See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/233864813

Concept of electro-optical sensor module for sniper detection system

Article  in  Proceedings of SPIE - The International Society for Optical Engineering · October 2010
DOI: 10.1117/12.864973

CITATIONS READS
7 3,681

3 authors, including:

Mariusz Kastek
Military University of Technology
122 PUBLICATIONS   985 CITATIONS   

SEE PROFILE

Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:

Detecting persistent chemical agents on surfaces View project

All content following this page was uploaded by Mariusz Kastek on 23 May 2014.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

Concept of electro-optical sensor module for sniper detection system
Piotr TRZASKAWKA*, Rafał DULSKI, Mariusz KASTEK
Military University of Technology, Institute of Optoelectronics, gen. S. Kaliskiego 2,
00-908 Warsaw, Poland

ABSTRACT
The paper presents an initial concept of the electro-optical sensor unit for sniper detection purposes. This unit,
comprising of thermal and daylight cameras, can operate as a standalone device but its primary application is a
multi-sensor sniper and shot detection system. Being a part of a larger system it should contribute to greater overall
system efficiency and lower false alarm rate thanks to data and sensor fusion techniques. Additionally, it is expected
to provide some pre-shot detection capabilities. Generally acoustic (or radar) systems used for shot detection offer
only “after-the-shot” information and they cannot prevent enemy attack, which in case of a skilled sniper opponent
usually means trouble. The passive imaging sensors presented in this paper, together with active systems detecting
pointed optics, are capable of detecting specific shooter signatures or at least the presence of suspected objects in the
vicinity. The proposed sensor unit use thermal camera as a primary sniper and shot detection tool. The basic camera
parameters such as focal plane array size and type, focal length and aperture were chosen on the basis of assumed
tactical characteristics of the system (mainly detection range) and current technology level. In order to provide cost-
effective solution the commercially available daylight camera modules and infrared focal plane arrays were tested,
including fast cooled infrared array modules capable of 1000 fps image acquisition rate. The daylight camera
operates as a support, providing corresponding visual image, easier to comprehend for a human operator. The initial
assumptions concerning sensor operation were verified during laboratory and field test and some example shot
recording sequences are presented.

1. Introduction

Sniper detectors are still a work in progress. They become more and more important due to the
nature of current asymmetric military conflicts, because the military power superiority of a
modern army cannot be fully utilized against guerilla forces, especially in the urban environment.
It was the main reason to develop and deploy the sniper and shot detectors, which provide
directional information about where the shooter is. Several generations of these systems have
been introduced over the last three years. The acoustic detectors have had the most success, and
many of them have been used in Iraq and Afghanistan. The usefulness of these systems has
increased as the manufacturers have decreased the number of false alarms and improved the user
interface. The newest systems are also fitted with IR detectors. As experiments shows, this is
very promising technology for shooter detection task, specially while using it together with
traditional acoustic detectors. Counter-sniper systems can use several different physical
phenomena related to the shot or the weapon itself, such as acoustic, visual, or electromagnetic
signals. Initially acoustic signals, such as the muzzle blast and the ballistic shockwave, provided
the easiest and most accurate way to detect shots, and hence, the majority of existing counter-
sniper systems use them as the primary information source. Modern, multi-sensor systems utilize
*ptrzaskawka@wat.edu.pl; phone +4822 6839383; fax +4822 6668950; www.wat.edu.pl
also infrared and visual signatures of the shot (muzzle flash), infrared, visual or radar signatures
of the flying bullet and laser radiation reflected from the sniper’s scopes. In the following paper
the possibility of sniper detection using signals occurring in the infrared range will be discussed.
The phenomena detected in infrared spectra are muzzle flash and thermal signatures of the bullet
in flight and of sniper body. Muzzle flash is an infrared signature associated with the ejection of
the bullet from the sniper’s rifle. The muzzle flash can be detected with IR sensors out to a
kilometer or more, but the sensors must have clear line of sight to the weapon, and the flash can
be suppressed.
The thermal signature of the bullet in flight can be detected with infrared sensors out to several
kilometers in range. Since the bullet is much hotter than “room temperature,” it is detected most
effectively in the medium-wave infrared (MWIR) band, with wavelength between 3 and 5 μm.
However, long-wave infrared (LWIR)-based systems operating in the wavelength band between
8 and 12 μm can also detect such signatures. The object of detecting signatures of the bullet in
flight is to estimate the bullet’s trajectory and backtrack it to find the location of the sniper [1].

Fig. 1. The sniper in firing position and during the shot (image registered by infrared camera).

2. Shot signatures
The development of infrared system designed for sniper detection concentrates on several
aspects. They are: design of optics, new types of sensors and signal processing methods. As far
as infrared detection of explosive event (i.e. muzzle flash) is concerned, the optimal wavelength
range, covering sniper fire, mortar fire and rocket propelled grenades (RPGs) lies between two
spectral bands, one centered at 2.8 μm and one at 4.5 μm. Therefore, the mid-IR range is
commonly chosen, which means that the sniper detection system operating in the 3 to 5 μm
region must deal with the potential problem of false alarms from solar clutter. The detection of
muzzle flash requires fast reaction times and scanning rates, significantly exceeding typical
values of 30 or 60 Hz of standard IR cameras, which is not fast enough for detection of rapid
signals such as sniper fire, which is believed to have duration of about 2 milliseconds.
Additionally, the wide field of view is necessary to scan the surrounding area yet retaining the
possibility to pinpoint the location of the muzzle flash event (sniper location) [2, 3].
 100
90

80

70
Intensity normalize

60

50

40

30

20

10

0
1 3 5 7 9
λ [μm]
Fig. 2. The spectral distribution of infrared radiation from secondary flash
(caliber 0.5 gun, barrel length 36 in) [4].
The spectral shot characteristics presented above in Fig. 2. clearly indicate, that most of the
muzzle flash energy falls into near infrared range, which is decisive for shot detection. Muzzle
flashes generally peak in the 2.5 - 3.5 µm region (H2O) following 800 - 1400 K blackbody curves
corresponding to water vapor lines and have other peaks at 2 microns and 4.7 microns. As the
target range increases, the radiances in the 1.7 - 2 µm, the 2.4 - 3.4 µm, and 4.0 - 4.5 µm range
decrease rapidly [3, 4, 5].

Fig.3. The muzzle flash (Beryl assault rifle, cal. 5.56 mm) registered during laboratory test.
On the basis of the measurement data obtained during laboratory and field tests at Military
University of Technology and using data presented in [1, 2, 3, 5, 6] it was possible to determine
the size and temperature of the gas cloud emerging from the barrel during the shot. Additionally,
the energy levels emitted in two analyzed spectral bands (MWIR and LWIR) can be compared.
The analysis of the recorded thermal images leads to the determination of thermal properties of
the shot event and the sniper body.
It is common in the infrared modelling community to use Plank’s Blackbody Law to model
target radiance, energy per area, per time, per solid angle. The radiance can be integrated over the
projected area to model the target radiant intensity, the energy per time, per solid angle. This
approach does not account for band or line emissions generated by photoluminescence, i.e.
molecules excitation, or chemilluminescence, i.e. chemical reaction, but it does provide a starting
point. Plank’s Law, which determines blackbody spectral radiance, Lbb, at temperature, T, and at
wavelength, λ, is listed below:
2 ⋅ h ⋅c2 1
L bb (T , λ ) = ⋅ , (1)
λ 5 h ⋅c

e λ ⋅ k ⋅T
−1

where k is the Boltzmann constant, h is the Plank constant, and c is the speed of light. To
understand the total energy radiated by a blackbody in a waveband bounded by the lower limit,
λ1, and the upper limit, λ2, the spectral signature, provided by Plank’s Law is integrated over the
region of interest.
λ2
L bb (T , λ 1 , λ 2 ) = ∫L
λ1
bb λ (T , λ ) d λ , (2)

The temperature of the gases and particulates leaving the muzzle have been measured anywhere
from 1000 K to 1500 K. According to Planck’s Law, materials at these temperatures have the
majority of their energy in the mid-wave infrared (MWIR), 3-5 μm, and short-wave (SWIR), 1-3
μm spectrum. Also, materials at these temperatures emit considerably more energy than most
materials, which are close to ambient temperature, i.e. 300 K. During the analysis on assault
rifles, i.e. AK-47 or Beryl, small emissivity values of 0.05-0.1 were arbitrary assumed [7]. Using
this assumption, small arms flash radiance of 0.032-0.245 watts/cm2/sr in the MWIR spectrum
was assumed.
According to measurements made during the field test, flash size measured for an assault rifle is
approximately 0.7 m (length) by 0.3 m (width). For this study, an assumption was made that this
area can be represented by an ellipsoid whose radii are 0.36 m, 0.15 m, and 0.15 m, whose
volume is equal to 0.036 m3. For modelling, the projected area is of more importance; viewing
directly into the small arms barrel, the surface area is 0.073 m² and from the side, the surface area
is 0.175 m². This results in a radiant intensity of 23.67 to 56.82 watts/sr (assuming a temperature
of 1000 K and an emissivity of 0.05). Muzzle flash parameters obtained during laboratory
measurement and calculations are presented in Tab. 1.
Table. 1. Muzzle flash parameters obtained during laboratory measurement and calculations.
Parameter Unit Value
Length m 0.35
Width m 0.35

Muzzle flash Surface area m2 0,12

(front view) Thermal contrast K 18
Radiant intensity (3-5 μm) watts/sr 56.82
Radiant intensity (8-12 μm) watts/sr 23.67
Length m 0.71
Width m 0.35
2
Muzzle flash Surface area m 0.25
(side view) Thermal contrast K 21
Radiant intensity (3-5 μm) watts/sr 68.32
Radiant intensity (8-12 μm) watts/sr 25.23
The sizes of recorded muzzle flashes are similar in both bands, but thermal contrast is much
higher in MWIR (as expected) (results of analysis are shown in Tab. 1 and Fig. 4). MWIR
spectral range is generally better suited for the detection of high temperature objects, but in case
of muzzle flash the recorded apparent temperatures are not extremely high. As a result, both
MWIR and LWIR thermal cameras can detect muzzle flash from all considered angles of
observation [2, 7].

Fig. 4. Muzzle flash images in two spectral bands: MWIR 3-5μm (on the left) and LWIR 8-12μm (on the right).
The key parameter of any sniper detection system is an effective detection range. The actual
requirements may vary according to actual situation (open terrain, urban operations), but the
upper limit can be estimated on the basis of technical and tactical data of sniper rifles and
munitions. Data on effective range of commonly used weapons are presented in the following
table.

Table. 2. Effective range of commonly used weapons.

Cartridge Maximum effective range
5.56x45mm 300–500 m
7.62x51mm (.308 Winchester) 800–1,000 m

7.62x54mm R 800–1,000 m
7 mm Remington Magnum 900–1,100 m
.300 Winchester Magnum 900–1,200 m
.338 Lapua Magnum 1,300–1,600 m
It can be seen that the desired detection range should reach about 1500 meters. For a thermal
camera the main factor that influence its detection range are the parameters of optics and focal
plane array detector.

3. Infrared cameras parameters analysis

The initial assumption was to obtain target discrimination range of 1500 meters (for both
sniper body and muzzle flash), just beyond the effective range of most small arms weapons. Two
types of thermal cameras were chosen for simulation and analysis. First one with cooled FPA
works in LWIR range and the second one with cooled detector working in SWIR range. The first
camera was equipment with cooled FPA detector 384x288 pixels Venus manufactured by
Sofradir. The second camera was high-resolution device with cooled FPA detector 1024x768
pixels. Technical specifications of both cameras are presented in Table. 3.

Table. 3 Specifications of analyzed thermal cameras

Focal Plane Array (FPA), Focal Plane Array (FPA),
Sensor Type Cooled InSb 1024x768 Cooled HgCdTe 384x288
pixels pixels
Pixel size 17 μm 25 μm
Spectral Range 3-5μm 7.7-9.5 μm
Lens Focal Length 354mm 25 & 150mm
F# 1.4 1.4
Field-of-View 22°x16.7° & 3.6°x2.7° 22°x16.7° & 3.6°x2.7°
Peak D* 1x1011 1x1011
Lens diameter 17.9 mm & 107.1mm 17.9 mm & 107.1mm
Range calculations were made using NVTherm software [12, 13], and the appropriate results for
the devices with selected technical specifications were compared. An example NVTerm
calculations for both cameras detecting sniper body and muzzle flash are presented in Fig. 6.
Thermal properties of a sniper body and muzzle flash were assumed on the basis of STANAG
4347 standard and experimental examination performed at a test field.
a) b)
1.0 1.0

0.9 0.9

0.8 0.8

0.7 0.7

0.6 0.6

0.5 0.5

0.4 0.4
detection detection
recognition 0.3 recognition
0.3
identification identification
0.2
0.2

0.1
0.1

0.0
0.0
0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0
0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0
distance [km]
distance [km]

Fig. 5. Probability of DRI as a function of distance in km for sniper body (a)

and muzzle flash (b). Results for cooled 384x288 thermal camera, FOV 3.6°x2.7°.
a) b)
1.0 1.0

0.9 0.9

0.8 0.8

0.7 0.7
detection detection
0.6 recognition 0.6 recognition
identification identification
0.5 0.5

0.4 0.4

0.3 0.3

0.2
0.2

0.1
0.1

0.0
0.0
0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0 10.0
0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0 10.0
distance [km]
distance [km]

Fig. 6. Probability of DRI as a function of distance in km for sniper body (a)

and muzzle flash (b). Results for cooled InSb 1024x768 pixels thermal camera, FOV 3.6°x2.7°.
Detection, recognition and identification ranges for cooled 384 x 288 thermal camera derived
from the charts shown in Fig. 5 (assuming 50% probability) are presented in Tab. 4.
Table 4. Detection, Recognition and Identification ranges calculated for cooled thermal camera with 384x288 FPA.
Detection Recognition Identification
22°x16.7° 3.6°x2.7° 22°x16.7° 3.6°x2.7° 22°x16.7° 3.6°x2.7°
Sniper [m] 790 4450 120 560 50 300
Muzzle flash [m] 930 5210 90 660 50 350
Detection, recognition and identification ranges for cooled InSb 1024x768 pixels thermal camera
derived from Fig. 6 graphs are presented in Tab. 5.

Table 5. Detection, Recognition and Identification ranges calculated for cooled thermal camera with 1024x768 FPA.
Detection Recognition Identification
22°x16.7° 3.6°x2.7° 22°x16.7° 3.6°x2.7° 22°x16.7° 3.6°x2.7°
Sniper [m] 1230 5660 280 1650 120 780
Muzzle flash [m] 1350 6650 320 1840 160 850

The calculations for other cameras, equipped with different lenses and detector types were
conducted in a similar way. Several different types of thermal cameras were analyzed. On the
basis of the collected data the optimal parameters of a thermal camera for shot detection purposes
were determined, which allow for the desired target discrimination ranges. In order to cover the
threat localization up to 360° in azimuth it is necessary to apply the area scanning (for single IR
camera system). It can be seen that different FOV values are required for muzzle flash and sniper
detection. In a single device it can be achieved by using zoom lens, which are currently available
(and affordable) for infrared spectral range. Sample configuration of such system is presented in
Fig. 7.

360o

ZOOM
± 30o

FOV NARROW
FOV WIDE

Fig.7. Camera with selectable field of view.

The camera, with two selectable FOV (22°x16.7° & 3.6°x2.7) is used to detect sniper presence
and muzzle flash. The analysis results show that such task can be accomplished by quite standard
lens and array camera e.g. cooled LWIR device with array size of 384x288 pixels. However,
MWIR range is generally more effective for the detection of muzzle flash. Additionally fast
frame rates (hundreds of fps) are required which in this case will be the limiting factor. Upon
detection, the second camera will be automatically pointed in the direction of the potential threat
and final decision will be made. Considering present technology level it can be stated that
detection ranges more than 3000 meters are quite real to achieve, but the recognition to is about
600 meters.

4. Laboratory model of an infrared camera

The model was created using LWIR HgCdTe detector manufactured by Sofradir, France. It is
offered under Venus brand and it is 384x288 pixel cooled FPA device witch 25 μm pixel pitch.
Cooling is provided by integrated K508 Sterling-type cooler (manufactured by Rico company,
Israel). The applied Venus LW detector is a LWIR device, with peak sensitivity at 8.2 μm. The
spectral range is defined by germanium input window with AR layer and cut-off filter at 9.5 μm
and by cooled diaphragm with optical cut-on filter at 7.5 μm. Signal conversion module is based
on EASYLINK board, which main task is to convert analogue detector signals into 14-bit digital
data. Block diagram of the constructed camera, including its basic functional modules is
presented in Fig.8.

LENS
CONTROL

VIDEO DATA IMAGE DIGITAL IMAGE READ-OUT COOLED MOTORIZED

TRANSMISSION ANALYSIS PROCESSING CIRCUIT FPA ZOOM LENS

Fig.8. Simplified block diagram of IR camera

Read-out circuit is based on commercial-off-the-shelf EASYLINK board, which has internal
clock generator allowing for broad selection of single detector read-out frequency: 10 MHz, 5
MHz, 2.5 MHz or 1.25 MHz [17].
The application of cooled FPA implies the use of precise temperature control circuits. The FPA
temperature greatly influences its sensitivity so it is very important to keep the temperature at
optimal level. Another key factor to stable camera performance is the quality of supply voltages.
Output video data are calculated from FPA signals (converted into digital data) and correction
coefficients stored in internal memory. Digital image data stream is converted into output video
signal according to CCIR/PAL standard by a special D/A converter module [17, 18]. The same
electronic module generates also horizontal and vertical synchronization signals. The output
video can be displayed on various types of displays, such as CRT, LCD and OLED.
The laboratory model of IR camera was fitted with RONIT zoom lens by TemmekOptics. Its 25-
150 mm zoom range corresponds to FOV range from 22°x16.7° (wide) to 3.6°x2.7° (narrow).
The model was tested on a laboratory stand with optical collimator, reference IR source and bar
tests. During the tests the basic parameters of the camera were determined, such as NETD and
MRT and SRF characteristics. Further tests are planned, including field tests for muzzle flash and
sniper body detection in various environmental conditions to verify the design assumptions.

Fig.9. Laboratory model of the IR camera

5. Conclusion
The initial parameters of the camera for sniper and shot detection were determined on the basis
of laboratory and field measurements of thermal properties of both muzzle flash and sniper body.
Further calculations using NVtherm software revealed the necessary camera parameters to obtain
sniper detection range of 1500 meters. On the basis of measurements and numerical simulations
the camera model was constructed with selectable field of view, optimized for sniper body and
muzzle flash detection at the desired range. This model was tested under laboratory conditions
and, in the next step, the field tests will be performed, as final verification of expected ranges of
sniper and muzzle flash detection.

The results presented in the above paper are the effect of the research project No A-0376-RT-GC
SNIper POsitioning and Detection SNIPOD, funded by the European Defense Agency EDA.
Biliography

[1] Spera, T. J., and Figler, B.D., “Uncooled infrared sensors for an integrated sniper location system,”
Proc. SPIE 2938, 326-339 (1997).
 [2] Csanadi, C. J., Edwards, G. D., Hintz, T. M. and Tong, R. M., “Multispectral signature analysis
measurements of selected sniper rifles and small arms,” Proc. SPIE 2938, 288 (1997).
[3] Richards, A. A. and Risdall, D. M., “Passive Thermal Imaging of Bullets in Flight,” Proc. SPIE 5405,
258-263 (2004).
[4] Klingenberg, G. and Heimerl, J. M., “Gun Muzzle Blast and Flash,” Progress in Aeronautics and
Astronautics 139, (1992).
[5] Law, D., “Multi-spectral Signature Analysis Measurements of Selected Sniper Rifles and Small
Arms,” Proc. SPIE 2938, (1997).
[6] Grant, B. G. and Hardy, D. T., “Muzzle Flash Issues Related to the Waco FLIR Analysis,” Proc. SPIE
4370, 314-324 (2001).
[7] Kastek, M., Dulski, R., Trzaskawka, P. and Bieszczad, G., “Measurement of sniper infrared
signatures,” Proc. SPIE 7481, 748113 (2009).
[8] Dulski, R., Madura, H., Piątkowski, T., and Sosnowski, T., “Analysis of a thermal scene using
computer simulations,” Infrared Physics & Technology (49), 257-260 (2007).
[9] Holst, G. C., [Electro-optical Imaging System Performance], JCD Publishing, Winter Park, FL (l995).
[10] Howe, J. D., [Electro-Optical Imaging System Performance Prediction in Electro-Optical Systems
Design, Analysis, and Testing, Vol. 4 of the Infrared and Electro-Optical Systems Handbook], MI and
SPIE Press, Bellingham, WA (1993).
[11] Callen, C., Goodman, J., “Sensors to Support the Soldier”, The MITRE Corporation McLean VA
(2006).
[12] User's Guide, “FLlR92 Thermal Imaging Systems Performance Model,” NVESD document
UG5008993 Fort Belvoir VA (1993).
[13] Ratches, J. A., Lawson, W. R., Obert, L. P., Bergemann, R. J., Cassidy, T. W., and Swenson, J. M.,
“Night Vision laboratory Static Performance Model for Thermal Viewing Systems,” ECOM Report
ECOM-7043 Fort Monmouth NJ, pg. 2 (1975).
[14] Kastek, M., Dulski, R., Trzaskawka, P., Bieszczad, G., “Sniper detection using infrared camera:
technical possibilities and limitations,”,Proc. of SPIE 7666, 76662E (2010).
[15] Dulski, R., Kastek, M., Bieszczad, G., Trzaskawka, P. and Ciurapiński, W., "Data fusion used in
multispectral system for critical protection", WIT Transactions on The Built Enviroment, 108,
pp.165-173 (2009).
[16] Włodarski, M., Kopczyński, K., Kaliszewski, M., Kwaśny, M., Mularczyk-Oliwa, M. and Kastek,
M., "Application of advanced optical methods for classification of air contaminants", WIT
Transactions on Ecology and the Enviroment, 123, pp.237-247 (2009).
[17] Bieszczad, G., Sosnowski, T., Madura, H., Kastek, M., Barela, J., “Adaptable infrared image
processing module implemented in FPGA,” Proceedings of SPIE Vol. 7660, 76603Z (2010).
[18] Sosnowski, T., Bieszczad, G., Madura, H., Kastek, M., Firmanty, K., “The calibration stand for
thermal camera module with infrared focal plane array,” Proceedings of SPIE Vol. 7660, 76603Y
(2010).

View publication stats