/r/L

8)

‘ThresholdRwwure Phenomena. in Porous Media

. . .. . . .. . -. L. K. THOMAS PHILLIPS PETROLEUM CO. . . , . .. .

JUNIOR MEMBER AIME BARTLESWLLE, OKLA.
D, L, KATZ
U. OF MICHIGAN
M, R. TEK
ANN ARBOR, MICH.
MEMkERS AIME

ABSTRACT out of the reservoir at a rate determined by the

permeability of the caprock to gas.
Threshold displacement pressures are needed to The abiliry of a caprock to contain gas is
determine bow much overpressure can be used in expressed in terms of its threshold disrdacement
.
storing naturat gas. An experimental technique for pr;ssure, which is defined as the minimum pressure
deterrninin gtbresbol dpressures by displacing water needed CO initiate the displacement of a wetting
with gas /rem santpIes saturated with water is phase by a nonwetting phase from a porous medium
presented. Threshold pressures for eight ?OW 100 percent saturated with the wetting phase.
permeability samples were measured. Threshold The gas indusrry must be able to predict trctw
pressure data obtained irr this work, plus data on much “overpressure” a gas reservoir can withstand
higher permeability samples reported in tbe before leakage occurs by gas displacing water from
literature, are correlated with porosity, permeability, caprock overlying the reservoir. This is of economic
suriace tension and /ormatiorr resist ivity factrrr, importance since the storage capacity of a gas
~iercury injection pressures also were measured reservoir is proportional to its pressure.
and conelated with air-water tbresoold pressures. The discovery pressure for most reservoirs is
Threshold pressures were found to be independent found between the upper and lower limitsl shown
of time, in Fig, 1, Discovery pressures in excess of their
An aeriaI pbotograpb of gas emerging /rem the hydraulic pressure gradient are attributed to the
top of a core sbort!y after its [breshold pressure compaction of an isolated shale formation by the
brrs been exceeded shows that the gas bubbles are overburden, z,s The lower limit of 0.433 psi/ft
uniformly distributed across the /ace o/ the core. corresponds to the weight of the overburden, the
Cbarrrre!ing wilt occur, however, when an increased gradient of the rock itself. Somewhere between
gas phase permeability is reached.
A porous medium can be resealed alter its iRcference8 given tit end of poper.

thresbol~i pressure bas been reached, provided it

has not been desaturated below a fixed saturation. 0 -. —..---- --— ---
Its new threshold pressure will be lower than when
–1
PURE WATER GRADIENT
tl;e sample is 100 percent saturated with water.
2$00 -
INTRODUCTION

The degree of overpressure in excess of the

discovery pressure that a gas storage reservoir can 4,000 -
withstand is determined by the ability of its .I
caprock to contain gas, providing the pressure does
6,000
not exceed the structural limit of the reservoir. The
retention of gas in a reservoir by a caprock
saturated with water is a result of the rapillary
8,000
forces acting at the gas water interface. Without
the presence of water in a caprock, gas would leak 1
. . ..- .-—. . . . . . .. . .. .-
. . ..
Original manuscript received in Society of Pctrolctm Englneere 4,000 6,000 8,000 to,ooo
of fico AUg, 4, 1967, Revlr. ed manuscript received April 3. 1968.
0 2,000
“- paper (SPE 1816) was p?esented at SPE 42nd Annual Fell Meetinfr -.
held in Houston, Tex,, Oct. 1-4, 1967. @COpyrli%ht 196S American
PREkURE,PS
IA ‘“ .- .- ““
tnstitute of Minlns, MetdIurgIcel, and Petroleum Ensineere, Inc.
,>
FIG, 1 — HYDt?AULIC AND OVERBURDEN PRESSURE
-. .,.,. GRADIENTS lt’j THE EARTH. z
. . . .
. . . . . .
sTICIETY OF PETtlOLEOhI ENGINEERS JOll RNA1.
,. .&. .. . . . . .. . . . .. .. . . . . ,., ...
 these two limits lies a safe operating pressure
a particular
This
development
measuring
gaa storage reservoir.
work covers three main areas:
of an experimental
threshold displacement
(I) the
technique
pressures
for

for
of low
‘T =
0

r~z.......

where P= = threshold pressure

r 1
. (2)

permeability porous media; (2) the prediction of k. = shape factor

threshold di&placement pressures from other F = formation resistivity factor
measurements which can be made on porous media; Eq. 2 was first derived by Wyllie and Rose.7 The
and (3) an analysis of leakage across a caprock. purpose of their paper was to obtain an expression
for resistivity measurements on cores in terms of
THEORETICAL DE,VELOPMENTS
. . ,,
measurable properties of rocks. .
Previously reported theoretical “ developments Wyl]ie and Spangler,g in an attempi to account
pertaining to capillary pressure in porous media are for pore size distributions. that occur in porous
of necessity semi-empirical. This is due to the media, arrived at the following equation:
complex nature of the interstices of porous materials.
Leverett4*5 made one of the earliest attempts to r) 02 1 dS
correlate
semi-empirical
capillary
relation
pressure. He developed the
k = ko(F$)2 J
o
#“””””
c
(3)

This equation was derived by summing the

individual flows for all of the infinitesimal portions
of the pore Apace. Each of the individual flow rates
by dimensional analysis, and this relation has been were calculated in a manner similar to that
supported to some extent by experimental data. In employed in Eq. 2.
the above equation Alrhough Eq. 3 is more sophisticated than Eq. 2
g. acceleration of graviry it cannot be written explicitly in terms of the
g= . gravitational constant thteshold pressure PT. The threshold pressure
z= height of capillary interface above free aPPears inside the integral as the end point of [he
wetting phase surface capillary pressure curve. Thus, Eq. ~ does not
. /J) “ Leverett’ s j-function appear to be suitable for correlating threshold
k= permeability of a porous medium pressures since it requires the measurement of the
P= = capillary pressure entire capillary pressure curve. Eq. 2 should at
.$,fl = wetting phase saturation Ieaat give a qualitative and, hopefully, a .quantita- .
porosity of a porous medium tive description for the threshold pressure of a
4’
porous medium in terms of other properties of the
Leverett’s work showed that a plot of j(-$w) vs
wetting .phase saturation for clean unconsolidated medium.
materials fall satisfactorily near two curves, one
for imbibition and the other for drainage. Rose and EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAM
Bruce6 have presented drainage capillary pressure EXPERIMENTAL APPARATUS
curves for consolidated systems along with a replot
A flow diagram of the high pressure core-holder
of Leverett’s data, Their data show that consolidated
apparatus used in this work is shown in Fig. j. The
systems are not a]l uniquely represented by a single inlet side of the coreholder can be attached to
j-function curve. However, their data indicate that
either a Ruska pump for water permeability tests,
samples taken from individual .reservoirs may be
or to a nitrogen cylinder for air permeability or
enough alike texturely so thar a single j-function
threshold pressure tests.
curve may be obtained for a particular reservoir.
A schematic drawing of the coreholder drawn ro
Although Eq. 1 is of fundamental importance in
scale ia presented in Fig. 2. The design for this
the study of capillary pressure in porous systems,
core holder was developed by Core Laboratories in
ir does not offer a means for correlating threshold
Dallas, Tex. The core holder was constructed from
pressures since j (SW = 1.0) cannot be directly
304 stainless steel and was designed foe an
measured.
operating pressure of 1,500 psi. The end plates of
Eq. 2, which is based on a model for porous
the holder are fitted with O-rings which s-srve as a
media composed of a bundle of identical capillary
seal for the sleeve pressure. These plates are held
conduits of total cross-sectional area r#A and
in position by threaded end caps, either of which
average effective length L@ should prove useful in
can be removed to allow access to the inside of the
correlating threshold rwessures with other measur-
.. . ..holder. The top. end plate -is fitted .with .a..second . —
able-piop~rtiek~’ (See-’ Appendix for derivatiori.) - - .
O-ring that seals the core holder at the point where
..-. *A1lof the variables In Eq, 2 are measurable except &o. Th!s the stem of the holder protrudes through the end
variable is a shape factor that varies between 2,o and 3.o plate.
depending upon whether the cross-section of the pore is cfrcular,
elliptical, square, etc. Since the term eppeers to-the one-half . Both” end plates “for the- core sample are scored
power, little error IS Introduced by, using a value for ko between.
“with lines radiating from the center .of the platea
.. 2,0 end 3.0, . . . ‘. ..= –.- . .
-.—

and also with concentric circles about the center of

t, the plates. These lines allow even fluid and

l’+ pressure distribution

The top end plate is attached
across the ends of a t-ore.
to the stem of the
core holder. The bottom core end plate, which also
serves as the botrom core Iiolder end plate, is
drilled for the gas or water inltts.
The rubber sleeve used in the high pressure
core holder was fabricated from buns rubber. Tne
sleeve was purchased through Maeder Instrument
Co. in Dallas, Tex., and was made by wrapping a
continuous ‘thin layer ‘of rubber around a I%-in.
cylinder until the desired thickness of sleeve was
obtained. The sleeve was then vulcanized to
laminate the layers together. The coreholder is
equipped with three pressure gauges (O to 60 psi,
O to 500 psi, O to 1,000 psi) on the core side of the
core holder in order co yield accurate readings over
the entire operating pressure range of the apparatus.
Nitrogen over water was used to supply the
sleeve pressure for rhe core holder, The nitrogen-
water inrerface was located in a pressure surge
tank and water extended from this tank through
stainless steel tubing to the outside of the rubber
sleeve. The pressure surge tank was placed in a
constant temperature warer bat}] to eliminate
changes in sleeve pressure caused by room
temperature fluctuations.

EXPERIMENTAL TECll NIQll ES

LF.GCND Measurements of porosity, air permeability,
4 OUTLET STEM 5 CORE SAMPLE
turbulence factor, water permeability, formation
2 10P COREHOLDER Lt40 PLATE 6 RuBBER SLCCVC
7 BOT TOM CORE HO’LOIR & res~stivity factor, mercury injection data and
3 TOP CORC SAMPLE END PLATE
SA!,(PLC ~NO PLATE threshold pressure were made. All of the
4 PRESSURE INLET FOR RUBBER
SLE[VE 8 GAS OR WATER INLETS experimental techniques with the exception of the
procedure for measuring threshold displacement
FIG. 2 — LONGITUDINAL SECTION OF HIGH PRESSURE pressure are fairly standard to the industry. The
CORE HOLDER.
procedure for making some of these measurements

SLEEVEPRESSURE
#
0-1500 Psl
T
PRESSURE GAUGES
o“ 60 Psi 0-1000 Psl
0“500 Psl

I
HI(M PRESSURE
CORE HOLDER

INLET L-4
. ..—. . . . .-. I LA I ----- .. . . ..-.
.
. ...— .. —..- . . .
.
.

. . . . . NITR06EN. CYLINDER .
.6R RUWA PUMP
—, .
..
,.. . FIG. 3— schematic FLOw DIAGRAM QF~HEHIGH P~Es!uRE coREH.OLDER A.ppARATus"- .- . . .’.
.. . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . ... ....
,. . . . .
176 .90C1ETY OF PETROLEUN ENGINEERS JOURNAL -
 differs somewhat from conventional methods found during the threshold pressure measurement was a
in the literature due to the complexities arising result of the sleeve pressure. Threshold pressure
from the “tighmess” of the cores being measured. measurements were starred after this time period.
Core samples were seturared with distilled, Gas pressure was applied to the bortom of the
deaerated water containing .?5 ppm Hg$12, added as core sample. The size of the pressure increment
a bactericide. The cores wvre dried m an oven at was determined by the “tightness” of the core,
220F for 24 hours. Then the dry core sample was The lower the permeability of the core, the larger
saturated with C02 by passing several PV’s of the the pressure increment. After each increment of
gas through the core. The purpose of this step was pressure the average rate of water flow from the
to replace the air in the core, which is practically core was measured with time until the flow ceased.
insoluble in water at standard conditions, with a When the threshold pressure was reached, a
gas that is soluble in water, The sample was continuous flow of water resulted; and if enough .,
evacuated for a period of at least 12 hours. The time was allowed gas finally appeared from the
system .pressure was 2 microns or less at. the end outlet end of the core.
of this interval of time. The core was flooded in its
evacuated state by opening a valve between the PRESENTATION AND ANA I.YSIS OF DATA
vacuum chamber and a reservoir of deaerated water.
GENERAL CORRELATION FOR
The last step in saturating a core was to place it TIIRESI{OLD PRESSURE
in a water pressure chamber at a pressure of at
least 1,000 psia for a period of rime. This step Sufficient data were taken for each sample used
in this work (Tables 1 through 3) to check the
spe,eds the imbibition of water into the core, and
during this time rsfiy C02 still remaining inside the TABLE 1 — TYPE AND SOURCE OF CORE SAMPLES
core will go into solutio; . Length
Formation resistivity factors for samples having Core Label (!..) Type
-— SOUICO
——— .-—
a permeability greater than 10-0 md were measured ~~mple G 2.84 Porodox Iimes, one Con finen?Ol OilCo,
using 5- and ]0-weigl]t percent solutions of sodium SOmp10 I 1,85 Doon sondstone Continent Ol Oil CrJ,

chloride, For samples having a permeability less Somple K 2.05 Pmodox limestone COnlinenf Ol Oil Co.

than 10-4 md, the lower rcsistlvity electrolyte, Sompl o L 2.47 EOU Cloiro Northern ~llinois
sonds?ono Gos Co.
lo-weifllt percent NaCl, was used. After saturating
Sompl e P 2.02 SRroyborry sondstone Continental Oil Co.
a core with electrolyte, it was allowed to “age” in
Somple Q 2,04 Sondstone Con18nt3n101 Oil Co.
a covered beaker containing electro]ytc for a[ least Somple R .665 Mount Simon Northern Illinois
onc week before the resist ivity measurement was sondstone Gos Co,
made. Ea. 4 was used to correct for conducti~’e Somple S 1,95 Dolomite Northern Illinois
Gas Co.
solid s,g.lo
All dlometers = 1.5 in.

1 CR 1 ___________ ..— — .-—-—. --———— ....—.-----

—= w . . . . . . . . . (4) 7ASLE 2- CORE SAMPLE PROP ER~l ES
F ‘; A,, Tv*bJo~~e W.*O. Fo, me,, o”
a cwe P.lc..,ly Pmrnmb,l,, y F.. 10, Pe, nmb,l,ly Resn, Inv,t Y
Lobel (POtc. m) .Jm~)_, ({1-1) .__W) ._ FOCI.,
-.
_.—.
The intercept of Eq, 4 gives the reciprocal of the Somr,lo G 10.0 0.131 2.76(1012) 0.07.42 7 ?.0
true formation factor. S0mpL3 I 9.48 0.0?09 6.:0(1014) 1.0 [1O-J) 67.6
SOmpl. K 3.26 I .24(10-3) 6.11(1016) 2.62( l&”) 317.0
Values of air permeability and turbulence factor
Sorwle u 3.26 l,24(10_3) 6.11( 1016) 2.97(10-4)” 3 I 7.0
were obtained by the method of Cornell and Katz .1, 11 smpls L 15,9 0,645 6.39[1010) 0.178 59.3
S.mplo P 11,9 0.0?22 2.72(1014) I .52(10-3) 60.S
THRES1iOLD DISPLACEMENT SVnpl. o 9.64 3.95(10-31 7.60[ 1016) 4.61(10-s) 115.0
FRE2SIJRE MEASUREMENT Sample R 1,3) 8.9711r41
2.50(1017) 9.15(10-5) 656.0
$svle S 2.89 1,9811V31
6.14(1018) 4.07( )o-~) 359,0
Threshold pressure measurements were performed .FIOW,. S 11., d -OS 10 we,~h, pat... ! N. Cl.
in the high pressure core holder. While mounting a _.c ,——.
given core sample in the holder, a layer of water TABLE 3 — TABULATED cDMp AR ISON OF MEASURED
was placed on top of the core sample and extended AND PREDICTE9 THRESHOLD PRESSURES
into the stem of the holder, Fig. 2. A micropipette Threshold ~4610 -~
was attached to the stem of the core holder with a SurfOce Pt05SUr0 <j K
J+ k. F
PT
shorr section of tygon tubing. Care was taken Tension
Descrlptlon (dyne/cm) (psi) [psi)
during these steps to eliminate air bubbles from
the tygo!] tubing and pipette. Somplo G 72. > 20< 25 34.
A pressure between 1,000 to 1,500 psi was Sample I 72’, >107J<15O 337.
S.mplo K 72. >200<225 240.
applied to the sleeve of the core holder. Some flow
Sample K* 75. >225<250 234.
of water from the core and its holder took place as
— _Somplo-L . .. .72*.. - ->.15<.16. ,. ._ ?3: . .
.“ a- result ‘of-the Mecve-pressure.- Due -to–the low —s.
Somple P 72. - >150< 175 272s
pcrmeabilities of the caprock samples this flow Sample Q 72, >500<550 916,
~ometimes would continue as long as a day. Each Somplo R- 72. ““ >350<450. - ‘ 309,
core sample was allowed to set an exrra day after .%mplo S 72. “ >600 <700 : 568. -.
this flow hadceased to insure that. none of the floy *Fluld used wos 10 weight porcont No Cl. . - < .
.— .-. —-..”. - . ..’ . . . . . . .. ,—. .. . . . .. .
.. . .
. .. . . . . ..
J2JXE, 1968 -’ 177
 ,
4nnn ——
““”
. . . ..— — .— Some of the measured values of threshold txessure

A
for the lower permeability samples pres~trted in
‘T=~: J&=.w7,(sw:!o)fi o Fig. 4, however, fall below the line representing
[ \ the predicted values of threshold pressure. This is
}“ \ Po -i to be expected since Eq. 2 was derived on the
basis of an avetage h ydtaulic radius. One would
expect that this radius would be somewhat smaller
than the radius of rhe largest pores. Any average
radius obtained from permeability measurements,
however, is greatly infh+nced by the largest pores
in a porous medium. This is because the flow
through a conduit is a, function of its radius to the
“fourt~ Dower, while its area ‘is only a function of
radius squared, Thus, most of the flow through a
porous medium having a“ broad pore” size dis~ribution
occurs through irs largest pores.
The quantitative agreement for most of the data
presented in Fig. 4, and the excellent qualitative
agreement of all of the data suggest that this
correlation should prove quite useful.
A plot of threshold pressure vs reciprocal
perme~bility appears in Fig. 5. According :0 Eqs.
1 and 2 this plot should have a slope equa to 0.5,
A least squares fit of the data in Fig. 5 esultcd
in the following equation.
FIG, 4 — CORRELATION OF TIIRESIIOLD PRESSURE
WITH OTHER PROPERTIES OF POROUS MEDIA.
1 ●43
validity
correlation
of Eq. 2, Data are presented
between measured and predicted
as a
values
‘fr
= 7.37
() i“””””
(5)

of r}treshold pressure, Fig. 4. In addition to the The exponent of 0.43 in Eq. 5 is not greatly dif-
data taken in this research work on low permeability ferent from rhe exponent of 0.5 predicted by Eqs.
samples, Fig, 4 includes data taken on higher 1 and 2. Eq. 5 should prove useful for predicting
permeability samples from the literature. The data values of threshold pressure when only the
by Wyllie and Rose7 pertains to Eq, 2, while that permeability of a sample is known.
from Rose and Bruce6 is”connected with Eq. 1. The
values of Leverett’s limiting j-function, lim I (Sw + CORRELATION OF TIIRESIIOLD PRESSURES
1.0), presented bv Rose and Bruce, were obtained WITII MERCURY INJECTION PRESSWRES
by measuring the entire capillary pressure curve for
In 1949, Purcell 12 presented a technique for
each sample and extrapolating this data to 100
determining capillary pressure curves by mercury “
percent water saturation.
injection. He showed rhat the ratio of mercury to
Fig. 4 shows that Eqs. 1 and 2 are well represented
air-water capillary pressure is given by
by the data over the entire range of data presented.

r. .-
.UuLuuJd
—
,,.
. .-. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. ,,,()---
. . . . .
‘+’ ~~ +02 :,--:- jo3 . _...,04 :-.: .-..:,.5. . _ . . __
1.0
-. . -.
““’R~ClpR~C+AL’ p~RM~A~lL]Ty, f/~, ~~f ‘ : - - .
. . . -.
.“ ,..
. ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 .— .THRESHOLD
. .FIG.
.-
PRESSURE VS 1 /PERMEADrL~:y.
. .. . . . . . .. .. -,,
. ‘ .
. . . .. . . . . .. .
..,.’-
 .

TABLE 4 _ TABULATED COMPARISON OF AI R. WATER

I’c pig) = oHg co~ ~,,(Jo AND MERCURY THRESHOLD PRESSURES

Alr.Wrtte, (Hg Threshold

Cos 0° Threshold %OS6WE4 %066u,~)\5,0,
Pc (air-water) ‘h20
COrOSamplo (PT Air. Woter) psi PT(Hg)/5.0

Samp10 G 22.5 37.0

=5.0””””’(6) Sample I 125.0 112.0
Sample K 212.0 240.0
Purcell’s work suggests a means of correlating Sample L 15.5 18,5
air-warer and mercury threshold pressures of porous Somplo P 162.0 116.0
media. The mercury injection pressure of a porous W, R. Purcell’s Doto
medium that can be obtained by extrapolating its San Andros limestone 2.2 3.4
.. . mercury capillary pressure curve, Fig. 6, should be Frio sandstone :,,6 ..:, . ~08 -

five tirires its air-warer thteshold pressure according Frlo soridstone 0.59 0.77
. to Eq, 6. . .- . Pol IJxy sandstone .0.94 1.4
Mercury capillary pressure curves for five of the Upper WI ICOK sonds!one 0.71 1.5
eight samples used in this work were measured San Andres limestone 2.3 3.5

using an Aminco Winslow porosimeter. NO data

were obtained for the other three samples since the Table 4 is shown in Fig, 7. The correlating equation
threshold pressure for these samples was near or
above the upper pressure limits of the porosimctcr. P,r ( air-water) =
The extrapolations such as the one shown in Fig. 6
are based on our judgments. In general an 1.11”?

[1 ()ii i%
extrapolation using data points between 5 to 30 l~T
.571 ., .,,. (7)
percent mercury saturations should give meaningful 5.0
results. The data points falling below the
extrapolated curve in Fig. 6 arc the result of
provides an excellent quantitative description of
mercury wetting the irregular surface of the core
air-water threshold pressures in rcrms of the mercury
sample,
threshold pressures, This correlation offers a grcar
Air-water and mercury threshold pressures for
savings in time since mercury threshold pressure
samples used in this work as well as data for
can be obtained in less than an hour compared ro
higher permeability samples presented by Purcell
several days for some low permeability samples.
are listed in Table 4. Purcell’s paper presented the
entire mercury and air-water capillary pressure EFFECT OF TII.lE ON THRESHOLD PRESSURE
curve. The data appearing in Table 4 was obtained
Are threshold pressures of porous media functions ..
by extrapolating Purcell’s data in rhe manner
of time? Two different samples h’ and P were
outlined above. A least squares fit of the data in
1000 ---— .. ---- -— .. ——— - -.-—
\lf9 ~

[1
- 4000 PT[Hs) t
PT(AIR-WATER)= 571 --6 –

- 2000 o
SAMPLE I
100

Q 400 :
0$
0
0 10 L 0
$
0
Q 200 ~ -1 0’
~ 0
L
3
!00 s I..l /
a
80 s- PT(AIR-WATE
o MEASURED BY MERCURY 60 ~
E 10
INJECTION
i ~ #g’a
40 :
~ MEASUREDTHRESHOLDPRESSURE / ● DATA BY W R
v’
(GASDISPLACING WATER) Z. O DATA BY L K ThOMAS
1 04 1 I 1
2L..1.. -.__~Io 1000
o 20 4W20+80 80 100
.. —..._- ..-. ---- . . . —- .. . . .. . . .. . _ ‘o OKR..uffY THR~SHOLD..J’&U!Ri)l . . . . ..
Ico 80 60+Hg+40 20’ 0”’ 5, PT(H8)/5
SATIJRATICIN, ~ .- , -
FIG. ‘7 - AIR:WATER AND MERCtJRy THREsktOLD
,FIG, 6 — ‘ CAPILLARY PRESSURE .- cuRvE FOR PRESSURE CORRELATION, PT (AIR-WATER) = ~’T (Ik)
:. ,..
. SAMPLE 1. . ‘. .. .- .. . 15.0. .’:.,..
. .----- :.. . . . . . .---- .,-- . . .. . -. .-= ..,- ..-. .e ,.- . . . .. .. --< ,
-. ., . . . .. . . . . .. .
JUNE, 196s ‘ ““
. .- . . .. . . . . . ~ “1’r9
.. .. . ..-
----- :.- .-
’
allowed to stand 3 to 10 days under gas pressures saturations and channeling occurs. At high water
below their threshold pressure. NO movement J saturations, however, the low value of gas permea-
water resulted from rhese cores over this period bility yields a mobility ratio less than one, Thus,
Df time. it does nor appear that channeling takes place prior
Further evidence concerning whether threshold to or just after exceeding the threshold pressure.
pressures are a function of time is furnished by Channel flow will develop when a caprock has been
c.~nsidering oil and gas reservoirs. The caprocks of desaturated to a point where an increased gas phase
rhese reservoirs have demonstrated their ability to permeability occurs.
rerain oil and gas over periods of geologic time.
The existence of oil and gas reservoirs having R~SATURATION OF A CAPROCK AFTER
abnormally high discovery pressures such as those EXCEEDING TIIE THRESHOLD PRESSURE
along the Gulf Coast suggest further evidence that Can a caprock “be resealed -after the threshold
the threshold pressures of caprocks are not a pressure has been reached? Th”is problem was
function of time. - - investigated for Samples G- and Q.. -
The resulrs of tests to reseal Sample G after its
NATURE OF GAS h“LOWAFTER threshold displacement pressure was exceeded are
EXCEEDING THE THRES}iOLD PRESSURE shown in Fig. 9, After the threshold pressure was
The nature of the gas flow through a porous exceeded, the gas pressure at the base of Sample G
medium just after the threshold pressure was was reduced to zero. Water imbibed back into the
reached was studied visually by observing rhe sample for a period of time and then no further
areal distribution of gas emerging from the outlet movement was noticed, The sample then was
end of core samples, Fig. 8. The photograph was subjected to 10 and 15 .,si pressure increments,
taken after the core sample was removed from the respectively. After each of these increments a
core holder, but with the rubber sleeve still around diminishing flow that finally ceased took place.
the core. A layer of water was left on top of the When a pressure increment of 20 psi was applied to
core so tha! the gas bubbles would not escape. the sample, a continuous flow resulred and gas
It was concluded from these observation? that bubbles emerged from the outlet end of the sample.
the penetration of gas through a core, at pressure A similar resealing process was obtained with
levels at or slightly higher than the th~eslrold Sample Q.
pressure is fairly uniform. These observations are The tests indicate rhat a caprock can be resealed
in agreement m,ith the mobility ratio test13 for if the pressure in the gas reservoir is reduced to
channeling. zero and water is allowed to imbibe back into the
kp caprock.
rg w (8)
!“lobility ratio = — . . .
k
l-w .U~ ]0-5 —-—-——— . ..— —
APo.?5 PSI
Channeling usually occurs when th~ mobility ratio
SAMPLE G
is. greater than one, ”For. gas and wa.tgr this ratio is P+ >~o<zs Psl
. affected greatly by their.viscosities at inr.ermediate
.,” ,. AP=25 PSI
in.6 L-‘-

Ap=20 PS
AP= 10PSI
. 7
GAS BUBBLES
OCCUREO
AP.15 Psl

.— —
AP= O PSI AP=10 PSI AP=15 PSI

AP-O PSI

.. ----- . . . . . ----- —
lx-l J.
5 10 15

FIG. 8 — GAS BUBBLES PENETRATING CORE AFTER FIG, -9 A ‘SEALING SAMPLE G AFTER EXCEEDING
EXCEEDING. THR.E9HOLD. PRESSURE. ITS THRESHOLD DISPLACEMENT PRESSURE. ,.. .-
“=. . . . ,. ... .,. .
1s0 ... . sOCBETY OF PETROLEUM E!$CJXEER9 JO IJRXAL... .
—
.-
 THRESHOL.D PRESSURIZSOF PARTIALLY lower, water will imbibe back into the caprock
SATURATED POROUS MED1A following an intermediate imbibition curve (dotted
Previous work on threshold pressure phenomena curve) whose shape is similar to that of the
for high permeability core samples has been imbibition curve. It appears that it is possible to
presented by Hassler, Brunner, and Deahl.14 Their reseal a caprock after exceeding the threshold
work included an investigation of the amount of gas displacement pressure, Point F in Fig. 10, if the
pressure required to force gas through a partially caprock has not been desaturated to a point where
saturated sample of porous medium. Their measure- the imbibition curve will fall to the left of the
ments of rhreshold pressure vs saturation indicate threshold pressure vs saturation line,
that this data can be represented by a straight line. The safe operating pressure for a gas storage
This line intersects the abscissa, where threshold reservoir whose caprock has leaked, and has then
pressure equ”ali zero, at “the b’ase of rhe gas phase been resealed by imbibing water, is no longer
determined by the threshold displacement -. ””..,.
~..-.>u,e
permeability curve during drainage, Fig. 11. This
point i+ known as the highest critical saturation for of the caprock. Rather, the safe operating pressure
gas, where critical saturation is defined as that will be determined by the threshold pressure
saturation where a porous medium shows conductivity corresponding to Point E in Fig. 10.
to gas independent of the applied pressure gradient.
The highesr threshold pressure occurs at 100 CONCI.(JSIONS
percent water saturation, Point F’ in Fig. 10. Gas 1. To determine how much ‘ ‘overpressure” a gas
saturations along line CF are insular in nature. storage reservoir can withstand, the threshold
The relationships that occur between the dlsp]acement pressure of its caprock musr be
capillary pressure and relarive permeability curves measured or predicted. Our method for measuring
for a given porous medium should be nored. The threshold pressures should give reIiable results.
saturation where the threshold pressure becomes
zero, Point C in Figs, 10 and 11, corresponds to 2. Threshold displacement pressures for low
the base of the gas phase permeability curve during permeability samples of porous media can be
drainage. The irreducible water saturation predicted if their permeability, porosity and
corresponds ro rhe poinr where permeability to formarion rcsistivity factors are known, I:qs, 2 and
water both during drainage and imbibition goes to 5. Threshold pressures also can be predicted from
zero, Point A in Figs, ]0 and 11. Point B in Figs. mercury injecrion data, Eq. 6. This ]neans of
10 and 11 represents the residual gas saturation predicting threshold pressures offers a great rime
during imbibition. savings. Whenever possible threshold pressures
Can a caprock overIying a gas reservuit be should be measured.
sealed after its threshold pressure has been 3. Threshold pressure is nor a function of rime. .
exceeded? Assume that the gas’ pressure in the
reservoir is such that the capillary pressure 4. observations in the laboratory show thar rhe
between the gas and rhe water in the caprock after penetration of gas through a caprock after its
capillary equilibrium has been reached corresponds drrcshold pressure is exceeded is quite un]form.
to Point D in I:ig. 10, If the gas pressure in the Channeling will develop, however, when an
reservoir is reduced to its discovery pressure or increased gas phase permeability is reached.

,-------- .—.— .— ——--———— .

A-IRREDuCIBLE WATER ~sm-m lMSIB) TION
B- RESIDUAL GAS —— DRAINAGE
1.0 ---–-——- ———. — --- .--—
C- HIGHFST CRITICAL SATURATION i
D-ARBITRARY POINT ON A IRREDUCIBLE \YATER
DRAINAGE CURVE .9 B RESIDUAL GAS
] E-THRESHOLD PRESSURE OF [
I PARTIALLY DESATURATED .8 C HIGHEST CRITICAL
POROUS MEDIUM h
I F- THRE5HOLCI 015 PLACEMENT r8 SATURATION
.1
~ PRESSURE
\ 6 h
I 5
rw

.3 /
%, /
.2
,%
2g
+
,0 \
.1 A ,4 5
~~~ ‘$8 c
. . . . .. . . . . -.. -—--- o ~~ O._.:.....
0 .! .2 .3 .4 .$ ,6 .7 .8 .9 io
 5. It is possible to reseal a porous medium, REFERENCES
provided it has not been desaturated below its
1. Katz, D, L., et al.: Handbook 01 Natwal Gas Engi.
highest critical saturation after letting water imbibe rreerirrg, McGraw.Hltl Book Co., Inc., New York (195g),
back into the porous medium.
2. Cannon, G. E. and Craze, R. E.: ~(Exces~ive
6. If a porous medium can be resealed, the safe Pressures
and Pressure Variation with Depth of
Petroleum
Reservoirs in the Gulf Coast Region of
operating pressure for the underlying gas reservoir Texas and Louisiana”, T~utzs., AIME (1938) VOI,
will be determined by a threshold pressure whose 127, 31-38.
value is less than the threshold displacement 3. Dickinson, G.: ,, Geological Aspects of Abnormal
pressure of the caprock. Reservoir Presaurea in Gulf Coast Louisiana”, f-lull,,
AAPG, Vol. 37, 410.
. NC)MENCLATURE .. . . 4, Leverett, ,M. C.: “Capillary Behavior in Porous
: .Solids>$, Trans., AL%IE(1941) Vol. 142, “152-169,
d. diameter of a tube: (L) “ s. Leverett, M. C., Lewis, N. B. and True, M. E.:
-F. formation resistivity factor t*Dimen~’i~nal hfOdel Studies of Od-Field ‘Ilehavior’;,
Trans., AIME (1942) Vol. 146, 175.193.
Fa = apparent formation resist ivity factor
6. Rose, W. and Bruce, W. A.: “Evaluation of Capillary
g. acceleration of gravity (L/T2) Character in Petroleum Reservoir Rock}~, Trans.,
g., . gravitational constant (ML/FT2) AIME (1949) Vol. 186, 127-142,
j(Sw) = Leverett j-function 7, Wyllie, M. f.?, J. and Rose, W.: ‘{some Theoretical
Considerations Related to the Quantitative Evaluation
k= permeability, (Darcy, L2) of the Physical Characteristics of Reservoir ROck
k. = shape factor, between 2.0- 3.0 from Electrical Log Data”, Trans., AIME (1950) Vol,
189, 105-118.
k= . Kozeny constant
8. Wyllie, M, R, J. and Spangler, M. D.: llApplication of
k,g = relative permeability to gas Electrical Reaistivity Measurements to Problems of
k rw “ relative permeability to warer Fluid Flow in Porous Mediti)r, Bu//, r AApG ~Feb.,
1952) 359.
L ~ length, (L)
9. Hill, H. J. and hlilburn, J, D.: ‘tEffect of Clay and
Le = average effective lengrh, (L) Water Salinity on Electrochemical 13ehavior of Reser.
Pc . capillary pressure, (F/L2) voir Rocks”, Trans. , AIME (1956) Vol. 207, 65-72.

P~ = threshold pressure, (psi, F/L2) 10. Pathnode, H. W. and Wyllie, M. R. J.: ‘i The Presence
of Conductive Solids in Reservoir Rocke as a Factor
.jp = pressure drop, (F;L2) in Electric Log, Interpretation i’, Ttans., AI!ilE ( Ig5CJ)
r= radius, (L) Vol. 189, 47-52.
11. Crrnell, D. and Katz, D. L,: “F1ow of Gases Ihrough
rb = hydraulic radius, cross-sectional area/
Consolidated Porous Media*’, Irrdusrria[ and Ftjgf.
wetted perime:er, (L)
neerirag Chemistry (1953) VO1.’45, 2145.
rohm = resistance across a core, (ohm) 17 Purcell, W. R.: ,,caPillarY pressures — Their
Measurements using Mercury and the Calculation of
A?. = resisrivity of a porcus medium sarurated Permeability Therefrom”, Trnns., AIhIE (1949) VO1,
with an electrolyte of resistivity Rw 186, 39-48.
Rw = resisrivity of an electrolyte (see Eq. A-12) 13, Calhoun, J. C., Jr.: Fwrdaruerr:als o/ Qeserooir Engi.

SW = water saturation, fraction neeting, The U, of Oklahoma Press, Norman, Okla,

(1960).
v = superficial velocity, (L/T)
14, Hasaler, G. L., t3runner, E. and Deahl, T. J.: llThe
V = average velocity inside a tube, (L/T) Role of Capillarity in Oil Production)), Pet. Tech.
Z = height of capillary interface above free (Sept., 1943) T. P. 1623,
wetting pl~ase surface, (L) 15, Amyx, J. W., E%aa, D. M. and Whiting, R. L.: Perro.
)eum Reseruoir Engine@ ring, McGraw-liill Book Co.,
~ = fluid viscosity, (M/LT) Inc., New York (1960).
p = densiry difference, (M/L3) 16. Carrnan, P, C.: “Capillary Rise and Capillary
u = surface tension, (dyne/cm, F/L) Movement of hloisture in Fme Srmds”, Soil Scieucr
(1941) Vol, 52, 1.
$5 = porosity, fraction
17. Wyllie, M. R. J. and Gardner, G. H. F.: ~*The
r = tortuosity of a porous medium Generalized Ko;eny-Carman Equation”, ‘!’or/d Oil
(March, 1958) 123,
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 18, Archie, G, E,: ,, The Electrical Reaiativity Log as an
Aid in Determining Some Reservoir Charticteristics”,
The authors are indebted to the Michigan Gas Trans., AIME (1942) Vol. 146, 54-62.
Association for its financiaf support of this
research, to Continental Oil Co., and Northern
Illinois Gas Co. for supplying core samples for this
~~research,-and to Phillips Petroleum Co.- for assis- .. . .. . ---- .. . -..
DE-R*~A~~o~ O-F Tfi~-~s~ojJ~- .“ .
tance in manuscript preparation.
. . . . . PRESSURE EQUATION

Consider a model for porous media composed of a

:.. < .. . . .. . . ~bun,dle.: of identical
., -~..-. . ., ..., .7 ... : . . capillary conduirs of total
.
-,. .. . .. .
. . . . . ... . SOCIETY OF PET IIOLEUM ENGINEERS JOURNAL
182”-””
.. . .
.:, ..,.:
cross-sectional area 4A and average effective
gc @rh 2APL2
length L.e, ~= —— . . . . (A-5)
Four basic equations must be written for this kouLe () Le
model before the threshold pressure can be related
to other properties of porous media. These equations
are listed and are either stated or derived in the Introducing Darcy’s law for flow t!rrough porous
development which follows: (1) Poiseuille’s law; media
(2) Darcy’s law; (3) capillary pressure equation;
(4) equation for the effective length of a porous k AP
medium. v=—””””’””” “.. (A-6)
Poiseuille’s law for Iaminar flow through a tube pL
,. ... , ,,. . ., . . . . ... .
of circular cross-section is .“. .
it is possible to express Eq,’” A-”s in terms of the
.gcd2. AP ~~ permeability k of a porous sysrem. Making this
T =— . . . . . . . . .(A-l) substitution we have
321JL
r)rh2 L 2
where i7 = average velocity inside the tube (A-7)
k=——
d = diameter of tube kO () L””...’”
e
g= = gravitational constant
f-, = length of tube Eq. A-7 is known as the Kozeny -Carman equa-
p = fluid viscosity tion,7,8,16,17 but it is usually written in terms of
3P = pressure drop surface area per unit volume rather than in terms of
the hydraulic radius 7b, *
For conduits with noncircular cross-secrions it The equation for the threshold pressure of a tube
has been experimentally shown that a mean hydraulic assuming a zero contact angle for gas and water is
radius f’h should replace the diameter term in Eq,
A-1. For a tube, Th = d/4. Eq. A-1, therefore, may 20
be generally written as PT=y. ”””” ”’”” ”” @-~)

f4c rh 2 AP
ii=——————’ . (A-2) Written in terms of hydraulic radius Eq. A-8 becomes
2uL’ ””””””
o
In this form, Poiseuille’s equation closely Pm=~.”.’”.....”@-~)
approximates flow in noncircular conduits. The 1
‘“h
constant, 2.o, in the denominator of Eq. A-2 should,
however, be replaced by a shape factor, k. which Now, combining Eqs. A-7 and A-9 the follow ng
has been shown to fall between 2.o to 3.o for the expression for threshold pressure is obtained.
majority of n“oncircular conduits.
h applying Poiseuille’s law to the flow that
takes place inside a pore of a particular porous 0)
medium-, a further correction for the length of the ‘T =&--(:e)F ““(A-
tortuous path the fluid takes must be made, since
the average distance traversed by the fluid is
greater than the length r!- of the porous medium. The above expression still contains one term
Let f-e be this average effective distance. Then l../L ~ that needs to be expressed in terms of
measurable quantities. Wyllie and Rose7 presented a
2 AP method for determining .L/L. e from the resisrivity of
gc t-h
, (A-3) the core.
T=
The formation resistivity factor of a core, as
defined by Archie,18 is

Expressing Vin terms of the superficial velocity v,

we have

vL
v
=—. . . . . . . . . . . . (A-4) where R o is the resistivity of the rock when
@Le
saturated with an electrolyte having a resistivity
‘Rw”.-Reiiiitiviiy “is-given by”” ‘.- ‘-”‘“- ; ~ ‘ ~“‘“-

* Carman10 ties responsible@ for tilting i he Kozeny constant

k= as the product of two psrBmeter8: one, a shape facto? k. -d
the other term (Le/L)a which Rose and Bruce e called tOfiuOsltY,
‘?. . . .
.-- . . . .. . ..~.. . . . . . .. . ..
.=. ,.. . . . . . . . . .
... -. 18s
,:-. .- .
—
 .,

1
r L
R=
ohmA
~-+--””””’” (A-12) F=;
‘() #-o-- o-oo (A-13)

where R = resiscivity Combining Eqs. A-10 and A-I 3 and introducing

A = cross-sectional area of the conductor the proper conversion factors, an expression for
the threshold pressure in terms of measurable
‘ohm = resistance across the core
properties of porous media is obtained.
L = length of the conductor

From the above definitions it follows that the .I.461 a 1

formation resisrivity factor for this model is given
—,, ,. ., (A-14)
‘1’ = ko~ r @k -. . ... .
by -.~..” -:. ;;- ~:.” _ -:: r , ..
***

. — -. . . .
. .

. ..,
,,. - .