Q 1.

Define the following terms:-

Earned Value is a project management technique used to measure the progress and
performance of a project by comparing the value of work accomplished with the
value of work planned. It provides a quantitative assessment of how efficiently the
project is being executed in terms of time and cost.

In the context of earned value management (EVM), three key metrics are used:

​ Planned Value (PV): Also known as Budgeted Cost of Work Scheduled

(BCWS), it represents the authorized budget assigned to the scheduled work
for a specific period. PV is typically determined based on the planned
schedule and associated cost estimates.
​ Earned Value (EV): Also known as Budgeted Cost of Work Performed (BCWP),
it refers to the value of work actually completed and verified at a specific point
in time. EV is measured based on the completion of project deliverables or
specific milestones.
​ Actual Cost (AC): Also known as Actual Cost of Work Performed (ACWP), it
represents the total cost incurred in completing the actual work performed at
a specific point in time. AC takes into account the actual expenditures and
resource usage.

These three metrics can be used to calculate key performance indicators (KPIs) in
earned value management, such as:

● Schedule Variance (SV): SV = EV - PV. It indicates whether the project is ahead

of or behind schedule by measuring the difference between the earned value
and the planned value.
● Cost Variance (CV): CV = EV - AC. It measures the difference between the
earned value and the actual cost, indicating whether the project is under or
over budget.
● Schedule Performance Index (SPI): SPI = EV / PV. It provides an efficiency
measure of the project's progress by comparing the earned value to the
planned value.
● Cost Performance Index (CPI): CPI = EV / AC. It represents the cost efficiency
of the project by comparing the earned value to the actual cost.

These earned value metrics and KPIs help project managers assess project
performance, identify potential issues, make informed decisions, and take corrective
actions to keep the project on track.
Q 2. What is extreme programming?

Extreme Programming (XP) is an agile software development methodology that

emphasizes iterative development, collaboration, and high-quality code. It is a
disciplined approach that aims to deliver software that meets customer
requirements and is adaptable to change.

Extreme Programming is characterized by the following core practices:

​ Planning Game: Customers and developers collaborate to define and prioritize

user stories, which serve as the basis for planning and development
iterations.
​ Small Releases: Frequent releases of working software are encouraged,
providing tangible value to customers and allowing for continuous feedback
and adaptation.
​ Metaphor: The development team uses a shared language and conceptual
model to foster a common understanding of the system and its components.
​ Simple Design: The code is kept simple and clean through continuous
refactoring, promoting maintainability, extensibility, and readability.
​ Test-Driven Development (TDD): Developers write automated tests before
writing the code. TDD helps ensure code correctness, guides the development
process, and serves as documentation for the codebase.
​ Pair Programming: Two developers work together at one workstation, with
one actively writing code and the other observing, reviewing, and providing
immediate feedback. This practice fosters collaboration, knowledge sharing,
and code quality.
​ Continuous Integration: Code changes are frequently integrated into a shared
repository, and automated builds and tests are performed to catch integration
issues early and ensure a stable codebase.
​ Sustainable Pace: The development team maintains a regular and sustainable
work pace, avoiding overtime and burnout, to ensure productivity and
well-being.
​ Collective Code Ownership: All team members have shared responsibility for
the codebase, enabling collaboration, knowledge transfer, and code quality
improvement.

Extreme Programming aims to enhance software development by promoting

customer satisfaction, responsiveness to change, and continuous improvement. It
emphasizes effective communication, collaboration, and feedback loops to deliver
high-quality software in a flexible and adaptive manner.
Q 3. What is milestone analysis?

Milestone analysis is a project management technique that involves identifying and

tracking key milestones throughout the project lifecycle. A milestone is a significant
event or achievement that represents a major step towards project completion or the
achievement of project objectives. Milestone analysis helps project managers
monitor progress, assess project health, and ensure that the project stays on track.

Here are the key aspects of milestone analysis:

​ Identification: In milestone analysis, milestones are identified and defined

based on their importance and relevance to the project. They are typically
associated with specific deliverables, project phases, or critical events.
​ Planning: Milestones are incorporated into the project plan, and their timing
and dependencies are determined. They provide reference points for
scheduling, resource allocation, and coordination of activities.
​ Monitoring Progress: Milestones serve as checkpoints to monitor the
progress of the project. Project managers track the completion of milestones
against the planned schedule to assess if the project is progressing as
intended.
​ Assessing Performance: Milestone analysis allows project managers to
evaluate the performance of the project. By comparing actual milestone
achievements to planned milestones, they can identify any delays, deviations,
or issues that need to be addressed.
​ Communication and Reporting: Milestones provide clear and tangible markers
of project progress, which can be effectively communicated to stakeholders.
Milestone analysis facilitates transparent reporting and effective
communication of project status, highlighting completed milestones and
upcoming ones.
​ Decision-making and Control: Milestone analysis supports decision-making
and control processes. Project managers can make informed decisions based
on milestone achievements, adjust project plans, allocate resources, and
mitigate risks to keep the project on track.
Q4. What is estimation by analogy?

Estimation by analogy is a technique used in project management to estimate the

duration, effort, or cost of a project activity or the overall project by drawing
comparisons with similar past projects or known reference points. It involves finding
similarities between the current project and previously completed projects and using
the historical data as a basis for estimation.

Here's how estimation by analogy typically works:

​ Identify Similar Projects: The first step is to identify past projects that are
similar in nature, scope, complexity, or other relevant factors to the current
project. These projects should have historical data available for reference.
​ Define Key Parameters: Determine the parameters that are relevant to the
estimation, such as project duration, effort, cost, or other specific metrics.
These parameters should be consistent and measurable across both the past
projects and the current project.
​ Gather Historical Data: Collect data from the past projects, such as project
plans, records, and documentation. This data should include information on
the parameters being estimated, such as actual durations, effort expended, or
costs incurred.
​ Compare and Analyze: Analyze the historical data and compare it with the
current project to identify similarities, differences, and patterns. Look for key
factors or variables that influenced the parameters being estimated in the
past projects.
​ Apply Analogy: Based on the identified similarities and patterns, make
adjustments or apply scaling factors to the historical data to account for any
differences between the past projects and the current project. These
adjustments help tailor the estimates to the specific characteristics of the
current project.
​ Estimate and Validate: Use the adjusted historical data as a basis to estimate
the parameters for the current project. Validate the estimates against other
estimation techniques or expert judgment to ensure reasonableness and
accuracy.
Q5 . What is project control cycle?
The project control cycle, also known as the project control process, refers to the
ongoing and iterative process of monitoring, measuring, and adjusting project
performance to ensure that project objectives are achieved. It involves a series of
steps aimed at maintaining control and making necessary adjustments throughout
the project lifecycle.

The project control cycle typically consists of the following key steps:

​ Establish Baseline: Set project objectives, create a baseline plan including

scope, schedule, budget, and key performance indicators.
​ Monitor and Measure: Continuously track and measure project activities,
milestones, deliverables, resource utilization, costs, and other metrics.
​ Compare and Analyze: Compare actual project performance with the
established baseline, analyze variances, deviations, and trends to understand
the reasons behind them.
​ Identify Deviations and Issues: Flag and document significant deviations or
issues that impact project objectives or pose risks to project success.
​ Take Corrective Actions: Implement appropriate corrective actions to address
identified deviations, mitigate risks, and bring the project back on track.
​ Re-Evaluate and Replan: Evaluate the effectiveness of corrective actions,
make necessary adjustments to the project plan, baseline, or other
parameters to reflect changes and ensure alignment with project objectives.
​ Communicate and Report: Share project progress updates, highlight
deviations, actions taken, and communicate project status and risks to
stakeholders.
​ Continuous Iteration: Repeat the project control cycle iteratively throughout
the project lifecycle to maintain control, monitor performance, and make
necessary adjustments for project success.
Q6 . Explain detailed steps in wbs also define scope creep?

Building a Work Breakdown Structure (WBS) involves a systematic process of

breaking down a project's scope into manageable and hierarchical components.
Here are the detailed steps and different methods commonly used to create a WBS:

​ Define Project Objectives: Clearly understand the project objectives, scope,

and deliverables. This will provide a foundation for creating the WBS.
​ Identify Major Deliverables: Identify the significant deliverables that need to be
produced or achieved as part of the project. These are the high-level
components of the WBS.
​ Decompose Major Deliverables: Break down each major deliverable into
smaller, more manageable sub-deliverables. Decompose the work until you
reach a level where the tasks are clearly defined and can be easily estimated
and assigned.
​ Use a Hierarchical Structure: Organize the sub-deliverables into a hierarchical
structure, with the major deliverables at the top level and progressively more
detailed components at lower levels. This structure helps ensure that all
project work is captured and aligned with the project objectives.
​ Determine WBS Elements: Assign unique identifiers to each component of the
WBS, such as codes or numbers, to facilitate reference and tracking.
​ Involve Subject Matter Experts: Collaborate with subject matter experts and
team members to validate and refine the WBS. Their input ensures that all
necessary work components are included and that the breakdown accurately
reflects the project scope.

Methods for creating a WBS:

a. Top-Down Approach: Start with the major deliverables and progressively

decompose them into smaller components. This method is useful when there is a
clear understanding of the project scope and objectives.

b. Bottom-Up Approach: Begin with individual tasks and aggregate them into larger
deliverables. This method is beneficial when there is a detailed understanding of the
tasks involved but less clarity on the overall project structure.

c. Mind Mapping: Use visual diagrams, such as mind maps, to brainstorm and
capture project components. This approach allows for easy exploration of different
levels and relationships between elements.
d. Analogous Estimating: Draw on historical data from similar projects to help
identify work components and estimate their effort. This method leverages past
experience and provides a starting point for defining the WBS.

e. Expert Judgment: Seek input and insights from experienced project managers or
industry experts to ensure that the WBS is comprehensive, accurate, and aligned with
best practices.

Remember that the WBS should be flexible and can be refined as the project
progresses. It serves as a foundation for various project management activities such
as estimating, scheduling, resource allocation, and monitoring progress. Regularly
review and update the WBS to reflect changes and evolving project requirements.

Scope creep refers to the unauthorized expansion of project scope without proper
evaluation or approval. It occurs when changes or additions to the project scope are
introduced gradually and accumulate over time. Scope creep is often caused by poor
scope management practices, changing requirements, unrealistic expectations, and
a lack of proper documentation and communication. It can result in schedule delays,
increased costs, decreased quality, and stakeholder dissatisfaction. To mitigate
scope creep, a robust scope management process should be established, including
clear scope definition, stakeholder analysis, change control processes, and effective
communication channels.
Q7.Explain with help of example how pert techniques can be applied to evaluate
risks to schedule?

Pert techniques, specifically the Program Evaluation and Review Technique (PERT),
can be applied to manage and mitigate risks associated with project scheduling.
PERT helps in estimating and analyzing the impact of uncertainties on the project
timeline. Let's consider an example to understand how PERT techniques can be used
to avoid schedule risks:

Imagine a construction project to build a new office building. The project consists of
various activities such as site preparation, foundation construction, structural work,
interior finishes, and final inspections. Each activity has an estimated duration, but
there are inherent risks that could potentially impact the schedule.

​ Identify Risks: Identify potential risks that could impact the project schedule.
​ Estimate Activity Duration: Use PERT to estimate activity durations by
considering optimistic (O), most likely (M), and pessimistic (P) scenarios.
​ Calculate Expected Duration: Calculate the expected duration for each activity
using the formula (O + 4M + P) / 6.
​ Identify Critical Path: Determine the critical path, which is the sequence of
activities with the longest total duration.
​ Analyze Schedule Risks: Perform schedule risk analysis by assigning
probabilities to durations and simulating the impact of risks on the project
schedule.
​ Risk Mitigation: Develop strategies to mitigate identified risks, such as
contingency planning and adjusting the schedule.
​ Monitor and Control: Continuously monitor the project's progress, track critical
path activities, and implement mitigation measures as needed.
Q. what is resource histogram?

A resource histogram is a visual representation of the allocation and utilization of

resources over time in a project. It provides a graphical view of resource availability
and workload distribution, allowing project managers to assess resource
requirements, identify potential overloads or bottlenecks, and make informed
decisions regarding resource allocation and scheduling.

Here are the key aspects and benefits of a resource histogram:

​ Resource Allocation: A resource histogram displays the allocation of

resources to different project activities or tasks. It shows how many
resources are assigned to each activity and helps in identifying imbalances or
shortages in resource distribution.
​ Workload Distribution: The histogram illustrates the workload distribution over
time for each resource or resource category. It enables project managers to
see if resources are evenly distributed or if there are periods of high or low
workload.
​ Resource Availability: By visualizing resource availability, the histogram helps
project managers identify periods when resources are over- or under-utilized.
This information allows for effective resource planning and adjustments to
ensure optimal utilization.
​ Identifying Overloads and Bottlenecks: The histogram highlights instances
where resource demand exceeds capacity, leading to potential overloads or
bottlenecks. This insight enables proactive resource management, such as
redistributing workload or considering additional resources.
​ Resource Planning and Scheduling: The histogram facilitates resource
planning by providing a clear overview of resource requirements and
availability across the project timeline. It helps in making informed decisions
about resource allocation, scheduling, and leveling.
​ Communication and Collaboration: The resource histogram serves as a
communication tool, enabling stakeholders to understand the resource
allocation and workload distribution visually. It promotes collaboration among
project team members and stakeholders by providing a common
understanding of resource utilization.
Q. which methods are adopted to assess and visualize the progress of project?

Several methods are commonly adopted to assess and visualize the progress of a
project. Here are some of the commonly used methods:

​ Gantt Charts: Gantt charts provide a visual representation of project tasks,

their dependencies, and their scheduled durations. They use horizontal bars to
represent tasks, allowing project managers and stakeholders to track
progress, identify task overlaps, and monitor critical path activities.
​ Milestone Charts: Milestone charts focus on key project milestones or
significant events. They display milestones as markers on a timeline, enabling
stakeholders to assess progress based on the achievement of critical project
milestones.
​ Earned Value Management (EVM): EVM is a method that integrates project
scope, schedule, and cost to assess project performance. It compares the
planned value (PV), actual cost (AC), and earned value (EV) to measure the
project's progress, cost efficiency, and schedule adherence.
​ Dashboard Reports: Project dashboard reports provide a consolidated view of
key performance indicators (KPIs) and metrics. They use visual elements
such as charts, graphs, and progress bars to present project status, key
milestones, resource utilization, and other relevant information in a concise
and easily understandable format.
​ Burndown Charts: Burndown charts are commonly used in Agile project
management methodologies. They depict the remaining work over time and
help track the progress of completing tasks or user stories. Burndown charts
show the ideal trajectory and the actual progress, allowing the team to identify
deviations and adjust their efforts accordingly.
​ Progress Meetings and Reviews: Regular progress meetings and project
reviews provide opportunities for stakeholders to discuss project status,
review completed tasks, and identify any issues or obstacles. These meetings
facilitate communication, collaboration, and alignment among project team
members and stakeholders.
​ Reporting and Documentation: Detailed progress reports and documentation,
including status updates, task completion reports, and milestone achievement
summaries, provide a comprehensive overview of project progress. These
reports may include narrative descriptions, metrics, and visual representations
of progress to effectively communicate the project's status.
Q. with help of example explain in detailthe contents of a project closure analysis
report and how it can be leveraged to improve quality of project?

A project closure analysis report is a comprehensive document that reflects on the

outcomes and lessons learned from a completed project. It provides an opportunity
to evaluate the project's success, identify areas for improvement, and gather insights
that can be leveraged to enhance the quality of future projects. Let's break down the
key contents of a project closure analysis report and discuss how it can be used to
improve future projects using an example:

​ Executive Summary: This section provides a high-level overview of the project,

summarizing its objectives, outcomes, and major findings. It highlights the key
lessons learned and recommendations for future projects. For example, the
executive summary could state that the project successfully delivered a new
software application but experienced challenges in resource allocation and
stakeholder communication.
​ Project Overview: This section provides a detailed description of the project,
including its purpose, scope, objectives, deliverables, and stakeholders. It
outlines the project timeline, budget, and major milestones. For instance, it
may mention that the project aimed to develop a mobile app within a
six-month timeframe, with a budget of $200,000.
​ Evaluation of Project Success: Here, the report assesses the overall success
of the project against predefined success criteria. It analyzes whether the
project achieved its goals, delivered the expected outcomes, met quality
standards, and adhered to the schedule and budget. It may indicate that the
project successfully met its goals of delivering the app within the allocated
budget and schedule, achieving a high level of customer satisfaction.
​ Lessons Learned: This section highlights the valuable lessons learned from
the project. It discusses both positive aspects and areas for improvement. For
example, the report might mention that effective communication and
collaboration among the project team contributed to its success, while
inadequate risk management and scope control resulted in minor delays.
​ Best Practices: This part outlines the best practices or successful strategies
identified during the project that can be applied to future projects. It could
include recommendations on effective project management techniques,
communication methods, risk mitigation strategies, or stakeholder
engagement approaches.
​ Areas for Improvement: This section identifies specific areas that need
improvement to enhance the quality of future projects. It may discuss issues
encountered during the project, such as scope creep, resource constraints, or
communication gaps. For instance, the report might suggest implementing
 stricter change control processes and conducting regular project
communication reviews to address communication challenges.
​ Recommendations: Based on the lessons learned and areas for improvement,
this section provides actionable recommendations for future projects. It
offers insights on how to mitigate risks, enhance project planning and control,
optimize resource allocation, or improve stakeholder engagement. For
example, it may recommend conducting thorough risk assessments at project
initiation and regularly monitoring and reviewing project communication
channels.
​ Appendices: Additional supporting information may be included in the
appendices, such as project documentation, data analysis, surveys, or
feedback received from stakeholders. These provide further context and
evidence for the findings and recommendations presented in the report.

To leverage the insights from a project closure analysis report for future projects, the
following steps can be taken:

​ Dissemination: Share the report with relevant stakeholders, project team

members, and organizational leadership to ensure the findings and
recommendations reach the appropriate audience.
​ Reflection and Adaptation: Encourage project managers and team members
to reflect on the report's insights and apply them to future projects. Consider
how the lessons learned and recommendations can be incorporated into
project management methodologies, processes, and standard operating
procedures.
​ Training and Development: Offer training programs or workshops based on
the report's findings to enhance project management skills and knowledge
across the organization. This can help address identified areas for
improvement and promote continuous learning.
​ Knowledge Management: Incorporate the lessons learned, best practices, and
recommendations into organizational knowledge repositories or databases.
This ensures that the insights are accessible to future
Q.Risk And risk types

In software project management, risk refers to any uncertain event or condition that,

if it occurs, could have a positive or negative impact on the project's objectives. Risks

are potential problems that may hinder the successful completion of a software

project or result in its failure.

There are several types of risks in software project management:

​ Technical Risks: These risks are associated with the technical aspects of the
software development process. They may include issues related to software
architecture, design, coding, integration, performance, and scalability.
​ Schedule Risks: These risks pertain to the project's timeline and schedule.
They involve the possibility of delays in completing tasks, dependencies,
resource availability, and unforeseen events that may impact the project's
progress.
​ Cost Risks: These risks involve the project's budget and financial aspects.
They include potential cost overruns, inaccurate cost estimation, resource
allocation problems, and unexpected expenses.
​ Scope Risks: Scope risks relate to the project's requirements and scope
definition. They involve the possibility of changes in requirements, scope
creep, inadequate scope management, and poor communication between
stakeholders.
​ Organizational Risks: These risks are associated with the organizational
structure and culture. They may include issues such as lack of management
support, inadequate resources, ineffective communication, and conflicting
priorities.
​ Legal and Compliance Risks: These risks pertain to legal and regulatory
requirements that must be met during the software development process.
Non-compliance with laws and regulations can lead to legal disputes,
penalties, and project delays.
​ External Risks: These risks arise from factors external to the project but can
still impact its success. They include risks associated with vendors, suppliers,
market conditions, technological changes, and natural disasters.

To effectively manage risks, software project managers typically perform risk

identification, risk assessment, risk prioritization, and risk mitigation planning. By

identifying and addressing potential risks early in the project, managers can take
proactive measures to minimize their impact and increase the chances of project

success.

Q risk breakdown structure?

Risk Breakdown Structure (RBS) is a hierarchical representation of risks in a project.

It helps project managers and stakeholders to systematically identify, categorize, and
analyze risks associated with a project. The RBS breaks down the overall project
risks into smaller, more manageable components, allowing for a comprehensive
understanding of the risks involved.

Similar to a Work Breakdown Structure (WBS), which breaks down project work into
smaller tasks, the RBS breaks down project risks into smaller subcategories. It
provides a structured framework for organizing and managing risks throughout the
project lifecycle.

Write same types of risk as written in above question.

Q. risk management?

A risk management technique is usually seen in the software Project plan. This can
be divided into Risk Mitigation, Monitoring, and Management Plan (RMMM). In this
plan, all works are done as part of risk analysis. As part of the overall project plan
project manager generally uses this RMMM plan. In some software teams, risk is
documented with the help of a Risk Information Sheet (RIS). This RIS is controlled by
using a database system for easier management of information i.e creation, priority
ordering, searching, and other analysis. After documentation of RMMM and start of a
project, risk mitigation and monitoring steps will start. Risk Mitigation: It is an activity
used to avoid problems (Risk Avoidance). Steps for mitigating the risks as follows.
1. Finding out the risk.
2. Removing causes that are the reason for risk creation.
3. Controlling the corresponding documents from time to time. 4. Conducting timely
reviews to speed up the work
. Risk Monitoring: It is an activity used for project tracking. It has the following
primary objectives as follows.
1. To check if predicted risks occur or not.
2. To ensure proper application of risk aversion steps defined for risk.
3. To collect data for future risk analysis.
4. To allocate what problems are caused by which risks throughout the project.
 Risk Management and planning : It assumes that the mitigation activity failed and
the risk is a reality. This task is done by Project manager when risk becomes reality
and causes severe problems. If the project manager effectively uses project
mitigation to remove risks successfully then it is easier to manage the risks. This
shows that the response that will be taken for each risk by a manager. The main
objective of the risk management plan is the risk register. This risk register describes
and focuses on the predicted threats to a software project.

Q forward pass and backward pass?

​ Forward Pass: The forward pass is a technique used to determine the earliest
possible start (ES) and finish (EF) dates for each activity in a project schedule.
It involves calculating the timing of activities starting from the project's
beginning and moving forward through the network diagram. By considering
the estimated duration of each activity and any dependencies, the forward
pass establishes the earliest point in time when an activity can start and finish
assuming no delays or constraints. This helps determine the project's overall
duration and identify the critical path—the sequence of activities that
collectively determine the project's minimum timeframe.
​
​ Backward Pass: The backward pass is a technique used to determine the
latest possible start (LS) and finish (LF) dates for each activity in a project
schedule. It involves calculating the timing of activities starting from the
project's end and moving backward through the network diagram. By
considering any constraints or dependencies on succeeding activities, the
backward pass determines the latest point in time when an activity can start
and finish without delaying the overall project. This helps identify the flexibility
or float available for each activity, indicating the amount of time an activity
can be delayed without impacting the project's overall duration or the critical
path.

Q iso 9126 software?

ISO/IEC 9126 is a set of international standards that define quality characteristics

and metrics for software products. It provides a framework for evaluating and
assessing the quality of software based on defined attributes. The ISO/IEC 9126
standard has been superseded by the ISO/IEC 25010:2011 standard, which is an
extended version that incorporates new quality characteristics and metrics.

The ISO/IEC 9126 (and ISO/IEC 25010) standard defines six main quality
characteristics that software should possess:

​ Functionality: This characteristic assesses whether the software meets the

specified functional requirements and provides the necessary features to
support user tasks. It includes aspects such as correctness, completeness,
accuracy, interoperability, and security.
​ Reliability: Reliability refers to the ability of the software to perform its
intended functions consistently and reliably over time. It includes aspects
such as availability, fault tolerance, recoverability, and adherence to specified
performance standards.
​ Usability: Usability focuses on how user-friendly and easy-to-use the software
is. It encompasses aspects such as learnability, efficiency, memorability, user
satisfaction, and the effectiveness of user documentation.
​ Efficiency: Efficiency relates to the software's ability to execute its functions
with minimal resource utilization, such as CPU, memory, and network usage. It
includes aspects such as response time, throughput, scalability, and resource
optimization.
​ Maintainability: Maintainability refers to the software's ease of maintenance
and future enhancements. It includes aspects such as modularity, reusability,
testability, and the ease of diagnosing and fixing defects.
​ Portability: Portability assesses the software's ability to run on different
hardware, software, or operating environments without requiring excessive
modifications. It includes aspects such as adaptability, installability, and
compliance with relevant standards

Q Arrow on node and arrow on arrow ?

​ Arrow on Node (AON): AON, also known as Activity-on-Node, is a commonly

used method in network diagrams. In AON, activities are represented by
nodes, and dependencies between activities are represented by arrows. The
nodes contain information such as activity duration, early start (ES), early
finish (EF), late start (LS), late finish (LF), and float or slack. The arrows
indicate the sequence and direction of the activities, showing which activities
must be completed before others can start. AON diagrams are particularly
useful for identifying the critical path and scheduling activities effectively.
​ Arrow on Arrow (AOA): AOA, also known as Activity-on-Arrow, is an alternative
method for network diagrams. In AOA, activities are represented by arrows,
and events or milestones are represented by nodes. The arrows contain
activity information, and the nodes represent events or milestones that signify
the completion or occurrence of activities. The arrows connect the nodes and
indicate the precedence relationships between activities. AOA diagrams can
be beneficial for analyzing complex projects with multiple interdependencies
and critical paths.

​
​