Week 2 - ELEC311 CH 2 Ch1 of Course Pack

ELEC 311 (Summer 2023, Week 2)
Junction diode with some

applications and
introduction to
electronic amplifiers
Dr. R. Raut, Electrical and Computer

Engineering Department, Concordia 1
University
1. AC equivalent circuit of a diode; idea of voltage regulation
2. Voltage regulation with Zener diode, analysis and design
aspects of a Zener shunt regulator
3. Power supply systems, peak-inverse voltage, ripple filter
calculations
4. Wave shaping with diodes. Clipping, clamping and voltage
doubling (Ch 2, course pack, p.2.11-2.19, p.43-2.50)
5. Electronic Amplifiers (i) Standard Configuration,
(ii) Equivalent Circuits, (iii) Output-Input Characteristics, (iv)
Example Configurations

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AC Equivalent Circuit Model of a Diode(1) [CPS:2.3.4x]
We use the exponential model of the I-V equation with an

Assumption for FORWARD biased diode

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AC Equivalent Circuit Model of a Diode(2) [CPS:2.3.4x]
Application Examples:
Background work: We must determine the operating point of the

diode, i.e., DC voltage and DC current. We can use any suitable or
suggested model for the diode (except the ideal model) to solve for the
operating point. We then use the relation rD =VT/ID to incorporate the
ac equivalent circuit model of the diode in the entire circuit. Rest is
basic circuit analysis, the signal being the ac component of a given
voltage/current source.
Automatic Gain Control (AGC):

This technique uses the voltage variable (leading to change in DC
current) ac resistance characteristics of a diode, since rD =VT/ID, and
ID is changed by the change in the DC voltage. The DC voltage is
obtained by rectification of the input (larger) ac signal. See course
pack section 2.3.4
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Diode AC Resistance: Voltage Regulation[CPS:2.3.5]
Clue: For each diode vD=2.4/3=0.8V; use
0.8=0.7+2.303*.025*log10(iD/2.5), to get iD in
mA=136.4
Same DC current flows through each of the
diode in series .
Then R=(5.6-2.4)/136.4(mA)=23.46 ohms
• Voltage Regulation ?
Q: How much will the voltage across the diodes
will change if the raw DC changes by +- 1V?-
This part relates to voltage regulation, i.e.,
‘change’ in the output DC when the input DC is
‘fluctuating’. Change implies ‘ac’, so we work
with ac equivalent circuit.
AC equivalent circuit? Output ac?
Input ac is 1V peak.

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Voltage Regulation by Zener Diode (1) [CPS:2.3.6]
• Voltage Regulation implies maintaining constancy of a voltage; the voltage should be DC
• A voltage regulator is an essential part of a DC voltage supply system; a Zener diode

accomplishes to achieve this objective
• Zener diode characteristics

Engineering Department, Concordia
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Voltage Regulation by Zener Diode (2) [CPS:2.3.6x]
Device Equivalent Circuit Overall System Equivalent Circuit Circuit Equation
Regulation Characteristics

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Practice Problem: Zener Shunt Regulator Analysis
Clue: Find the circuit parameters for the Zener diode first ; 7=Vzo+Iz*rz, Vzo=…. Draw the complete equiv. ckt.
Solve the circuit for RL =200 ohms. Check if Iz >=Iz,min i.e., 5 times IZ(Knee) =0.2 mA

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Practice Problem: Zener Shunt Regulator Design
Consider the same device (i.e., VZ=7V at IZ=5mA, rZ= 20 ohms). Design the system (i.e., find RS )
for raw DC voltage limits of 13V to 17V, and load current IL of up to 10 mA (i.e., IL,max =10 mA).
Clue: Work out the worst case scenario, i.e., VS → minm. 13V, to supply IL → max. 10mA, IZ →
min. >= Five times IZ(Knee)=1 mA or higher
Draw the circuit model, calculate VZ for obtained IZ, then RS <= (Vs,min –VZ)/(IZ,min +IL,max)
Q. What are the line regulation, and load regulation of the designed regulator? Apply
formulae for (delta) VO/(delta)VS, and (delta)Vo /(delta)IL (using the superposition eq.
2.12(a) in course pack)

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Power Supply Systems [CPS:2.4,2.4.2]
Peak-Inverse Voltage: Maximum voltage that appears across the diode when in reverse bias
A B VB VA is the Inverse Voltage Difference
(A is Anode, B is Cathode)
For Half-Wave Rectifier (HWR) when A is at Negative Value Relative to B,

Diode is OFF, Voltage at B is zero (no current through the load resistance),
the Inverse voltage is 0- (-VA) = VA. Peak Inverse Voltage is the peak value
of VB - VA
B
A For A Full Wave Rectifier (FWR) voltages at A and A’ are in
Phase opposition. When A is at -Vx, A’ will be at Vx, so also B’
B’ and B are at VX ; the Inverse Voltage Across AB diode
A’
becomes ..?
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Power Supply System (PIV) [CPS:2.4.2x]
Considering the battery model of a diode, the conventional battery polarity opposes the inverse
voltage Battery model of a diode
battery
VD PIV for the AB diode will now be 0-VD - (-VA) = VA- VD, we
Half-Wave A assumed that B being the load terminal is at zero volts (diode
Rectifier B
reverse bias)
Ideal diode
** VA can be replaced by VS, or Vm or any other symbol as
long as the meaning of the symbol is understood.
B For A Full Wave Rectifier (FWR) voltages at A and A’ are in

A
Full-Wave Phase opposition. When A is at -Vx, A’ will be at Vx. Now B’
Rectifier and B will be at VX –VD (including the battery drop) ; the
B’ Inverse Voltage Across AB diode becomes ..? 2VX –VD
A’
** Vx can be replaced by VS, or Vm or any other symbol s long as the
meaning of the symbol is understood.
Bridge
Rectifier

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Power Supply Systems (Ripple Filter) [CPS:2.4.1x]
The ripple filter following the rectifier produces smoother (closer to DC) output
voltage signal. This constitutes the RAW DC voltage input for the voltage regulator
Ripple voltage calculation

Engineering Department, Concordia
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Power Supply Systems (Ripple Filter) [CPS:2.4.1x]
Ripple Calculations (contd.)
Charge conservation principle: Charge on capacitor CVr =Charge flow into the load R =IL* (discharge interval)
Vr is the ripple voltage, Vp/R is the discharge current, and T-δt is the discharging interval where δt is the charging
Interval.
Approximate T-δt →T. Then CVr = ( Vp/R)T, gives , as the ripple voltage
The above is for a half-wave rectifier (HWR). We used T=1/f SUP

For a full-wave rectifier (FWR), the charge-discharge scenario will happen TWICE as faster. Then
the ripple voltage will be reduced by a factor of TWO.
In North American systems, fSUP =60 Hz is to be used
Ripple voltage for FWR is Vr|FWR =(1/2)*
Practice problems?
1. Given R=1000 ohms, C=10 μF, Vp =15 V, what will be the ripple voltage Vr as a %-age of Vp ?
2. What value of C will be required for a ripple voltage of 2% of the peak ac supply voltage (Vp )?

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Power Supply Systems (Ripple Filter ) [CPS:2.4.1x]
Diode Currents in a Ripple Filter (important for Diode Rating)
• In a rectifier filter system, the capacitor is charged up when the input ac signal is high which turns the
diode ON. The diode has a low resistance in this situation, and the diode current remains high.
• When the input ac signal rolls down to lower values, the diode turns off since the capacitor connected
to the cathode terminal of the diode holds a voltage that is higher than the descending input values.
The diode presents a very high ( ~ infinity) resistance and the capacitor discharges through a relatively
higher valued resistance, i.e., the load resistance. The current through the diode remains at a low value.
• The transient phenomena during charge and discharge of the capacitor in the rectifier filter brings in
surge of currents through the diode. If the surge is excessive, the diode may get damaged.
• It is important to know about these values before employing a diode in a practical power supply
system.
Average Current Through the Diode: icAvg +IL
We need to find the conduction interval first
Conduction interval is t2-t1, when the diode is conducting.
Vr=Vp(Sin ωt2- Sin ωt1)=Vp (1-Sin ω (t2-δt)), δt being the
conduction interval, i.e., δt=t2-t1.
Using Sin (A-B)= SinACosB-CosASinB, and ωt2= π/2=A, ω δt=θ
Vr=Vp( 1-Cos (θ))
Then θ =Cos-1 [(Vp –Vr)/Vp ], is the conduction interval in radians.
δt=t2-t1= θ/ω, is the conduction interval in secs. ω is =2πfsup
where fsup is=60 Hz. Then, icAvg =CVr/δt, and IL =(Vp-Vr/2)/RL.

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Power Supply Systems (Ripple Filter ) [CPS:2.4.1x]
Average Diode Current in a ripple filter (contd.)
Practice Calculations: Consider the case R=10000 ohms, C=10 μF, Vp =15 V, what will be average diode
current during rectification? Consider the case of a HWR.
Calculations by will give Vr = . Then δt=t2-t1= θ/ω,

with θ = Cos-1 [(Vp –Vr)/Vp ] =0.5867, will give δt =1.55 m sec
Then, icAvg= 16.09 mA IL=15/10000=1.5 mA iDAvg = 16.09mA+1.5mA =
Peak Diode Current in a ripple filter:

Here we need to find the peak capacitive current. This happens when charging the capacitor begins. Soon
after the charging current diminishes as the capacitor voltage builds up.
𝑑𝑣
At any instant, from the basic principle of capacitive current ic =C 𝑐 , the maximum of ic happens at the
𝑑𝑡
starting instant , t=t1, where vc =VpSinωt.
Thus ic peak=CωVpCos(ωt1)= CωVpSin (ωδt) =CωVpSin(θ), where θ =Cos-1 [(Vp –Vr)/Vp ].

Then iDpeak =ic peak +IL
Practice Calculations: Consider the case R=10000 ohms, C=10 μF, Vp =15 V, what will be peak diode current
during rectification? Consider the case of a HWR
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Clipping, Clamping and Voltage Doubling
(Non-linear Signal Processing Examples)
(See Sections 2.3.7.1-3, of the Course pack)
Single sided clipping (Fig. (a)) Double-sided clipping (Fig. (b))
(a) (b)

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(See Sections 2.3.7.1-3, of the Course pack)
Clamping with R,C Clamping with R,L (Surge Protector)

One important use of diodes is to suppress
the voltage surge present when an inductive
load is switched out of a circuit.
Switch
+
Vin
L Diode
-
In the absence of the diode shown, the current in the

inductor would generate a large transient voltage across
the switch whenever it is turned off. The voltage spike can
be large enough to destroy a solid state transistor switch.
When the switch is turned on, the diode does not conduct
since it would be reverse biased. However, when the
switch is turned off, the diode provides an alternative path
for the inductor current, and the inductor will not develop
a voltage higher than the forward voltage drop across the
diode.
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Clamping + Envelop Holding→ Doubles the Voltage
SPICE simulation Example

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Basic Circuit, Electronics Circuit
• A Basic Circuit • An Electronics Circuit
(Schematic)

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A Typical Electronic Amplifier System
Load
Source
Electronic Amplifier
• The source is a sensor device producing a voltage or current due to a

stimulus from the physical world around us. Examples: Microphone,
Geophone, Photodiode etc. This can be modeled as a series circuit or a
parallel(shunt) circuit
• The load is a receiving device to understand the information from the source.
Examples: Audio speaker, earphone, volt/current meters, digital/video
display, LED. This is modeled as a series/parallel element.
• The amplifier is made from electronic devices, such as transistors. This can be
modeled in terms of dependent source with an input and an output
resistance

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Equivalent Circuits (Examples)
• Electronic Device in a • Electronic Device in a
Schematic Schematic
• (DC) Equivalent Circuit • (AC) Equivalent Circuit

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Rules for Equivalent Circuit Formation
For Analysis at AC (small signal)
For Analysis at DC 1. Remove all independent DC
sources (v-source shorted, i-
1. Remove all Independent ac source open)*
sources (v-source shorted, i- 2. Re-label all dependent sources
source open)* 3. All C (replace by reactance, can be
2. Re-label all dependent sources zero for simplified analysis)
3. All C-> open circuit 4. All L (replace by reactance, can be
4. All L -> Short circuit infinity for simplified analysis)
5. Insert the DC equivalent circuit 5. Insert the AC equivalent circuit for
for the electronic device the electronic device
* The internal resistance(s) of the * The internal resistance(s) of the
source(s) can be included in the source(s) can be included in the
equivalent circuit equivalent circuit

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Schematic-> Equivalent Circuits
Schematic of a BJT Amplifier Schematic of a BJT Amplifier
• DC Equivalent Circuit ? • AC Equivalent Circuit ?

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Dependent Source Representations
Ro
+ +
+
G m vi
vi Ri A vo v i vi Ri Ro
−
_ _
(a) ii → Ro (c)
A is i i
ii →
Ri R m ii Ri Ro
−
(b) (d)
(a) VCVS→Input Resistance in shunt, Output Resistance in Series with

a voltage dependent Voltage Source
(b) CCVS→Input Resistance in shunt, Output Resistance in Series with
a current dependent Voltage Source
(c) VCCS →Input Resistance in shunt, Output Resistance in Shunt with
a voltage dependent Current Source
(d) CCCS →Input Resistance in shunt, Output Resistance in Shunt with
a current dependent Current Source
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Parameters of the Dependent Source Models
Ro
+ +
+
G m vi
vi Ri A vo v i vi Ri Ro
−
_ _
(a) Ro (c)
ii →
A is i i
ii →
Ri R m ii Ri Ro
−
(b) (d)
AVO=Open Circuit (RL→infinity) Voltage Gain, with ideal input voltage source (Rs→ zero)
Rm=Open Circuit (RL→infinity) Trans-Resistance Gain, with ideal input current source (Rs→? )
Gm= Short Circuit (RL→zero) Trans-Conductance Gain, with ideal input voltage source (Rs→?)
Ais=Short Circuit (RL→zero) Current Gain, with ideal input current source (Rs→ infinity )
Exercise Problem:
An electronic amplifier modeled as a VCCS is inserted between a signal voltage source with Rs=50 ohms ,
and a resistance load of 5 k ohms. The VCCS has parameters Ri =50 k ohms, Gm=40 milli mho, and Ro=100 k
ohms. What is the overall (a) voltage gain, (b) trans-conductance gain of the system?

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Output-Input Transfer Characteristics
• Operating Point (Linearity Characteristics)

• Small-signal Gain, Large Signal Gain
Linear Operation
Segment
+ Limit
Y Y v OUT
VO,Q
-Limit
0 0 0 VI ,Q
(a) X (b) X (c)
v IN
Y Y
0 X 0 X
(d) (e)

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Linear Amplifier with MOS Transistors
Lab 5 Experiment Schematic
(MOSFET device used)

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Typical Electronic Amplifier Set Up in a Lab
VCC=15V
Rc 4.7k
75k Vout
Vs Vx Q1
10u Load Resistance
VB Producing A Voltage
P2N2222A
10u Output
VOFF = 0 10k
VAMPL = 50mV Vin
RE 10k
FREQ = 4KHz 33k 4.7k
47u
Electronic Amplifier with (DC 15V)

Signal Voltage Source (ac 50 energy Supply
mV) with Series Resistance

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A Non-Linear Amplifier
(CMOS Inverter)
• Electronic Devices have non-linear Voltage-Current (V-I) Characteristics unlike ,
for example, Resistors, which follows linear V-I equation (i.e. Ohms law)
• Electronic Amplifiers made from Electronic Devices thus are apt to produce
non-linear output-input transfer characteristics
• By special DC bias point (i.e., operating point) arrangement, and by limiting the
input signal excursions, a linear output-input transfer can be obtained

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ELEC 311 (Summer 2023, Week 2)

Junction diode with some

Dr. R. Raut, Electrical and Computer

Dr. R. Raut, Electrical and Computer

We use the exponential model of the I-V equation with an

Dr. R. Raut, Electrical and Computer

Background work: We must determine the operating point of the

Automatic Gain Control (AGC):

Dr. R. Raut, Electrical and Computer

• Voltage Regulation implies maintaining constancy of a voltage; the voltage should be DC

• A voltage regulator is an essential part of a DC voltage supply system; a Zener diode

• Zener diode characteristics

Dr. R. Raut, Electrical and Computer

Device Equivalent Circuit Overall System Equivalent Circuit Circuit Equation

Dr. R. Raut, Electrical and Computer

Dr. R. Raut, Electrical and Computer

Practice Problem: Zener Shunt Regulator Design

Dr. R. Raut, Electrical and Computer

For Half-Wave Rectifier (HWR) when A is at Negative Value Relative to B,

B For A Full Wave Rectifier (FWR) voltages at A and A’ are in

Dr. R. Raut, Electrical and Computer

Ripple voltage calculation

Dr. R. Raut, Electrical and Computer

The above is for a half-wave rectifier (HWR). We used T=1/f SUP

Dr. R. Raut, Electrical and Computer

Dr. R. Raut, Electrical and Computer

Calculations by will give Vr = . Then δt=t2-t1= θ/ω,

Peak Diode Current in a ripple filter:

Thus ic peak=CωVpCos(ωt1)= CωVpSin (ωδt) =CωVpSin(θ), where θ =Cos-1 [(Vp –Vr)/Vp ].

Dr. R. Raut, Electrical and Computer

Clamping with R,C Clamping with R,L (Surge Protector)

In the absence of the diode shown, the current in the

SPICE simulation Example

Dr. R. Raut, Electrical and Computer

• The source is a sensor device producing a voltage or current due to a

Dr. R. Raut, Electrical and Computer

• (DC) Equivalent Circuit • (AC) Equivalent Circuit

Dr. R. Raut, Electrical and Computer

Dr. R. Raut, Electrical and Computer

• DC Equivalent Circuit ? • AC Equivalent Circuit ?

Dr. R. Raut, Electrical and Computer

(a) VCVS→Input Resistance in shunt, Output Resistance in Series with

Dr. R. Raut, Electrical and Computer

• Operating Point (Linearity Characteristics)

Dr. R. Raut, Electrical and Computer

Dr. R. Raut, Electrical and Computer

Electronic Amplifier with (DC 15V)

Dr. R. Raut, Electrical and Computer

Dr. R. Raut, Electrical and Computer

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