Applied Physics Express 7, 062401 (2014)

http://dx.doi.org/10.7567/APEX.7.062401

Development of X-ray-induced afterglow characterization system

Takayuki Yanagida1*, Yutaka Fujimoto1, Takashi Ito2, Koro Uchiyama2, and Kuniyoshi Mori2
1
Kyushu Institute of Technology, Kitakyushu 808-0196, Japan
2
Hamamatsu Photonics Corporation, Hamamatsu 430-8587, Japan
E-mail: yanagida@lsse.kyutech.ac.jp
Received April 14, 2014; accepted April 22, 2014; published online May 14, 2014

To evaluate the X-ray-induced afterglow phenomenon, we developed an ionizing-radiation-induced luminescence characterization system
equipped with a pulse-width-tunable X-ray source. The system consists of a pulse X-ray tube and a detector system based on photon counting.
The excitation pulse width was tunable from nano- to millisecond ranges, and the dynamic range of the X-ray-induced afterglow was 106.
Conventional scintillators for X-ray CT or security systems, namely, Bi4Ge3O12, CdWO4, Tl-doped CsI, and Tb and Pr-codoped Gd2O2S, were
evaluated for the performance test. Results show that the afterglow time profiles of these scintillators are consistent with generally known results
with high accuracy. © 2014 The Japan Society of Applied Physics

norganic scintillators with ceramic or single-crystalline detectors, it would be fruitful to develop some other scientific

I forms have been applied to wide spectral ranges of radia-

tion detectors, including medical imaging,1) security,2)
well logging,3) astrophysics,4) and particle physics.5) Among
these practical applications, medical and security applications
are the most common to us on a daily basis. Except positron
emission tomography (PET) devices,6) most scintillation
detectors of medical (mainly X-ray CT) and security systems
consist of scintillators and Si photodiodes (Si PDs). When
X-rays are absorbed in scintillators, absorbed energies are
converted to thousands of visible photons via energy migra-
tion from the host to emission centers7) and then detected by
a Si PD. In the Si PD, scintillation photons are converted
to electron–hole pairs and these electrons are read out with
a signal accumulation time of several hundreds of micro-
seconds to several milliseconds. We call such a system an
integrated detector.
The timing properties of scintillators are quite important
for integrated detectors, and the most important characteristic
is the afterglow. The afterglow is a phenomenon of some
types of phosphorescence owing to the thermal release of
carriers from several traps.8) In integrated detectors, fast
scintillation decay times are not necessarily required and
typically micro- and millisecond levels are accepted. How-
ever, if significant levels of afterglow occur, it causes a
motion-blurred image. For example, the mobile velocity of
security systems (e.g., belt conveyor) in airports is several
tens of centimeters per second, as we usually experience.
Assuming that the typical size of a scintillation line scanner is
a few millimeters in such a security system, the actual X-ray
exposure time to obtain one line-scanned image is a few
milliseconds. Therefore, the afterglow at a few milliseconds
after the end of the X-ray exposure is the most important
property in integrated imaging detectors.
At present, no general rule for evaluating afterglow has
been developed, and each detector manufacturer for X-ray CT
or security systems evaluates the afterglow on the basis of
their company standard system and rule. Typical systems use a
Pb mechanical shutter or pulsed voltage control to put on or
off the X-ray. In such X-ray emission systems, the timing
resolution of the irradiation source with significant X-ray
intensity is approximately in milliseconds, which becomes a
dominant factor in the whole evaluation system, and it means
that the precise evaluation of a millisecond afterglow phenom-
enon is difficult. Although it should be noted that such a
situation has not affected any practical uses of scintillation
062401-1
evaluation methods. In addition, the dynamic range of after-
glow intensities in such systems is 103–5. If a higher dynamic
range is needed, a photon-counting detector is required.
To solve the two above-mentioned problems, namely,
adequate X-ray exposure and higher dynamic range, we
developed an afterglow evaluation system equipped with a
tunable-pulse-width X-ray source. The aim of this work is to
show the performance of this system using conventional scin-
tillators for X-ray CT or security systems. All sample scin-
tillators, namely, Bi4Ge3O12 (BGO; Saint Gobain, 5 © 5 © 5
mm3),9) CdWO4 (CWO; name secretly famous company
in security detectors, 5 © 5 © 3 mm3),10) Tl-doped CsI (CsI,
Saint Gobain, 5 © 5 © 5 mm3),11) and Tb and Pr-codoped
Gd2O2S (GOS LS-3, Hitachi Metals, 5 © 5 © 1 mm3),12) are
products of famous manufacturers of scintillation detectors and
onboard systems accessible to us. Since Gd2O2S is opaque,
thick samples were not fabricated by the manufacturer.
Figure 1 shows a schematic drawing of the system. The
root of the excitation was a pulsed LED light source made by
Hamamatsu. The basis of the system resembles a pulse-X-ray-
excited streak camera system.13,14) The emission wavelength
of the LED was 470 « 10 nm. The pulse width was tuned
from a few microseconds to several tens of milliseconds, and
the repetition frequency was tuned from 10 to 1000 Hz using a
digital delay generator (DG645, Stanford Research Systems).
Visible photons from the LED hit a multi-alkali photocathode
(S-20, Sb–Na–K–Cs) of an X-ray tube (N5084) made by
Hamamatsu14) and were converted to electrons. The photo-
cathode quantum efficiency at 470 nm was approximately
10%. The photoelectrons were accelerated by a 30 kV high
voltage bias supplied by Matsusada HAR-40P0.75, and led to
a W target by a strong electric field. Then, bremsstrahlung
X-rays were generated and led to the sample through a
20 mmº © 0.5 mm Be window. The mean energy of X-ray
quanta was ³20 keV and the endpoint energy of the brems-
strahlung spectrum was 30 keV. By combining the pulsed
LED light source and X-ray tube, a pulse-width-tunable X-ray
was generated. If we would like to evaluate a fast phenome-
non with a nanosecond range (e.g., scintillation), the pulsed
LED light source was replaced with a picosecond laser diode
(Hamamatsu PLP-10) to generate a faster excitation pulse.
In the detection part, a photomultiplier tube (PMT) was
used to detect afterglow photons by a photon-counting mode.
At present, we used R7400P-06 as the photodetector, the
wavelength sensitivity of which was from 160 to 650 nm.
© 2014 The Japan Society of Applied Physics
Appl. Phys. Express 7, 062401 (2014) T. Yanagida et al.

Fig. 1. Schematic drawing of pulse-width-tunable X-ray afterglow characterization system.

One of the advantages of the system was the convenience

of choosing a PMT since we could replace some PMTs if
we would like to use other PMTs with different spectral
sensitivities or timing responses by setting adequate readout
parameters. In the pulse-X-ray-excited streak camera sys-
tem,13,14) the detector part consisted of a grating, a streak
camera, and a CCD; thus, we could not change the detector
easily. Once afterglow photons were detected by the PMT,
the signal was fed into the C9744 photon-counting unit
(Hamamatsu) and then to an M9003-01 PCI-type counting
board (Hamamatsu) in a personal computer. The trigger
signal was also created using DG645 and fed into M9003-01.
The limitation of the time range was 52.2 ms owing to
M9003-01. Up to now, most systems for afterglow evaluation
of each company have investigated the afterglow from a few
milliseconds to several seconds; thus, afterglow evaluation in
a time range longer than several tens of milliseconds is con-
sidered sufficient. In addition, practical uses do not require
afterglow properties in such a longer time range owing to the
timing condition to obtain one line-scanned image described Fig. 2. Afterglow timing profiles of BGO, CWO, CsI, and GOS. The
intensity is normalized to 1 at the end of X-ray irradiation.
above. Although this is not an aim of the present study, the
scintillation phenomenon can be evaluated using the C5594
fast amplifier (Hamamatsu) and the TSCPC board instead Then, we investigated the afterglow dependence on X-ray
of C9744 and M9003-01. Compared with the pulse-X-ray- pulse width, which is equal to the X-ray dose. Although it
excited streak system,13,14) the present system cannot resolve is said in industrial companies that X-ray exposure affects
the wavelength, but the advantage of this system is that the the afterglow property, no study has yet been done scientifi-
photon statistics can be largely improved by not using a cally. Using CWO, we evaluated the afterglow with excita-
grating. Therefore, some materials that cannot be evaluated tion pulse widths of 10 µs, 100 µs, 1 ms, and 10 ms. Figure 3
using the pulse-X-ray-excited streak system can be measured shows afterglow time profiles of CWO with various
using the present system. excitation pulse widths. As clearly seen, the afterglow level
Figure 2 shows the afterglow properties of famous scin- worsened when the X-ray pulse width increased. In 10 ms
tillators, namely, BGO, CWO, CsI, and GOS. The excitation exposure, the pulse width was 12 ms owing to a huge
X-ray pulse width was 2 ms by simply assuming a 50 cm/s afterglow level. Therefore, it was scientifically confirmed
frequency and a 1 mm scintillator pixel size. In BGO and for the first time that the X-ray pulse width actually affects
CWO, the afterglow became ³10 ppm after several milli- the afterglow level. The afterglow is a thermally stimulated
seconds of X-ray off. These scintillators are famous for low luminescence21) (TSL) around room temperature; thus, it
afterglow, and the present results were consistent with is quite natural that a huge X-ray exposure leads to a high
previous reports.15,16) On the other hand, the afterglow level TSL intensity at room temperature. Such a consideration
of CsI was several hundreds of ppm, which was also con- was not examined previously owing to a huge discrepancy
sistent with common knowledge. Although the scintillation between the scintillation and the storage-type luminescence
luminosity of CsI is quite high, the afterglow property is (OSL, TSL, and RPL) fields. Although the dynamic range
not so good, and much effort has been paid to improve was designed to be ³107, the actual dynamic range in
the afterglow of CsI.17–20) In GOS, millisecond scintillation practical uses was approximately 106 owing to some noise
decay due to Tb3+, as well as low afterglow, was observed. emissions induced by X-ray. At present, the acceptable
Qualitatively, the observed results were well consistent with level of afterglow varies from several hundreds to thousands
commercially available afterglow properties determined by of ppm at 5–20 ms in each company; therefore, 106 is
famous scintillator makers (see the web page of each product). enough.
062401-2 © 2014 The Japan Society of Applied Physics
Appl. Phys. Express 7, 062401 (2014)
Fig. 3. Afterglow timing profiles of CWO with various excitation pulse
widths. The intensity is normalized to 1 at the end of X-ray irradiation.
Fig. 4. Scintillation decay time profiles of Nd, Er, and Tm-doped LuF3.
Fitting results are also shown.
Finally, to confirm the performance of the fast lumines-
cence evaluation mode, we evaluated the scintillation decay
time profiles of Nd3+, Er3+, and Tm3+-doped LuF322) fabri-
cated by Tokuyama Corp. The fast scintillation from these
three LuF3 samples was caused by 5d–4f transitions of
trivalent rare-earth ions. Figure 4 shows scintillation decay
time profiles of Nd3+, Er3+, and Tm3+-doped LuF3. The
primary scintillation decay times of Nd3+, Er3+, and Tm3+-
doped LuF3 are 8.1, 3.2, and 1.6 ns, respectively. A sub-
nanosecond fast component was noise due to scintillation
from an environmental component or a photocathode of
the PMT and is consistent with the timing response of the
R7400P-06 PMT. The observed values were consistent with
previous results on scintillation22) from the 5d–4f transition
of Nd3+ and photoluminescence23,24) from Er3+ and Tm3+.
Up to now, the X-ray-induced scintillation of the 5d–4f
transition of Er3+- and Tm3+-doped materials at room tem-
perature has not been reported owing to a low light yield.
Thus, the present system has a higher detection sensitivity to
scintillation than known systems.
In conclusion, we developed an afterglow evaluation
system equipped with a pulse-width-tunable X-ray source.
BGO, CWO, CsI, and GOS were examined in this system,
and it was confirmed that the system worked correctly with
high accuracy. The scintillation evaluation capability was
also investigated using Nd, Er, and Tm-doped LuF3. The
observed results were consistent with previous results, and a
062401-3
T. Yanagida et al.
high detection sensitivity to scintillation from nano- to
milliseconds was also confirmed.
Acknowledgments This work was mainly supported by a Grant-in-Aid
for Scientific Research (A) No. 26249147 from the Ministry of Education,
Culture, Sports, Science and Technology of Japan (MEXT) and partially by JST
A-step. The Yazaki Memorial Foundation for Science and Technology, Nippon
Sheet Glass Foundation for Materials Science and Engineering, Tokuyama
Science Foundation, Iketani Science and Technology Foundation, Hitachi Metals
Materials Science Foundation, Mazda Foundation, JFE 21st Century Foundation,
and Asahi Glass Foundation are also gratefully acknowledged for their partial
assistance.
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