟒𝟎𝒙𝟒 + 𝟏𝟐𝒙𝟐 + 𝟐
𝒅𝒙
𝒅𝟐 𝒚
The second derivative is: = 𝟏𝟔𝟎𝒙𝟑 + 𝟐𝟒𝒙 and so on
𝒅𝒙𝟐
x = (1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + ...... + 10) = 55
1
∆A = 2π x ∆x,
16
𝒓
Total area, A = ∆ 𝟎A
Therefore,
𝒓
𝒙𝟐
𝑨 = න 𝟐𝝅𝒙𝒅𝒙 = 𝟐𝝅 − 𝟎 = 𝝅𝒓𝟐
𝟎 𝟐
Unit of a Quantities
The unit of a quantity tells us the scale in which its
measurement is made.
2
Derived units: Force in Newton (N) (i.e kg m/𝑠 2 ),Energy in
Joule (J) (i.e. kg 𝑚2 /𝑠 2 ), Power in Watts (W), (i.e. J/s or kg
𝑚2 /𝑠 3 ).
Examples
For velocity [v] = LT -1
For acceleration [a ] = LT -2
For force [f] = MLT -2
For density [d] = ML-3
For energy [e] = ML2T -2,
For pressure [p] = ML-1T -2 4
Applications of Dimensional Analysis
A. (𝐿𝑇 −2 , 𝐿2 , 𝐿𝑇 3 )
B. (𝐿𝑇 −2 , 𝐿𝑇 3 , 𝐿2 )
C. 𝐿𝑇 −2 , 𝐿, 𝐿𝑇 −3
D. (𝐿𝑇 −3 , 𝐿, 𝐿𝑇 3 )
6
2. Deriving the exact dependence of one quantity on
other quantities in an equation.
𝐿𝑎 𝑀𝑏 𝑇 𝑐 𝐼𝑑 θ𝑒 𝑁 𝑓 𝐽 𝑔 ---------------------------------------------------------(*)
Where L, M, T, I, θ, N and J are the symbols for the dimensions of
Length, Mass, Time, Electric current, Thermodynamic temperature,
Amount of substance, and Luminous intensity, respectively; a, b,c, d, e, f,
and g are the assumed powers or exponents of the dimensions of the
fundamental or basic quantities.
➢ Any quantity whose dimension is such that all the powers or indices or
exponents in eqn(*) is zero(i.e. a=b=c=d=e=f=g=0) is said to be
DIMENSIONLESS or has a dimension of UNITY.
Homework
A. Find the dimension and the SI unit of η which stands for viscosity in the
following equation if F is force, r is radius, 𝑙 is length, v is speed and R is
distance?
𝑣
𝐹 = −2 𝜋 𝑟 𝑙 𝜂
𝑅
B. What is the dimension of the derivative of the physical quantity v(velocity) with
𝑑𝑣
respect to the physical quantity t(time)?(i.e. Find ?)
𝑑𝑡
1. Force,
2. Velocity,
3. Acceleration,
4. Electric field intensity etc.
Vector Addition
The sum of 20N, 25N and 40N along east, west and
north respectively is not equal to 85N. The
computation has to take their direction into account.
2
Geometrical Method:
Representing the two vectors A and B say, by two
adjacent sides of a triangle inclined to each other at
the angle between the two vectors. The third side R is
the resultant vector
A -B
1. Force,
2. Velocity,
3. Acceleration,
4. Electric field intensity etc.
Vector Addition
The sum of 20N, 25N and 40N along east, west and
north respectively is not equal to 85N. The
computation has to take their direction into account.
2
Geometrical Method:
Representing the two vectors A and B say, by two
adjacent sides of a triangle inclined to each other at
the angle between the two vectors. The third side R is
the resultant vector
A -B
−1 𝑉𝑦
Direction to x-axis, 𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 ( )
𝑉𝑥
Example 1
If three forces, F1 =( 4i – j)N, F2 = (-3i + 2j) N and
F3 = -3j N act on a body in a plane. Find the
resultant
F = i(4 – 3) + j(-1 + 2 – 3)= i – 2j
F = 1 + 2 = 1 + 4 = 5 = 2.23 N
2 2
y −1 − 2
= tan −1
= tan = −63.430
x 1
Operation (ii)
Dot product of two vectors and it is defined by:
𝑨. 𝑩 = 𝐴𝐵𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
where θ is the angle between them. Analytically,
Example
A force F = 2i + 4j (in N) acts on a body and causes a
displacement S = i + 5j (in m). Find the work done.
W = F .S
= (2 × 1) + (4 ×5) = 22 J.
Operation (iii)
Vector (or cross) product and it is defined as
A × B = n AB sin θ
where θ is the angle between them and n is a unit vector
perpendicular to both A and B
A B = ABSin
It has the property that A × B = - B × A
A×B
B ×A
A × B and B × A are in opposite directions
Use of a Matrix
The product vector is equal to the determinant of the matrix
formed by the two vectors.
A × B = (iAx + jAy + kAz) × (iBx + jBy + kBz)
i j k
= Ax Ay Az
Bx By Bz
Exercise
Find B × A and show that it is equal in magnitude and
opposite in direction to A × B.
Exercise
Two insects A and B fly in space with uniform velocities
VA = i + 4j + 3k and VB = 4i + 2j – 4k in m/s with respect to a
stationary observer at the origin (0,0,0).
Show that the insects fly at right angle to each other and
determine their distance apart after 5s. (39.37 m).
Kinematics
This is the study of motions without considering the
forces causing the motions. We can have motion along a
line (1D), on a surface or plane (2D) or in space (3D).
Displacement.
Displacement is the effective distance between two points.
A motion from position P1(2, 2) to P2(6,4) is of the form:
Velocity and Acceleration
Velocity is the rate at which displacement is changing with
time. We may be interested in its
D = v – u = v + (-u)
𝑅= 40002 + 30002 = 2.5 × 107 = 5.0 × 103
5.0×103
Acceleration = Δv/Δt = = 2.5 × 108 m/s2
20×10−6
−3
= tan −1
= −36.87o to x-axis
4
VBA = - VAB
𝑆 1000
Time to go upstream, 𝑡1 = = = 833 𝑠
𝑣 1.2
Time to go up and return = 2t = 1.67 × 103 s
𝑆 1000
Time to go Downstream, 𝑡2 = = = 588 𝐬
𝑣 1.7
y = ax – bx2 iv
This is a quadratic equation for which there are two values of
x for the same height y. This explains the parabolic nature of
projectile motions.
𝟏
If we use the trigonometric relation: = 𝟏 + 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝟐 𝜽,
𝑪𝒐𝒔𝟐 𝜽
𝑔𝑥 2
eqn. iii becomes: 𝑦 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃 𝑥 − 2 (1 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝜃) v
2𝑈
𝑔𝑥 2 𝑔𝑥 2 vi
Rearranging: 𝑦=− 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝜃 + 𝑥 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 −
2𝑈 2 2𝑈 2
Example
Find the minimum velocity with which a missile can be
projected from a military base to hit a target 500 km away,
assuming only gravitational force.
U 2 sin 2 Rg
R= That is, . U 2 =
g sin 2
At this point U 2 = Rg or
1
𝐻= 𝑈𝑦 𝑡 + 𝑔𝑡 2 , noting that 𝑈𝑦 = 𝑈𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃,
2
1
This is the mathematical relationship
Therefore, 𝑣 = 𝑟𝜔 between instantaneous/linear
velocity and angular velocity.
Just as we have angular velocity, we also have angular acceleration which
come is a reality when the rotating body slows down or speeds up. Angular
acceleration is defined mathematically as
∆𝜔 𝑑𝜔
α= = .
∆𝑡 𝑑𝑡
4
The two triangles AOB and MNP in the two are both
isosceles with ∆θ equal, hence they are similar.
This is the centripetal or radial
acceleration.
Angular speed
Linear speed
Tangential velocity is the
𝑣 = 𝜔𝑟 = 2.664 × 10−6 × 3.85 x 108 = 1025.57 m/s
linear speed.
Angular acceleration
The angular velocity of the moon’s motion round the
earth is constant (unless the motion) slows and hence,
𝑑𝜔
angular acceleration is zero ie 𝛼 = =0
𝑑𝑡
Centripetal acceleration
Dynamics
The study of motion and the way in which forces
produce motion.
Inertia
A body at rest will remain at rest, while a body in
motion will maintain the motion with a constant speed
in a straight line for as long as no net force acts on it.
This natural tendency of a body is called its inertia and
it is determined by the mass of the object.
Newton’s First law of Motion
A body at rest will remain at rest and a body in motion will
maintain the motion with a constant speed in a straight line, as
long as no net force acts on it.
That is, inertia must be overcome (by an applied force) before
we can have motion or before we can bring motion to rest.
Force
The action on a body which changes or tends to change the
state of rest or of uniform motion of a body.
Momentum
When a body is at rest, its inertia is completely determined by
its mass but when in motion, both mass and velocity determine
its inertia.
A body at rest has zero momentum and the one moving with
constant velocity has a constant momentum.
𝒅𝒑 𝒅(𝒎𝒗) 𝒅𝒗
𝑭𝜶 𝒐𝒓 𝑭 = 𝒌 = 𝒌𝒎 = 𝒌𝒎𝒂
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕
where a is the acceleration produced. In S.I. units, 1 Newton (N) is
defined as the net force that produces an acceleration of 1 m/s2 on a
body of mass 1 kg.
That is the constant k above has been conveniently set to unity so that:
F = ma
Impulsive Force:
An impulsive force F is a force produced as a result of a change in
momentum within a time interval ∆t.
The product of the force and the time interval ∆t for which it
acts is called the impulse, denoted by ∆j (Unit: Ns). That is:
∆𝑝
∆𝑗 = 𝐹∆𝑡 = . ∆𝑡 = ∆𝑝
∆𝑡
Impulse, 𝐽 = 𝑝𝑓 − 𝑝𝑖 = −708.35 Ns
J 708.35
1 F1 = =− = − 70835 N
t1 0.01
J − 708.35
2 F2 = = = −8854 .4 N
t 2 0.08
- T2 + m2g = m2a2
T – m2g = - m2a
ii
2m1 m2
T = g
m1 + m2
This is Atwood machine on an inclined plane.
T – m1g sin30 = m1a
- T + m2g = m2a