❙♦❜r❡ ❧❛ ♥❡❣❛❝✐ó♥

■s❛❛❝ ❈❛r❝❛❝í❛ ❈❛♠♣♦s

✷✵ ❞❡ ❥✉❧✐♦ ❞❡ ✷✵✷✶
✷
❮♥❞✐❝❡ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧

❘❡s✉♠❡♥ ✺

✶✳ ▲❛ ♥❡❣❛❝✐ó♥ ❝♦♠♦ ✐❞❡❛ ✜❧♦só✜❝❛ ✼

✶✳✶✳ ■♥tr♦❞✉❝❝✐ó♥ ② ❡s❜♦③♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ✐❞❡❛ ❞❡ ♥❡❣❛❝✐ó♥ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✼
✶✳✷✳ ❋❡♥♦♠❡♥♦❧♦❣í❛ ② ♦r✐❣❡♥ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♥❡❣❛❝✐ó♥ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✾
✶✳✸✳ ▲❛ ♥❡❣❛❝✐ó♥✱ ❧❛ ♦♥t♦❧♦❣í❛ ② ❧❛s ❝❛t❡❣♦rí❛s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✶✷
✶✳✸✳✶✳ ▲❛ ♥❡❣❛❝✐ó♥ ❡♥ ❧♦s ♦❜❥❡t♦s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✶✸
✶✳✸✳✷✳ ▲❛ ♥❡❣❛❝✐ó♥ ❡♥ ❧♦s ♣r❡❞✐❝❛❞♦s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✶✹
✶✳✸✳✸✳ ▲❛ ♥❡❣❛❝✐ó♥ ❡♥ ❧❛s ♣r♦♣♦s✐❝✐♦♥❡s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✶✻

✷✳ ▲❛ ♥❡❣❛❝✐ó♥ ❡♥ ❧❛s ❧ó❣✐❝❛s ❢♦r♠❛❧❡s ✶✼

✷✳✶✳ ▲ó❣✐❝❛ ❝❧ás✐❝❛ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✶✽
✷✳✷✳ ▲ó❣✐❝❛s ♠✉❧t✐✈❛❧✉❛❞❛s ② ❞✐❢✉s❛s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✷✷
✷✳✸✳ ▲ó❣✐❝❛ ♣❛r❛❝♦♥s✐st❡♥t❡ ❝♦♥ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r ❞❡ ❝♦♥s✐st❡♥❝✐❛ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✷✸
✷✳✹✳ ■♥t✉✐❝✐♦♥✐s♠♦ ② ❧ó❣✐❝❛ ♣❛r❛❝♦♠♣❧❡t❛ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✷✻
✷✳✺✳ ❚♦♣♦❧♦❣í❛ ② ❧ó❣✐❝❛s ♥♦ ❝❧ás✐❝❛s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✸✶
✷✳✺✳✶✳ ◆♦❝✐♦♥❡s ❜ás✐❝❛s ❞❡ t♦♣♦❧♦❣í❛ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✸✶
✷✳✺✳✷✳ ▲❛ ❧ó❣✐❝❛ ❞❡ ❧♦s ❛❜✐❡rt♦s ② ❝❡rr❛❞♦s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✸✹

✸✳ ❈♦♥s❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛s ② ❛♣❧✐❝❛❝✐♦♥❡s ✸✼
✸✳✶✳ P❛r❛❞♦❥❛s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✸✾
✸✳✶✳✶✳ P❛r❛❞♦❥❛ s♦r✐t❡s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✸✾
✸✳✶✳✷✳ P❛r❛❞♦❥❛ ❞❡❧ ♠❡♥t✐r♦s♦ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✹✵
✸✳✶✳✸✳ P❛r❛❞♦❥❛ ❞❡ ❘✉ss❡❧❧ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✹✶
✸✳✷✳ ❊st✉❞✐♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ✜❧♦s♦❢í❛ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✹✶
✸✳✷✳✶✳ ❑❛♥t✱ ❍❡❣❡❧ ② ❧❛s ❛♥t✐♥♦♠✐❛s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✹✶
✸✳✷✳✷✳ ▲♦s t♦❞♦s ② ❧❛s ♣❛rt❡s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✹✷
✸✳✸✳ ❊st✉❞✐♦ ❞❡❧ ♠✉♥❞♦ ✓r❡❛❧✔ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✹✸

✸
✹ ❮◆❉■❈❊ ●❊◆❊❘❆▲
✸✳✸✳✶✳ ❊❧ ♠♦✈✐♠✐❡♥t♦ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✹✸

✸✳✸✳✷✳ ▲♦ ❞✐❢✉s♦ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✹✸

✸✳✸✳✸✳ ▲❛ ❝♦♠♣✉t❛❝✐ó♥✱ ❜❛s❡s ❞❡ ❞❛t♦s ② ❧❛ t♦♠❛ ❞❡ ❞❡❝✐s✐♦♥❡s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✹✹

✸✳✸✳✹✳ ▲♦s s✐st❡♠❛s ❞❡ r❡❣❧❛s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✹✹

✸✳✹✳ ❊st✉❞✐♦ ❞❡ ❧❛s ♠❛t❡♠át✐❝❛s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✹✺

✸✳✹✳✶✳ ❋✉♥❞❛♠❡♥t♦s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✹✺

✸✳✹✳✷✳ ❆r✐t♠ét✐❝❛ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✹✺

✸✳✹✳✸✳ ●❡♦♠❡trí❛ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✹✻

❇✐❜❧✐♦❣r❛❢í❛ ✹✼
❘❡s✉♠❡♥
❊❧ ♦❜❥❡t✐✈♦ ❞❡ ❡st❡ tr❛❜❛❥♦ ❡s ❡st✉❞✐❛r ❧❛ ♥♦❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ✓♥❡❣❛❝✐ó♥✔✳ P❛r❛ ❝♦♥s❡❣✉✐r t❛❧
✜♥ ♣r✐♠❡r♦ ❛♥❛❧✐③❛♠♦s ❧❛ ♥❡❣❛❝✐ó♥ ❝♦♠♦ ✉♥❛ ✐❞❡❛ ✜❧♦só✜❝❛ q✉❡ r❡q✉✐❡r❡ ♦tr❛s ♥♦❝✐♦♥❡s
✜❧♦só✜❝❛s ❝♦♠♦ ❧❛ ❞❡ ❛♥❛❧♦❣í❛✱ ❝❛t❡❣♦rí❛✱ s✐♥❝❛t❡❣♦r❡♠át✐❝♦✱ ✳✳✳ ♣❛r❛ s❡r ❡♥t❡♥❞✐❞❛ ❞❡ ❢♦r♠❛
❝♦rr❡❝t❛✳ ❉❡s♣✉és ❡①♣❧♦r❛♠♦s ❡❧ r♦❧ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♥❡❣❛❝✐ó♥ ❡♥ ✈❛r✐♦s s✐st❡♠❛s ❧ó❣✐❝♦s ❝♦♠♦ ❧❛ ❧ó❣✐❝❛
❝❧ás✐❝❛✱ ❧❛ ❧ó❣✐❝❛ ❞✐❢✉s❛✱ ❧❛ ❧ó❣✐❝❛ ♣❛r❛❝♦♥s✐st❡♥t❡ ♦ ❧❛ ❧ó❣✐❝❛ ✐♥t✉✐❝✐♦♥✐st❛✳ ❋✐♥❛❧♠❡♥t❡✱
♠♦str❛r❡♠♦s ❧♦s ♣r♦❜❧❡♠❛s ② s♦❧✉❝✐♦♥❡s q✉❡ ♣♦❞❡♠♦s ❢♦r♠✉❧❛r ② r❡s♦❧✈❡r ✉s❛♥❞♦ t❛❧❡s
s✐st❡♠❛s✳
❆q✉❡❧❧♦s q✉❡ q✉✐❡r❡♥ s♦❧♦ ✉♥ ❛♥á❧✐s✐s ✜❧♦só✜❝♦ ② ♥♦ ❛♣r❡❝✐❛♥ ❧❛s ♥♦❝✐♦♥❡s ❧ó❣✐❝❛s ♣✉❡❞❡♥
❧❡❡r s♦❧♦ ❡❧ ♣r✐♠❡r ❝❛♣ít✉❧♦✳ ❨ ♣❛r❛ ❧♦s q✉❡ ❞❡s♣r❡❝✐❛♥ ❧❛ ✜❧♦s♦❢í❛ ② ❧❛ ❧ó❣✐❝❛ ❢♦r♠❛❧ s❡❛
❧♦ ú♥✐❝♦ q✉❡ ✐♠♣♦rt❛ ♦❢r❡❝❡♠♦s ❧❛ ♣♦s✐❜✐❧✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ s❛❧t❛rs❡ ❡❧ ♣r✐♠❡r ❝❛♣ít✉❧♦✳ ❈♦♥ t♦❞♦✱
❛♥✐♠❛♠♦s ❛ ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r ❧❡❝t♦r ❛ ❧❡❡r t♦❞♦ ❡❧ t❡①t♦✳

❆❜str❛❝t
❚❤❡ ❛✐♠ ♦❢ t❤✐s ✇♦r❦ ✐s t♦ st✉❞② t❤❡ ♥♦t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ✓♥❡❣❛t✐♦♥✔✳ ■♥ ♦r❞❡r t♦ ❛❝♦♠♣❧✐s❤
♦✉r ❣♦❛❧ ✜rst ✇❡ ❛♥❛❧②s❡ t❤❡ ✐❞❡❛ ♦❢ ♥❡❣❛t✐♦♥ ❛s ❛ ♣❤✐❧♦s♦♣❤✐❝❛❧ ♦♥❡ t❤❛t r❡q✉✐r❡s ♦t❤❡r
♣❤✐❧♦s♦♣❤✐❝❛❧ ♥♦t✐♦♥s ❛s ❛♥❛❧♦❣②✱ ❝❛t❡❣♦r②✱ s✐♥❝❛t❡❣♦r❡♠❛t✐❝✱ ✳✳✳ ❢♦r ❛ ❝♦rr❡❝t ✉♥❞❡rst❛♥❞✐♥❣✳
❚❤❡♥ ✇❡ ❡①♣❧♦r❡ t❤❡ r♦❧❡ ♦❢ ♥❡❣❛t✐♦♥ ✐♥ ✈❛r✐♦✉s ❧♦❣✐❝❛❧s s②st❡♠ ❛s ❝❧❛ss✐❝❛❧ ❧♦❣✐❝✱ ❢✉③③② ❧♦❣✐❝✱
♣❛r❛❝♦♥s✐st❡♥t ❧♦❣✐❝ ❛♥❞ ✐♥t✉✐t✐♦♥✐st ❧♦❣✐❝✳ ▲❛st✱ ✇❡ s❤♦✇ t❤❡ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠s ❛♥❞ s♦❧✉t✐♦♥s t❤❛t
✇❡ ❝❛♥ s♦❧✈❡ ❛♥❞ r❡❢♦r♠✉❧❛t❡ ✉s✐♥❣ ❛❧❧ t❤❡s❡ s②st❡♠s✳
❚❤♦s❡ ✇❤♦ ✇❛♥ts ♦♥❧② ❛ ♣❤✐❧♦s♦♣❤✐❝❛❧ ❛♥❛❧②s✐s ❛♥❞ ❞✐s❧✐❦❡ t❤❡ s✉❜t❧❡t✐❡s ♦❢ ❢♦r♠❛ ❧♦❣✐❝❛❧
❝❛♥ r❡❛❞ ♦♥❧② t❤❡ ✜rst ❝❤❛♣t❡r✳ ❆♥❞ ❢♦r ✇❤♦ ❞✐s♣✐s❡ ♣❤✐❧♦s♦♣❤② ❛♥❞ ❢♦r♠❛❧ ❧♦❣✐❝ ✐s t❤❡
♦♥❧② t❤✐♥❣ t❤❛t ♠❛tt❡rs ✇❡ ♦✛❡r t❤❡ ♣♦s✐❜✐❧✐t② t♦ s❦✐♣ t❤❡ ✜rst ❝❤❛♣t❡r✳ ◆❡✈❡rt❤❡❧❡ss✱ ✇❡
❡♥❝♦✉r❛❣❡ ❡✈❡r②♦♥❡ t♦ r❡❛❞ ❛❧❧ t❤❡ t❡①t✳

✺
✻ ❮◆❉■❈❊ ●❊◆❊❘❆▲
❈❛♣ít✉❧♦ ✶

▲❛ ♥❡❣❛❝✐ó♥ ❝♦♠♦ ✐❞❡❛ ✜❧♦só✜❝❛

✶✳✶✳ ■♥tr♦❞✉❝❝✐ó♥ ② ❡s❜♦③♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ✐❞❡❛ ❞❡ ♥❡❣❛❝✐ó♥

◆✉❡str❛ ✈✐❞❛ ❝♦♠ú♥ ❡stá ♣❡r♠❡❛❞❛ ♣♦r ❧❛ ♥❡❣❛❝✐ó♥✳ ❨❛ s❡❛ ❡♥ ✉♥❛ ❛❝t✐✈✐❞❛❞ t❛♥ ❧✐✈✐❛♥❛
❝♦♠♦ ❞❛r ✉♥ ♣❛s❡♦ ♦ ❡♥ ✉♥❛ ❛❝t✐✈✐❞❛❞ ❡str❡s❛♥t❡ ❝♦♠♦ r❡❛❧✐③❛r ✉♥ ❡①❛♠❡♥✳ ▲❛s ♥❡❣❛❝✐♦♥❡s
♥♦s ❡stá♥ ❡s♣❡r❛♥❞♦✳ ❙✐ ❡st♦② ♣❛s❡❛♥❞♦ ♣♦r ✉♥ ❧✉❣❛r ❝♦♥♦❝✐❞♦ s✐❣✉✐❡♥❞♦ ✉♥❛ r✉t❛ ❤❛❜✐t✉❛❧✱
♣❡r♦ ❡♥❝✉❡♥tr♦ q✉❡ ❤❛② ✉♥ ❜❛♥❝♦✱ ✉♥❛ ❡st❛t✉❛✱ ✉♥❛ t✐❡♥❞❛✱ ✳✳✳ q✉❡ ②❛ ♥♦ ❡stá ❡♥ ❡❧ ❧✉❣❛r ✓❞❡
s✐❡♠♣r❡✔ r❡s✉❧t❛ q✉❡ ♠❡ ❤❡ ❞❛❞♦ ❞❡ ❜r✉❝❡s ❝♦♥ ❛❧❣♦ ♥❡❣❛t✐✈♦✳ ❊s ♠ás✱ ❧❛ s♦r♣r❡s❛ ♣✉❡❞❡
q✉❡ ❤❛st❛ ✈✐♥✐❡r❛ ❛❝♦♠♣❛ñ❛❞❛ ❝♦♥ ❧❛ tr✐st❡③❛ s✐✱ ♣♦r ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦✱ ❡❧ ♦❜❥❡t♦ ❛✉s❡♥t❡ ❢✉❡r❛ ✉♥
❜❛♥❝♦ ❡♥ ❡❧ q✉❡ t✉✈✐ér❛♠♦s ❧❛ ❝♦st✉♠❜r❡ ❞❡ s❡♥t❛r♥♦s✳ ■♥❝❧✉s♦✱ ♣✉❡❞❡ s✉❝❡❞❡r q✉❡ ❧♦ q✉❡
♠❡ ❡♥❝✉❡♥tr❡ ❞✉r❛♥t❡ ✉♥ ♣❛s❡♦ ♥♦ s❡❛ ✉♥❛ ❛✉s❡♥❝✐❛✱ s✐♥♦ ✉♥ ❝❛♠❜✐♦✱ ❛❧❣♦ q✉❡ r❡s✉❧t❛ s❡r
❞✐st✐♥t♦✳ ❆❤♦r❛ ②❛ ♥♦ ❡s ❧❛ ❛✉s❡♥❝✐❛ ❞❡ ✉♥ ❜❛♥❝♦✱ s✐♥♦ s✉ ♠♦❞✐✜❝❛❝✐ó♥ ♦ s✉❜st✐t✉❝✐ó♥ ♣♦r
✉♥ ♠♦❞❡❧♦ ❞✐❢❡r❡♥t❡✳ ❊st♦ ❡♥ ❧♦ q✉❡ r❡s♣❡❝t❛ ❛ ❧❛ ❛❝t✐✈✐❞❛❞ ❧✐✈✐❛♥❛✱ ❡♥ ❝✉❛♥t♦ ❛❧ ❡①❛♠❡♥✳✳✳
▼✉❝❤♦s ❡st✉❞✐❛♥t❡s ♣♦❞rá♥ ❝♦♥✈❡♥✐r ❡♥ q✉❡ ❝♦♥ ❢r❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛ s❡ ❡♥❝✉❡♥tr❛♥ ❧✉❝❤❛♥❞♦ ② ❧✉✲
❝❤❛♥❞♦ ♣♦r r❡❝♦r❞❛r ❧❛ ♣❛❧❛❜r❛ ❡①❛❝t❛✱ ❡❧ ♣árr❛❢♦ ♦ ❧❛ ♣á❣✐♥❛ ❡♥ ❧❛ q✉❡ ❡st❛❜❛ ❡s❛ r❡s♣✉❡st❛✳
❊♥ ❡st❡ ❝❛s♦ ❧♦ ♥❡❣❛t✐✈♦ t❛♠❜✐é♥ s❡ ♠❛♥✐✜❡st❛✱ ♣❡r♦ ❡♥ ❧❛ ❢♦r♠❛ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ❛✉s❡♥❝✐❛ ❞❡ ✉♥
❝❛r✐③ ❞✐st✐♥t♦ ❛ ❧❛ ❛♥t❡r✐♦r✳
▲❛ ♥❡❣❛❝✐ó♥ t❛♠❜✐é♥ ♥♦s ❛❝♦♠♣❛ñ❛ ❡♥ ♠✉❝❤♦s ♦tr♦s ❧✉❣❛r❡s✳ ❆❤♦r❛✱ ❛♥t❡ ❧❛ ❡♣✐❞❡♠✐❛
❞❡❧ ❙❆❘❙✲❈♦✈✲✷✱ s❛❜❡♠♦s q✉❡ ❝✉❛♥❞♦ ❧❧❡❣❛♠♦s ❛ ♥✉❡str♦s ❤♦❣❛r❡s ❞❡❜❡♠♦s ❧❛✈❛r♥♦s ❧❛s
♠❛♥♦s ♣❛r❛ ❡❧✐♠✐♥❛r ✭♥❡❣❛r✮ ❡❧ ✈✐r✉s ❞❡ ❡st❛s ❡♥ ❝❛s♦ ❞❡ ♣♦❞❡r ❤❛❜❡r ❡♥tr❛❞♦ ❡♥ ❝♦♥t❛❝t♦
❝♦♥ ❡st❡✳ ❖✱ ❡♥tr❛♥❞♦ ❞❡ ♥✉❡✈♦ ❛❧ t❡♠❛ ❞❡❧ ✈✐r✉s✱ ♣♦❞❡♠♦s ❛❜r✐r ❛❧❣✉♥❛ ♥♦t✐❝✐❛ ❡♥ ❧❛
q✉❡ ✈❡❛♠♦s ❝♦♠♦ ❧♦s ❝✐❡♥tí✜❝♦s ♥✐❡❣❛♥ ❛❧❣✉♥❛ ❤✐♣ót❡s✐s ❛❧♦❝❛❞❛ ❝♦♠♦ q✉❡ ❧❛s ✈❛❝✉♥❛s
♣r♦❞✉❝❡♥ ♠❛❣♥❡t✐s♠♦✳ ❊♥ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐✈❛✱ ❧❛ ♥❡❣❛❝✐ó♥ ♥♦s ✐♥✈❛❞❡ ♣♦r t♦❞♦s ❧❛❞♦s✳ ❊s ♠ás✱
✐♥✈❛❞❡ ✐♥❝❧✉s♦ ❛ s❡r❡s ❝♦♥ ✓❝❛♣❛❝✐❞❛❞❡s ✐♥❢❡r✐♦r❡s✔ ❛ ❧♦s ❤✉♠❛♥♦s✳ ❈✉❛❧q✉✐❡r❛ q✉❡ ❡sté ❡♥
❝♦♥t❛❝t♦s ❝♦♥ ❜❡❜és ♦ ❛♥✐♠❛❧❡s s❡rá ❝❛♣❛③ ❞❡ ❝♦♥st❛t❛r q✉❡ ❛ ♣❡s❛r ❞❡ ❝❛r❡❝❡r ❞❡ ❤❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞❡s
❧✐♥❣üíst✐❝❛s ♠✉② ❞❡s❛rr♦❧❧❛❞♦s ❤❛② ❝✐❡rt♦s ♠♦♥♦sí❧❛❜♦s q✉❡ ❛❧❝❛♥③❛♥ ❛ ❛❢❡❝t❛r❧♦s ② ❡♥tr❡

✼
✽ ❈❆P❮❚❯▲❖ ✶✳ ▲❆ ◆❊●❆❈■Ó◆ ❈❖▼❖ ■❉❊❆ ❋■▲❖❙Ó❋■❈❆

❡❧❧♦s ♣r♦❜❛❜❧❡♠❡♥t❡ r❡✐♥❡ ❡❧ ✓◆❖✔✳

P❡r♦✱ ➽q✉é ❡s ❡s❛ ❝♦s❛ t❛♥ ❡s❝✉rr✐❞✐③❛ ② t❛♥ ❡①tr❛ñ❛ ❝♦♠♦ ❧❛ ♥❡❣❛❝✐ó♥❄ ➽❊s ✉♥❛ ❝♦s❛✱
❡s ❛❧❣♦ q✉❡ ❡①✐st❡ ❝♦♥ ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥❝✐❛ ❞❡ ♥✉❡str❛s ♣rá❝t✐❝❛s ② s✐st❡♠❛s ❝♦❣♥✐t✐✈♦s❄ ➽❤❛②
❛❧❣♦ ❛sí ❝♦♠♦ ❛✉s❡♥❝✐❛s ♦ ❢❛❧t❛s s✐♥ s❡r❡s ❤✉♠❛♥♦s❄ ➽s♦♥ t♦❞❛s ❧❛s ♥❡❣❛❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡❧ ♠✐s♠♦
t✐♣♦❄ ❆ t♦❞♦ ❡st❡ t✐♣♦ ❞❡ ♣r❡❣✉♥t❛s q✉❡ ♣r❡s❡♥t❛♥ ✉♥ ❝✐❡rt♦ ❝❛rá❝t❡r ✜❧♦só✜❝♦ s♦♥ ❛ ❧❛s
q✉❡ q✉❡r❡♠♦s ❞❛r ✉♥❛ r❡s♣✉❡st❛ ❡♥ ❡st❡ ❝❛♣ít✉❧♦✳ P❛r❛ ❡❧❧♦ ❛❜♦r❞❛r❡♠♦s ❡st❛ ✐❞❡❛ ❞❡s❞❡ ❧❛
✜❧♦s♦❢í❛ ❡♥t❡♥❞✐❡♥❞♦ ❡st❛ ❝♦♠♦ ✉♥❛ ❞✐s❝✐♣❧✐♥❛ r❛❝✐♦♥❛❧ q✉❡ tr❛t❛ ❞❡ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠❛s s✉♠❛♠❡♥t❡
❣❡♥❡r❛❧❡s q✉❡ ♥♦ ❝❛❜❡♥ ❞❡♥tr♦ ❞❡ ❧❛s ❝✐❡♥❝✐❛s ♦ té❝♥✐❝❛s ❡①✐st❡♥t❡s✳
P❛r❛ ❡♠♣❡③❛r ❛ ♦❢r❡❝❡r ❡❧ ❡s❜♦③♦ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ t❡♦rí❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♥❡❣❛❝✐ó♥ ♥❡❝❡s✐t❛r❡♠♦s ❞❛r ♣r✐♠❡r♦
✉♥❛s ❝✉❛♥t❛s ♥♦❝✐♦♥❡s ✜❧♦só✜❝❛s ② ❡s q✉❡ s✐♥ ❡❧❧❛s ❧♦ ♠ás ♣r♦❜❛❜❧❡ ❡s q✉❡ ❢✉ér❛♠♦s ❞❛♥❞♦
t❛♥t❡♦s ♠ás ♦ ♠❡♥♦s ❢ért✐❧❡s✱ ♣❡r♦ s✐♥ ❛✈❛♥③❛r ♥✉♥❝❛ ♦ ✐♥❝❧✉s♦ s✐♥ s❛❜❡r s✐ ❤❡♠♦s ❛✈❛♥③❛❞♦✳
❆❧ ✐❣✉❛❧ q✉❡ s✉❝❡❞❡ ❡♥ ❧❛s ♠❛t❡♠át✐❝❛s✱ ② ❡♥ ♦tr❛s r❛♠❛s ❞❡ ❧❛s ❝✐❡♥❝✐❛s✱ ❧♦s ♣r♦❜❧❡♠❛s s❡
s♦❧✉❝✐♦♥❛♥ ♠ás rá♣✐❞♦ ❝✉á♥❞♦ ❡stá♥ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛❞❛s ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ❢♦r♠❛ ❝❧❛r❛ ② ♣r❡❝✐s❛✱ ② ❧❛ ✜❧♦s♦❢í❛
♥♦ ❡s ✉♥❛ ❡①❝❡♣❝✐ó♥✳ ❊♠♣❡❝❡♠♦s✳
❊♥ ❡❧ ♣r✐♠❡r ♣árr❛❢♦ ❝♦♠❡t✐♠♦s ✈❛r✐♦s ❡rr♦r❡s ❛ ❧❛ ❤♦r❛ ❞❡ ♣r❡s❡♥t❛r ❡❧ ✓❢❡♥ó♠❡♥♦✔ ❞❡
❧❛ ♥❡❣❛❝✐ó♥✱ ♣❡r♦ ❡❧ ♠ás ❣r❛✈❡ ❡s s✐♥ ❞✉❞❛ ❡❧ ❤❛❜❡r ❤❡❝❤♦ ✉♥❛ ✓❤✐♣óst❛s✐s✔✳ ❊st❡ tér♠✐♥♦
✈✐❡♥❡ ❞❡❧ ❣r✐❡❣♦ ② q✉✐❡r❡ ❞❡❝✐r ✓s✉t❛♥❝✐❛✔ ✭♠ás ❛❞❡❧❛♥t❡ t❛♠❜✐é♥ ✓♣❡rs♦♥❛✔ ♣♦r ✐♥✢✉❡♥✲
❝✐❛s ❝r✐st✐❛♥❛s✮✱ ♣❡r♦ ♥✉❡str♦ s✐❣♥✐✜❝❛❞♦ ❡s ♠ás ❡s♣❡❝í✜❝♦✳ ❉❡❝✐♠♦s q✉❡ ❤❡♠♦s ❤❡❝❤♦ ✉♥❛
❤✐♣óst❛s✐s ❞❡ ① s✐ ② s♦❧♦ s✐ ❤❡♠♦s t♦♠❛❞♦ ❛ ① ❝♦♠♦ ✉♥❛ ❝♦s❛ s✉st❛♥t✐✈❛ ❝❛♣❛③ ❞❡ ❡①✐st✐r
❞❡ ❢♦r♠❛ ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞✐❡♥t❡ ❞❡ ♦tr❛s r❡❛❧✐❞❛❞❡s✳ ❊♥ ♣❛rt✐❝✉❧❛r✱ ❧❛ ♥❡❣❛❝✐ó♥ ♥♦ ❡①✐st❡ ❝♦♠♦ t❛❧
♥✐ ♣✉❡❞❡ ❤❛❜❡r ✉♥❛ ❝♦s❛ q✉❡ s❡❛ ✓❧❛ ♥❡❣❛❝✐ó♥✔✱ ❤❛② ❝♦♠♦ ♠✉❝❤♦ ✉♥❛ ✐❞❡❛ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧ ❞❡ ♥❡✲
❣❛❝✐ó♥✳ ◆❡❣❛❝✐ó♥ ❡s s✐❡♠♣r❡ ♥❡❣❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❛❧❣♦✱ ♥♦ ❤❛② ♥❡❣❛❝✐ó♥ ❛ s❡❝❛s✳ ❊st♦ t❛♠❜✐é♥ s❡
♣✉❡❞❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛r ✉t✐❧✐③❛♥❞♦ ❧❛ ♥♦❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ✓s✐♥❝❛t❡❣♦r❡♠át✐❝♦✔✱ ❧❛ ♥❡❣❛❝✐ó♥ ❡s ✉♥❛ ✐❞❡❛ s✐♥❝❛✲
t❡❣♦r❡♠át✐❝❛ ❝♦♠♦ ❡s ❧❛ ❡①✐st❡♥❝✐❛✱ ❧❛ ♣♦s✐❜✐❧✐❞❛❞✱ ❡❧ ♣♦❞❡r✱ ✳✳✳ ◆♦ ❡①✐st❡ ♣♦❞❡r✱ ❡①✐st❡♥❝✐❛
♦ ♣♦s✐❜✐❧✐❞❛❞✱ ❡①✐st❡ ❡❧ ♣♦❞❡r ❞❡ ❤❛❝❡r ❛❧❣♦✱ ❧❛ ❡①✐st❡♥❝✐❛ ❞❡ ❛❧❣♦ ♦ ❧❛ ♣♦s✐❜✐❧✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ❛❧❣♦✳
❊♥ ❛❜str❛❝t♦✱ s❡♣❛r❛❞❛s ❞❡ ♦tr♦s ❡❧❡♠❡♥t♦s✱ t❛❧❡s tér♠✐♥♦s s♦❧♦ ♣✉❡❞❡♥ s❡r ✐❞❡❛s ❛❜str❛❝t❛s
q✉❡ ♥♦ ❞❡♥♦t❛♥ ♥❛❞❛ r❡❛❧✳
P♦r ú❧t✐♠♦✱ ♣❛r❛ ❡♠♣❡③❛r ❛ ❤❛❜❧❛r ❞❡❧ t❡♠❛✱ ♣r❡❝✐s❛♠♦s ❞❡ ❧❛ ♥♦❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ✓✐❞❡❛ ❛♥á❧♦❣❛✔
✭❬✶❪✮✳ ❊st❛ ♥♦❝✐ó♥ s❡ ❝♦♥tr❛♣♦♥❡ ❛ ✓✐❞❡❛ ✉♥í✈♦❝❛✔ ② ✓✐❞❡❛ ❡q✉í✈♦❝❛✔✳

❉❡✜♥✐❝✐ó♥ ✶✳✶✳ ❯♥❛ ✐❞❡❛ ❡s ✉♥í✈♦❝❛ ❝✉❛♥❞♦ t✐❡♥❡ ✉♥ ❝r✐t❡r✐♦ ❝❧❛r♦ ❞❡ ❛♣❧✐❝❛❝✐ó♥ ② ❛❞❡♠ás
s❡ ❛♣❧✐❝❛ s✐❡♠♣r❡ ❛ ❧❛ ♠✐s♠❛ ❝❧❛s❡ ❞❡ ♦❜❥❡t♦s✳

❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✶✳✷✳ ❊♥ ♠❛t❡♠át✐❝❛s ♣♦❞rí❛♠♦s ❞❡❝✐r q✉❡ ❧❛ ✐❞❡❛ ❞❡ ✓❝♦♥t✐♥✉✐❞❛❞✔ ❛♣❧✐❝❛❞❛ ❛

❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❡s ✉♥❛ ✐❞❡❛ ✉♥í✈♦❝❛ ❡♥ ❧❛ ❛❝t✉❛❧✐❞❛❞✱ ♣✉❡st♦ q✉❡ s❡ ❛♣❧✐❝❛ s✐❡♠♣r❡ s♦❜r❡ ❛♣❧✐❝❛✲
❝✐♦♥❡s ❡♥tr❡ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦s t♦♣♦❧ó❣✐❝♦s ② ❡①✐st❡ ✉♥ ❝r✐t❡r✐♦ ♣❛r❛ ❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❛r s✐ s❡ s❛t✐s❢❛❝❡✳

❉❡✜♥✐❝✐ó♥ ✶✳✸✳ ❯♥❛ ✐❞❡❛ ❡s ❡q✉í✈♦❝❛ ❝✉❛♥❞♦ ♥♦ t✐❡♥❡ ♥✐ ✉♥ ❝r✐t❡r✐♦ ❝♦♠ú♥ ♥✐ s❡ ❛♣❧✐❝❛
✶✳✷✳ ❋❊◆❖▼❊◆❖▲❖●❮❆ ❨ ❖❘■●❊◆ ❉❊ ▲❆ ◆❊●❆❈■Ó◆ ✾

s✐❡♠♣r❡ s♦❜r❡ ❧❛ ♠✐s♠❛ ❝❧❛s❡ ❞❡ ♦❜❥❡t♦s✳

❉❡✜♥✐❝✐ó♥ ✶✳✹✳ ❯♥❛ ✐❞❡❛ ❡s ❛♥á❧♦❣❛ s✐ ❡stá ❡♥ ❛❧❣✉♥♦ ❞❡ ❡st♦s ❞♦s s✉♣✉❡st♦s✿
✶✳ ❙❡ ❛♣❧✐❝❛ s♦❜r❡ ♦❜❥❡t♦s ❞❡ ❞✐✈❡rs❛s ❝❧❛s❡s ♣❡r♦ ❤❛② ✉♥❛ ✓✉♥✐❞❛❞✔ ❡♥ ❡st❛ ❛♣❧✐❝❛❝✐ó♥
❡♥ ❧❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ q✉❡ ❡①✐st❡ ✉♥❛ ❝❧❛s❡ ❧❧❛♠❛❞❛ ✓❛♥❛❧♦❣❛❞♦ ♣r✐♥❝✐♣❛❧✔ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❝✉❛❧ s❡ ♣r❡❞✐❝❛
❡s❛ ✐❞❡❛ ② ❛❞❡♠ás ❡❧ r❡st♦ ❞❡ ❝❧❛s❡s ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥ ❞❡ ❡st❛✳ ❊♥ t❛❧ ❝❛s♦ ❞✐r❡♠♦s q✉❡ ❧❛
✐❞❡❛ ❡s ✉♥❛ ❛♥❛❧♦❣í❛ ❞❡ ❛tr✐❜✉❝✐ó♥✳

✷✳ ❙❡ ❛♣❧✐❝❛ s♦❜r❡ ✉♥❛ ❝❧❛s❡ ❞❡ ♦❜❥❡t♦s ♣❛rt✐❝✉❧❛r ♣❡r♦ ❞❡ ❢♦r♠❛ t❛❧ q✉❡ ♥♦ ❤❛② ✉♥ s♦❧♦
❝r✐t❡r✐♦ ❞❡ ♣r❡❞✐❝❛❝✐ó♥✱ s✐♥♦ q✉❡ ❤❛② ❞✐✈❡rs♦s ❣r❛❞♦s ✐♥t❡r♠❡❞✐♦s ❡♥tr❡ s❛t✐s❢❛❝❡r ❧❛
♣r♦♣✐❡❞❛❞ ② ♥♦ ❤❛❝❡r❧♦✳

❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✶✳✺✳ ✶✳ ❊❧ ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦ ❝❧ás✐❝♦ ❞❡ ❡st❛ ❝❧❛s❡ ❞❡ ♣r♦♣✐❡❞❛❞❡s ❡s ❧❛ ✓s❛❧✉❞✔✳ ❊❧ ❛♥❛✲

❧♦❣❛❞♦ ♣r✐♥❝✐♣❛❧ s❡rí❛♥ ❧♦s ❝✉❡r♣♦s ❞❡ ❧♦s s❡r❡s ✈✐✈✐❡♥t❡s ② ♦tr❛s ❝❧❛s❡s ❞❡ ♦❜❥❡t♦s
s❡rí❛♥ ♣♦r ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦ ❧♦s ❛❧✐♠❡♥t♦s✱ ❧❛s ❛❝t✐✈✐❞❛❞❡s✱ ✉♥ ❝❧✐♠❛✱ ✉♥❛ ❛♥á❧✐s✐s ❞❡ s❛♥❣r❡✱ ✳✳✳
❆sí✱ ✉♥ ❛❧✐♠❡♥t♦✱ ✉♥❛ ❛❝t✐✈✐❞❛❞ ♦ ✉♥ ❝❧✐♠❛ s❡rí❛♥ s❛♥♦s ❡♥ ❧❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ q✉❡ ❝♦♥tr✐❜✉②❛♥
❛ ♠❛♥t❡♥❡r ❧❛ s❛❧✉❞ ❞❡ ✉♥ ❝✉❡r♣♦ ♦ ✉♥ ❛♥á❧✐s✐s ❞❡ s❛♥❣r❡ s❡rí❛ s❛♥♦ ❡♥ ❧❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ q✉❡
❞❡ é❧ ♥♦ ♣♦❞❛♠♦s ✐♥❢❡r✐r ❞é✜❝✐ts ♦ ❡①❝❡s♦s ❞❡ ❝✐❡rt❛s s✉st❛♥❝✐❛s ❡♥ ✉♥ ♦r❣❛♥✐s♠♦✳

✷✳ ❯♥ ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦ ♣✉❡❞❡ s❡r ❧❛ ♣r♦♣✐❡❞❛❞ ✓s❡r r✐❝♦✔✳ ❆✉♥q✉❡ q✉❡♣❛ ❞❡ ✉♥ ❞✐♣✉t❛❞♦ q✉❡ ❡s
r✐❝♦ ♣♦rq✉❡ ❝♦❜r❛ 6000 ❡✉r♦s ❛❧ ♠❡s✱ s❛❜❡♠♦s q✉❡ ♥♦ ❡s ❧♦ ♠✐s♠♦ q✉❡ ❧❛ r✐q✉❡③❛ ♦ ❧❛
❝♦♥✈❡♥✐❡♥❝✐❛ ❞❡❧ ♣r❡❞✐❝❛❞♦ ✓r✐❝♦✔ ♣❛r❛ ❛❧❣✉✐❡♥ ❝♦♠♦ ❆♠❛♥❝✐♦ ❖rt❡❣❛✳

❖❜s❡r✈❛❝✐ó♥ ✶✳✻✳ ❉❡❜❡♠♦s ❡✈✐t❛r ❝♦♥❢✉♥❞✐r ❡st❡ s✐❣♥✐✜❝❛❞♦ ❞❡ ♣r♦♣✐❡❞❛❞ ❛♥á❧♦❣❛ ❞❡ ♦tr♦s
✉s♦s ❞❡ ❧❛ ❛♥❛❧♦❣í❛ ❡♥ ♥✉❡str♦ ❧❡♥❣✉❛❥❡ ❤❛❜✐t✉❛❧✳ ❊♥ ♣❛rt✐❝✉❧❛r✱ ❞❡❜❡♠♦s ❞✐❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛r ❡st❡
✉s♦ ❞❡❧ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❛♥❛❧♦❣í❛ ❡♥t❡♥❞✐❞❛ ❝♦♠♦ ♠❡r❛ s✐♠✐❧✐t✉❞ ❢♦r♠❛❧ ♦ ❝♦♠♦ ♠❡tá❢♦r❛✳ ❉❡ ❛❤í q✉❡
♥♦ q✉❡♣❛ ❞❡❝✐r q✉❡ ❧❛ ✐❞❡❛ ❞❡ s❛❧✉❞ ❡s ❛♥á❧♦❣❛ ♣♦rq✉❡ s❡ ♣✉❡❞❛ ♣r❡❞✐❝❛r ❞❡ ✉♥ ❣♦❜✐❡r♥♦✱
♣✉❡st♦ q✉❡ ❡st♦ ❡s ♠ás ❜✐❡♥ ✉♥ ✉s♦ ♠❡t❛❢ór✐❝♦ ♦ ❞❡r✐✈❛❞♦ ❞❡❧ tér♠✐♥♦✱ ♥♦ ✉♥❛ ❛♥❛❧♦❣í❛ ❡♥
❡❧ s❡♥t✐❞♦ ❛q✉í ❞❡✜♥✐❞♦✳ ❙✐ s❡ q✉✐❡r❡ ♣r♦❢✉♥❞✐③❛r ❡♥ ❡st❡ s❡♥t✐❞♦ ❞❡❧ tér♠✐♥♦ r❡❝♦♠❡♥❞❛♠♦s
❬✻❪✳
❈♦♥ t♦❞♦ ❡st♦ ♣♦❞❡♠♦s ❢♦r♠✉❧❛r ②❛ ❧❛ ❝❛r❛❝t❡r✐③❛❝✐ó♥ q✉❡ ♣r♦♣♦♥❡♠♦s ❡♥ ❡st❡ t❡①t♦
s♦❜r❡ ❧❛ ✐❞❡❛ ❞❡ ♥❡❣❛❝✐ó♥✿

Pr♦♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ✶✳✼✳ ▲❛ ♥❡❣❛❝✐ó♥ ❡s ✉♥❛ ✐❞❡❛ s✐♥❝❛t❡❣♦r❡♠át✐❝❛ ② ❛♥á❧♦❣❛✳

✶✳✷✳ ❋❡♥♦♠❡♥♦❧♦❣í❛ ② ♦r✐❣❡♥ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♥❡❣❛❝✐ó♥

❆♥t❡s ❞❡ s❡❣✉✐r ❛✈❛♥③❛♥❞♦ ❤❛❝✐❛ ❧❛ ❝❛r❛❝t❡r✐③❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧❛ ✐❞❡❛ ❞❡ ♥❡❣❛❝✐ó♥ ❝♦♠♦ ✉♥❛

✐❞❡❛ ❛♥á❧♦❣❛ ② s✐♥❝❛t❡❣♦r❡♠át✐❝❛✱ ❞❡❜❡♠♦s ❞❛r ✉♥ ♣❡q✉❡ñ♦ r♦❞❡♦✳ P❛r❛ ❡❧❧♦ ✈♦❧✈❡r❡♠♦s ❛
✶✵ ❈❆P❮❚❯▲❖ ✶✳ ▲❆ ◆❊●❆❈■Ó◆ ❈❖▼❖ ■❉❊❆ ❋■▲❖❙Ó❋■❈❆

♥✉❡str♦ ❝♦♠✐❡♥③♦✱ ❛ ♥✉❡str♦ ♠✉♥❞♦ ❤❛❜✐t✉❛❧ ❞❡ ❧❛ ✈✐❞❛ ❡♥ ❧❛ q✉❡ ♥♦s ❡♥❝♦♥tr❛♠♦s ❝♦♥ ❧❛
♥❡❣❛❝✐ó♥ ❝♦♠♦ ✉♥ ❢❡♥ó♠❡♥♦ ❢r❡❝✉❡♥t❡ ② ❛❞❡♠ás ♠ás ♦ ♠❡♥♦s s❡♥❝✐❧❧♦ ❤❛st❛ ❡❧ ♣✉♥t♦ ❞❡ s❡r
❝♦♠♣r❡♥s✐❜❧❡ ♣❛r❛ s❡r❡s ❝♦♥ ❝❛♣❛❝✐❞❛❞❡s ❝♦❣♥✐t✐✈❛s ♠❡♥♦r❡s ❛ ❧❛s ❞❡❧ ❤✉♠❛♥♦ ❛❞✉❧t♦ ♠❡❞✐♦✳
▲❛ ❝✉❡st✐ó♥ ❡str✐❜❛ ❡♥ ✐♥t❡♥t❛r ❞❛r ❝♦♥ ❛❧❣✉♥❛ ❝❧❛s❡ ❞❡ ❥✉st✐✜❝❛❝✐ó♥ ♦ ❞❡ ❜❛s❡ ✓❝♦t✐❞✐❛♥❛✔
♣❛r❛ ❧❛ ✐❞❡❛ ❞❡ ♥❡❣❛❝✐ó♥ ②✱ ❛❞❡♠ás✱ ❞❛r ❝♦♥ ❛❧❣✉♥❛ s✉❡rt❡ ❞❡ ❤✐♣ót❡s✐s ❞❡ ❝ó♠♦ ❤❛ s✉r❣✐❞♦
② ❡✈♦❧✉❝✐♦♥❛❞♦ ❤❛st❛ ♥✉❡str♦s ❞í❛s✳ ❊st❛ ✐♥✈❡st✐❣❛❝✐ó♥ ♥♦ ❡s ❜❛❧❛❞í ♣✉❡s s✐r✈❡ ♥♦ s♦❧♦ ♣❛r❛
❝♦♥♦❝❡r ❧❛s ❝❧❛s❡s ❞❡ ♦❜❥❡t♦s s♦❜r❡ ❧❛s q✉❡ ❞❡❜❡♠♦s ❛♣❧✐❝❛r ❧❛ ✐❞❡❛ ❞❡ ♥❡❣❛❝✐ó♥✱ s✐♥♦ ❝ó♠♦
s❡ r❡❧❛❝✐♦♥❛ ❡♥tr❡ sí✳
▲❛ ❤✐♣ót❡s✐s q✉❡ ❜✉s❝❛r❡♠♦s ❞❡❢❡♥❞❡r ❛ ❧♦ ❧❛r❣♦ ❞❡ ❡st❛ s❡❝❝✐ó♥ s❡rá q✉❡ ❧❛ ♥❡❣❛❝✐ó♥ s❡
♥♦s ❛♣❛r❡❝❡ ❞❡ ❢♦r♠❛s ♠✉② ❞✐✈❡rs❛s ② s✉ ♦r✐❣❡♥ t✐❡♥❡ ♥✉♠❡r♦s♦s ❢❛❝t♦r❡s ♠✉② ❞✐❢í❝✐❧❡s ❞❡
r❡❝♦♥❝✐❧✐❛r ❡♥tr❡ sí✳ ❈♦♥ ❡st♦ ♥♦s ♦♣♦♥❞r❡♠♦s ❛ ❝✐❡rt❛s ❝❛r❛❝t❡r✐③❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♥❡❣❛❝✐ó♥ ❝♦♠♦
❧❛s ❡①♣✉❡st❛s ❡♥ ♦❜r❛s ❝♦♠♦ ❬✺❪ ♦ ❬✷✹❪✳ ❆sí✱ ♣❛r❛ ♥♦s♦tr♦s ♥♦ ❝❛❜❡ s♦st❡♥❡r q✉❡ ❧❛ ♥❡❣❛❝✐ó♥
s❡❛ ❢♦r♠❛ ♣r✐♠❡r❛ ✉♥ s❡♥t✐♠✐❡♥t♦ ❞❡ ✉♥ s❡r ❤✉♠❛♥♦ q✉❡ s❡ ❛s♦♠❜r❛ ❛♥t❡ s✉ ❧✐❜❡rt❛❞ ♦ s❡
❡♥❢r❡♥t❛ ❝♦♥tr❛ ❧❛ ❛♥❣✉st✐❛✳ ❚❛♠♣♦❝♦ ♣♦❞❡♠♦s ❛✜r♠❛r q✉❡ ❧❛ ✐❞❡❛ ❞❡ ◆❛❞❛ s❡❛ ♣r❡✈✐❛ ❛
❧❛ ♥❡❛❣❛❝✐ó♥✳ ▼ás ❜✐❡♥ ❡s ❛❧ ❝♦♥tr❛r✐♦✿ s♦♥ ❢❡♥ó♠❡♥♦s ♣❛rt✐❝✉❧❛r❡s ❞❡ ❧❛ ♥❡❣❛❝✐ó♥ ❧♦ q✉❡
t❡♥❡♠♦s ❛❧ ♣r✐♥❝✐♣✐♦✳ ▲❛ ✐❞❡❛ ❞❡ ◆❛❞❛ ♥♦ ❡s s✐♥♦ ✉♥❛ ❞❡r✐✈❛❝✐ó♥ ♠✉② ♣♦st❡r✐♦r ❧✐❣❛❞❛ ❛
✐❞❡❛s ♦♥t♦❧ó❣✐❝❛s ♠ás ❞❡s❛rr♦❧❧❛❞❛s ② ♣r♦❢✉♥❞❛s✳ ❈♦♥ t♦❞♦✱ ❧❛s ✐❞❡❛s q✉❡ ❛q✉í ❡s❜♦③❛♠♦s
❡stá♥ ✐♥✢✉❡♥❝✐❛❞❛s t❛♥t♦ ♣♦r ❬✺❪ ② ❬✷✹❪ ② ❡♥ ♦❜r❛s ♣r♦♣✐❛s ❞❡ ❧❛s ❡s❝✉❡❧❛s ❢❡♥♦♠❡♥♦❧ó❣✐❝❛s
❝♦♠♦ ❬✼❪✳
❊♥t♦♥❝❡s✱ ➽❝✉á❧ ❡s ❡❧ ♦r✐❣❡♥ ② ❧♦s ❢❡♥ó♠❡♥♦s ❞❡ ❧❛ ♥❡❣❛❝✐ó♥❄ P❛r❛ ❡st✉❞✐❛r ❡st♦ ❞❡❜❡♠♦s
✈♦❧✈❡r ❛ ❧♦s ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦s q✉❡ ❤❡♠♦s ✈✐st♦ ❡♥ ❧♦s ♣r✐♠❡r♦s ♣árr❛❢♦s ❞❡ ❡st❡ tr❛❜❛❥♦✳
❈✉❛♥❞♦ ❞✉r❛♥t❡ ❛❧❣ú♥ ♣❛s❡♦ ❡♥❝♦♥tr❛♠♦s q✉❡ ❢❛❧t❛ ✉♥ ❜❛♥❝♦ ❞♦♥❞❡ ❛❝♦st✉♠❜rá❜❛♠♦s
❛ s❡♥t❛r♥♦s ❧♦ q✉❡ s❡ ♥♦s ❛♣❛r❡❝❡ ♥♦ ❡s ✉♥❛ ♥❡❣❛❝✐ó♥ ❝♦♠♦ t❛❧✱ ❧♦ q✉❡ ♣❡r❝✐❜✐♠♦s s♦♥ ❧❛s
❝♦s❛s q✉❡ ❡stá♥ ❛❢❡❝t❛♥❞♦ ❛ ♥✉❡str♦s s❡♥t✐❞♦s ② ❞❡ ❢♦r♠❛ ❝❧❛r❛ ② ❡✈✐❞❡♥t❡ ♣❛r❛ ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r❛
♥♦ ❤❛② ✉♥❛ ❝♦s❛ ❡♥tr❡ ❡❧❧❛s q✉❡ s❡❛ ❧❛ ❛✉s❡♥❝✐❛ ❞❡❧ ❜❛♥❝♦✳ P❡r❝✐❜✐ré ✉♥ ár❜♦❧✱ ❡❧ ♣❛✈✐♠❡♥t♦✱
❧♦s ❝♦❝❤❡s✱ ✳✳✳ ♣❡r♦ ♥♦ ❧❛ ❛✉s❡♥❝✐❛ ❞❡❧ ❜❛♥❝♦✳ ▲❛ ❛✉s❡♥❝✐❛ ❞❡❧ ❜❛♥❝♦ s♦❧♦ t✐❡♥❡ s❡♥t✐❞♦
❝♦♠♦ ✉♥❛ s✉❡rt❡ ❞❡ ✓❝♦♥st❡❧❛❝✐ó♥ ♣❡r❝❡♣t✐✈❛✔ ❡♥♠❛r❝❛❞❛ ❞❡♥tr♦ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ✈✐❞❛ ② ✢✉❥♦s
❞❡ ♣❡♥s❛♠✐❡♥t♦s ❝♦♥❝r❡t♦s ❡♥tr❡ ❧♦s q✉❡ s❡ ❡♥❝✉❡♥tr❛ ✉♥❛ ❡①♣❡❝t❛t✐✈❛ ❢r✉str❛❞❛✳ ❈✉❛♥❞♦
♣❡r❝✐❜✐♠♦s ② ♥♦s ❡♥❝♦♥tr❛♠♦s r❡❛❧✐③❛♥❞♦ ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r ❛❝t✐✈✐❞❛❞ ♣r♦②❡❝t❛♠♦s ❤❛❝✐❛ ❡❧ ❢✉t✉r♦
❝✐❡rt❛s ❡①♣❡❝t❛t✐✈❛s ❡ ✐❞❡❛s q✉❡ ♥♦ s✐❡♠♣r❡ ❝♦✐♥❝✐❞❡♥ ❝♦♥ ❧♦ q✉❡ t✐❡♥❡ ❧✉❣❛r✳ ❊st❡ ❢❡♥ó♠❡♥♦
r❡s✉❧t❛ s❡r✱ ♣❛r❛ ❧❛ ❤✐♣ót❡s✐s q✉❡ ❛q✉í q✉❡r❡♠♦s ♣❧❛♥t❡❛r✱ ❡❧ ♣r✐♠❡r ❢❡♥ó♠❡♥♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♥❡❣❛❝✐ó♥✳
P❛r❛ ❡st❡ ❝❛s♦ s♦❧♦ ♥❡❝❡s✐t❛♠♦s ❞❡ ✉♥ s✐st❡♠❛ ❝❛♣❛③ ❞❡ ♠♦♥♦t♦r✐③❛r ❛❧❣ú♥ ❢❡♥ó♠❡♥♦ r❡❛❧
❞❡❧ ❝✉á❧ ❛❞❡♠ás ♣✉❡❞❛ ❤❛❝❡r ♣r❡❞✐❝❝✐♦♥❡s ♦ t❡♥❡r ❡①♣❡❝t❛t✐✈❛s q✉❡ ♣✉❡❞❛ ❧✉❡❣♦ ❝♦rr♦❜♦r❛r✳
▲❛ ♥❡❣❛❝✐ó♥ ❛q✉í s❡ ♣r❡❞✐❝❛rí❛ ❞❡ ✉♥ ❤❡❝❤♦ ♦ ❡st❛❞♦ ❞❡ ❝♦s❛s ♦ ❛❧ ♠❡♥♦s ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡①♣❡❝t❛t✐✈❛
❞❡ t❛❧ ❤❡❝❤♦✳
❊♥ ❡❧ ❝❛s♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ s✉st✐t✉❝✐ó♥ ♦ ❛❧t❡r❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡❧ ❜❛♥❝♦ ❝♦♥ ❧♦ q✉❡ ♥♦s ❡♥❝♦♥tr❛♠♦s ❡s ❝♦♥
✶✳✷✳ ❋❊◆❖▼❊◆❖▲❖●❮❆ ❨ ❖❘■●❊◆ ❉❊ ▲❆ ◆❊●❆❈■Ó◆ ✶✶

✉♥❛ ✈❡rs✐ó♥ ♠♦❞✐✜❝❛❞❛ ♦ ♣❛rt✐❝✉❧❛r ❞❡ ❧♦ ❛♥t❡r✐♦r✳ ❊♥ ❡st❡ ❝❛s♦ ❤❛② ✉♥❛ ❡①♣❡❝t❛t✐✈❛ q✉❡ ♥♦
❡s s❛t✐s❢❡❝❤❛✱ ♣❡r♦ ❛❞❡♠ás s❡ r❡✈❡❧❛ ✉♥ ❤❡❝❤♦ ♠ás✱ ❧❛ ❞✐❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛✳ ❨❛ ♥♦ ❡s ❧❛ ♥❡❣❛❝✐ó♥ ❝♦♠♦
♠❡r❛ ❛✉s❡♥❝✐❛ ❞❡ ❛❧❣♦✱ s✐♥♦ ❝♦♠♦ ❧❛ ♥❡❣❛❝✐ó♥ ❡♥t❡♥❞✐❞❛ ❝♦♠♦ ✉♥❛ r❡❧❛❝✐ó♥✱ ✉♥ ❛❧❣♦ q✉❡ ❡s
❞✐st✐♥t♦ ❛ ♦tr♦✳ ▲❛ ♥❡❣❛❝✐ó♥ s❡ ♦♣♦♥❞rí❛ ② ♣❡r♠✐t✐rí❛ ❡♥ ❡st❡ s❡♥t✐❞♦ ❞❡✜♥✐r ❧❛ ✐❞❡♥t✐❞❛❞ ②
❧❛ ❞✐❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛ ❝♦♠♦ r❡❧❛❝✐♦♥❡s✳
P❛s❛♥❞♦ ❛❧ s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡ ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦✳ ❙✐ ❡st❛♠♦s ❡♥ ✉♥ ❡①❛♠❡♥ ② ♥♦ ❧♦❣r❛♠♦s r❡❝♦r❞❛r ❛❧❣♦
❛✉♥q✉❡ s❡♣❛♠♦s q✉❡ ❡❢❡❝t✐✈❛♠❡♥t❡ ❡st❛❜❛ ❡♥ ❛❧❣ú♥ ❧✉❣❛r ❞❡ ❧♦s ❛♣✉♥t❡s ♥♦ ❡♥❝♦♥tr❛♠♦s
❝♦♥ ✉♥ ❢❡♥ó♠❡♥♦ r❛❞✐❝❛❧♠❡♥t❡ ❞✐❢❡r❡♥t❡ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♥❡❣❛❝✐ó♥✳ ❊♥ ❡st❡ ❝❛s♦ ❧♦ q✉❡ s✉❝❡❞❡ ❡s
❛❧❣♦ q✉✐③á ♠ás s♦✜st✐❝❛❞♦ q✉❡ ❧♦ ❛♥t❡r✐♦r✱ ②❛ ♥♦ ❡s q✉❡ t❡♥❣❛♠♦s ✉♥❛ ❡①♣❡❝t❛t✐✈❛ q✉❡ ♥♦
❝♦✐♥❝✐❞❡ ❝♦♥ ❧♦ q✉❡ t✐❡♥❡ ❧✉❣❛r✱ s✐♥♦ q✉❡ ❝♦♥♦❝❡♠♦s ❛❧❣♦ ♣❡r♦ s♦♠♦s ❝♦♥s❝✐❡♥t❡s ❞❡ q✉❡ ❡s❡
❝♦♥♦❝✐♠✐❡♥t♦ t✐❡♥❡ ❧❛❣✉♥❛s✳ P♦❞❡♠♦s s❛❜❡r ❞❡ ✉♥ ❛❧❣♦ q✉❡ ❡s ❧❛ s♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ ❛ ❧❛ ♣r❡❣✉♥t❛ ❞❡❧
❡①❛♠❡♥✱ ♣❡r♦ ♣♦❞❡♠♦s ❞❡s❝♦♥♦❝❡r✱ ♣♦r ❞❡s❣r❛❝✐❛ ♣❛r❛ ♥♦s♦tr♦s✱ ♠ás ❝♦♥t❡♥✐❞♦ s♦❜r❡ ❡❧❧❛✳
❊s ♠ás✱ ♣♦❞rí❛♠♦s ❡♥t❡♥❞❡r q✉❡ ❡st❡ t✐♣♦ ❞❡ ❢❡♥ó♠❡♥♦s ♣✉❡❞❡♥ s✉❝❡❞❡r ❞❡ ❢♦r♠❛s ♠❡♥♦s
❝♦♠♣❧❡❥❛s ② ❡❧❛❜♦r❛❞❛s✳ ❆sí✱ ❝✉❛♥❞♦ ♣❡r❝✐❜✐♠♦s ❞❡ ❢♦r♠❛ ✈✐s✉❛❧ ✉♥ ár❜♦❧ s❛❜❡♠♦s q✉❡ t✐❡♥❡
✉♥❛ ♣❛rt❡ ❞❡ ❞❡trás ❛✉♥q✉❡ ❧❛ ❞❡s❝♦♥♦③❝❛♠♦s✳ ■❣✉❛❧ q✉❡ s✐ ❡s❝✉❝❤❛♠♦s ✉♥ r✉✐❞♦ s♦♠♦s
❝❛♣❛❝❡s ❞❡ s❛❜❡r q✉❡ ❤❛② ❛❧❣♦ q✉❡ ❧♦ ❤❛ ♣r♦✈♦❝❛❞♦✱ ❛✉♥q✉❡ t❛♠❜✐é♥ s❡❛♠♦s ❝♦♥s❝✐❡♥t❡s ❞❡
q✉❡ ♥♦ ❝♦♥♦❝❡♠♦s ❝♦♥ ❡①❛❝t✐t✉❞ q✉é ❝❧❛s❡ ❞❡ ❝♦s❛ ❤❛ s✐❞♦✳ ❊st❡ t✐♣♦ ❞❡ ❛✉s❡♥❝✐❛ t✐❡♥❡ q✉❡
✈❡r ❝♦♥ ✉♥❛ ❝✉❡st✐ó♥ ♠ás s♦✜st✐❝❛❞❛ ♣✉❡st♦ q✉❡ r❡q✉✐❡r❡ ②❛ ♥♦ s♦❧♦ ❝♦♥♦❝❡r ❝♦s❛s ② ❡s♣❡r❛r
❝♦s❛s ❞❡ ❡❧❧❛s✱ s✐♥♦ t❡♥❡r ✉♥❛ ❝✐❡rt❛ ❝♦♠♣r❡♥s✐ó♥ ❞❡ ✉♥♦ ♠✐s♠♦ ❝♦♠♦ ✉♥ ♦❜❥❡t♦ ❝❛♣❛③ ❞❡
❝♦♥♦❝❡r q✉❡ ❛❞❡♠ás ♣r❡s❡♥t❛ ❧❛❣✉♥❛s ❡♥ ❧❛ ✐♥❢♦r♠❛❝✐ó♥ q✉❡ t✐❡♥❡ ❞✐s♣♦♥✐❜❧❡ ❞❡ s✉ ♠❡❞✐♦✳
❊♥ ❡st❡ ❝❛s♦ ❧❛ ♥❡❣❛❝✐ó♥ s❡rí❛ ♥♦ t❛♥t♦ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ❝♦s❛ ♦ ❞❡ ✉♥ ❤❡❝❤♦✱ ❧♦ q✉❡ ❛♣❛r❡❝❡ ❝♦♠♦
♥❡❣❛❞♦ ♦ ❛✉s❡♥t❡ ❡s ✉♥❛ ♣r♦♣✐❡❞❛❞ q✉❡ s❡ ❞❡s❝♦♥♦❝❡ ❛✉♥q✉❡ s❡ s❡♣❛ q✉❡ ❤❛② ❛❧❣♦ ❛ ❧♦ q✉❡
❡st❛ ♣❡rt❡♥❡❝❡ ❝❛r❛❝t❡r✐③❛❞♦ ♣♦r ♦tr❛s ♣r♦♣✐❡❞❛❞❡s✳
P♦r ♦tr♦ ❧❛❞♦✱ t❡♥❞rí❛♠♦s ♦tr♦ ❢❡♥ó♠❡♥♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♥❡❣❛❝✐ó♥ q✉❡ s❡rí❛ ❛❧ q✉❡ r❡❛❝❝✐♦♥❛♥
❧♦s ❛♥✐♠❛❧❡s ♦ ❧♦s ♥✐ñ♦s ♣❡q✉❡ñ♦s✳ ❊s ❡❧ ❢❡♥ó♠❡♥♦ ❞❡ ❡s❝✉❝❤❛r ✉♥ ✓◆♦✔ ② q✉❡ ❡♥ ❡❧ ❢♦♥❞♦
❡s ❡❧ ♠ás ❝♦♠♣❧❡❥♦ ❞❡ ❧♦s ❡st✉❞✐❛❞♦s ❤❛st❛ ❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦✳ P✉❡s ❡♥ ❡st❡ ❝❛s♦ ②❛ ♥♦ s♦❧♦ ❤❛②
q✉❡ ❝♦♥♦❝❡r ❡❧ ♠✉♥❞♦ ② ❛ ♥♦s♦tr♦s ❝♦♠♦ ❝♦❣♥♦s❝❡♥t❡s✱ ❤❛② q✉❡ s❛❜❡rs❡ ❝♦♠♦ ✉♥ s❡r ❛❝t✐✈♦
❝❛♣❛③ ❞❡ r❡❛❧✐③❛r ❝✐❡rt❛s ❝♦s❛s✳ ❨❛ ♥♦ s♦❧♦ ❤❛② ✉♥❛ ❡①♣❡❝t❛t✐✈❛ ❞❡ ❧❛s ❝♦s❛s✱ ❤❛② ✉♥❛s
❡①♣❡❝t❛t✐✈❛s s♦❜r❡ ✉♥♦ ♠✐s♠♦ ② ❝ó♠♦ ♣✉❡❞❡ ❛❝t✉❛rs❡✳ ❊♥ ❡❧ ❢❡♥ó♠❡♥♦ ❞❡❧ ✓◆♦✔ s❡ t✐❡♥❡
②❛ ❧❛ ✐❞❡❛ ❞❡ ❛❧❣♦ ♣r♦❤✐❜✐❞♦✱ ❞❡ ❛❧❣♦ q✉❡ ♥♦ s❡ ♣✉❡❞❡ ❤❛❝❡r✱ ❛✉♥q✉❡ ❧❛ ❝♦♠♣r❡♥s✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❡st❛s
r❛③♦♥❡s ♣✉❡❞❛ ❧✐♠✐t❛rs❡ ❛ ❛❧❣♦ t❛♥ ❜ás✐❝♦ ❝♦♠♦ ✉♥ ♠❡❝❛♥✐s♠♦ ❝♦♥❞✉❝t✐✈♦ ❞❡ ❝❛st✐❣♦ ❛♥t❡ ❧❛
r❡❛❧✐③❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡❧ ❛❝t♦ q✉❡ s❡ q✉✐❡r❡ ♥❡❣❛r✳ ❊♥ ❡st❡ ❝❛s♦ ❧♦ q✉❡ s❡ ♥✐❡❣❛ ❡s ✉♥❛ ♣♦s✐❜✐❧✐❞❛❞ ② s❡
❡♥tr❛ ❝♦♥ ❡❧❧♦ ❛ ❧❛ ✐❞❡❛ ❞❡ r❡str✐❝❝✐ó♥ ❧❡❣❛❧ ✭t❛♥t♦ ❡♥ ❡❧ s❡♥t✐❞♦ ✓❥✉rí❞✐❝♦✔ ❝♦♠♦ ✓♥❛t✉r❛❧✔✮✳
❘❡❧❛❝✐♦♥❛❞♦ ❝♦♥ ❧❛ ✐❞❡❛ ❞❡ ❛❣❡♥❝✐❛ t❛♠❜✐é♥ ❡st❛rí❛ ❡❧ ❢❡♥ó♠❡♥♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♥❡❣❛❝✐ó♥ ♥♦
❛♣❧✐❝❛❞❛ ❛ ✉♥❛ ❛❝❝✐ó♥ ♥✉❡str❛✱ s✐♥♦ ❝♦♠♦ ❛❧❣♦ q✉❡ ♥♦s♦tr♦s ❛♣❧✐❝❛♠♦s ❛ ❧❛s ❝♦s❛s✳ ❙❡rí❛
❡st❡ ❡❧ ❝❛s♦ ❞❡❧ ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦ t❛♥t♦ ❞❡❧ ❝✐❡♥tí✜❝♦ ❝♦♥ ❧❛ t❡s✐s ❛❧♦❝❛❞❛ ❞❡ ❛❧❣ú♥ ❝♦♥s♣✐r❛♥♦✐❝♦ ❝♦♠♦
✶✷ ❈❆P❮❚❯▲❖ ✶✳ ▲❆ ◆❊●❆❈■Ó◆ ❈❖▼❖ ■❉❊❆ ❋■▲❖❙Ó❋■❈❆

❧❛ ❞❡ ♥♦s♦tr♦s ♠✐s♠♦s ❝✉❛♥❞♦ ♥♦s ❧❛✈❛♠♦s ❧❛s ♠❛♥♦s✳ ❊♥ ❛♠❜❛s ♦❝❛s✐♦♥❡s ❧♦ q✉❡ s❡ ♥♦s
❛♣❛r❡❝❡ ❡s ❧❛ ♥❡❣❛❝✐ó♥ ❝♦♠♦ ❛❧❣♦ q✉❡ ❛♣❧✐❝❛♠♦s ♥♦s♦tr♦s✱ ❝♦♠♦ ✉♥ ♣r♦❝❡s♦ q✉❡ r❡❛❧✐③❛ ✉♥
s✉❥❡t♦ ❛♥t❡ ✉♥❛ ❝♦s❛✳ ▲❛ ❞✐❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛ ❡♥ ❡st❡ ❝❛s♦ s❡rí❛ ❛q✉❡❧❧♦ q✉❡ s❡ ♥✐❡❣❛✱ ❡♥ ✉♥ ❝❛s♦ s❡rí❛
✉♥❛ ❝♦s❛ r❡❛❧✱ ✉♥ ♦❜❥❡t♦ ❝♦♥ s✉s ♣r♦♣✐❡❞❛❞❡s ❝❛♠❜✐❛♥t❡s ② s✉s ❡❢❡❝t♦s✱ ❡♥ ❡❧ ♦tr♦ ❧♦ q✉❡ s❡
♥✐❡❣❛ ❡s ✉♥ ♦❜❥❡t♦ ♠ás ❛❜str❛❝t♦ ❡ ✐❞❡❛❧✿ ✉♥❛ ♣r♦♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥✳ ❊st❛ ♣♦st✉r❛ ✈❡rí❛ ❧❛ ♥❡❣❛❝✐ó♥
♥♦ ❝♦♠♦ ❛❧❣♦ q✉❡ ❡sté ❛❤í ❛♣❧✐❝á♥❞♦s❡ ❛ ❞✐✈❡rs♦s ❝❛♠♣♦s✱ s✐♥♦ ❝♦♠♦ ✉♥❛ ♦♣❡r❛❝✐ó♥ ♥✉❡str❛
q✉❡ ❡❥❡r❝❡♠♦s s♦❜r❡ ❧❛s ❝♦s❛s✳

✶✳✸✳ ▲❛ ♥❡❣❛❝✐ó♥✱ ❧❛ ♦♥t♦❧♦❣í❛ ② ❧❛s ❝❛t❡❣♦rí❛s

❊♥ ❧❛ ♣r♦♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ✶✳✼ ❝♦♥ ❧❛ q✉❡ ❝❡rr❛♠♦s ❧❛ ♣r✐♠❡r❛ s❡❝❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❡st❡ ❝❛♣ít✉❧♦ ❝❛r❛❝✲
t❡r✐③á❜❛♠♦s ❧❛ ♥❡❣❛❝✐ó♥ ❝♦♠♦ ✉♥❛ ✐❞❡❛ ❛♥á❧♦❣❛ ② s✐♥❝❛t❡❣♦r❡♠át✐❝❛✱ ♣❡r♦ ❞❡❥á❜❛♠♦s ❡♥
s✉s♣❡♥s♦ ❝ó♠♦ ❞❡❜í❛♠♦s ❡♥t❡♥❞❡r ❡s❛ ❛♥❛❧♦❣í❛✳ ❊❧ s✉s♣❡♥s❡ q✉❡ ♣✉❞✐❡s❡ ❤❛❜❡rs❡ ❣❡♥❡r❛❞♦
❤❛ ❧❧❡❣❛❞♦ ❛ s✉ ✜♥✳ ▲❛ s♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ q✉❡ ♦❢r❡❝❡♠♦s ❡s q✉❡ ❧❛ ♥❡❣❛❝✐ó♥ ❡s ✉♥❛ ✐❞❡❛ ❛♥á❧♦❣❛ ♣♦r
❛tr✐❜✉❝✐ó♥✱ ♣❡r♦ ➽② ❝✉á❧ ❡s ❡❧ ❛♥❛❧♦❣❛❞♦ ♣r✐♥❝✐♣❛❧❄ P✉❡s ❜✐❡♥ ❢á❝✐❧✱ ❡❧ ❛♥❛❧♦❣❛❞♦ ♣r✐♥❝✐♣❛❧
s♦♥ ❧❛s ♣r♦♣♦s✐❝✐♦♥❡s✳ ❆q✉❡❧❧♦ q✉❡ ♣♦❞❡♠♦s ♥❡❣❛r ❝♦♠♦ t❛❧ s♦♥ ❧❛s ♣r♦♣♦s✐❝✐♦♥❡s ② ❡❧ r❡st♦
❞❡ ♦❜❥❡t♦s s♦❧♦ ♣♦❞❡♠♦s ♥❡❣❛r❧♦s ❡♥ ✈✐rt✉❞ ❞❡ ♥✉❡str❛ ❝❛♣❛❝✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ♥❡❣❛r ❧❛s ♣r♦♣♦s✐✲
❝✐♦♥❡s✳ P❛r❛ ❡♥t❡♥❞❡r ② ❥✉st✐✜❝❛r ❧❛ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛ ❞❡ ❡st❛ t❡s✐s ✉s❛r❡♠♦s ✐❞❡❛s ❡①♣✉❡st❛s ❡♥ ❧❛
s❡❝❝✐ó♥ ❛♥t❡r✐♦r✳
▲♦ ♣r✐♠❡r♦ q✉❡ ❞❡❜❡♠♦s ❝♦♠❡♥t❛r ❡s q✉❡ ❤❛② ✉♥❛ ❡s♣❡❝✐❡ ❞❡ ✓✐♥✈❡rs✐ó♥✔ ❞❡ ❡st❛ t❡s✐s
❝♦♥ r❡s♣❡❝t♦ ❛❧ r❡❝♦rr✐❞♦ ✓❢❡♥♦♠❡♥♦❧ó❣✐❝♦✔ q✉❡ ❤❡♠♦s ❡s❜♦③❛❞♦✳ ❙❡❣ú♥ ❡st❡ ú❧t✐♠♦ ❡❧
♣✉♥t♦ ✜♥❛❧ s❡rí❛ ❧❛ ♥❡❣❛❝✐ó♥ ❛♣❧✐❝❛❞❛ ❛ ♣r♦♣♦s✐❝✐♦♥❡s✱ ♣❡r♦ ❛q✉í ❛♣❛r❡❝❡ ❝♦♠♦ ❡❧ ❛♥❛❧♦❣❛❞♦
♣r✐♥❝✐♣❛❧ s♦❜r❡ ❡❧ q✉❡ s❡ ❜❛s❛♥ ❡❧ r❡st♦ ❞❡ ♥❡❣❛❝✐♦♥❡s✱ ➽♥♦ ❡s ❡st♦ ✉♥ ❛❜s✉r❞♦❄ ❊♥ ❛❜s♦❧✉t♦✱
♣✉❡st♦ q✉❡ ✉♥❛ ❝♦s❛ ❡s ❡❧ ❞❡s❛rr♦❧❧♦ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ✐❞❡❛ ② ♦tr❛ ❡s s✉ r❡❧❛❝✐ó♥ ② s✉ ❢✉♥❞❛♠❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥
❡♥ ✉♥ s❡♥t✐❞♦ ❛❜str❛❝t♦ ❡♥ ✉♥ s✐st❡♠❛ ♦❜❥❡t✐✈♦ ❞❡ ✐❞❡❛s✳ P✉❡❞❡ q✉❡ ❧♦s ❢❡♥ó♠❡♥♦s ♣r✐♠❡r♦s
❞❡ ❧❛ ✐❞❡❛ ❞❡ s❛❧✉❞ s❡❛♥ ❛♣❧✐❝❛❞♦s ❛ ❛❝❝✐♦♥❡s ♦ s❡♥s❛❝✐♦♥❡s✱ ♣❡r♦ ❡s♦ ♥♦ q✉✐❡r❡ ❞❡❝✐r q✉❡ ❧♦
s❛♥♦ s❡❛♥ ❧❛s s❡♥s❛❝✐♦♥❡s ♦ ❛❝t✐✈✐❞❛❞❡s✳
❖tr❛ ❝✉❡st✐ó♥ ✐♠♣♦rt❛♥t❡ r❡❧❛❝✐♦♥❛❞❛ ❝♦♥ ❧❛ s❡❝❝✐ó♥ ♣r❡✈✐❛ ❡s ❡❧ ❝❛rá❝t❡r ♦♣❡r❛t♦r✐♦ ❞❡
❧❛ ♥❡❣❛❝✐ó♥✳ ❨ ❡s q✉❡ ♥♦ s♦❧♦ s✉❝❡❞❡ q✉❡ ❧❛ ♥❡❣❛❝✐ó♥ ❡s ❛❧❣♦ q✉❡ ♣r♦✈♦❝❛♠♦s ♥♦s♦tr♦s✱ ✉♥❛
♦♣❡r❛❝✐ó♥ q✉❡ ❡❥❡r❝❡♠♦s s♦❜r❡ ♦❜❥❡t♦s ♣❛r❛ ♦❜t❡♥❡r ✉♥ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦✱ s✐♥♦ q✉❡ ❡♥ t♦❞♦s ❧♦s
❢❡♥ó♠❡♥♦s q✉❡ ❤❡♠♦s ❡st✉❞✐❛❞♦ ❧❛ ♥❡❣❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡♣❡♥❞í❛ ❡♥t❡r❛♠❡♥t❡ ❞❡❧ s✐st❡♠❛ ❝♦❣♥✐t✐✈♦✳
◆♦ ❡r❛ ✉♥ ❤❡❝❤♦✱ ❛❧❣♦ ❝♦♥ ❧♦ q✉❡ t♦♣á❜❛♠♦s✱ s✐♥♦ ❛❧❣♦ q✉❡ ❞❡♣❡♥❞í❛ ❡♥ ❝✐❡rt♦ ♠♦❞♦ ❞❡
♥♦s♦tr♦s ② ♥✉❡str❛ ❢♦r♠❛ ❞❡ ❡st❛r ❡♥ ❡❧ ♠✉♥❞♦✳ ❊s ♠ás✱ ❡st❡ ❝❛rá❝t❡r s❡ ♠✉❡str❛ ❝♦♥ ♠❛②♦r
♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛ ❡♥ ❡❧ ❝❛s♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♥❡❣❛❝✐ó♥ ❛♣❧✐❝❛❞❛ ❛ ❧❛s ♣r♦♣♦s✐❝✐♦♥❡s✱ ♣✉❡st♦ q✉❡ ❡♥ ❡s ❡♥ ❡st❛s ❡♥
❧❛s ❝✉❛❧❡s s❡ ♥♦s ❛♣❛r❡❝❡ ❝♦♠♦ ✉♥❛ ✈❡r❞❛❞❡r❛ ♦♣❡r❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡❧ s✉❥❡t♦ q✉❡✱ ♣♦r t❛♥t♦✱ ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡
❞❡ ❡st❡ ♣❛r❛ t❡♥❡r ❧✉❣❛r✳
✶✳✸✳ ▲❆ ◆❊●❆❈■Ó◆✱ ▲❆ ❖◆❚❖▲❖●❮❆ ❨ ▲❆❙ ❈❆❚❊●❖❘❮❆❙ ✶✸

❆❞❡♠ás✱ ❛ tr❛✈és ❞❡ ❧♦s ❞✐st✐♥t♦s ❢❡♥ó♠❡♥♦s ✈❡í❛♠♦s ❝ó♠♦ ❤❛❜í❛ ❞✐✈❡rs❛s ❝❛t❡❣♦rí❛s ❞❡
♦❜❥❡t♦s ♠✉② s♦❜r❡ ❧❛s q✉❡ s❡ ❛♣❧✐❝❛❜❛ ❧❛ ♥❡❣❛❝✐ó♥✳ P♦r ✉♥ ❧❛❞♦ t❡♥í❛♠♦s ❤❡❝❤♦s✱ ♣r♦♣✐❡❞❛✲
❞❡s✱ ♣♦s✐❜✐❧✐❞❛❞❡s ② ✜♥❛❧♠❡♥t❡ ♦❜❥❡t♦s✳ ❆❤♦r❛ ♥❡❝❡s✐t❛♠♦s ❡st✉❞✐❛r ❞❡ ❢♦r♠❛ ♠ás ♣r❡❝✐s❛
❝ó♠♦ ♣♦❞❡♠♦s ❡♥t❡♥❞❡r ❧❛ ♥❡❣❛❝✐ó♥ ❡♥ ❝❛❞❛ ✉♥♦ ❞❡ ❡s♦s ❝❛s♦s✳ P❛r❛ ❡❧❧♦ ♣❛s❛r❡♠♦s ❞❡❧
❡♥❢♦q✉❡ ♠ás ♣ró①✐♠♦ ❛ ❧♦s ✓❢❡♥ó♠❡♥♦s✔ q✉❡ ❤❡♠♦s s❡❣✉✐❞♦ ❛ ✉♥ ❡♥❢♦q✉❡ ♠ás ♣r♦♣✐♦ ❞❡ ❧❛
♦♥t♦❧♦❣í❛ ♦ ❞❡ ❧❛s ❝♦s❛s ❝♦♠♦ t❛❧✳ ❙✐♥ ❡♠❜❛r❣♦✱ ❞❛❞♦ ❧♦s ❧í♠✐t❡s ❞❡ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦ ② ❞❡ ♣r♦❢✉♥❞✐✲
❞❛❞ ❞❡ ❡st❡ tr❛❜❛❥♦ ♥♦s ❧✐♠✐t❛r❡♠♦s ❛❧ ❝❛s♦ ❞❡ ❧♦s ♦❜❥❡t♦s✱ ❧♦s ♣r❡❞✐❝❛❞♦s ② ✜♥❛❧♠❡♥t❡ ❧❛s
♣r♦♣♦s✐❝✐♦♥❡s✳
❉✉r❛♥t❡ t♦❞♦ ❡st♦ ♥♦s ❜❛s❛r❡♠♦s ❡♥ ❧❛s ♦❜r❛s ❞❡ ♦♥t♦❧♦❣í❛ ❬✸❪✱ ❬✷✸❪✱ ❬✷✻❪ ♦ ❬✷✼❪✳

✶✳✸✳✶✳ ▲❛ ♥❡❣❛❝✐ó♥ ❡♥ ❧♦s ♦❜ ❥❡t♦s

▲♦ ♣r✐♠❡r♦ q✉❡ ❛♥❛❧✐③❛r❡♠♦s ❡s ❧❛ ♥❡❣❛❝✐ó♥ ❝♦♠♦ ❛❧❣♦ ❛♣❧✐❝❛❞♦ ❛ ♦❜❥❡t♦s✱ ♣❡r♦ ♣❛r❛
❡❧❧♦ ♣r❡❝✐s❛♠♦s ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ❞❡✜♥✐❝✐ó♥✳ ❉❛❞♦ q✉❡ ❡st❡ tr❛❜❛❥♦ ♥♦ ♣r❡t❡♥❞❡ tr❛t❛r ❡❧ t❡♠❛ ❞❡ ❧❛
❞✐st✐♥❝✐ó♥ ♦ ✐rr❡❞✉❝✐❜✐❧✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ❧❛s ❞✐st✐♥t❛s ❝❛t❡❣♦rí❛s ❧❛ ❞❡✜♥✐❝✐ó♥ q✉❡ ♦❢r❡❝❡♠♦s ❛❤♦r❛✱ ②
❧❛s s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡s✱ ❝❛r❡❝❡♥ ❞❡ ✉♥ r✐❣♦r ❝♦♠♣❧❡t♦ ② ✉s❛♥ tér♠✐♥♦s ♠ás ♦ ♠❡♥♦s ✈❛❣♦s✳

❉❡✜♥✐❝✐ó♥ ✶✳✽✳ ❊♥t❡♥❞❡♠♦s ♣♦r ♦❜❥❡t♦ ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r ♣❛rt✐❝✉❧❛r q✉❡ ❛❞❡♠ás ♥♦ ♥❡❝❡s✐t❛♥ ♣❛r❛
❡①✐st✐r ❞❡ ❢♦r♠❛ ❡s❡♥❝✐❛❧ ❛ ♦tr♦s ✭❝♦♠♦ ❧❛s ♣r♦♣✐❡❞❛❞❡s✱ ♣r❡❞✐❝❛❞♦s ✉ ❛❝❝✐❞❡♥t❡s✮✱ ♣❡r❞✉r❛♥
❛ ❧♦ ❧❛r❣♦ ❞❡ ✉♥ t✐❡♠♣♦ ✭♠ás q✉❡ r❡❝♦rr❡r✱ ♦❝✉rr✐r ♦ ❞❡s❛rr♦❧❧❛rs❡ ❡♥ ✉♥ ♣❡rí♦❞♦ ❞❡ t✐❡♠♣♦
❝♦♠♦ ❧♦ ❤❛rí❛ ✉♥ ♣r♦❝❡s♦✮ ② s♦♥ ♠✉❞❛❜❧❡s ✭❛ ❞✐❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛ ❞❡ ❧♦s ♦❜❥❡t♦s ❛❜str❛❝t♦s✮✳

❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✶✳✾✳ ❊❥❡♠♣❧♦s ❞❡ ♦❜❥❡t♦s s♦♥ ♠❡s❛s✱ s❡r❡s ❤✉♠❛♥♦s✱ ❧✐❜r♦s✱ át♦♠♦s✱ ✳✳✳
▲❛ ✐❞❡❛ ✐♥t✉✐t✐✈❛ ❞❡ ❝ó♠♦ ♥❡❣❛r❧♦s ❡s ❜✐❡♥ s❡♥❝✐❧❧❛ ② ♥♦ r❡q✉✐❡r❡ ❞❡ ♥✐♥❣✉♥❛ ❝❧❛s❡ ❞❡
❡♥t✐❞❛❞ ♠❡t❛❢ís✐❝❛ ❡①tr❛ñ❛ ♣❛r❛ r❡❢❡r✐r ❛ ❡st❛ ♥❡❣❛❝✐ó♥✳ ❈♦♥ t♦❞♦✱ ❧❧❡❣❛r❡♠♦s ❛ ❡❧❧❛ tr❛s
♠♦str❛r ❧♦s ❡rr♦r❡s ❞❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛❝✐♦♥❡s ♠ás s✐♠♣❧❡s✳
❙✐ s✉♣♦♥❡♠♦s q✉❡ ❧♦s ♦❜❥❡t♦s r❡❛❧♠❡♥t❡ ❡①✐st❡♥t❡s ❢♦r♠❛♥ ♦ ♣✉❡❞❡♥ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛rs❡ ❝♦♥
✉♥ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ U ❝✉②♦s ❡❧❡♠❡♥t♦s s❡❛♥ t❛❧❡s ♦❜❥❡t♦s✳ ❈♦♥ ❡st♦ ♣♦❞❡♠♦s ✐♥t❡♥t❛r ❞❡✜♥✐r ❧❛
♥❡❣❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡❧ s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡ ♠♦❞♦✿

❉❡✜♥✐❝✐ó♥ ✶✳✶✵✳ ❉❛❞♦ ✉♥ ♦❜❥❡t♦ X ❞❡✜♥✐♠♦s s✉ ♥❡❣❛❝✐ó♥ ¬X ❝♦♠♦ ❡❧ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ U \ {X}✳

❊❧ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠❛ ❞❡ ❡st❛ ❞❡✜♥✐❝✐ó♥ ❡s q✉❡ ♥♦s ❤❛❝❡ s❛❧✐r♥♦s ❞❡ ❧❛ ❝❛t❡❣♦rí❛✳ ❊s ❞❡❝✐r✱ ❡❧
r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦ ❧❛ ♥❡❣❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡❥❛ ❞❡ s❡r ✉♥ ♦❜❥❡t♦ ❡♥ ❡❧ s❡♥t✐❞♦ q✉❡ ❛q✉í t♦♠❛♠♦s ♣❛r❛ s❡r
✉♥ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ ✉ ♦❜❥❡t♦ ❛❜str❛❝t♦✳ ❆sí✱ ♣✉❡s s✐ q✉❡r❡♠♦s q✉❡❞❛r♥♦s ❞❡♥tr♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❝❛t❡❣♦rí❛
♥❡❝❡s✐t❛♠♦s ❛❧❣♦ ♠ás✳
P❛r❛ s❡r ♠ás ❡①❛❝t♦ ❧♦ q✉❡ ♥❡❝❡s✐t❛♠♦s ♥♦ ❡s ♠ás q✉❡ ✉♥❛ ♦♣❡r❛❝✐ó♥ + ❡♥ ❡s❡ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦
❞❡ ❧♦s ♦❜❥❡t♦s✱ ❝♦♥❝r❡t❛♠❡♥t❡ ♥❡❝❡s✐t❛♠♦s ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♦♣❡r❛❝✐ó♥ q✉❡ ❞❛❞♦s ❞♦s ♦❜❥❡t♦s X ❡➲Y
♥♦s ❞❡✈✉❡❧✈❡ ✉♥ ♦❜❥❡t♦ ♠ás ❣r❛♥❞❡ q✉❡ s❡❛ ❧❛ ②✉①t❛♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❡st♦s X + Y ② ❡♥ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧
✶✹ ❈❆P❮❚❯▲❖ ✶✳ ▲❆ ◆❊●❆❈■Ó◆ ❈❖▼❖ ■❉❊❆ ❋■▲❖❙Ó❋■❈❆

❞❛❞❛ ✉♥ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ ❞❡ ♦❜❥❡t♦s F ❡①✐st❛ +F ✱ ❧❛ ②✉①t❛♣♦s❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ t♦❞♦s ❡st♦s✳ ❆❤♦r❛ ❜✐❡♥✱

❡st♦ ♥♦ ❡stá ❡①❡♥t♦ ❞❡ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠❛ ♣✉❡s ♠✉❝❤♦s ♥♦ ❡st❛rí❛♥ ❞✐s♣✉❡st♦s ❛ ❛❞♠✐t✐r q✉❡ ❛✉♥q✉❡
♠✐ ♥❛r✐③ ② ♠✐ r❡❧♦❥ s❡❛♥ ♦❜❥❡t♦s✱ ❡①✐st❛ ✉♥ ♦❜❥❡t♦ ❢♦r♠❛❞♦ ♣♦r ♠✐ ♥❛r✐③ ② ♠✐ r❡❧♦❥✱ ♣❡r♦
♥♦ ❡s ✉♥❛ ✜❝❝✐ó♥ ♠✉② ❞❛ñ✐♥❛ ♥✐ s❛❝r✐✜❝❛ ❞❡♠❛s✐❛❞♦ ❧❛ ✐❞❡❛ ❞❡ ♦❜❥❡t♦✳ ❈♦♥ ❡st♦ ♣♦❞❡♠♦s
❞❡✜♥✐r ❧❛ ♥❡❣❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ✉♥ ♦❜❥❡t♦ ❝♦♠♦✿

❉❡✜♥✐❝✐ó♥ ✶✳✶✶✳ ❙❡❛ X ✉♥ ♦❜❥❡t♦✱ ❞❡✜♥✐♠♦s ¬X ❝♦♠♦ +F ❞♦♥❞❡ F = {Y ♦❜❥❡t♦s t❛❧❡s

q✉❡ Y 6= X}✳

❙✐♥ ❡♠❜❛r❣♦ s❡❣✉✐♠♦s t♦♣❛♥❞♦ ❝♦♥ ❞✐✜❝✉❧t❛❞❡s✳ ❉✐❝❤❛ ❞✐✜❝✉❧t❛❞ ❝♦♥s✐st❡ ❡♥ q✉❡ ❛❞❡♠ás
❞❡ ❡s❛ ②✉①t❛♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ❤❛② q✉❡ t❡♥❡r ❡♥ ❝✉❡♥t❛ ♦tr❛ ✐❞❡❛ ✐♠♣♦rt❛♥t❡✱ ② ❡s q✉❡ ❧♦s ♦❜❥❡t♦s
t✐❡♥❡♥ ♣❛rt❡s✳ ❊st❡ ❤❡❝❤♦ ✐♥❞✉❝❡ ✉♥❛ r❡❧❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦r❞❡♥ < ❡♥tr❡ ❧♦s ♦❜❥❡t♦s ❞♦♥❞❡ X < Y
✈❡♥❞rí❛ ❛ ❞❡❝✐r q✉❡ ✓X ❡s ✉♥❛ ♣❛rt❡ ❞❡ Y ✔✳ ❆sí q✉❡ s✐ ❤❛❝❡♠♦s ✉♥❛ ②✉①t❛♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ t♦t❛❧
❧♦ q✉❡ ❡♥❝♦♥tr❛rí❛♠♦s ❡s q✉❡ ❝♦♠♦ t♦❞♦ ♦❜❥❡t♦ ❝♦♥ ♣❛rt❡s ❡s ✉♥❛ ②✉①t❛♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ s✉s
♣❛rt❡s✱ q✉❡ s♦♥ ❞✐st✐♥t❛s ❞❡ é❧✱ ❡❧ ♦❜❥❡t♦ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♥❡❣❛❝✐ó♥ ❝♦♥t❡♥❞rí❛ ❝♦♠♦ ♣❛rt❡
❛❧ ♦❜❥❡t♦ ♥❡❣❛❞♦✱ ✉♥ ❛❜s✉r❞♦✳ P❛r❛ ❡❧❧♦ ❞❡❜❡♠♦s ❛❞♠✐t✐r q✉❡ ❧❛s ♣❛rt❡s ❞❡ ✉♥ ♦❜❥❡t♦ ♥♦
♣✉❡❞❡♥ ❡st❛r ❞❡♥tr♦ ❞❡❧ ♦❜❥❡t♦ ♥❡❣❛❞♦✳ ❖❜t❡♥❡♠♦s ❛sí ❧❛ ❞❡✜♥✐❝✐ó♥ q✉❡ t❛♥t♦ ❜✉s❝á❜❛♠♦s✿

❉❡✜♥✐❝✐ó♥ ✶✳✶✷✳ ❙❡❛ X ✉♥ ♦❜❥❡t♦✱ ❞❡✜♥✐♠♦s ¬X ❝♦♠♦ +F ❞♦♥❞❡ F = {Y ♦❜❥❡t♦s t❛❧❡s

q✉❡ Y 6= X ❡ Y ≮ X}✳

❍❡❝❤♦ ❡st♦ ❧♦s ♣r♦❜❧❡♠❛s ❡stá♥✱ ❛ ♥✉❡str♦ ❥✉✐❝✐♦✱ s♦❧✈❡♥t❛❞♦s✳ ❆❤♦r❛ ❜✐❡♥✱ q✉❡❞❛ t♦❞❛✈í❛
♣♦r ❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❛r ❞❡ q✉é ❢♦r♠❛ s❡ r❡❛❧✐③❛ ❧❛ ♥❡❣❛❝✐ó♥ ❝♦♠♦ ♣r♦♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ❡♥ ❡st❡ ❝❛s♦ ② ♣♦r
q✉é ❡st❛ ♥❡❣❛❝✐ó♥ ❡s ✈✐❝❛r✐❛ ❞❡ ❛q✉❡❧❧❛✳ ▲❛ s♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ q✉❡ ♣r♦♣♦♥❡♠♦s ❡s ❧❛ s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡✳ P❛r❛
♣♦❞❡r ❢♦r♠❛r ❡❧ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ ❞❡ t♦❞❛s ❧❛s ❝♦s❛s ② ♣❛r❛ ❢♦r♠❛r ❡s❡ ♦❜❥❡t♦ ❝♦♠♣❧❡♠❡♥t❛r✐♦
♥❡❝❡s✐t❛♠♦s ❞❡ ✉♥ ❝r✐t❡r✐♦ ❞❡ ✐❞❡♥t✐❞❛❞✱ ♥❡❝❡s✐t❛♠♦s s❛❜❡r ❝✉á♥❞♦ ❞♦s ❝♦s❛s s♦♥ ✐❣✉❛❧❡s✳
❚♦❞♦ ❡st❡ ♣r♦❝❡s♦ ♥♦ ❡stá s✐♥♦ ♠♦t✐✈❛❞♦ ♣♦r ❧❛ ✐❞❡❛ ❞❡ ❡♥❝♦♥tr❛r ❡❧ ♦❜❥❡t♦ ♠❛①✐♠❛❧ ✭♠ás
❣r❛♥❞❡✮ t❛❧ q✉❡ s❡❛ ❝✐❡rt❛ ❧❛ ♣r♦♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ✓♥♦ t✐❡♥❡ ♥✐♥❣✉♥❛ ♣❛rt❡ ❡♥ ❝♦♠ú♥ ❝♦♥ X ✔✱ ❡s
❞❡❝✐r q✉❡r❡♠♦s ❜✉s❝❛r ✉♥ ♦❜❥❡t♦ ♣❛r❛ q✉❡ ✉♥❛ ♣r♦♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ s❡❛ ❢❛❧s❛✳ P♦r t❛♥t♦✱ t♦❞♦ ❡st❡
♣r♦❝❡s♦ ♥♦ ❡s ✓♥❛t✉r❛❧✔✱ s✐♥♦ q✉❡ s❡ ❜❛s❛ ❡♥ ✉♥❛ ❝♦♥str✉❝❝✐ó♥ ❛rt✐✜❝✐♦s❛ ❝✉②♦ ♦r✐❣❡♥ ❡stá
❡♥ ♥✉❡str❛ ❝❛♣❛❝✐❞❛❞ ♣❛r❛ ♦♣❡r❛r ❝♦♥ ♣r♦♣♦s✐❝✐♦♥❡s ♠❡❞✐❛♥t❡ ❧❛ ♥❡❣❛❝✐ó♥✳
P❛r❛ ♠ás ✐♥❢♦r♠❛❝✐ó♥ ❛❧ r❡s♣❡❝t♦ ❞❡ ✐❞❡❛s ❝♦♠♦ ❧❛ ❞❡ t♦❞♦s ② ♣❛rt❡s r❡❝♦♠❡♥❞❛♠♦s
❛❧ ❧❡❝t♦r ❧❛ ♦❜r❛ ❬✷✺❪✳ P❛r❛ ✉♥❛ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛❝✐ó♥ ❛❧t❡r♥❛t✐✈❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♥❡❣❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ✉♥ ♦❜❥❡t♦ ♣✉❡❞❡
❝♦♥s✉❧t❛rs❡ ❬✶✹❪✳

✶✳✸✳✷✳ ▲❛ ♥❡❣❛❝✐ó♥ ❡♥ ❧♦s ♣r❡❞✐❝❛❞♦s

❊♠♣❡③❛♠♦s✱ ✐❣✉❛❧ q✉❡ ❛♥t❡s✱ ❝♦♥ ✉♥❛ ❞❡✜♥✐❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❛q✉❡❧❧♦ ❞❡ ❧♦ q✉❡ ✈❛♠♦s ❛ tr❛t❛r✿
✶✳✸✳ ▲❆ ◆❊●❆❈■Ó◆✱ ▲❆ ❖◆❚❖▲❖●❮❆ ❨ ▲❆❙ ❈❆❚❊●❖❘❮❆❙ ✶✺

❉❡✜♥✐❝✐ó♥ ✶✳✶✸✳ ❊♥t❡♥❞❡♠♦s ♣♦r ♣r❡❞✐❝❛❞♦ ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r ❡①♣r❡s✐ó♥ ❧✐♥❣üíst✐❝❛ q✉❡ ♣✉❡❞❡
❛♣❧✐❝❛rs❡ ❛ ❛❧❣✉♥❛ ❝❧❛s❡ ❞❡ s✉st❛♥t✐✈♦s ❞❡✈♦❧✈✐❡♥❞♦ s✉ ❛♣❧✐❝❛❝✐ó♥ ✉♥ ✈❛❧♦r ❞❡ ✈❡r❞❛❞ ♣❛r❛
❧♦s ❡❧❡♠❡♥t♦s ❞❡ t❛❧ ❝❧❛s❡✳

❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✶✳✶✹✳ Pr❡❞✐❝❛❞♦s s♦♥ ♣♦r ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✓s❡r ❛③✉❧✔✱ ✓s❡r ❡s❢ér✐❝♦✔✱ ✓t❡♥❡r ❝❛r❣❛ ♠❛❣✲
♥ét✐❝❛✔✱ ✓s❡r ✉♥ tr✐á♥❣✉❧♦✔✱ ✳✳✳

❖❜s❡r✈❛❝✐ó♥ ✶✳✶✺✳ ❉❡❜❡♠♦s ❞✐st✐♥❣✉✐r ♣r❡❞✐❝❛❞♦ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♣r♦♣✐❡❞❛❞✱ q✉❡ s❡rí❛♥ ❛q✉❡❧❧❛s
❝❛r❛❝t❡ríst✐❝❛s r❡❛❧❡s ② ❢✉♥❞❛♠❡♥t❛❧❡s ♥♦ ❞❡♣❡♥❞✐❡♥t❡s ❞❡ ♥♦s♦tr♦s ♦ ♥✉❡str❛ ❢♦r♠❛ ❞❡
✐♥t❡r❛❝t✉❛r ❝♦♥ ❡❧ ♠✉♥❞♦ q✉❡ ❛❧❣✉♥♦s ♣r❡❞✐❝❛❞♦s ♣✉❡❞❡♥ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛r✳
▲♦s ♣r❡❞✐❝❛❞♦s ❝♦♠♦ ♦❜❥❡t♦s ❛❜str❛❝t♦s q✉❡ s♦♥ s❡ ❝♦♠♣❛rt❛♥ ❞❡ ❢♦r♠❛ ♠✉② ✓❛♠✐❣❛❜❧❡✔
❝♦♥ r❡s♣❡❝t♦ ❛ ❧❛ ♥❡❣❛❝✐ó♥✳ ❨ ❡s q✉❡ s✐ t❡♥❡♠♦s ✉♥ ♣r❡❞✐❝❛❞♦ ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r❛ ❡s ❢á❝✐❧ ❡♥❝♦♥tr❛r s✉
♥❡❣❛❝✐ó♥✱ s✐♠♣❧❡♠❡♥t❡ t♦♠❛♠♦s ❡❧ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ ❞❡ ❝♦s❛s s♦❜r❡ ❧❛s q✉❡ s❡ ❛♣❧✐❝❛ ② ❝❛♠❜✐❛♠♦s ❡❧
✈❛❧♦r ❞❡ ✈❡r❞❛❞ q✉❡ ❛♣❧✐❝❛ ❛ ❡st❛s✳ ❆❞❡♠ás✱ ❡stá ❝❧❛r♦ q✉❡ ❡st♦ s❡ ❜❛s❛ ❡♥ ♥✉❡str❛ ❝❛♣❛❝✐❞❛❞
♣❛r❛ ♥❡❣❛r ♣r♦♣♦s✐❝✐♦♥❡s✳
❙✐♥ ❡♠❜❛r❣♦ ❤❛② ❝✐❡rt♦s ♣r♦❜❧❡♠❛s ❝♦♥ ❡st❛ ♣♦st✉r❛ ❡♥ ❧♦s q✉❡ ♥♦ ❡♥tr❛r❡♠♦s ❞❡ ❢♦r♠❛
♠✉② ♣r♦❢✉♥❞❛✳ ❨ ❡s q✉❡ s✐ ✉♥♦ r❡❝❛♣❛❝✐t❛ ✈❡rá q✉❡ ❤❡♠♦s ❛❞♠✐t✐❞♦ q✉❡ ❧♦s ♣r❡❞✐❝❛❞♦s s❡
❛♣❧✐❝❛♥ s♦❜r❡ ✉♥❛ ❝❧❛s❡ ❞❡ ♦❜❥❡t♦s✱ ♥♦ ❤❡♠♦s ❞❛❞♦ ✉♥❛ ❝♦♠♣❧❡t❛ ❧✐❜❡rt❛❞ ❛ ❡st♦s ♣✉❞✐❡♥❞♦
s❡r ❛♣❧✐❝❛❞♦s s♦❜r❡ t♦❞♦s✳ ❊st♦ ❧♦ ❤❛❝❡♠♦s ♣❛r❛ ❡✈✐t❛r ❧♦s ❝♦♥♦❝✐❞♦s ❝♦♠♦ ❡rr♦r❡s ❝❛t❡❣♦✲
r✐❛❧❡s ❡♥ ❧♦s q✉❡ ♣♦❞❡♠♦s ❡st❛r ❛♥t❡ ❛✜r♠❛❝✐♦♥❡s q✉❡ ❝❛r❡❝❡♥ ❞❡ ✈❛❧♦r ❞❡ ✈❡r❞❛❞ ♣♦rq✉❡
♥♦ ❡s ✓❛♣r♦♣✐❛❞♦✔ ♣r❡❞✐❝❛r ♦ ♥♦ ♣r❡❞✐❝❛r s♦❜r❡ ❛❧❣♦✳ P♦r ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦ ♥♦ t✐❡♥❡ s❡♥t✐❞♦ ♣r❡❞✐❝❛r
❡❧ ✓s❡r ❛③✉❧✔ ❞❡ ✉♥ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ ❞❡ ♣✉♥t♦s ❞❡❧ ♣❧❛♥♦✱ ♦ ♥♦ t✐❡♥❡ s❡♥t✐❞♦ ❞❡❝✐r q✉❡ ✉♥❛ ♦❜r❛ ❞❡
❧✐t❡r❛t✉r❛ ❡s ✉♥ tr✐á♥❣✉❧♦✳ ❆❤♦r❛ ❜✐❡♥✱ t❛❧ r❡❧❛❝✐ó♥ ❡♥ ❝✐❡rt♦ ♠♦❞♦ s❡ ❜❛s❛ ❡♥ ✉♥❛ ❡s♣❡❝✐❡ ❞❡
♥❡❣❛❝✐ó♥✱ ♣❡r♦ ❡st❡ t✐♣♦ ❞❡ ♥❡❣❛❝✐ó♥ ♥♦ s❡rí❛ t❛♥t♦ ❛♣❧✐❝❛❞❛ ❛ ❧♦s ♣r❡❞✐❝❛❞♦s✱ s✐♥♦ ❛ ❧♦ q✉❡
♣♦❞rí❛♠♦s ❧❧❛♠❛r ✓❝❛t❡❣♦rí❛s ♠❛t❡r✐❛❧❡s✔✱ ❡s ❞❡❝✐r ❛ ❛❧❣♦ ❛sí ❝♦♠♦ ❧♦s ❞✐st✐♥t♦s ❣é♥❡r♦s ❞❡
❝♦s❛s✳
❚♦❞♦ ❡st♦ s✉♣♦♥❡ ✉♥❛ ❞✐❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛ s✉st❛♥❝✐❛❧ ❝♦♥ r❡s♣❡❝t♦ ❛ ❧♦s ♦❜❥❡t♦s✱ ♣✉❡st♦ q✉❡ ❡st♦s
ú♥✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ s♦♥ ♠❡r❛♠❡♥t❡ ✓❞✐st✐♥t♦s✔✱ s✐♥ ❡♠❜❛r❣♦ ❧♦s ♣r❡❞✐❝❛❞♦s ❛❞♠✐t❡♥ r❡❧❛❝✐♦♥❡s
♠ás sút✐❧❡s ❡ ✐♥t❡r❡s❛♥t❡s✳ ▼✐❡♥tr❛s q✉❡ ✉♥❛ ❝♦s❛ ② ♦tr❛ ♣✉❡❞❡♥ ❡①✐st✐r s✐❡♥❞♦ ❞✐❢❡r❡♥t❡s
s✐♥ ❛♥✉❧❛rs❡ ♠✉t✉❛♠❡♥t❡✱ ❤❛② ♣r❡❞✐❝❛❞♦s q✉❡ ♥♦ ♣✉❡❞❡♥ ❞❛rs❡ ❛ ❧❛ ✈❡③ ❡♥ ✉♥ ♠✐s♠♦ s✉❥❡t♦✱
❛sí✱ ♣♦r ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦ s❛❜❡♠♦s q✉❡ ♥♦ ♣✉❡❞❡ ❤❛❜❡r ✉♥ ♦❜❥❡t♦ q✉❡ s❡❛ ❛ ❧❛ ✈❡③ r♦s❛ ② ♠❛rró♥ ❛❧
♠✐s♠♦ t✐❡♠♣♦ ② ❡♥ t♦❞❛ s✉ s✉♣❡r✜❝✐❡✳ ❙✐♥ ❡♠❜❛r❣♦✱ ❡st❡ t✐♣♦ ❞❡ ❡①❝❧✉s✐♦♥❡s ♥♦ q✉✐t❛ ❧❛
♠❡r❛ ❞✐❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛ ♦ ❞✐st✐♥❝✐ó♥✱ ❤❛② ♣r❡❞✐❝❛❞♦s q✉❡ s✐♠♣❧❡♠❡♥t❡ s❡ ❞✐st✐♥❣✉❡♥ ❡♥tr❡ sí ❝♦♠♦
t❡♥❡r ✉♥ ❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❛❞♦ ❝♦❧♦r ② t❡♥❡r ✉♥❛ ❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❛❞❛ ❢♦r♠❛✳ ❙❡r ❞❡ ❝♦❧♦r r♦❥♦ ♥♦ ✐♠♣❧✐❝❛
s❡r ✉♥❛ ❡s❢❡r❛ ♦ s❡r ✉♥ ♦✈♦✐❞❡✳
❆❞❡♠ás✱ ❝♦♠♦ ②❛ ❤❡♠♦s ❞✐❝❤♦✱ ❧❛ r❡❧❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ❡♥tr❡ ♣r❡❞✐❝❛❞♦s ♣✉❡❞❡ ❞❛rs❡ ❞❡
❢♦r♠❛s ♠✉② ❞✐✈❡rs❛s✳ ◆♦ ❡s ❧♦ ♠✐s♠♦ ❧❛ ♦♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ❡♥tr❡ ✉♥ ♣r❡❞✐❝❛❞♦ ♠ás ♦ ♠❡♥♦s ❝♦♥❝r❡t♦
✶✻ ❈❆P❮❚❯▲❖ ✶✳ ▲❆ ◆❊●❆❈■Ó◆ ❈❖▼❖ ■❉❊❆ ❋■▲❖❙Ó❋■❈❆

❝♦♠♦ ✓s❡r r♦s❛✔ ② ✉♥♦ ❞❡ ✉♥ ♥✐✈❡❧ ♠ás ❛❜str❛❝t♦ ❝♦♠♦ ✓s❡r ✐♥❝♦❧♦r♦✔✳ ■♥❝❧✉s♦ ♣✉❡❞❡ ❤❛❜❡r
♦♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ♠ás ❡①tr❛ñ❛s ❝♦♠♦ ❡♥tr❡ ✓s❡r r♦s❛✔ ② ✓s❡r ❧❛ s♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ ❛ ✉♥❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥✔✱ ② ❡s q✉❡
♥♦ ♣✉❡❞❡ ❤❛❜❡r s♦❧✉❝✐♦♥❡s ❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐♦♥❡s ❝♦♥ ❝♦❧♦r❡s ♥✐ ❝♦s❛s ❝♦❧♦r❡❛❞❛s q✉❡ s❡❛♥ s♦❧✉❝✐♦♥❡s
❛ ❡❝✉❛❝✐♦♥❡s✱ ♣❡r♦ ❧❛ ♥❡❣❛❝✐ó♥ ✉ ♦♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ❛q✉í ❡stá ♠ás ✈❡❧❛❞❛✳ P❛r❛ ♠ás ✐♥❢♦r♠❛❝✐ó♥
s♦❜r❡ ❡st♦ r❡❝♦♠❡♥❞❛♠♦s ❝♦♥s✉❧t❛r ❬✷❪
❯♥❛ ♣r❡❣✉♥t❛ ✐♥t❡r❡s❛♥t❡ q✉❡ ❛❞❡♠ás s✉r❣❡ ❞❡ ❢♦r♠❛ r❛③♦♥❛❜❧❡ ❡s s✐ ✉♥ ♣r❡❞✐❝❛❞♦ ② ❡❧
♣r❡❞✐❝❛❞♦ q✉❡ ♦❜t❡♥❡♠♦s ❛❧ ♥❡❣❛r❧♦ s❡ ♣✉❡❞❡♥ ❞❛r ❛ ❧❛ ✈❡③✳ P❛r❛ r❡s♣♦♥❞❡r ❛ ❡❧❧♦ ❞❡❜❡♠♦s
❡s♣❡r❛r ❤❛st❛ ❧❛ ú❧t✐♠❛ s❡❝❝✐ó♥✳

✶✳✸✳✸✳ ▲❛ ♥❡❣❛❝✐ó♥ ❡♥ ❧❛s ♣r♦♣♦s✐❝✐♦♥❡s

P❛r❛ ❡st✉❞✐❛r ❡❧ ♣❛♣❡❧ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♥❡❣❛❝✐ó♥ ❡♥ ❧❛s ♣r♦♣♦s✐❝✐♦♥❡s ♥❡❝❡s✐t❛♠♦s ♠✉❝❤♦ ♠ás

q✉❡ ✉♥❛ ♣❡q✉❡ñ❛ s✉❜s❡❝❝✐ó♥✳ ❨ ❡s q✉❡ ❛❜✉♥❞❛♥ ❧♦s s✐st❡♠❛s ❧ó❣✐❝♦s ② ❛❜✉♥❞❛♥ ❡♥ ❣r❛♥
♠❡❞✐❞❛ ♣♦r ❡❧ ❞✐st✐♥t♦ ♣❛♣❡❧ q✉❡ ❥✉❡❣❛ ❧❛ ♥❡❣❛❝✐ó♥ ❡♥ ❡❧❧♦s✳ P❛r❛ ❡❧ ❡st✉❞✐♦ ❞❡ ❡st❡ t❡♠❛
❡♠♣❧❡❛r❡♠♦s ❧♦s ♣ró①✐♠♦s ❞♦s ❝❛♣ít✉❧♦s✳
❈❛♣ít✉❧♦ ✷

▲❛ ♥❡❣❛❝✐ó♥ ❡♥ ❧❛s ❧ó❣✐❝❛s ❢♦r♠❛❧❡s

P♦r ❧♦ ✈✐st♦ ❡♥ ❧❛ s❡❝❝✐ó♥ ❛♥t❡r✐♦r ❡❧ ♣r✐♠❡r ❛♥❛❧♦❣❛❞♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ✐❞❡❛ ❞❡ ♥❡❣❛❝✐ó♥ ❡s ❧❛
♥❡❣❛❝✐ó♥ ❡♥ t❛♥t♦ q✉❡ ❛♣❧✐❝❛❞❛ ❛ ❧❛s ♣r♦♣♦s✐❝✐♦♥❡s✱ ♣♦r ♠✉❝❤♦ q✉❡ ❧❛ ❣é♥❡s✐s ❞❡ ❧❛ ✐❞❡❛
❡♥ ♣r✐♥❝✐♣✐♦ ♥♦ t❡♥❣❛ q✉❡ ❝♦♠❡♥③❛r ❝♦♥ ❡s❛ ✈❡rs✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♥❡❣❛❝✐ó♥✳ P❛r❛ ❡st✉❞✐❛r ♠❡❥♦r
❝ó♠♦ ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❛ ❧❛ ✐❞❡❛ ❞❡ ♥❡❣❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡❜❡♠♦s ❡♥t❡♥❞❡r ❝ó♠♦ ❛❝tú❛ ② q✉é ♣❛♣❡❧ ❝✉♠♣❧❡ ❡♥
❧❛ ❧ó❣✐❝❛ ❞❡ ♣r♦♣♦s✐❝✐♦♥❡s✳ ◆♦ ♦❜st❛♥t❡ ♥♦s ❡♥❢r❡♥t❛♠♦s ②❛ ❞❡s❞❡ ❡❧ ♣r✐♠❡r ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ ❝♦♥
✉♥❛ ❞✐✜❝✉❧t❛❞ ❡♥♦r♠❡ q✉❡ ♥♦ ♣♦❞❡♠♦s r❡s♦❧✈❡r ❞❡ ❢♦r♠❛ ❞❡✜♥✐t✐✈❛✱ ♥♦ ❤❛② ✓▲❛ ▲ó❣✐❝❛✔✱
❤❛② ♠✉❧t✐t✉❞ ❞❡ s✐st❡♠❛s ❧ó❣✐❝♦s ❡♥ ❧♦s ❝✉❛❧❡s ❧❛ ✐❞❡❛ ❞❡ ♥❡❣❛❝✐ó♥ ❛♣❛r❡❝❡ ❞❡ ♠❛♥❡r❛s
✈❡r❞❛❞❡r❛♠❡♥t❡ ❞✐s♣❛r❡s ② ❡♥ ❧❛ q✉❡ s✉s ❝❛r❛❝t❡r✐③❛❝✐♦♥❡s ♠ás ❤❛❜✐t✉❛❧❡s ❢❛❧❧❛♥✳
▲❛ s♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ q✉❡ ♦❢r❡❝❡♠♦s ❡♥ ❡st❡ ❛rtí❝✉❧♦ ❛ t❛❧ ♦❜stá❝✉❧♦ ❝♦♥s✐st❛rá ❡♥ ✉♥ ✐♥t❡♥t♦ ♠ás
♦ ♠❡♥♦s r❛♣só❞✐❝♦ ❞❡ ❛❜♦r❞❛r ❡♥ ❧♦s ♣r✐♥❝✐♣❛❧❡s t✐♣♦s ❞❡ ❧ó❣✐❝❛s ❡❧ ♣❛♣❡❧ q✉❡ ❝✉♠♣❧❡ ❡♥ ❡❧❧❛
❧❛ ♥❡❣❛❝✐ó♥✳ ❈♦♠♦ ❧♦s s✐st❡♠❛s ❧ó❣✐❝♦s s♦♥ s✐st❡♠❛s ❝♦♠♦ t❛❧❡s ♥♦ ♣♦❞❡♠♦s ❞❛r ✉♥❛s ♣✐♥✲
❝❡❧❛❞❛s s✉❡❧t❛s ❞❡ ❧❛ ♥❡❣❛❝✐ó♥ ❡♥ ❛❜str❛❝t♦ s✐♥ r❡❧❛❝✐♦♥❛r t❛❧ ❝♦♥❝❡♣t♦ ❝♦♥ ♦tr❛s ♥♦❝✐♦♥❡s
❝♦♠♦ ♣✉❡❞❡♥ s❡r ❧❛ ✐♠♣❧✐❝❛❝✐ó♥✱ ❧❛s ❞✐s②✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s✱ ❧❛ ❝♦♥❥✉♥❝✐ó♥✱ ✳✳✳ ❉❡❜❡♠♦s✱ ❡♥ ❝♦♥s❡✲
❝✉❡♥❝✐❛✱ ③❛♠❜✉❧❧✐r♥♦s ❡♥ ❞✐❝❤♦s s✐st❡♠❛s✳ ◆♦ ♦❜st❛♥t❡✱ ♣♦r ❝✉❡st✐♦♥❡s r❡❧❛❝✐♦♥❛❞♦s ❝♦♥ ❧❛
❡①t❡♥s✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❡st❡ ❛rtí❝✉❧♦ ② s✉ ❛❢á♥ ♠ás ❜✐❡♥ ✐♥tr♦❞✉❝t♦r✐♦ ② ❤❡✉ríst✐❝♦ ♥♦ ♣r♦❢✉♥❞✐③❛r❡♠♦s
❛ ♥✐✈❡❧❡s ❢♦r♠❛❧❡s ♦ ❛①✐♦♠át✐❝♦s✱ s✐♥♦ q✉❡ ❜✉s❝❛r❡♠♦s s✐❡♠♣r❡ ❞❛r ✉♥❛s ♥♦❝✐♦♥❡s ❜ás✐❝❛s
q✉❡ ♣❡r♠✐t❛♥ r❡✢❡❥❛r ❧❛s ✐❞❡❛s ❡❧❡♠❡♥t❛❧❡s ❞❡ ❞✐❝❤♦s s✐st❡♠❛s✳ ❆❞❡♠ás✱ ♣♦r ❧❛s r❡str✐❝❝✐♦♥❡s
②❛ ❝♦♠❡♥t❛❞❛s ❞❡ ❡st❡ ❛rtí❝✉❧♦ ❡❧ ♥ú♠❡r♦ ❞❡ s✐st❡♠❛s q✉❡ ❛♥❛❧✐③❛♠♦s ❡s ❜❛st❛♥t❡ r❡❞✉❝✐❞♦
❤❛❜✐❡♥❞♦ ♠✉❧t✐t✉❞ ❞❡ s✐st❡♠❛s ❛❧t❡r♥❛t✐✈♦s ❝♦♠♦ ❧❛s ❧ó❣✐❝❛s r❡❧❡✈❛♥t❡s✱ ❧ó❣✐❝❛s ♠♦❞❛❧❡s✱
✳✳✳ ❊s ♠ás✱ t❛♠♣♦❝♦ s❡ ❡♥tr❛rá ❡♥ s✐st❡♠❛s ❧ó❣✐❝♦s q✉❡ ✈❛②❛♥ ♠ás ❛❧❧á ❞❡❧ ❝á❧❝✉❧♦ ♣r♦♣♦✲
s✐❝✐♦♥❛❧✱ ❡st♦ ❡s✱ ♥♦ ❤❛❜❧❛r❡♠♦s ❞❡ ❝✉❛♥t✐✜❝❛❞♦r❡s✱ ♥✐ ❞❡ ♣r♦♣✐❡❞❛❞❡s✱ ♥✐ ❞❡ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦s✱ ❛❧
♠❡♥♦s ❡♥ ❧♦ q✉❡ r❡s♣❡❝t❛ ❛ ❡st❛ s❡❝❝✐ó♥✳
▲♦ q✉❡ ❤❛r❡♠♦s s❡rá ❡♠♣❡③❛r ♣♦r ❧❛ ❧ó❣✐❝❛ ❝❧ás✐❝❛ q✉❡ ❛❜♦r❞❛r❡♠♦s ❡♠♣❧❡❛♥❞♦ ❧❛s
❝♦♥♦❝✐❞❛s t❛❜❧❛s ❞❡ ✈❡r❞❛❞✳ ❆ ♣❛rt✐r ❞❡ ❡st❛ ✈✐s✐ó♥ ♣r✐♠❡r♦ ❛❜♦r❞❛r❡♠♦s ❧♦s ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦s ❞❡
❧❛s ❧ó❣✐❝❛s ♠✉❧t✐✈❛❧✉❛❞❛s ② ❞✐❢✉s❛s ❝♦♠♦ ✉♥❛ ❡①t❡♥s✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧❛s ❧ó❣✐❝❛s ❝❧ás✐❝❛s ❡♥ ❧❛s ❝✉❛❧❡s

✶✼
✶✽ ❈❆P❮❚❯▲❖ ✷✳ ▲❆ ◆❊●❆❈■Ó◆ ❊◆ ▲❆❙ ▲Ó●■❈❆❙ ❋❖❘▼❆▲❊❙

❧♦ q✉❡ s✉❝❡❞❡ ❡s q✉❡ s❡ ❤❛♥ ❛✉♠❡♥t❛❞♦ ❧♦s ♣♦s✐❜❧❡s ✈❛❧♦r❡s ❞❡ ✈❡r❞❛❞ ❞❡ ❧❛s ♣r♦♣♦s✐❝✐♦♥❡s✳
❉❡s♣✉és✱ ❛❜♦r❞❛r❡♠♦s ✉♥ ♠♦❞❡❧♦ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ❧ó❣✐❝❛ ♣❛r❛❝♦♥s✐st❡♥t❡ ♥♦ ♠✉❧t✐✈❛❧✉❛❞❛✱ ❡s ❞❡❝✐r
✉♥❛ ❧ó❣✐❝❛ ❡♥ ❧❛ ❝✉❛❧ s♦❧♦ ❤❛② ❞♦s ✈❛❧♦r❡s ♣❡r♦ s❡ ♥✐❡❣❛ ❡❧ ❝♦♥♦❝✐❞♦ ✓♣r✐♥❝✐♣✐♦ ❞❡ ❡①♣❧♦s✐ó♥✔
② ❡❧ ✓♣r✐♥❝✐♣✐♦ ❞❡ ♥♦ ❝♦♥tr❛❞✐❝❝✐ó♥✔✳ ❋✐♥❛❧♠❡♥t❡ ❡♥tr❛r❡♠♦s ❛ ❡st✉❞✐❛r ❡❧ ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦ ❤❛❜✐t✉❛❧
❞❡ ❧ó❣✐❝❛ ♣❛r❛❝♦♠♣❧❡t❛✱ q✉❡ ♥♦ ❝✉♠♣❧❡ ❡❧ t❡r❝✐♦ ❡①❝❧✉s♦✱ ❡♥ s✉ ✈❡rs✐ó♥ ♠ás ❝♦rr✐❡♥t❡ q✉❡
❡s ❧❛ ❧ó❣✐❝❛ ✐♥t✉✐❝✐♦♥✐st❛✳

✷✳✶✳ ▲ó❣✐❝❛ ❝❧ás✐❝❛

❊❧ ♣r✐♠❡r ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦ q✉❡ ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r ❡st✉❞✐❛♥t❡ ❛❝t✉❛❧ s❡ ❡♥❝✉❡♥tr❛ ❛❧ ❡st✉❞✐❛r ❧❛ ❧ó❣✐❝❛ ❡s ❧❛

❧❧❛♠❛❞❛ ❧ó❣✐❝❛ ❝❧ás✐❝❛✳ ◆✉❡str❛ ❢♦r♠❛ ❞❡ ❛❜♦r❞❛r ❡st❛ s❡rá✱ ❝♦♠♦ ②❛ ❤❡♠♦s ❝♦♠❡♥t❛❞♦✱ ♠✉②
s✉♣❡r✜❝✐❛❧✳ ❙✐❡♥❞♦ ♥✉❡str♦ ❡♥❣♦q✉❡ ✉♥♦ q✉❡ s❡ ❝❡♥tr❡ ❡♥ ✉♥ ❛♣❛rt❛❞♦ ♠ás ❜✐❡♥ ❛❧❣♦rít♠✐❝♦
♣r♦♣✐♦ ❞❡❧ ❝á❧❝✉❧♦ ♣r♦♣♦s✐❝✐♦♥❛❧ ❛ ♣❛rt✐r ❞❡ ❧❛s t❛❜❧❛s ❞❡ ✈❡r❞❛❞✳
❈♦♠♦ t♦❞♦s s❛❜❡♠♦s ❡♥ ✉♥ s✐st❡♠❛ ❞❡ ❧ó❣✐❝❛ ❝❧ás✐❝❛ ❡❧ ♦❜❥❡t♦ ♣r✐♠✐t✐✈♦ s♦♥ ❧❛s ♣r♦✲
♣♦s✐❝✐♦♥❡s q✉❡ s♦♥ t♦♠❛❞❛s ❝♦♠♦ ✉♥❛ ❝❧❛s❡ ❞❡ ♦❜❥❡t♦s ❛ ❧❛s q✉❡ ❝❛❜❡ ❛s✐❣♥❛r ✉♥ ✈❛❧♦r
❞❡ ✈❡r❞❛❞✳ ❆ ♠❡♥✉❞♦ ❤❛② q✉❡ ✐r ✉♥ ♣♦❝♦ ♣r❡✈✐♦ ❛ ❡st♦ ② ❤❛❜❧❛r ❞❡ ❧❡♥❣✉❛❥❡s ② ❞❡ r❡❣❧❛s
❞❡ ❢♦r♠❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦r❛❝✐♦♥❡s ❜✐❡♥ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛❞❛s✱ ♣❡r♦ ❡♥ ❡st❡ ❝❛s♦ ♣❛rt✐r❡♠♦s ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡①✐st❡♥❝✐❛
❞❡ ❡st❛s ❝♦♠♦ ✉♥❛ s✉❡rt❡ ❞❡ ❞❛t♦ ♣r✐♠✐t✐✈♦ ♥♦ ❝✉❡st✐♦♥❛❜❧❡✳ ❆❤♦r❛ t❡♥❡♠♦s ♣r♦♣♦s✐❝✐♦♥❡s
❝♦♠♦ ♦❜❥❡t♦s ❛ ❧♦s q✉❡ ❞♦t❛r ❞❡ ✉♥ ✈❛❧♦r ❞❡ ✈❡r❞❛❞✱ ➽q✉é ❝❛❜❡ ❞❡s❛rr♦❧❧❛r ❡♥ ❧❛ ❧ó❣✐❝❛❄
P✉❡s ❜✐❡♥ s❡♥❝✐❧❧♦✱ ♣✉❡❞❡ ❛ ♣❛rt✐r ❞❡ ❡st❛s ♣r♦♣♦s✐❝✐♦♥❡s ♣r♦❞✉❝✐r ♦tr❛s ❛ ♣❛rt✐r ❞❡ ❝✐❡rt❛s
✓♦♣❡r❛❝✐♦♥❡s✔✳
❈✉❛❧q✉✐❡r❛ ❡stá ❢❛♠✐❧✐❛r✐③❛❞♦ ❝♦♥ ♠✉❧t✐t✉❞ ❞❡ ❡st♦s ♠ét♦❞♦s✳ P♦r ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦ ❧♦s ♠ás
❝♦♠✉♥❡s s♦♥ ❧♦s ❝✉❛tr♦ s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡s✿ ❧❛ ♥❡❣❛❝✐ó♥✱ ❧❛ ❝♦♥❥✉♥❝✐ó♥✱ ❧❛ ❞✐s②✉♥❝✐ó♥ ② ❧❛ ✐♠♣❧✐❝❛❝✐ó♥✳
❊s ❞❡❝✐r ❞❛❞❛s ♣r♦♣♦s✐❝✐♦♥❡s ❝♦♠♦ ✓2 + 2 = 4✔ ② ✓❊♥ ❡❧ 2020 s❡ ✈❡♥❞✐❡r♦♥ 2 · 106 ♠✐❧❧♦♥❡s
❞❡ ❝♦❝❤❡s✔✱ ♣♦❞❡♠♦s ❝♦♥str✉✐r ♥✉❡✈❛s ♣r♦♣♦s✐❝✐♦♥❡s ❝♦♠♦ ✓◆♦ ❡s ❝✐❡rt♦ q✉❡ 2 + 2 = 4✔ ♦
✓❁2 + 2 = 4✔ ② ✓❊♥ ❡❧ 2020 s❡ ✈❡♥❞✐❡r♦♥ 2 · 106 ♠✐❧❧♦♥❡s ❞❡ ❝♦❝❤❡s✔ ♦ ✓ ◗✉❡ ❡♥ ❡❧ 2020 s❡
✈❡♥❞✐❡r♦♥ 2 · 106 ♠✐❧❧♦♥❡s ❞❡ ❝♦❝❤❡s ✐♠♣❧✐❝❛ q✉❡ 2 + 2 = 4✔✳ ❉❡ ❧♦ q✉❡ tr❛t❛rá ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s ❧❛
❧ó❣✐❝❛ ❡s ❞❡ s❛❜❡r ❝✉❛♥❞♦ ❡st❛s ❝♦♥str✉❝❝✐♦♥❡s s♦♥ ✈❡r❞❛❞❡r❛s ❝♦♥ ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥❝✐❛ ❞❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r
❞❡ ✈❡r❞❛❞ ❞❡ ❧♦s ❝♦♥t❡♥✐❞♦s ♣r♦♣✐♦s ❞❡ ❡s❛s ♣r♦♣♦s✐❝✐♦♥❡s✳
P❛r❛ ❡❧❧♦ ❧♦ q✉❡ s❡ ❤❛❝❡ ❡s ♣❛rt✐r ❞❡ ❝✐❡rt❛s r❡❣❧❛s ❡❧❡♠❡♥t❛❧❡s✳ ❊♥ ❡❧ ❝❛s♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❧ó❣✐❝❛
❝❧ás✐❝❛ s❡ ♣❛rt❡ ❞❡ ❧❛s ♣r♦♣♦s✐❝✐♦♥❡s ❝♦♠♦ ♦❜❥❡t♦s ❛ ❧♦s q✉❡ ❝❛❜❡ ❛s✐❣♥❛r ✉♥ ✈❛❧♦r ❞❡ ✈❡r❞❛❞✱
s✐♥♦ q✉❡ s❡ ❡s♣❡❝✐✜❝❛ q✉❡ ❡s❡ ✈❛❧♦r ❞❡ ✈❡r❞❛❞ s♦❧♦ ♣✉❡❞❡ s❡r ✈❡r❞❛❞❡r♦ 1 ♦ ❢❛❧s♦ 0✳ ❈♦♠♦ ❧♦
q✉❡ q✉❡r❡♠♦s s♦♥ ❝♦♥str✉❝❝✐♦♥❡s ❝♦♥ ♣r♦♣♦s✐❝✐♦♥❡s q✉❡ ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡♥ ❡♥ ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r ❝❛s♦ ❧♦ q✉❡
s❡ ❜✉s❝❛ s♦♥ ❝♦♥str✉❝❝✐♦♥❡s q✉❡ s❡❛♥ ✈❡r❞❛❞❡r❛s ❡♥ t♦❞❛s ❧❛s ♣♦s✐❜❧❡s ❝♦♠❜✐♥❛❝✐♦♥❡s ♣♦s✐✲
❜❧❡s ❞❡ s✉s ❡❧❡♠❡♥t♦s s✉❥❡t❛s ❛ ❝✐❡rt❛s ♥♦r♠❛s ❞❡ ✓❝á❧❝✉❧♦✔ ❞❡ ❢♦r♠❛ t❛❧ q✉❡ ❛❧ ❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❛r
✉♥♦s ✈❛❧♦r❡s ♣❛rt✐❝✉❧❛r❡s ♣❛r❛ ❧❛s ❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥t❡s s❡ ❝♦♥s✐❣❛ ❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❛r ❞❡ ❢♦r♠❛ ✉♥í✈♦❝❛ ❧❛
✷✳✶✳ ▲Ó●■❈❆ ❈▲➪❙■❈❆ ✶✾

✈❡r❞❛❞ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♣r♦♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ✓❞❡r✐✈❛❞❛✔✳

❈♦♥ ❡❧ ✜♥ ❞❡ ❧♦❣r❛r ❡st♦ ❞❡❜❡♠♦s ❤❛❜❧❛r ❞❡ ❞♦s ✐❞❡❛s ✐❞❡❛s✿ ✈❛❧♦r❛❝✐♦♥❡s ② t❛❜❧❛s ❞❡
✈❡r❞❛❞✳

❉❡✜♥✐❝✐ó♥ ✷✳✶✳ ❯♥❛ ✈❛❧♦r❛❝✐ó♥ ❡s ✉♥❛ ❛♣❧✐❝❛❝✐ó♥ P → {0, 1} ❞♦♥❞❡ P ❡s ❡❧ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ ❞❡

♣r♦♣♦s✐❝✐♦♥❡s ✓❛tó♠✐❝❛s✔✱ ❡s ❞❡❝✐r ♥♦ ❞❡r✐✈❛❞❛s ❛ ♣❛rt✐r ❞❡ ♦tr❛s✳

❆ ♣❛rt✐r ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ✈❛❧♦r❛❝✐ó♥ ♣❛rt✐❝✉❧❛r ♣♦❞❡♠♦s ❞❛r ✉♥❛s r❡❣❧❛s ♣❛r❛ ❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❛r ❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r
❞❡ ❧❛s ♣r♦♣♦s✐❝✐♦♥❡s ❝♦♠♣✉❡st❛s✳ ❊st♦ s❡ ❧♦❣r❛ ♣❛rt✐r ❞❡ t♦❞❛s ❧❛s ♣♦s✐❜❧❡s ❝♦♠❜✐♥❛❝✐♦♥❡s
♣♦s✐❜❧❡s ❞❡ ✈❛❧♦r❡s ❞❡ ✈❡r❞❛❞ ❞❡ ❧♦s ♠✐❡♠❜r♦s ② ❡♥ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❡st❛s ❞❡✜♥✐♠♦s ✉♥❛s r❡❣❧❛s
q✉❡ ❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❡♥ ❞❡ ❢♦r♠❛ ✉♥í✈♦❝❛ ❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r ❡♥ ❝❛❞❛ ✉♥❛ ❞❡ ❧❛s s✐t✉❛❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r ❞❡
❧❛s ♣r♦♣♦s✐❝✐♦♥❡s ❝♦♠♣✉❡st❛s✳ ❯♥❛ ❤❡rr❛♠✐❡♥t❛ ❤❡✉ríst✐❝❛ ♠✉② ✐♠♣♦rt❛♥t❡ ♣❛r❛ ❧♦❣r❛r
❡st❡ ♦❜❥❡t✐✈♦ s♦♥ ❧❛s t❛❜❧❛s ❞❡ ✈❡r❞❛❞✳ ❊st❛s ♥♦ s♦♥ ♠ás q✉❡ t❛❜❧❛s ❡♥ ❧❛s q✉❡ ❛♣❛r❡❝❡♥
❧♦s ✈❛❧♦r❡s ❞❡ ❧❛s ❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥t❡s ❝♦♥ t♦❞❛s s✉s ♣♦s✐❜❧❡s ❝♦♠❜✐♥❛❝✐♦♥❡s ② ❧♦s ✈❛❧♦r❡s ❞❡ ❧❛s
❝♦♥str✉❝❝✐♦♥❡s ❝♦♥ ❡st❛s✳
❈♦♠♦ ❤❡rr❛♠✐❡♥t❛ q✉❡ s♦♥ ❡s ♠ás ❢á❝✐❧ ❡♥t❡♥❞❡r q✉é s♦♥ ❝♦♥ ✉♥ ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦✳ ❊♠♣❡❝❡♠♦s
❝♦♥ ✉♥♦ ♠✉② s❡♥❝✐❧❧♦✱ ❞❛❞❛ ✉♥❛ ♣r♦♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ p ❡♥ ❧❛ ❧ó❣✐❝❛ ❝❧ás✐❝❛ s❡ ❞❡✜♥❡♥ ❧♦s ✈❛❧♦r❡s ❞❡
¬p✱ ❧❛ ♥❡❣❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ p✱ ❞❡ ❧❛ s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡ ❢♦r♠❛✳

p ¬p
1 0 s1
0 1 s2

❈♦♠♦ s❡ ♣✉❡❞❡ ✈❡r ❧❛ t❛❜❧❛ ❛❞♠✐t❡ ❞♦s s✐t✉❛❝✐♦♥❡s ♣♦s✐❜❧❡s✳ ❙✐ p ❡s ✈❡r❞❛❞❡r❛ ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s
¬p ❡s ❢❛❧s❛ ② ❛❧ r❡✈és✱ s✐ p ❡s ❢❛❧s❛ ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s ¬p ❡s ❢❛❧s❛✳
❈♦♥ ❧❛ ♠✐s♠❛ ♠❡t♦❞♦❧♦❣í❛ s❡ ❝♦♥str✉②❡♥ ❧❛s s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡s t❛❜❧❛s ♠ás ❝♦♠♣❧❡❥❛s✳ P♦r ❡❥❡♠✲
♣❧♦ ❛q✉í ♣♦❞❡♠♦s ✈❡r ❝ó♠♦ s❡ ❝♦♥str✉②❡♥ ❧❛s ❞❡✿ p ∧ q ✭✓p ② q ✔✱ p ∨ q ✭✓p ♦ q ✔ ② p → q
✭✓p ✐♠♣❧✐❝❛ q ✔✮✿

p q p∧q p∨q p→q

1 1 1 1 1 s1
1 0 0 1 0 s2
0 1 0 1 1 s3
0 0 0 0 1 s4

■♥tr♦❞✉❝✐❞❛s ❧❛s t❛❜❧❛s ❞❡ ✈❡r❞❛❞ ❞❡❜❡♠♦s ❡♠♣❡③❛r ❛ ♣r♦❢✉♥❞✐③❛r ♠ás ❡♥ ❡st❛s ② s✉s
❝♦♥s❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛s✳ P♦r ✉♥ ❧❛❞♦ ♣♦❞❡♠♦s✱ ❛ s❛❜✐❡♥❞❛s ❞❡❧ ♦❜❥❡t✐✈♦ ✜❥❛❞♦ ❛♥t❡s ♣❛r❛ ❧❛ ❧ó❣✐❝❛✱
✷✵ ❈❆P❮❚❯▲❖ ✷✳ ▲❆ ◆❊●❆❈■Ó◆ ❊◆ ▲❆❙ ▲Ó●■❈❆❙ ❋❖❘▼❆▲❊❙

❞❛r ❝♦♥ ❞♦s ❝❧❛s❡s ❞❡ ♣r♦♣♦s✐❝✐♦♥❡s ✐♠♣♦rt❛♥t❡s✳ ▲❛s ♣r✐♠❡r❛s ❤❛❜✐t✉❛❧♠❡♥t❡ s❡ ❝♦♥♦❝❡♥
❝♦♠♦ ✓t❛✉t♦❧♦❣í❛s✔ q✉❡ s♦♥ ❛q✉❡❧❧❛s ♣r♦♣♦s✐❝✐♦♥❡s ❡♥ ❝✉②❛ t❛❜❧❛ ❞❡ ✈❡r❞❛❞ s✐❡♠♣r❡ ❛♣❛r❡❝❡
✉♥ 1✱ ❡s ❞❡❝✐r s♦♥ s✐❡♠♣r❡ ✈❡r❞❛❞❡r❛s✳ P♦r s✉ ♣❛rt❡ ❡st❛rí❛♥ ❧❛ ❝❧❛s❡ ❞❡ ❧❛s ♣r♦♣♦s✐❝✐♦♥❡s
q✉❡ ❡♥ t♦❞❛s s✉s ❡♥tr❛❞❛s ♣r❡s❡♥t❛♥ ✉♥ 0✳ ❊❧ ♥♦♠❜r❡ q✉❡ r❡❝✐❜❡♥ s✉❡❧❡ ✈❛r✐❛r ♣❡r♦ ♠✉❝❤♦s
t✐❡♥❞❡♥ ❛ ❞❡♥♦t❛r❧❛s ❝♦♠♦ ✓❝♦♥tr❛❞✐❝❝✐♦♥❡s✔✳ ❊❧ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠❛ ❞❡ t❛❧ ♥♦♠❜r❡ ❡s q✉❡ ❞❡❥❛ ❡♥ ♠✉②
♠❛❧ ❧✉❣❛r ❛ t♦❞♦s ❛q✉❡❧❧♦s q✉❡ ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r❛♥ q✉❡ ❝❛❜❡♥ ❝♦♥tr❛❞✐❝❝✐♦♥❡s ✈❡r❞❛❞❡r❛s✳ ❊s ♠ás✱
❝♦♠♦ ✈❡r❡♠♦s ♠ás ❛❞❡❧❛♥t❡ ❡①✐st❡ ✉♥❛ ❢♦r♠❛ ❞❡ ❝♦♥str✉✐r t❛❜❧❛s ❞❡ ✈❡r❞❛❞ q✉❡ ❛❞♠✐t❛♥
❝♦♥tr❛❞✐❝❝✐♦♥❡s ♥♦ s✐❡♠♣r❡ ❢❛❧s❛s✳ P♦r ❡❧❧♦ ✉s❛r❡♠♦s ✉♥❛ ♥♦t❛❝✐ó♥ ♠❡♥♦s ✓❝♦♥✢✐❝t✐✈❛✔
❧❧❛♠❛♥❞♦ ❛ ❞✐❝❤❛s ♣r♦♣♦s✐❝✐♦♥❡s ❝♦♠♦ ✓❢❛❧s❡❞❛❞❡s✔✳
❖tr❛ ✐❞❡❛ ✐♥t❡r❡s❛♥t❡ ❡s t♦♠❛r ✉♥❛ ✈✐s✐ó♥✱ ♣♦r ❛sí ❞❡❝✐r❧♦✱ ♠❡t❛❧✐♥❣✉íst✐❝❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♦♣❡r❛✲
❝✐ó♥ p → q ❡♥ ❧❛ q✉❡ s❡ ✐♥t❡r♣r❡t❛rí❛ q✉❡ s✐ s❡ ❝✉♠♣❧❡ q✉❡ ❡s ✉♥❛ t❛✉t♦❧♦❣í❛ ♣❛r❛ ❝✐❡rt❛s
♣r♦♣♦s✐❝✐♦♥❡s p ② q ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s s❡ ❝✉♠♣❧❡ q✉❡ s✐ t✉✈✐❡r❛♠♦s ❝♦♠♦ ❛①✐♦♠❛ ❛❞✐❝✐♦♥❛❧ ❡❧ ❛♥t❡❝❡✲
❞❡♥t❡ p ♣♦❞rí❛♠♦s ❞❡❞✉❝✐r ❡❧ ❝♦♥s❡❝✉❡♥t❡ q ✱ ❧♦ q✉❡ ❝♦♥♦❝❡♠♦s ❝♦♠♦ ✓♠♦❞✉s ♣♦♥❡♥s✔✳ ❆
♥✐✈❡❧ ♣r♦♣✐♦ ❞❡❧ ❝á❧❝✉❧♦ ♣r♦♣♦s✐❝✐♦♥❛❧ ♥♦ ❡st❛rí❛♠♦s ♠ás q✉❡ ❞✐❝✐❡♥❞♦ q✉❡ [p∧(p → q)] → q
❡s ✉♥❛ t❛✉t♦❧♦❣í❛ ❝♦♠♦ ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r❛ ♣♦❞rá ❝♦♠♣r♦❜❛r✳ ❊❧ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠❛ ❞❡ ❡st❛ ❝♦♥str✉❝❝✐ó♥ ❡s
q✉❡✱ ❝♦♠♦ s❡ ♣✉❡❞❡ ✈❡r ❡♥ ❧❛ t❛❜❧❛✱ ❤❛② ❛s✐❣♥❛❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ✈❛❧♦r ❞❡ ✈❡r❞❛❞ q✉❡ s♦♥ ✓❝♦♥tr❛✲
✐♥t✉✐t✐✈❛s✔✳ P♦r ✉♥ ❧❛❞♦ t❡♥❡♠♦s q✉❡ t❛♥t♦ s✐ ❡❧ ❛♥t❡❝❡❞❡♥t❡ ❡s ❢❛❧s♦ ❞❛ ✐❣✉❛❧ ❝♦♠♦ s❡❛ ❡❧
❝♦♥s❡❝✉❡♥t❡ ❧❛ ✐♠♣❧✐❝❛❝✐ó♥ ❡s ✈❡r❞❛❞❡r❛✳ P♦❞rí❛♠♦s ❞❡❝✐r✱ ♣♦r ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦ q✉❡ ✓❙✐ 2+2 = 5 ❡♥✲
t♦♥❝❡s ②♦ s❡rí❛ ♠✉❧t✐♠✐❧❧♦♥❛r✐♦✔✳ P♦r ♦tr❛ ♣❛rt❡ ❡st❡ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r s❡ ❛❧❡❥❛ ❜❛st❛♥t❡ ❞❡❧ s❡♥t✐❞♦
❝♦♠ú♥ q✉❡ s✉❡❧❡ ♣❡❞✐r ✉♥❛ s✉❡rt❡ ❞❡ ✓r❡❧❡✈❛♥❝✐❛✔ ❛ ❧❛s ✐♠♣❧✐❝❛❝✐♦♥❡s✱ ❛q✉í s✐ ❡❧ ❝♦♥s❡❝✉❡♥t❡
❡s ✈❡r❞❛❞❡r♦ ❧❛ ✐♠♣❧✐❝❛❝✐ó♥ ❡s ✈❡r❞❛❞ ❝♦♥ ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥❝✐❛ ❞❡ ❝ó♠♦ s❡❛ ❡❧ ❛♥t❡❝❡❞❡♥t❡✳ P♦r
❡❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✓❈♦♠♦ ♠❡ ❧❧❛♠♦ ■s❛❛❝ ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s 2 + 2 = 4✔✱ ❛❧❣♦ q✉❡ ♣❛r❡❝❡ ♥♦ t❡♥❡r ♥✐♥❣✉♥❛
❝♦♥❡①✐ó♥✳
❊♥ ✈✐rt✉❞ ❞❡ ❡st♦s ❞♦s ♣r♦❜❧❡♠❛s ❤❛ ❤❛❜✐❞♦ ❞❡s❛rr♦❧❧♦s ❞❡ ❧ó❣✐❝❛s q✉❡ ✐♥t❡♥t❛♥ ❡❧✐♠✐✲
♥❛r❧♦s✳ ❊♥ ♣❛rt✐❝✉❧❛r ♣❛r❛ ❡❧ ♣r✐♠❡r ❝❛s♦ s❡ ❤❛♥ ❞❡s❛rr♦❧❧❛❞♦ ❧ó❣✐❝❛s ♣❛r❛❝♦♥s✐st❡♥t❡s✱ ❡s
❞❡❝✐r ❧ó❣✐❝❛s ❡♥ ❧❛s q✉❡ ♥♦ s❡ t❡♥❣❛ ❡❧ ❝♦♥♦❝✐❞♦ ❝♦♠♦ ✓♣r✐♥❝✐♣✐♦ ❞❡ ❡①♣❧♦s✐ó♥✔ q✉❡ ❞✐❣❛
q✉❡ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ❛✜r♠❛❝✐ó♥ ❢❛❧s❛ s❡ s✐❣❛ ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r ♦tr❛✳ ❊♥ ♣❛rt✐❝✉❧❛r s❡ ❤❛ ❞❡s❛rr♦❧❧❛❞♦ ❡st♦
♣♦r ♣❛rt❡ ❞❡ ❧ó❣✐❝♦s ❛✜♥❡s ❛ ❧❛ ❡①✐st❡♥❝✐❛ ❞❡ ❝♦♥tr❛❞✐❝❝✐♦♥❡s ✈❡r❞❛❞❡r❛s✱ ♣✉❡st♦ q✉❡ ❛sí s❡
❡✈✐t❛ ❝❛❡r ❡♥ ✉♥ ✓tr✐✈✐❛❧✐s♠♦✔ ✭❧❛ ❛✜r♠❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ q✉❡ t♦❞❛ ♣r♦♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ❡s ❝✐❡rt❛✮✳ ❊s ♠ás✱
❡♥ s✐st❡♠❛s ❞❡ ❧ó❣✐❝❛s ♣❛r❛❝♦♥s✐st❡♥t❡s✱ ❝♦♠♦ ❡❧ q✉❡ ✈❡r❡♠♦s ♠ás ❛❞❡❧❛♥t❡✱ s❡ t✐❡♥❞❡ ❛
❞✐❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛r ❞♦s ✐❞❡❛s ❞✐st✐♥t❛s s♦❜r❡ ❡❧ ♣r✐♥❝✐♣✐♦ ❞❡ ❡①♣❧♦s✐ó♥✳ ❯♥♦ s❡rí❛ ✓❡① ❢❛❧s♦ q✉♦❞❧✐✲
❜❡t✔ ♦ ✓❞❡ ❧♦ ❢❛❧s♦ s❡ s✐❣✉❡ ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r ❝♦s❛✔ ② ♦tr♦ ✓❡① ❝♦♥tr❛❞✐❝t✐♦♥❡ q✉♦❞❧✐❜❡t✔ ♦ ✓❞❡ ✉♥❛
❝♦♥tr❛❞✐❝❝✐ó♥ s❡ s✐❣✉❡ ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r ❝♦s❛✔✳ ❆❞❡♠ás ❛ ♥✐✈❡❧ ❞❡ ♠❛♥❡❥♦ ❞❡ ❞❛t♦s ❡s s✉♠❛♠❡♥t❡
♣❡❧✐❣r♦s♦ ♣❡r♠✐t✐r ✐♥❢❡r✐r ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r ❛✜r♠❛❝✐ó♥ s✐ ❛❧❣ú♥ ❡rr♦r ♣r♦✈♦❝❛ q✉❡ ❡①✐st❛♥ ❞❛t♦s ♦
✐♥❢♦r♠❛❝✐♦♥❡s ❝♦♥tr❛❞✐❝t♦r✐❛s✳
❊♥ ❝✉❛♥t♦ ❛❧ s❡❣✉♥❞♦ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠❛ ❡①✐st❡♥ ❧❛s ❧ó❣✐❝❛s ❧❧❛♠❛❞❛s r❡❧❡✈❛♥t❡s q✉❡ ✐♥t❡♥t❛r ❞❛r
✷✳✶✳ ▲Ó●■❈❆ ❈▲➪❙■❈❆ ✷✶

❝♦♥ ✉♥❛ ✐♠♣❧✐❝❛❝✐ó♥ ❡♥ ❧❛ q✉❡ s❡ t❡♥❣❛ ♠ás ❡♥ ❝✉❡♥t❛ ❧❛ ✓r❡❧❡✈❛♥❝✐❛✔ ♦ ✓❡①✐st❡♥❝✐❛ ❞❡

❝♦♥t❡♥✐❞♦ ✐♥❢♦r♠❛t✐✈♦✔✳ ❚♦❞♦ ❡st♦ ❞❡r✐✈❛ ❞❡❧ ❤❡❝❤♦ ❞❡ q✉❡ p → q ❞❡✜♥✐❞♦ ❡♥ ❧♦s tér♠✐♥♦s
❞❡ ❧❛ ❧ó❣✐❝❛ ❝❧ás✐❝❛ ❡s ❡q✉✐✈❛❧❡♥t❡ ✭✈❡r❡♠♦s ❥✉st♦ ❛❤♦r❛ q✉é q✉✐❡r❡ ❞❡❝✐r ❡st♦✮ ❛ ¬p ∨ q ✱ ❡s
❞❡❝✐r ❛ q✉❡ ❡❧ ❛♥t❡❝❡❞❡♥t❡ s❡❛ ❢❛❧s♦ ♦ ❧❛ ❝♦♥❝❧✉s✐ó♥ s❡❛ ✈❡r❞❛❞❡r❛✳
❖tr♦ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r ❝♦♥ ❜❛st❛♥t❡ ✐♠♣♦rt❛♥❝✐❛ p ⇐⇒ q ❞❡✜♥✐❞♦ ❝♦♠♦ (p → q) ∧ (q → p)
♣♦❞❡♠♦s ❞❛r ❝♦♥ ❧❛ ✐❞❡❛ ❞❡ q✉❡ ❞♦s ♣r♦♣♦s✐❝✐♦♥❡s s♦♥ ❧❛ ♠✐s♠❛ ♦ ❡q✉✐✈❛❧❡♥t❡s✳ ❊s ♠ás✱
❡st❛ ❝♦♥str✉❝❝✐ó♥ ❛❧ ♥✐✈❡❧ ❞❡ ❧❛s t❛❜❧❛s ♥♦ ❡s ♠ás q✉❡ ❧❛ ❝♦✐♥❝✐❞❡♥❝✐❛ ❡♥ t♦❞❛s ❧❛s ❡♥tr❛❞❛s
❞❡ ❧♦s ✈❛❧♦r❡s ❞❡ ✈❡r❞❛❞✳
❆ ♣❛rt✐r ❞❡ t♦❞♦ ❡st♦ ♣♦❞❡♠♦s ❞❛r ❝♦♥ ❛❧❣✉♥❛s t❛✉t♦❧♦❣í❛s ❞❡❧ ❝á❧❝✉❧♦ ♣r♦♣♦s✐❝✐♦♥❛❧
❡♥ ❧❛s q✉❡ ❛♣❛r❡❝❡ ❧❛ ♥❡❣❛❝✐ó♥ ② q✉❡ s✉❡❧❡♥ ❡♥t❡♥❞❡rs❡ ❝♦♠♦ ✓❧❡②❡s✔✳ ❊st❛s ❧❡②❡s t❡♥❞rá♥
s✉ ✐♠♣♦rt❛♥❝✐❛ t❛♠❜✐é♥ ❡♥ ❡❧ r❡st♦ ❞❡ s✐st❡♠❛s q✉❡ ✈❡❛♠♦s✱ ♣❡r♦ ♥♦ t❛♥t♦ ♣♦rq✉❡ s❡
❝✉♠♣❧❛♥✱ s✐♥♦ ♣♦rq✉❡ ❡♥ ❛❧❣ú♥ s❡♥t✐❞♦ t❛❧❡s s✐st❡♠❛s ✈❛♥ ❛ ♥❡❣❛r ❛❧❣✉♥❛ ❞❡ ❡st❛s ② s❡
❞❡✜♥❡♥ ♣r❡❝✐s❛♠❡♥t❡ ♣♦r t❛❧ ✐♥❝✉♠♣❧✐♠✐❡♥t♦✳
▲❛ ♣r✐♠❡r❛ ❞❡ ❡❧❧❛s s✉❡❧❡ ❝♦♥♦❝❡rs❡ ❝♦♠♦ ✓❧❡② ❞❡ ❧❛ ❞♦❜❧❡ ♥❡❣❛❝✐ó♥✔ ② ✈❡♥❞rí❛ ❛ ♠♦str❛r
q✉❡ ✉♥❛ ♣r♦♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ p ❝♦✐♥❝✐❞❡ ✭❡s ❡q✉✐✈❛❧❡♥t❡✮ ❛ s✉ ❞♦❜❧❡ ♥❡❣❛❝✐ó♥ ¬¬p✳ ❊st❡ ♣r✐♥❝✐♣✐♦
❡s ♠✉② út✐❧ ♣♦rq✉❡ ✓❧✐♠✐t❛✔ ❧❛s ♣r♦♣♦s✐❝✐♦♥❡s ♣♦s✐❜❧❡s✱ s✐ ❡s❡ ♥♦ ❢✉❡r❛ ❡❧ ❝❛s♦ ❛ ♣❛rt✐r
❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♣r♦♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ p t❡♥❞rí❛♠♦s ✉♥❛ ✐♥✜♥✐❞❛❞ ♥✉♠❡r❛❜❧❡ ❞❡ ♣r♦♣♦s✐❝✐♦♥❡s ❞✐st✐♥t❛s✿ s✉s
♥❡❣❛❝✐♦♥❡s✳
▲❛ s❡❣✉♥❞❛ s❡ ❧❛ ❝♦♥♦❝❡ ❝♦♠♦ ✓t❡r❝✐♦ ❡①❝❧✉s♦✔ ② ✈✐❡♥❡ ❛ ❞❡❝✐r♥♦s q✉❡ p ∨ ¬p ❡s ✉♥❛
t❛✉t♦❧♦❣í❛✳ ❊st♦ s✉❡❧❡ ✐♥t❡r♣r❡t❛rs❡ ❝♦♠♦ q✉❡ t♦❞❛ ♣r♦♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ♦ s✉ ♥❡❣❛❝✐ó♥ t✐❡♥❡♥ q✉❡
s❡r ❝✐❡rt❛s ② ♥♦ ❝❛❜❡ ✉♥❛ t❡r❝❡r❛ s✐t✉❛❝✐ó♥ ♦ ✉♥ t❡r❝❡r ❝❛s♦✳ ❊st❡ ♣r✐♥❝✐♣✐♦ ②❛ ❡♥✉♥❝✐❛❞♦
♣♦r ❆r✐stót❡❧❡s ♣r❡s❡♥tó ❞❡tr❛❝t♦r❡s ❞❡s❞❡ ♠✉❝❤♦s á♠❜✐t♦s✳ ▲♦s s✐st❡♠❛s ❞❡ ❞✐❝❤♦s ❞❡tr❛❝✲
t♦r❡s s❡ ❝♦♥♦❝❡♥ ❝♦♥ ❡❧ ♥♦♠❜r❡ ❞❡ ✓♣❛r❛❝♦♠♣❧❡t♦s✔ ♣✉❡st♦ q✉❡ ♣❛r❛ ❡st♦s ♥♦ s✐❡♠♣r❡ ❧❛s
♣r♦♣♦s✐❝✐♦♥❡s t✐❡♥❡♥ ✉♥ ✈❛❧♦r ❞❡ ✈❡r❞❛❞ ✜❥❛❞♦ ② ♣♦r t❛♥t♦ ♥♦ ❡s ✉♥❛ ❧ó❣✐❝❛ ✓❝♦♠♣❧❡t❛✔✳
❆❧❣✉♥♦s ❞❡ ❡st♦s ❞❡tr❛❝t♦r❡s s❡ ❥✉st✐✜❝❛♥ ❛♣❡❧❛♥❞♦ ❛ ❧♦s ♣r♦❜❧❡♠❛s ❞❡r✐✈❛❞♦s ❞❡ ❛♣❧✐❝❛r
❡st❡ ♣r✐♥❝✐♣✐♦ ❛ ♣r♦♣♦s✐❝✐♦♥❡s q✉❡ tr❛t❡♥ ❞❡❧ ♠✉♥❞♦ ❡♠♣ír✐❝♦✳ ❆sí✱ ❞❡ s❡r ❝✐❡rt♦✱ s❡ ❞❡❞✉❝❡
❞❡ ❡❧❧♦ ✉♥❛ ❡s♣❡❝✐❡ ❞❡ ❢❛t❛❧✐s♠♦✳ ❊st♦ s❡ ❞❡❜❡ ❛ q✉❡ ♣❛r❛ ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r ♣r♦♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ p s♦❜r❡
❡❧ ❢✉t✉r♦ ❡st❛ ♦ s✉ ♥❡❣❛❝✐ó♥ t❡♥❞rí❛♥ q✉❡ s❡r ✈❡r❞❛❞❡r❛s ② s✐ s❡ ❛s✉♠❡ q✉❡ ❡st❛ ✈❡r❞❛❞
❞❡♣❡♥❞❡ ❞❡❧ ♠✉♥❞♦ ❡s♦ q✉✐❡r❡ ❞❡❝✐r q✉❡ t❛❧ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦ ②❛ ❡①✐st❡ ② ❡stá ❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❛❞♦ ❞❡
❢♦r♠❛ ✐♥❡❧✉❞✐❜❧❡✳ ❊❧ ❡①❛♠❡♥ q✉❡ t❡♥❣♦ ❞❡♥tr♦ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ s❡♠❛♥❛ ②❛ t✐❡♥❡ ✉♥❛ ♥♦t❛✱ ❧❛ ❢❡❝❤❛
❞❡ ♠✐ ♠✉❡rt❡ t✐❡♥❡ ❤♦r❛ ② s❡❣✉♥❞♦s✱ ✳✳✳ P❡r♦ ❤❛② ♠ás✱ ❤❛② ❞❡tr❛❝t♦r❡s ❡♥ ❡❧ á♠❜✐t♦ ❞❡
❧❛s ♠❛t❡♠át✐❝❛s✱ s♦❜r❡t♦❞♦ ❛ tr❛✈és ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ❡s❝✉❡❧❛ ❞❡ ♣❡♥s❛♠✐❡♥t♦ q✉❡ s❡ ❝♦♥♦❝❡ ❝♦♠♦
✐♥t✉✐❝✐♦♥✐s♠♦✳ ◆♦ ♦❜st❛♥t❡ ♥♦s ❛❜st❡♥❡♠♦s ❞❡ ❞❡s❛rr♦❧❧❛r ♠ás ❡st♦ ❡♥ ❡st❡ ❛♣❛rt❛❞♦ ♣✉❡st♦
❡st✉❞✐❛r❡♠♦s ❞✐❝❤♦ s✐st❡♠❛ ❧ó❣✐❝♦ ❛❧ ✜♥❛❧ ❞❡ ❡st❡ ❝❛♣ít✉❧♦✳
❋✐♥❛❧♠❡♥t❡ ❡stá ❡❧ ♣r✐♥❝✐♣✐♦ ❞❡ ♥♦ ❝♦♥tr❛❞✐❝❝✐ó♥ q✉❡ s❡ ♣✉❡❞❡ ❡♥t❡♥❞❡r ❝♦♠♦ p ∧ ¬p
❡s ✉♥❛ ❢❛❧s❡❞❛❞ ♦✱ ❞❡ ❢♦r♠❛ ❛❧t❡r♥❛t✐✈❛✱ ¬(p ∧ ¬p) ❡s ✉♥❛ t❛✉t♦❧♦❣í❛✳ ❊st❡ ♣r✐♥❝✐♣✐♦ ❝♦♠♦
✷✷ ❈❆P❮❚❯▲❖ ✷✳ ▲❆ ◆❊●❆❈■Ó◆ ❊◆ ▲❆❙ ▲Ó●■❈❆❙ ❋❖❘▼❆▲❊❙

s❛❜❡♠♦s ❤❛ s✐❞♦ ❡①♣✉❡st♦ ❡♥ ♥✉♠❡r♦s❛s ♦❝❛s✐♦♥❡s ❝♦♠♦ ✉♥♦ ❞❡ ❧♦s ♣r✐♥❝✐♣❛❧❡s ♠♦t♦r❡s ❞❡
❧❛ r❛❝✐♦♥❛❧✐❞❛❞ ♦ ✐♥❝❧✉s♦ ❝♦♠♦ s✉ ♣✐❧❛r✳ ❍❛ ❤❛❜✐❞♦ ✜❧ós♦❢♦s q✉❡ ✐♥❝❧✉s♦ ❤❛♥ ❡♥t❡♥❞✐❞♦ q✉❡
❛q✉❡❧❧♦ q✉❡ t✐❡♥❡ s❡r ❡s ❛q✉❡❧❧♦ q✉❡ ❡s ♣♦s✐❜❧❡✱ ❡♥t❡♥❞✐❡♥❞♦ ❝♦♠♦ ❧♦ ♥♦ ❝♦♥tr❛❞✐❝t♦r✐♦✳ P❡r♦✱
❝♦♠♦ t❛♠❜✐é♥ s❛❜❡♠♦s✱ t♦❞♦ ❡s♦ s✉♣♦♥✱❡ ❡♥ ❣r❛♥ ♠❡❞✐❞❛✱ ✉♥ ♣❡♥s❛♠✐❡♥t♦ q✉❡ ❝♦♥❢✉♥❞❡
❝❛t❡❣♦rí❛s ② ❛❞❡♠ás ❝❛❡ ❡♥ ✉♥❛ ❝✐❡rt❛ ❢❡t✐❝❤✐③❛❝✐ó♥ ♦ ❡①❛❣❡r❛❝✐ó♥✳ ❊st❡ ♣r✐♥❝✐♣✐♦ ❡♥ ❧❛
❧ó❣✐❝❛ ❝❧ás✐❝❛ ❛♣❛r❡❝❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛❞♦ ♥♦ ❛ tr❛✈és ❞❡ ♣r♦♣✐❡❞❛❞❡s ✉ ♦❜❥❡t♦s ❝♦♥tr❛❞✐❝t♦r✐♦s✱ s✐♥♦
❛ tr❛✈és ❞❡ ❧❛ ♥❡❣❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ q✉❡ ♣✉❡❞❡ ❤❛❜❡r ✉♥❛ ♣r♦♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ t❛❧ q✉❡ ❡st❛ ② s✉ ♥❡❣❛❝✐ó♥ s❡❛♥
✈❡r❞❛❞❡r❛s✳ P❡r♦ ❝♦♠♦ ✈❡r❡♠♦s ❡♥ ❡st❡ ❝❛♣ít✉❧♦ ❤❛② ✐♥t❡♥t♦s ❞❡ ❧ó❣✐❝❛s ♣❛r❛❝♦♥s✐st❡♥t❡s ❡♥
❧❛s ❝✉❛❧❡s s❡ ❛❞♠✐t❡♥ ❝♦♥tr❛❞✐❝❝✐♦♥❡s ②✱ ❝♦♠♦ ✈❡r❡♠♦s ❡♥ ❡❧ ú❧t✐♠♦ ❝❛♣ít✉❧♦✱ ❤❛② ♠♦t✐✈♦s
♦ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠❛s q✉❡ q✉✐③á s❡ ❛❝❧❛r❛s❡♥ ❛❞♠✐t✐❡♥❞♦ t❛❧ ❝♦s❛✳

p ¬p ¬¬p p ∨ ¬p p ∧ ¬p
1 0 1 1 0 s1
1 1 0 1 0 s2

✷✳✷✳ ▲ó❣✐❝❛s ♠✉❧t✐✈❛❧✉❛❞❛s ② ❞✐❢✉s❛s

❊♥ ❡st❛ s❡❝❝✐ó♥ ✈❛♠♦s ❛ ❛❜♦r❞❛r s✐st❡♠❛s ❧ó❣✐❝♦s ❡♥ ❧♦s ❝✉❛❧❡s ❧❛s ✈❛❧♦r❛❝✐♦♥❡s ❛❞q✉✐❡r❡♥
✉♥❛ ♠❛②♦r ❝♦♠♣❧❡❥✐❞❛❞ ❛❧ ♣❡r♠✐t✐r ♥♦ s♦❧♦ ♦t♦r❣❛r 0 ② 1 ❝♦♠♦ ✈❛❧♦r❡s✳ ▲❛ ❝❛♥t✐❞❛❞ ❞❡
✈❛❧♦r❡s q✉❡ s❡ ❛ñ❛❞❡♥ ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡✱ ❡♥ ❣r❛♥ ♠❡❞✐❞❛✱ ❞❡ q✉é s❡ ♣r♦❝✉r❡ ❤❛❝❡r ❝♦♥ ❡st♦s s✐st❡♠❛s
❧ó❣✐❝♦s✳ ❍❛❜rá q✉✐❡♥ q✉✐❡r❛ ✐♥tr♦❞✉❝✐r ✈❛❧♦r❡s ❞❡ ✐♥❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❛❝✐ó♥✱ ❞❡ ❝♦♥tr❛❞✐❝❝✐ó♥✱ ❞❡
❛♣r♦①✐♠❛❞❛♠❡♥t❡ ✈❡r❞❛❞❡r♦✱ ✳✳✳
❊❧ ❝❛s♦ ♠ás ❡❧❡♠❡♥t❛❧ ❞❡ ❡st❡ t✐♣♦ ❞❡ ❧ó❣✐❝❛s ❝♦♥s✐st❡ ❡♥ ✐♥tr♦❞✉❝✐r ✉♥ ✈❛❧♦r ❞✐st✐♥t♦ ❞❡
0 ② 1 q✉❡ ♣♦❞rí❛♠♦s ❞❡♥♦t❛r ❝♦♠♦ 12 ② q✉❡ s❡ ♣♦❞rí❛ ❡♥t❡♥❞❡r ❝♦♠♦ ✉♥ ❡st❛❞✐♦ ✐♥t❡r♠❡❞✐♦
❡♥ q✉❡ ❧❛ ✈❡r❞❛❞ ♥♦ ❡s ❞❡❧ t♦❞♦ ❡①❛❝t❛ ✭♣❡♥s❡♠♦s ❡♥ ✉♥❛ ♣r♦♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ❞❡❧ t✐♣♦ π = 3,14✮✳
❆❤♦r❛ ❜✐❡♥✱ ❝♦♠♦ ❤❛② ♠✉❧t✐t✉❞ ❞❡ ❢♦r♠❛s ❞❡ ♥♦ s❡r ❡①❛❝t❛ t❛♠❜✐é♥ s❡ ♣♦❞rá q✉❡r❡r ❞♦t❛r
❞❡ ✉♥ ♦r❞❡♥ ❛ ❡st❛s ♣r♦♣♦s✐❝✐♦♥❡s ✓♥♦ ❞❡❧ t♦❞♦ ✈❡r❞❛❞❡r❛s✔ q✉❡ ♠♦t✐✈❛ ✉♥❛ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧✐③❛❝✐ó♥
♠✉② s❡♥❝✐❧❧❛ ❛ ❧ó❣✐❝❛s n✲✈❛❧✉❛❞❛s ❡♥ ❧❛ q✉❡ ❤❛❜rí❛ ❧♦s s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡s ✈❛❧♦r❡s ❞❡ ✈❡r❞❛❞✿
1 2 n−2
{0, , , ..., , 1}
n−1 n−1 n−1
P❡r♦✱ ➽❝ó♠♦ ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❛rí❛♥ ❡st♦s ✈❛❧♦r❡s ② ❝ó♠♦ s❡ ❝♦♠♣♦rt❛rí❛♥ ❛❧ ♦♣❡r❛rs❡ ❡♥tr❡ ❡❧❧♦s❄ ▲❛
s♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ ♥♦ ❡s ú♥✐❝❛✱ ♣❡r♦ ❡①✐st✐r ❡①✐st❡♥ ✈❛r✐♦s s✐st❡♠❛s ♣❛r❛ ♣♦❞❡r ❤❛❝❡r ❡s❛s ❝♦♠♣✉t❛❝✐♦✲
♥❡s✳ ❊♥ ❡st❡ tr❛❜❛❥♦ ❡①♣♦♥❞r❡♠♦s ✉♥ s✐st❡♠❛ ❜❛s❛❞♦ ❡♥ ✐❞❡❛s ❞❡❧ ❧ó❣✐❝♦ ♣♦❧❛❝♦ ▲✉❦❛s✐❡✇✐❝③
❛ ♣❛rt✐r ❞❡ ❧❛s ✐❞❡❛s ❡①♣✉❡st❛s ❡♥ ❬✾❪✳ ❆sí✱ ✉♥❛ ✈❡③ ❤❛②❛♠♦s s♦♠❡t✐❞♦ ❛ ✈❛❧♦r❛❝✐♦♥❡s ❧❛s
♣r♦♣♦s✐❝✐♦♥❡s p ② q ♣♦❞r❡♠♦s ❞❡r✐✈❛r ❧♦s ✈❛❧♦r❡s ❞❡ ❧❛s ♣r♦♣♦s✐❝✐♦♥❡s ❣❡♥❡r❛❞❛s ♣♦r ❡❧❧❛s
✉s❛♥❞♦ ❧❛s s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡s r❡❣❧❛s✿
✷✳✸✳ ▲Ó●■❈❆ P❆❘❆❈❖◆❙■❙❚❊◆❚❊ ❈❖◆ ❖P❊❘❆❉❖❘ ❉❊ ❈❖◆❙■❙❚❊◆❈■❆ ✷✸

✶✳ ¬p = 1 − p✳

✷✳ p ∧ q = min{p, q}✳

✸✳ p ∨ q = max{p, q}✳

✹✳ p → q = min{1, 1 + (b − a)}✳

✺✳ p ↔ q = 1 − |a − b|✳
❊s ♠ás✱ ❡st❡ s✐st❡♠❛ s❡ ♣✉❡❞❡ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧✐③❛r ❛ ♦tr♦s s✉❜❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦s ❞❡❧ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧♦ [0, 1]✳ ❊♥
♣❛rt✐❝✉❧❛r s❡ ♣✉❡❞❡♥ ❞❛r s✐st❡♠❛s ❝♦♥ ✈❛❧♦r❡s ❡♥ ❧❛ s✉❝❡s✐ó♥ { n1 }n∈N∗ ∪ {0}✱ ❛ t♦❞♦s ❧♦s
r❛❝✐♦♥❛❧❡s ❞❡ ❞✐❝❤♦ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧♦ ♦ ❛❧ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧♦ ♠✐s♠♦✳ ❊s ♠ás✱ ❡①✐st❡♥ tr❛❜❛❥♦s q✉❡ ✐♥t❡♥t❛♥
❣❡♥❡r❛❧✐③❛r❧♦ ❛ ❧❛ r❡❝t❛ r❡❛❧ ❛♠♣❧✐❛❞❛ ♠❡❞✐❛♥t❡ ♠ét♦❞♦s ♣r♦♣✐♦s ❞❡❧ ❛♥á❧✐s✐s ♥♦ st❛♥❞❛rt
♣❛r❛ q✉❡ ❡①✐st❛♥ ✈❛❧♦r❡s q✉❡ ✉t✐❧✐❝❡♥ ✓✐♥✜♥✐t❡s✐♠❛❧❡s✔ ✭❬✶✺❪✮✳
❚♦❞♦s ❡st♦s ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦s ❢♦r♠❛♥ ♣❛rt❡ ❞❡ ❧❛s ❧ó❣✐❝❛s ❞✐❢✉s❛s ❡♥t❡♥❞✐❞❛s ❝♦♠♦ ❛q✉❡❧❧❛s ❡♥
❧❛s ❝✉❛❧❡s s❡ ❛ñ❛❞❡♥ ♠ás ✈❛❧♦r❡s ♣❛r❛ ❤❛❜❧❛r ❞❡ ❝❛s♦s ❞✐❢✉s♦s ♦ ❜♦rr♦s♦s ❡♥ ❧♦s ❝✉❛❧❡s ♥♦
s✐❡♠♣r❡ s❡ t✐❡♥❡ ✉♥❛ ❝❡rt❡③❛ t♦t❛❧✳ ❆❤♦r❛ ❜✐❡♥✱ ❝♦♠♦ ②❛ ❞✐❥✐♠♦s ❡①✐st❡♥ ♦tr♦s ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦s
❞❡ ❧ó❣✐❝❛s ♠✉❧t✐✈❛❧✉❛❞❛s ❝♦♥ ♦tr♦s ♣r♦♣ós✐t♦s✳ P❛r❛ ♠ás ✐♥❢♦r♠❛❝✐ó♥ s♦❜r❡ ♦tr❛s ❧ó❣✐❝❛s
♠✉❧t✐✈❛❧✉❛❞❛s ♣✉❡❞❡ ❝♦♥s✉❧t❛rs❡ ❬✶✷❪

✷✳✸✳ ▲ó❣✐❝❛ ♣❛r❛❝♦♥s✐st❡♥t❡ ❝♦♥ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r ❞❡ ❝♦♥s✐st❡♥❝✐❛

❆❧ ✐❣✉❛❧ q✉❡ ❛♥t❡s ❧❛ ❤❡rr❛♠✐❡♥t❛ q✉❡ ♥♦s ✈❛ ❛ s❡r✈✐r ❞❡ ❣✉í❛ ❛q✉í ❡s ❧❛ ❞❡ ❧❛s t❛❜❧❛s ❞❡
✈❡r❞❛❞✳ ▲❛ ❞✐❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛ q✉❡ ✐♥tr♦❞✉❝❡ ❧❛ ❧ó❣✐❝❛ q✉❡ ❛q✉í ❡st✉❞✐❛♠♦s ② q✉❡ s❡ ♣✉❡❞❡ ❝♦♥s✉❧t❛r
❝♦♥ ♠ás ❞❡t❛❧❧❡ ❡♥ ❬✹❪ ♣❛rt❡ ❞❡ ✉♥ s✉t✐❧ ❛ñ❛❞✐❞♦✳ ❨ ❡s q✉❡ ❢✉❡r❛ ❞❡ ❡s❡ ❛ñ❛❞✐❞♦ t♦❞♦
❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❛ ✐❣✉❛❧✳ ❙✐❡♥❞♦ ♠ás ❝♦♥❝r❡t♦s✱ ❧♦s ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r❡s ❤❛❜✐t✉❛❧❡s ❞❡ ❝♦♥❥✉♥❝✐ó♥✱ ❞✐s②✉♥❝✐ó♥
❡ ✐♠♣❧✐❝❛❝✐ó♥ s♦♥ ❛♥á❧♦❣♦s ❛ ❧❛ ❧ó❣✐❝❛ ❝❧ás✐❝❛✳ ❆❞❡♠ás ✉s❛r❡♠♦s ❧♦s tér♠✐♥♦s ✓✐♠♣❧✐❝❛❝✐ó♥✔✱
✓❡q✉✐✈❛❧❡♥❝✐❛✔✱ ✓t❛✉t♦❧♦❣í❛✔ ② ✓❢❛❧s❡❞❛❞✔ ❡♥ ❡❧ ♠✐s♠♦ s❡♥t✐❞♦ q✉❡ ❡♥ ❧❛ ❧ó❣✐❝❛ ❝❧ás✐❝❛✳
▲❛ ❞✐❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛ ❡stá s♦❧♦ ❡♥ ❝ó♠♦ ❛❝tú❛ ❧❛ ♥❡❣❛❝✐ó♥✳ ❊♥ ❡st❡ ❝❛s♦ ❧♦ q✉❡ t✐❡♥❡ ❧✉❣❛r ❡s
q✉❡ ❧❛ ♥❡❣❛❝✐ó♥ ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❛ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♠❛♥❡r❛ ❞✐❢❡r❡♥t❡✳ ❙✐ t❡♥❡♠♦s ✉♥❛ ♣r♦♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ p ② ✉♥❛
✈❛❧♦r❛❝✐ó♥ ♦ ♠♦❞❡❧♦ ❞❡❧ s✐st❡♠❛✱ ❧❛ ♣r♦♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ¬p t❡♥❞rá ♠ás ❧✐❜❡rt❛❞ q✉❡ ❡♥ ❧❛ ❧ó❣✐❝❛
❝❧ás✐❝❛ ❡♥ ❧❛ q✉❡ ❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r ❞❡ p ❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❛ ❞❡ ❢♦r♠❛ ú♥✐✈♦❝❛ ❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r ❞❡ ¬p✳ ❆sí ❡♥ ✈❡③ ❞❡
❞♦s s✐t✉❛❝✐♦♥❡s ♣♦s✐❜❧❡s t❡♥❞r❡♠♦s ❡st❛s tr❡s✿

p ¬p
1 0 s1
1 1 s2
0 1 s3
✷✹ ❈❆P❮❚❯▲❖ ✷✳ ▲❆ ◆❊●❆❈■Ó◆ ❊◆ ▲❆❙ ▲Ó●■❈❆❙ ❋❖❘▼❆▲❊❙

❈♦♠♦ s❡ ♣✉❡❞❡ ✈❡r ❡♥ ❧❛ t❛❜❧❛✱ ❧❛ ❞✐❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛ ❝♦♥ ❧❛ ❧ó❣✐❝❛ ❝❧ás✐❝❛ ❡stá ❡♥ ❧❛ s✐t✉❛❝✐ó♥ s2
q✉❡ ❛♣❛r❡❝❡ ❛ñ❛❞✐❞❛ ❛ ❧❛s s✐t✉❛❝✐♦♥❡s q✉❡ ♣❡r♠✐tí❛ ❡st❛✳ ❈✉❛♥❞♦ ❡st❡♠♦s ❡♥ ✉♥❛ s✐t✉❛❝✐ó♥
❞♦♥❞❡ p ② ¬p t❡♥❣❛♥ ❛s✐❣♥❛❞♦s ❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r 1 ❞✐r❡♠♦s q✉❡ ❡st❛♠♦s ❡♥ ✉♥❛ s✐t✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞✐❛❧é❝t✐❝❛
♦ ❝♦♥tr❛❞✐❝t♦r✐❛✳
❈♦♥ ❡st♦ ❡♥ ♠❡♥t❡ ❡s ❢á❝✐❧ ❡♥❝♦♥tr❛r ✉♥❛ ❞✐❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛ ✐♠♣♦rt❛♥t❡ ❝♦♥ r❡s♣❡❝t♦ ❛ ❧❛ ❧ó❣✐❝❛
❝❧ás✐❝❛✱ ② ❡s q✉❡ ♥♦ s❡ ❝✉♠♣❧❡ ❧❛ ❞♦❜❧❡ ♥❡❣❛❝✐ó♥✿

p ¬p ¬¬p
1 0 1 s1
1 1 0 s2
1 1 1 s3
0 1 0 s4
0 1 1 s5

❊♥ s2 ② ❡♥ s5 ❧♦s ✈❛❧♦r❡s ❞❡ p ② ¬¬p ♥♦ ❝♦✐♥❝✐❞❡♥✱ ♣♦r t❛♥t♦ ♥♦ s♦♥ ❡q✉✐✈❛❧❡♥t❡s ✉♥❛

♣r♦♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ② s✉ ❞♦❜❧❡ ♥❡❣❛❝✐ó♥✳ ❊s ♠ás✱ ✉♥❛ ♠✐r❛❞❛ ❛t❡♥t❛ ♣❡r♠✐t❡ ❝♦♥❝❧✉✐r q✉❡ ♥♦ s❡
t✐❡♥❡ ♥✐♥❣✉♥❛ ✐♠♣❧✐❝❛❝✐ó♥ ❡♥tr❡ ❛♠❜❛s✳
❆❤♦r❛ ❜✐❡♥✱ ❧♦ ✐♠♣♦rt❛♥t❡ ❛q✉í ♥♦ s♦❧♦ ❡s ❧❛ ❞♦❜❧❡ ♥❡❣❛❝✐ó♥✱ s✐♥♦ ❡❧ ♣❛♣❡❧ q✉❡ ❥✉❡❣❛ ❡st❛
✐❞❡❛ ❞❡ ♥❡❣❛❝✐ó♥ ② s✉ ♣❛♣❡❧ t❛♥t♦ ❡♥ ❡❧ ♣r✐♥❝✐♣✐♦ ❞❡ ❡①♣❧♦s✐ó♥ ❝♦♠♦ ❡♥ ❧❛s ❝♦♥tr❛❞✐❝❝✐♦♥❡s✳
P❛r❛ ✈❡r ❡st♦ ✈❡❛♠♦s ❝ó♠♦ r❡s✉❧t❛ s❡r ❧❛ t❛❜❧❛ ❞❡ p ∧ ¬p✿

p ¬p p ∧ ¬p
1 0 0 s1
1 1 1 s2
0 1 0 s3

❊♥ ❝❛♠❜✐♦ ❡❧ ♣r✐♥❝✐♣✐♦ ❞❡❧ t❡r❝✐♦ ❡①❝❧✉s♦ q✉❡ ❛✜r♠❛ q✉❡ p ∨ ¬p ❡s ✉♥❛ t❛✉t♦❧♦❣í❛ s✐❣✉❡
s✐❡♥❞♦ ❝✐❡rt♦✳
p ¬p p ∨ ¬p
1 0 1 s1
1 1 1 s2
0 1 1 s3

❈♦♠♦ s❡ ♣✉❡❞❡ ✈❡r✱ ❡①✐st❡ ✉♥❛ s✐t✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❡♥ ❧❛ q✉❡ ❧❛s ❝♦♥tr❛❞✐❝❝✐♦♥❡s s♦♥ ✈❡r❞❛❞❡r❛s✳
❆❤♦r❛ ❜✐❡♥✱ ❡❧ ♣r✐♥❝✐♣✐♦ ❞❡ ❡①♣❧♦s✐ó♥ s✐❣✉❡ s✐❡♥❞♦ ❝✐❡rt♦ ❡♥ s✉ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ q✉❡ ❞❡
✷✳✸✳ ▲Ó●■❈❆ P❆❘❆❈❖◆❙■❙❚❊◆❚❊ ❈❖◆ ❖P❊❘❆❉❖❘ ❉❊ ❈❖◆❙■❙❚❊◆❈■❆ ✷✺

✉♥❛ ❛✜r♠❛❝✐ó♥ ❢❛❧s❛ s❡ s✐❣✉❡ ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r ❝♦s❛✱ ② ❡st♦ s❡ ❞❡❜❡ ❛ q✉❡ ❧❛ ❝♦♥str✉❝❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧❛
✐♠♣❧✐❝❛❝✐ó♥ ❝♦♠♦ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r ❡s ❧❛ ♠✐s♠❛✳ ▲♦ q✉❡ ❞❡❥❛ ❞❡ s❡r ❝✐❡rt♦ ❡s ❧❛ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛❝✐ó♥ q✉❡
s♦st✐❡♥❡ q✉❡ ✓❡① ❝♦♥tr❛❞✐❝t✐♦♥❡ q✉♦❞❧✐❜❡t✔✱ ♣✉❡st♦ q✉❡ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ❝♦♥tr❛❞✐❝❝✐ó♥ ♥♦ s❡ s✐❣✉❡
❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r ♦tr❛ ♣♦r ❧❛ s❡♥❝✐❧❧❛ r❛③ó♥ ❞❡ q✉❡ ❧❛s ❝♦♥tr❛❞✐❝❝✐♦♥❡s ♣✉❡❞❡♥ s❡r ✈❡r❞❛❞❡r❛s✳ ❊st♦
♣♦❞❡♠♦s ♦❜s❡r✈❛r❧♦ ❛ ♣❛rt✐r ❞❡ ❧❛ s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡ t❛❜❧❛✿

p ¬p p ∧ ¬p q (p ∧ ¬p) → q
1 0 0 1 1 s1
1 1 1 1 1 s2
1 0 0 0 1 s3
1 1 1 0 0 s4
0 1 0 1 1 s5
0 1 0 0 1 s6

❨ ❡s q✉❡ ❡♥ ❡❢❡❝t♦ ❤❛② ✉♥❛ s✐t✉❛❝✐ó♥ s4 ❡♥ ❧❛ ❝✉❛❧ ♥♦ s❡ ❝✉♠♣❧❡ q✉❡ (p ∧ ¬p) → q ✱

♣♦r t❛♥t♦ ❤❛② ❛❧❣♦ q✉❡ ♥♦ s❡ s✐❣✉❡ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ❝♦♥tr❛❞✐❝❝✐ó♥✳ ❊st♦ s❡ ❞❡❜❡ ❛ ♥❛❞❛ ♠ás ② ♥❛❞❛
♠❡♥♦s q✉❡ ✉♥❛ ❝♦♥tr❛❞✐❝❝✐ó♥ ♣✉❡❞❡ s❡r ✈❡r❞❛❞❡r❛✳
❆❤♦r❛ ❜✐❡♥ ❡st❛ ❧ó❣✐❝❛ ♥♦ ❡stá ❞❡s♣r♦✈✐st❛ ❞❡ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠❛s✳ P♦r ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦ ❤❛② ❛✜r♠❛❝✐♦♥❡s
q✉❡ s♦♥ ❝♦rr❡❝t❛s ❤❛❜✐t✉❛❧♠❡♥t❡ ♣❡r♦ ♥♦ ❡♥ ❡st❡ á♠❜✐t♦✳ ❆sí✱ ❡❧ ❝♦♥tr❛r❡❝í♣r♦❝♦✱ ❡s ❞❡❝✐r
❧❛ ❡q✉✐✈❛❧❡♥❝✐❛ ❡♥tr❡ p → q ② ¬q → p ♥♦ ❡s ❝✐❡rt❛ ❡♥ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧ ❡♥ ✈✐rt✉❞ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣r❡s❡♥❝✐❛ ❞❡
s✐t✉❛❝✐♦♥❡s ❝♦♥tr❛❞✐❝t♦r✐❛s✳

p ¬p q ¬q p→q ¬q → ¬p
1 0 1 0 1 1 s1
1 1 1 1 1 1 s2
1 1 1 0 1 1 s3
1 0 1 1 1 0 s4
1 0 0 1 0 0 s5
1 1 0 1 0 1 s6
0 1 1 0 1 1 s7
0 1 1 1 1 1 s8
0 1 0 1 1 1 s9

❨ ❡s q✉❡ ❝♦♠♦ s❡ ♣✉❡❞❡ ✈❡r ❡♥ ❧❛ t❛❜❧❛✱ ♥♦ s❡ ❝✉♠♣❧❡ ♥✐ ❡♥ s4 ♥✐ ❡♥ s6 ✱ ❞♦s s✐t✉❛❝✐♦♥❡s

❛♠❜❛s ❝♦♥ ✉♥❛ ❝♦♥tr❛❞✐❝❝✐ó♥✳ ❆❤♦r❛ ❜✐❡♥✱ ❡①✐st❡♥ s✐t✉❛❝✐♦♥❡s ❝♦♥tr❛❞✐❝t♦r✐❛s ❡♥ ❧❛s q✉❡
❝♦✐♥❝✐❞❡♥ ❝♦♠♦ s♦♥ s2 ✱ s3 ② s8 ✳
✷✻ ❈❆P❮❚❯▲❖ ✷✳ ▲❆ ◆❊●❆❈■Ó◆ ❊◆ ▲❆❙ ▲Ó●■❈❆❙ ❋❖❘▼❆▲❊❙

◆♦ ♦❜st❛♥t❡ ❡st❛s ❞✐✜❝✉❧t❛❞❡s ♥♦ ❞❡❜❡rí❛♥ s✉r❣✐r ❡♥ ❧❛ ♣rá❝t✐❝❛ ♣♦rq✉❡ s✐❡♠♣r❡ ♣♦❞❡✲

♠♦s ❡♥t❡♥❞❡r q✉❡ ❧❛s ♣r♦♣♦s✐❝✐♦♥❡s ❤❛❜✐t✉❛❧❡s ❝♦♥ ❧❛s q✉❡ s❡ tr❛❜❛❥❛♥ ❡♥ ♠❛t❡♠át✐❝❛s ♥♦
❛❞♠✐t❡♥ ❡st♦s ✈❛❧♦r❡s✳ P❛r❛ ♣♦❞❡r ✐♥tr♦❞✉❝✐r ❡st❛ ✐❞❡❛ ❧♦ q✉❡ ❤❛❝❡♠♦s ❡s ❞♦t❛r ❛ ❧❛ ❧ó❣✐❝❛
❞❡ ♦tr♦ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r ✉♥✐t❛r✐♦ ◦ ❞❡ ❢♦r♠❛ t❛❧ q✉❡ ◦p ✈❡♥❞rí❛ ❛ ❞❡❝✐r ❛❧❣♦ ❝♦♠♦ ✓p ❡s ❝♦❤❡r❡♥t❡✔
♦ ✓p ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❛ ❞❡ ❢♦r♠❛ ❝❧ás✐❝❛✔✳ ❊st❡ ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r ✈❡♥❞rí❛ ❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❛❞♦ ♣♦r ❧❛s ✈❛❧♦r❛❝✐♦♥❡s
❞❡ p ② ¬p ❞❡ ❧❛ s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡ ❢♦r♠❛✿

p ¬p ◦p
1 0 1 s1
1 0 0 s2
1 1 0 s3
0 1 1 s4
0 1 0 s5

▲❛ ✐❞❡❛ q✉❡ ❞❡❜❡rí❛ tr❛♥s♠✐t✐r♥♦s ❡st❛ t❛❜❧❛ ❡s ❧❛ s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡✿ s✐ ❧❛s ♣r♦♣♦s✐❝✐♦♥❡s p ② ¬p

s❡ ❝♦♠♣♦rt❛♥ ❞❡ ❢♦r♠❛ ❤❛❜✐t✉❛❧✱ ❡s ❞❡❝✐r s❡ ❝✉♠♣❧❡ q✉❡ ❝✉❛♥❞♦ ✉♥❛ ✈❛❧❡ 1 ❧❛ ♦tr❛ ✈❛❧❡ 0✱
❡♥t♦♥❝❡s ♣✉❡❞❡ q✉❡ p s❡❛ ❝♦❤❡r❡♥t❡ ♦ ♥♦❀ ❡♥ ❝❛♠❜✐♦✱ ❡♥ ❡❧ ♠♦♠❡♥t♦ q✉❡ ❡st❛♠♦s ❡♥ ✉♥❛
s✐t✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❡♥ ❧❛ q✉❡ ❛♠❜❛s s♦♥ ✈❡r❞❛❞❡r❛s ❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r ❞❡ ◦p q✉❡❞❛ ✜❥❛❞♦ ❡♥ 0 ♣♦rq✉❡ p ❡stá ❡♥
✉♥❛ s✐t✉❛❝✐ó♥ ♥♦ ❝❧ás✐❝❛✳
❆sí✱ ❝✉❛♥❞♦ q✉❡r❛♠♦s ❤❛❜❧❛r ❞❡ ♣r♦♣♦s✐❝✐♦♥❡s ❤❛❜✐t✉❛❧❡s t❡♥❞r❡♠♦s✱ ❡♥ ❝❛❞❛ r❛③♦♥❛✲
♠✐❡♥t♦✱ q✉❡ ❛ñ❛❞✐r ✉♥❛ ❤✐♣ót❡s✐s ❛❞✐❝✐♦♥❛❧ q✉❡ ❡s ◦p✱ ❡s ❞❡❝✐r q✉❡ ❧❛ ♣r♦♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ❝♦♥ ❧❛ q✉❡
tr❛❜❛❥❛♠♦s ❡s ✉♥❛ ♣r♦♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ❝♦♠ú♥✳

✷✳✹✳ ■♥t✉✐❝✐♦♥✐s♠♦ ② ❧ó❣✐❝❛ ♣❛r❛❝♦♠♣❧❡t❛

❊❧ ✐♥t✉✐❝✐♦♥✐s♠♦ ❝❛♠❜✐❛ ❞❡ ❢♦r♠❛ ♠ás ♦ ♠❡♥♦s r❛❞✐❝❛❧ ❡❧ ❡♥❢♦q✉❡ ❤❡♠♦s ❞❛❞♦ ❤❛st❛
❛❤♦r❛ ❡♥ ❧❛s ❞✐✈❡rs❛s ❧ó❣✐❝❛s✳ ❨❛ ♥♦ ❡st❛r❡♠♦s ❝♦♥ ❛❧❣♦ ❝❡r❝❛♥♦ ❛ ✉♥ ❝á❧❝✉❧♦ ❡♥ ❡❧ q✉❡ ❞❡✲
❜❡♠♦s r❡str✐♥❣✐r♥♦s ❛ ❞✐✈❡rs❛s ♣♦s✐❜✐❧✐❞❛❞❡s✱ s✐♥♦ ♠ás ❜✐❡♥ ❝♦♥ ✉♥❛ ❡str✉❝t✉r❛ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✐❝❛
♠ás ❞✐❢í❝✐❧ ❛❧ s❡r ♠ás ✓s✐♠♣❧❡✔✱ ❡s ❞❡❝✐r ❛❧ t❡♥❡r ♠❡♥♦s ♦♣❡r❛❝✐♦♥❡s ♣❡r♠✐t✐❞❛s✳ ❙✐❡♥❞♦
♠ás ♣r❡❝✐s♦s ♥♦s ✐♥t❡r❡s❛rá ✉♥❛ ✈✐s✐ó♥ ♠ás ♣ró①✐♠❛ ❛ ✐❞❡❛s ❝❡r❝❛♥❛s ❛ ❧❛ ✓t❡♦rí❛ ❞❡ ❝❛✲
t❡❣♦rí❛s✔✱ ❡s ❞❡❝✐r ❡♥t❡♥❞❡♠♦s ❧❛s r❡❧❛❝✐♦♥❡s ② ❝♦♥str✉❝❝✐♦♥❡s ❡♥tr❡ ♣r♦♣♦s✐❝✐♦♥❡s ❛ tr❛✈és
❞❡ ❞✐❛❣r❛♠❛s ❝♦♥ ♦❜❥❡t♦s ✭❧❛s ♣r♦♣♦s✐❝✐♦♥❡s✮ ② ♠♦r✜s♠♦s ✭❧❛s ✐♠♣❧✐❝❛❝✐♦♥❡s✮ ❡♥tr❡ ❡st♦s✳
▲❛ ✐❞❡❛ ❡s ✈❡r ❧❛s ♣r♦♣♦s✐❝✐♦♥❡s ❝♦♠♦ ♠✐❡♠❜r♦s ❞❡ ✉♥ ✓➪❧❣❡❜r❛ ❞❡ ❍❡②t✐♥❣✔ q✉❡ ❡s ✉♥
❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ ❞♦t❛❞♦ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ r❡❧❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦r❞❡♥✱ ❝♦♥ ✉♥ ♠á①✐♠♦ ② ✉♥ ♠í♥✐♠♦✱ ❞♦s ♦♣❡r❛❝✐♦♥❡s
✐♥t❡r♥❛s ② ❧❛ ❡①✐st❡♥❝✐❛ ❞❡ ✓❡①♣♦♥❡♥t❡s✔✳
❱❡❛♠♦s ❞❡ ❡st♦ ❞❡ ❢♦r♠❛ ♠ás ❝♦♥❝r❡t❛ ❛ ♣❛rt✐r ❞❡ ❡st❛s r❡❣❧❛s✱ ♥♦ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛❞❛s ❞❡ ❢♦r♠❛
✷✳✹✳ ■◆❚❯■❈■❖◆■❙▼❖ ❨ ▲Ó●■❈❆ P❆❘❆❈❖▼P▲❊❚❆ ✷✼

♣r❡❝✐s❛ ♣♦r ✉♥❛ ❝✉❡st✐ó♥ ❞❡ t✐❡♠♣♦ ② ❞❡❧ ♦❜❥❡t✐✈♦ ❞❡ ❡st❡ ❛rtí❝✉❧♦✿

❯♥❛ ♣r♦♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ❡s ✈❡r❞❛❞❡r❛ ❝✉❛♥❞♦ t❡♥❡♠♦s ✉♥❛ ♣r✉❡❜❛ ❞❡ ❡st❛✳

▲❛s ♣r♦♣♦s✐❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ✉♥ s✐st❡♠❛ ❧ó❣✐❝♦ ✐♥t✉✐❝✐♦♥✐st❛ ❢♦r♠❛♥ ✉♥❛ ❝❛t❡❣♦rí❛✳ ❊s ❞❡❝✐r✱

❡①✐st❡♥ ✉♥♦s ♦❜❥❡t♦s ❧❧❛♠❛❞♦s ♣r♦♣♦s✐❝✐♦♥❡s ② ✉♥♦s ♠♦r✜s♠♦s p → q q✉❡ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛♥
❧❛ ✐❞❡❛ ❞❡ q✉❡ ✓p ✐♠♣❧✐❝❛ q ✔ q✉❡ ❛❞❡♠ás ❡♥t❡♥❞❡r❡♠♦s ❡♥ ❡❧ s❡♥t✐❞♦ r❡str✐♥❣✐❞♦ ❞❡
q✉❡ ✓s✐ ❡①✐st❡ ✉♥❛ ♣r✉❡❜❛ ❞❡ p ❡①✐st❡ ✉♥❛ ♣r✉❡❜❛ ❞❡ q ✔✳ ❆❞❡♠ás✱ ❝♦♠♦ ❝❛t❡❣♦rí❛ s❡
t✐❡♥❡ q✉❡ ❧♦s ♠♦r✜s♠♦s s❡ ♣✉❡❞❡♥ ❝♦♠♣♦♥❡r✱ ❡st♦ ❡s✱ s✐ t❡♥❡♠♦s q✉❡ p → q ② q → z
❡♥t♦♥❝❡s ❡①✐st❡ q → z ✳

p ∧ q ❝✉♠♣❧♥ q✉❡ p ∧ q → p✱ ❡s ❞❡❝✐r ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ❝♦♥❥✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❞♦s ♣r♦♣♦s✐❝✐♦♥❡s s❡

❞❡❞✉❝❡♥ ❡st❛s ❞♦s✳ ❆❞❡♠ás✱ p ∨ q ❝✉♠♣❧❡ q✉❡ p ∧ q → q ✱ p → p ∨ q ② q → p ∨ q ✱ ❡s
❞❡❝✐r✱ ✉♥❛ ❞✐s②✉♥❝✐ó♥ s❡ ❞❡❞✉❝❡ ❞❡ ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r ❞❡ s✉s ❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥t❡s✳ ◆♦ s♦❧♦ ❡s♦✱ s✐♥♦
q✉❡ s❡ ❝✉♠♣❧❡♥ ❡st❛s ❞♦s ♣r♦♣✐❡❞❛❞❡s ✉♥✐✈❡rs❛❧❡s✿
r r

p p∧q q p p∨q q
❊s ❞❡❝✐r✱ ❧❛ ♣r♦♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ✓p ② q ✔ ✈✐❡♥❡ ❝❛r❛❝t❡r✐③❛❞❛ ♣♦rq✉❡ ❛ ♣❛rt✐r ❞❡ ❡st❛ s❡ ♣✉❡❞❡
❞❡❞✉❝✐r t❛♥t♦ p ❝♦♠♦ q ② s✐ t❡♥❡♠♦s ✉♥❛ ♣r✉❡❜❛ ❞❡ q✉❡ ✉♥❛ ♣r♦♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ r ✐♠♣❧✐❝❛
t❛♥t♦ p ❝♦♠♦ q t❡♥❡♠♦s ✉♥❛ ♣r✉❡❜❛ ❞❡ q✉❡ p ∧ q t❛♠❜✐é♥ s❡ ❞❡❞✉❝❡ ❞❡ r✳ ❉✐❝❤♦ ❞❡
♦tr❛ ❢♦r♠❛✱ ♣❛r❛ ♣r♦❜❛r p ∧ q ❜❛st❛ ❝♦♥ ♣r♦❜❛r ❝❛❞❛ ✉♥❛ ❞❡ ❧❛s ❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥t❡s✳ ❆ s✉
✈❡③✱ ❧❛ ♣r♦♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ✓p ♦ q ✔ ✈✐❡♥❡ ❝❛r❛❝t❡r✐③❛❞❛ ❞❡ q✉❡ ❡st❛ s❡ ❞❡❞✉❝❡ t❛♥t♦ p ❝♦♠♦ q
② s✐ t❡♥❡♠♦s ✉♥❛ ♣r✉❡❜❛ ❞❡ q✉❡ t❛♥t♦ p ❝♦♠♦ q ✐♠♣❧✐❝❛♥ ✉♥❛ ♣r♦♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ r t❡♥❡♠♦s
✉♥❛ ♣r✉❡❜❛ ❞❡ q✉❡ p ∨ q t❛♠❜✐é♥ ❧♦ ❤❛❝❡✳

❊①✐st❡ ✉♥❛ ❝✐❡rt❛ r❡✢❡①✐✈✐❞❛❞✶ ❡♥ ❡❧ s❡♥t✐❞♦ ❞❡ q✉❡ ♥♦ s♦❧♦ ❤❛② ♠♦r✜s♠♦s✱ s✐♥♦ q✉❡
❤❛② ✓♦❜❥❡t♦s ♠♦r✜s♠♦s✔ t❛♠❜✐é♥ ❝♦♥♦❝✐❞♦s ❝♦♠♦ ♦❜❥❡t♦s ❡①♣♦♥❡♥❝✐❛❧❡s✷ ❡♥t❡♥❞✐❡♥✲
❞♦ ♣♦r q p ❡❧ ♦❜❥❡t♦ q✉❡ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛ p → q ✳ ❊❧ ♥♦♠❜r❡ ❞❡ ❡①♣♦♥❡♥❝✐❛❧ s❡ ❧❡ ❞❛ ♠♦t✐✈❛❞♦
✶
❊st❛ ✐❞❡❛ ❛ ✈❡❝❡s ♥♦ s❡ t❡r♠✐♥❛ ❞❡ ❡♥t❡♥❞❡r ❜✐❡♥ ♣❡r♦ ❡❧ ❝♦♥t❡①t♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ t❡♦rí❛ ❞❡ ❝❛t❡❣♦rí❛s ❛②✉❞❛ ❛
❞❡s♣❡❥❛r ❧❛ ❝♦♥❢✉s✐ó♥ ❛❧ r❡s♣❡❝t♦✳ ❊❧ ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦ q✉❡ ❧♦ ❝❧❛r✐✜❝❛ ♣✉❡❞❡ s❡r ❛❧❣♦ ❝♦♠♦ ❧♦s ❡s♣❛❝✐♦s ✈❡❝t♦r✐❛❧❡s✳
❉❛❞♦s ❞♦s ❡s♣❛❝✐♦s ✈❡❝t♦r✐❛❧❡s ♣♦❞❡♠♦s ❤❛❜❧❛r ❞❡ ❧♦s ♠♦r✜s♠♦s ♦ ❛♣❧✐❝❛❝✐♦♥❡s ❧✐♥❡❛❧❡s ❡♥tr❡ ❡❧❧♦s✱ ♣❡r♦ ❡s
❞✐st✐♥t♦ ❛ ✉♥❛ t❡s✐s ♠✉❝❤♦ ♠ás ❢✉❡rt❡ ② ❡s q✉❡ ❞✐❝❤♦s ♠♦r✜s♠♦s ❢♦r♠❛♥ ❛ s✉ ✈❡③ ✉♥ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦ ✈❡❝t♦r✐❛❧✱ ❡s
❞❡❝✐r ❡①✐st❡ ✉♥ ♦❜❥❡t♦ q✉❡ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛ ❧♦s ♣r♦♣✐♦s ♠♦r✜s♠♦s ❞❡ ❛❤í q✉❡ ❞✐❣❛♠♦s q✉❡ ❧❛ ❝❛t❡❣♦rí❛ ❡s r❡✢❡①✐✈❛
♣♦rq✉❡ ❡♥ ❧♦s ♦❜❥❡t♦s ♠✐s♠♦s ❝❛❜❡♥ ♦❜❥❡t♦s q✉❡ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛♥ ❧♦s ♠♦r✜s♠♦s✳
✷
❍❛② ❞♦s ❥✉st✐✜❝❛❝✐♦♥❡s ❛❞❡♠ás ❞❡ ❧❛ ♦❢r❡❝✐❞❛ q✉❡ ❞❡ ❢♦r♠❛ ♠✉② r❛③♦♥❛❜❧❡ ❥✉st✐✜❝❛♥ ❡s❡ ♥♦♠❜r❡✳ P♦r
✉♥ ❧❛❞♦ ❡stá ❧❛ ❥✉st✐✜❝❛❝✐ó♥ ♣r♦♣✐❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ t❡♦rí❛ ❞❡ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦s ❡♥ ❧❛ ❝✉❛❧ ❡❧ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ ❞❡ ❛♣❧✐❝❛❝✐♦♥❡s ❡♥tr❡
❞♦s ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦s X ❡ Y s❡ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛ ❝♦♥ Y X ❞❛❞♦ q✉❡ ❡❧ ❝❛r❞✐♥❛❧ ❞❡ ❞✐❝❤♦ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ ❡s |Y ||X| ✳ ▲❛ ♦tr❛
❥✉st✐✜❝❛❝✐ó♥ ❡s s❡♠❡❥❛♥t❡ ❛ ❧❛ ❛♥t❡r✐♦r ♣❡r♦ ♠ás ✓❛r✐t♠ét✐❝❛✔✳ ▲❛ ♣r♦♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ p → q ❡♥ ❧ó❣✐❝❛ ❝❧ás✐❝❛ ❡s
✈❡r❞❛❞❡r❛ s✐ ❡❧ ❡①♣♦♥❡♥t❡ q p ❞❡ s✉s ✈❛❧♦r❡s ❞❡ ✈❡r❞❛❞ ❞❛ 1✳ ❊♥ ❡❢❡❝t♦✱ s✐ p = 1 ② q = 1 ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s 11 = 1✱ s✐
p = 0 ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s x0 = 1 ② s✐ p = 1 ② q = 0 t❡♥❡♠♦s 01 = 0✳
✷✽ ❈❆P❮❚❯▲❖ ✷✳ ▲❆ ◆❊●❆❈■Ó◆ ❊◆ ▲❆❙ ▲Ó●■❈❆❙ ❋❖❘▼❆▲❊❙

♣♦r ❧❛ s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡ ♣r♦♣✐❡❞❛❞ ❝❛r❛❝t❡ríst✐❝❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❡①♣♦♥❡♥❝✐❛❧ ex = exy ✱ ❡st♦ ❡s

y

❛♥á❧♦❣♦ ❛ ✉♥❛ ♣r♦♣✐❡❞❛❞ ❞❡ ❧❛ ✐♠♣❧✐❝❛❝✐ó♥ ❡♥ ❧❛ q✉❡ ❡❧ ♣r♦❞✉❝t♦ s❡ ✐♥t❡r♣r❡t❛ ❝♦♠♦ ❧❛

❝♦♥❥✉♥❝✐ó♥✳ ❊st♦ ♥♦ ❡s ♠ás q✉❡ ❞❡❝✐r q✉❡ q p ✱❞✐❝❤♦ ❝♦♥ ♠♦r✜s♠♦s q✉❡ r → (p → q)✱
r

❡s ❧♦ ♠✐s♠♦ q✉❡ q p∧r ✱ ❞✐❝❤♦ ❝♦♥ ♠♦r✜s♠♦s q✉❡ (r ∧ p) → q ✳ ❱♦❧✈✐❡♥❞♦ ❛ ❧❛ ✐❞❡❛

♣r✐♥❝✐♣❛❧✱ ❧♦ q✉❡ q✉❡r❡♠♦s ❡s q✉❡ ❞❛❞❛s ❞♦s ♣r♦♣♦s✐❝✐♦♥❡s ❡①✐st❛ ✉♥ ♦❜❥❡t♦ q✉❡ ✓r❡✲
♣r❡s❡♥t❛✔ ❧❛ ♣r♦♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ✓p → q ✔ ② q✉❡ ❛ ♣❛rt✐r ❞❡ ❛❤♦r❛ ❞❡♥♦t❛r❡♠♦s ❞❡ ❡s❛ ❢♦r♠❛
♣❛r❛ ❡✈✐t❛r ❧❛ ♥♦t❛❝✐ó♥ ❝♦♥ ❡①♣♦♥❡♥t❡s✳ ❆❞❡♠ás✱ ❡st❛ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ q✉✐❡r❡ ❞❡❝✐r q✉❡
❞✐❝❤❛ ♣r♦♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ❡s ✈❡r❞❛❞❡r❛ ♣r❡❝✐s❛♠❡♥t❡ s✐ ❡①✐st❡ t❛❧ t❛❧ ♠♦r✜s♠♦✱ q✉❡ ❛ s✉ ✈❡③
q✉✐❡r❡ ❞❡❝✐r q✉❡ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♣r✉❡❜❛ ❞❡ p ♣♦❞❡♠♦s ♦❜t❡♥❡r ✉♥❛ ♣r✉❡❜❛ ❞❡ q ✳ ❙✐❡♥❞♦ ♠ás
❡①❛❝t♦s✱ ❧❛ ♣r♦♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ p → q s❡ ❞❡✜♥❡ ❝♦♠♦ ❧❛ ♣r♦♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ♠ás ✓♣❡q✉❡ñ❛✔ q✉❡
s❛t✐s❢❛❝❡ q✉❡ s✐ s❡ t✐❡♥❡ ✉♥❛ ♣r✉❡❜❛ ❞❡ c ∧ p t❡♥❡♠♦s ✉♥❛ ♣r✉❡❜❛ ❞❡ q ✳ ❊s ❞❡❝✐r✱ ❧❛
❢♦r♠❛ ♠ás ❢á❝✐❧ ♦ ♠❡♥♦s ✓❢✉❡rt❡✔ ❞❡ ❞❡♠♦str❛r q✉❡ q ❛ ♣❛rt✐r ❞❡ p ❡s ❞❡♠♦str❛♥❞♦
q✉❡ ❡s ❝✐❡rt♦ p → q ✳ ❉✐❝❤♦ ❞❡ ♦tr❛ ❢♦r♠❛✱ ❡❧ ✓♠♦❞✉s ♣♦♥❡♥s✔ ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❛✳

❊①✐st❡ ✉♥ ♦❜❥❡t♦ ✐♥✐❝✐❛❧ ⊥ ② ✉♥ ♦❜❥❡t♦ ✜♥❛❧ ⊤ ❡♥ t♦❞❛ ❧ó❣✐❝❛ ✐♥t✉✐❝✐♦♥✐st❛✳ ▲❛ ♣r✐♠❡r❛

❞❡ ❡st❛s ❡s ❧❛ ♣r♦♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ❢❛❧s❛ ② ❧❛ s❡❣✉♥❞❛ ❧❛ ♣r♦♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ tr✐✈✐❛❧✳ ❊st♦ q✉✐❡r❡ ❞❡❝✐r
q✉❡ ♣❛r❛ ❝❛❞❛ ♣r♦♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ p s❡ t✐❡♥❡ q✉❡ ⊥ → p ② p → ⊤ ♦ ❞✐❝❤♦ ❡♥ ✉♥ ❧❡♥❣✉❛❥❡
♥❛t✉r❛❧✿ ✓❧❛ ❢❛❧s❡❞❛❞ ✐♠♣❧✐❝❛ ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r ♣r♦♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥✔ ② ✓t♦❞❛ ♣r♦♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ✐♠♣❧✐❝❛ ❧❛
♣r♦♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ tr✐✈✐❛❧✔✳

❉❛❞❛ ✉♥❛ ♣r♦♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r❛ p ❡①✐st❡ s✉ ♥❡❣❛❝✐ó♥ ¬p q✉❡ ❞❡✜♥✐♠♦s ❝♦♠♦ p → ⊥✳

❊s ❞❡❝✐r✱ ♣❛r❛ ♣r♦❜❛r q✉❡ ✉♥❛ ♣r♦♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ p ❡s ❢❛❧s❛ ✭❞✐❝❤♦ ❞❡ ❢♦r♠❛ ❞✐r❡❝t❛✱ ♣❛r❛
♣r♦❜❛r ❧❛ ♥❡❣❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♣r♦♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥✮ ❞❡❜❡♠♦s ♣r♦❜❛r q✉❡ s✐ t❡♥❡♠♦s ✉♥❛ ♣r✉❡❜❛
❞❡ p ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s t❡♥❡♠♦s t❛♠❜✐é♥ ✉♥❛ ♣r✉❡❜❛ ❞❡ ⊥✱ ❡s ❞❡❝✐r ❞❡ ❧❛ ❢❛❧s❡❞❛❞✳

❱❡❛♠♦s ❛❤♦r❛ ❝ó♠♦ ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❛ ❡st❛ ❧ó❣✐❝❛ ❞❡♠♦str❛♥❞♦ ❛❧❣✉♥❛s ♣r♦♣✐❡❞❛❞❡s✳ ❊st❛s ❞❡✲
♠♦str❛❝✐♦♥❡s ♣✉❡❞❡♥ r❡s✉❧t❛r ✉♥ ♣♦❝♦ ❝❤♦❝❛♥t❡s ❞❛❞♦ q✉❡ ♣❛r❡❝❡ q✉❡ ❤❛② ❛❧❣ú♥ ✓tr✉❝♦✔✱
♣❡r♦ ✉♥❛ ✈❡③ s❡ r❡✢❡①✐♦♥❛ s❡ ❡♥t✐❡♥❞❡ ❝♦♥ ♠✉❝❤❛ ♠ás ♣r❡❝✐s✐ó♥ ❧❛ ♥❛t✉r❛❧❡③❛ ♠✐s♠❛ ❞❡
❡st❛s ❞❡♠♦str❛❝✐♦♥❡s ② ❞❡ ❧❛ ❧ó❣✐❝❛ ✐♥t✉✐❝✐♦♥✐st❛ ❝♦♠♦ t❛❧✳ ❊♠♣❡③❛♠♦s ♣r✐♠❡r♦ ✈✐❡♥❞♦ q✉❡✱
❛ ❞✐❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❛♥t❡r✐♦r✱ ❡st❛ ❧ó❣✐❝❛ ❝✉♠♣❧❡ ❡❧ ♣r✐♥❝✐♣✐♦ ❞❡ ♥♦ ❝♦♥tr❛❞✐❝❝✐ó♥✳

Pr♦♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ✷✳✷✳ P❛r❛ t♦❞❛ ♣r♦♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ p s❡ ❝✉♠♣❧❡ q✉❡ ¬(p ∧ ¬p)✳

❉❡♠♦str❛❝✐ó♥✳ ❈♦♠♦ ¬p ❡q✉✐✈❛❧❡ ❛ p → ⊥ t❡♥❡♠♦s q✉❡ p ∧ ¬p ❡q✉✐✈❛❧❡ ❛ p ∧ (p → ⊥)✱ ❡s

❞❡❝✐r q✉❡ p ❡s ❝✐❡rt♦ ② q✉❡ p ✐♠♣❧✐❝❛ ✉♥❛ ❢❛❧s❡❞❛❞✳ ❯s❛♥❞♦ ❡❧ ♠♦❞✉s ♣♦♥❡♥s t❡♥❡♠♦s q✉❡
[p ∧ (p → ⊥)] → ⊥✱ ❡s ❞❡❝✐r ¬(p ∧ ¬p)✳

❖❜s❡r✈❛❝✐ó♥ ✷✳✸✳ ◆♦ s✐❡♠♣r❡ s❡ t✐❡♥❡ ❡❧ t❡r❝✐♦ ❡①❝❧✉s♦✱ ❡s ❞❡❝✐r✱ p ∨ ¬p ♥♦ ❡s ♣r♦♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥

✈❡r❞❛❞❡r❛✳ ❊st♦ s❡ ❞❡❜❡ ❛ q✉❡ ♥♦ s✐❡♠♣r❡ t❡♥❡♠♦s ✉♥❛ ♣r✉❡❜❛ ❞❡ p ♦ ✉♥❛ ♣r✉❡❜❛ ❞❡
✷✳✹✳ ■◆❚❯■❈■❖◆■❙▼❖ ❨ ▲Ó●■❈❆ P❆❘❆❈❖▼P▲❊❚❆ ✷✾

q✉❡ p → ⊥✳ P♦♥✐❡♥❞♦ ✉♥ ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦ q✉❡ s❡ s❛❧❡ ✉♥ ♣♦❝♦ ❞❡ ❡st❡ ♠❛r❝♦ ♣♦❞❡♠♦s ❞❡❝✐r q✉❡
❛❝t✉❛❧♠❡♥t❡ ♥♦ ❤❛② ♥✐♥❣✉♥❛ ♣r✉❡❜❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❤✐♣ót❡s✐s ❞❡ ❘✐❡♠♠❛♥ ♥✐ ❞❡ s✉ ❢❛❧s❡❞❛❞✳ P❡r♦✱
❝✉✐❞❛❞♦✱ ♥♦ ❛✜r♠❛r ❡❧ ♣r✐♥❝✐♣✐♦ ❞❡❧ t❡r❝✐♦ ❡①❝❧✉s♦ ♥♦ q✉✐❡r❡ ❞❡❝✐r q✉❡ s❡❛ ✓❢❛❧s❛✔ ♦ q✉❡ ❧♦
❡st❡♠♦s ♥❡❣❛♥❞♦✱ ♣✉❡s ❡s♦ ✐♠♣❧✐❝❛rí❛ q✉❡ t❡♥❡♠♦s ✉♥❛ ♣r✉❡❜❛ ❞❡ q✉❡ ❛✜r♠❛r p ∨ ¬p ♥♦s
❧❧❡✈❛ ❛ ✉♥❛ ❢❛❧s❡❞❛❞✳
❈♦♠♦ ②❛ ♠❡♥❝✐♦♥❛♠♦s ❛♥t❡s ✉♥❛ ✐❞❡❛ ✐♠♣♦rt❛♥t❡ ❡♥ t♦❞♦ ❡st❡ tr❛❜❛❥♦ ❡s ❧❛ ♥❡❣❛❝✐ó♥
② ✉♥♦ ❞❡ ❧♦s ♣r✐♥❝✐♣✐♦s ❡♥ ❧♦s q✉❡ s✉ ♣❛♣❡❧ s❡ ✈❡ ♠ás ❝❧❛r♦ ❡s ❡♥ ❧❛ ❞♦❜❧❡ ♥❡❣❛❝✐ó♥✳ ❆❧
✐❣✉❛❧ q✉❡ ❛♥t❡s ❡❧ s✐st❡♠❛ ✐♥t✉✐❝✐♦♥✐st❛ ♥♦ s❛t✐s❢❛❝❡ q✉❡ p ② ¬¬p s❡❛♥ ❧♦ ♠✐s♠♦ ② ❡①✐st❡♥
❡❥❡♠♣❧♦s q✉❡ ❧♦ ❞❡♠✉❡str❛♥✳ ❊s ♠ás✱ ❧❛ ❧ó❣✐❝❛ ✐♥t✉✐❝✐♦♥✐st❛ ❡s ❤❛st❛ ❝✐❡rt♦ ♣✉♥t♦ ❡❧ ♣❛r❛ís♦
❞❡ ❧❛ ❞♦❜❧❡ ♥❡❣❛❝✐ó♥ ♣✉❡s ❤❛② ♠✉❧t✐t✉❞ ❞❡ t❡♦r❡♠❛s ❡♥ ❧♦s ❝✉❛❧❡s ♥♦ s❡ t✐❡♥❡ ✉♥❛ ✈❡rs✐ó♥
❝❧ás✐❝❛✱ s✐♥♦ ✉♥❛ ♠ás ❞é❜✐❧ ❡♥ ❧❛ q✉❡ sí ❛♣❛r❡❝❡ ❧❛ ❞♦❜❧❡ ♥❡❣❛❝✐ó♥✳ ❆❞❡♠ás✱ ❛ ❞✐❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛
❞❡❧ s✐st❡♠❛ ❛♥t❡r✐♦r ❤❛② ✉♥❛ r❡❧❛❝✐ó♥ ❡♥tr❡ p ② ¬¬p ♣✉❡st♦ q✉❡ ❡♥ ❡st❡ s✐st❡♠❛ ❧❛ ❞♦❜❧❡
♥❡❣❛❝✐ó♥ ❡s ✓♠ás ❞é❜✐❧✔ q✉❡ ❧❛ ❛✜r♠❛❝✐ó♥✱ ❡st♦ ❡s✱ p → ¬¬p✳ ❱❡❛♠♦s ❡st♦ ❛♥t❡s ❞❡ ♣❛s❛r
❛ ❧♦s ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦s ❞♦♥❞❡ ❛♣❛r❡❝❡✳

Pr♦♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ✷✳✹✳ p → ¬(¬p)✳

❉❡♠♦str❛❝✐ó♥✳ ¬(¬p) ❡s ❧♦ ♠✐s♠♦✱ ♣♦r ❞❡✜♥✐❝✐ó♥✱ q✉❡ ¬p → ⊥ q✉❡ ❛ s✉ ✈❡③ ❡q✉✐✈❛❧❡ ❛ q✉❡
(p → ⊥) → ⊥✳ ❈♦♠♦ q✉❡r❡♠♦s ❞❡♠♦str❛r q✉❡ p → ¬¬p ② s❛❜❡♠♦s q✉❡ ❧❛ ❝♦♥s❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛ ❡s
✐❣✉❛❧ ❛ (p → ⊥) → ⊥ ❜❛st❛ ❝♦♥ ❞❡♠♦str❛r p → [(p → ⊥) → ⊥]✱ ♣❡r♦ ❡st♦ ❡q✉✐✈❛❧❡✱ ✉s❛♥❞♦
❡①♣♦♥❡♥❝✐❛❧❡s✱ ❛ q✉❡ [p ∧ (p → ⊥)] → ⊥✱ q✉❡ ❞❡ ♥✉❡✈♦ ❡s tr✐✈✐❛❧ ♣✉❡st♦ q✉❡ s❡ ❞❡❞✉❝❡ ❞❡❧
♠♦❞✉s ♣♦♥❡♥s✳

❖tr❛ ✐❞❡❛ ✐♥t❡r❡s❛♥t❡ ② q✉❡ ✉s❛♠♦s ❧♦s ♠❛t❡♠át✐❝♦s ❛ t♦❞❛s ❤♦r❛s ❡s ❡❧ ♠♦❞✉s t♦❧❧❡♥s
♦ ❝♦♥tr❛r❡❝í♣r♦❝♦ q✉❡ ♥♦ ❡s ❝✐❡rt♦ ❝♦♠♦ t❛❧ ❡♥ ❧❛ ❧ó❣✐❝❛ ✐♥t✉✐❝✐♦♥✐st❛✳ ▲♦ q✉❡ s✉❝❡❞❡ ❡s
q✉❡ ❛✉♥q✉❡ ✉♥❛ ✐♠♣❧✐❝❛❝✐ó♥ s❡❛ ❝✐❡rt❛ (p → q) → (¬q → ¬p) ❧❛ ♦tr❛ ♥♦ ❡s ❝✐❡rt❛ ❡♥ s✉
s❡♥t✐❞♦ ❤❛❜✐t✉❛❧✱ s✐♥♦ ❡♥ ✉♥♦ ♠ás ❞é❜✐❧ ❝♦♥ ❧❛ ❞♦❜❧❡ ♥❡❣❛❝✐ó♥✱ ❡♥ ❝♦♥❝r❡t♦ s❡ t✐❡♥❡ q✉❡
¬q → ¬p) → (p → ¬¬q)✳

Pr♦♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ✷✳✺✳ (p → q) → (¬q → ¬p)✳

❉❡♠♦str❛❝✐ó♥✳ P❛r❛ ❞❡♠♦str❛r ¬q → ¬p t❡♥❡♠♦s q✉❡ ❞❡♠♦str❛r q✉❡ (q → ⊥) → (p → ⊥)✳

❆❤♦r❛ ❜✐❡♥✱ ❧❛ ♣r❡♠✐s❛ ♥♦s ❞✐❝❡ q✉❡ p → q ② ❧❛ ♣r❡♠✐s❛ ❞❡ ❧♦ q✉❡ q✉❡r❡♠♦s ❞❡♠♦str❛r ♥♦s
❞✐❝❡ q✉❡ q → ⊥✱ ♣♦r t❛♥t♦ ✉s❛♥❞♦ q✉❡ ♣♦❞❡♠♦s ❝♦♠♣♦♥❡r ❧♦s ♠♦r✜s♠♦s ✭♦ ❡♥ tér♠✐♥♦s ♠ás
❧ó❣✐❝♦s q✉❡ ❧❛ ✐♠♣❧✐❝❛❝✐ó♥ ❡s tr❛♥s✐t✐✈❛✮ t❡♥❡♠♦s q✉❡ p → ⊥ ❝♦♠♦ q✉❡rí❛♠♦s ❞❡♠♦str❛r✳

Pr♦♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ✷✳✻✳ (¬q → ¬p) → (p → ¬¬q)✳

❉❡♠♦str❛❝✐ó♥✳ P♦r ❤✐♣ót❡s✐s ❣❡♥❡r❛❧ s❛❜❡♠♦s q✉❡ (q → ⊥) → (p → ⊥)✳ ❈♦♠♦ q✉❡r❡♠♦s

❞❡♠♦str❛r (p → ¬¬q) ② ❡st♦ ❡s ❡q✉✐✈❛❧❡♥t❡ ❛ ❞❡♠♦str❛r q✉❡ p → [(q → ⊥) → ⊥]✱ ❡s
✸✵ ❈❆P❮❚❯▲❖ ✷✳ ▲❆ ◆❊●❆❈■Ó◆ ❊◆ ▲❆❙ ▲Ó●■❈❆❙ ❋❖❘▼❆▲❊❙

s✉✜❝✐❡♥t❡ ❞❡♠♦str❛r q✉❡ ❜❛❥♦ ❧❛ ❤✐♣ót❡s✐s ❣❡♥❡r❛❧ ❧❛ ✐♠♣❧✐❝❛❝✐ó♥ ❛♥t❡r✐♦r ❡s ❝✐❡rt❛✳ ❊s

❞❡❝✐r✱ s✐ ❛❞♠✐t✐♠♦s ❧❛ ❤✐♣ót❡s✐s ❣❡♥❡r❛❧✱ p ② q → ⊥ ♣♦❞❡♠♦s ❝♦♥❝❧✉✐r ✉♥❛ ❢❛❧s❡❞❛❞✳ ❆❤♦r❛
❜✐❡♥✱ ❡s❡ ❡s ❡❧ ❝❛s♦✳ ❈♦♠♦ t❡♥❡♠♦s q✉❡ (q → ⊥) → (p → ⊥) ② q → ⊥ ♣♦❞❡♠♦s ❝♦♥❝❧✉✐r
p → ⊥✳ ❆❞❡♠ás t❡♥❡♠♦s ♣♦r ❤✐♣ót❡s✐s q✉❡ p ❡s ❝✐❡rt♦ ② ❡st❛ ♣r♦♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ❥✉♥t♦ ❝♦♥ p → ⊥
♥♦s ❝♦♥❞✉❝❡ ⊥ ❝♦♠♦ q✉❡rí❛♠♦s ❞❡♠♦str❛r✳

❖tr❛ ✐❞❡❛ ✐♥t❡r❡s❛♥t❡ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❧ó❣✐❝❛ ❝❧ás✐❝❛ s♦♥ ❧❛s ❝♦♥♦❝✐❞❛s ❝♦♠♦ ❧❡②❡s ❞❡ ♠♦r❣❛♥ q✉❡
t❛♠❜✐é♥ s❡ ❞❡❜✐❧✐t❛♥ ❡♥ ❧❛ ❧ó❣✐❝❛ ✐♥t✉✐❝✐♦♥✐st❛✳ ❙✐❡♥❞♦ ♠ás ❡s♣❡❝í✜❝♦s ❧♦ q✉❡ ❛❝♦♥t❡❝❡ ❡s q✉❡
¬(p∨q) ❡s ❡q✉✐✈❛❧❡♥t❡ ❛ q✉❡ ¬p∧¬q ② ¬(p∧q) ❡q✉✐✈❛❧❡ ❛ ¬[¬(¬p∨¬q)]✳ ❆q✉í ❞❡♠♦str❛r❡♠♦s
❧❛ ♣r✐♠❡r❛ ❞❡ ❡❧❧❛s✱ ♣❡r♦ ❞❡❥❛♠♦s ❝♦♠♦ ❡❥❡r❝✐❝✐♦ ❛❧ ❧❡❝t♦r ❧❛ s❡❣✉♥❞❛ ❡q✉✐✈❛❧❡♥❝✐❛✱ q✉❡
❛❞❡♠ás ❞❛ ♠ás ❧❛ ❧❛t❛✳

Pr♦♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ✷✳✼✳ ¬(p ∨ q) ❡s ❡q✉✐✈❛❧❡♥t❡ ❛ ¬p ∧ ¬q ✳

❉❡♠♦str❛❝✐ó♥✳ ❱❡❛♠♦s ♣r✐♠❡r♦ q✉❡ ¬(p ∨ q) → (¬p ∧ ¬q)✳ P♦r ❤✐♣ót❡s✐s s❛❜❡♠♦s q✉❡
(p ∨ q) → ⊥✱ ♣❡r♦ ♣♦r ❧❛ ❝♦♥str✉❝❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ p ∨ q t❡♥❡♠♦s p → (p ∨ q) ② p → (p ∨ q)✳ ❈♦♠♦
(p ∨ q) → ⊥ ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s t❛♥t♦ p ❝♦♠♦ q t❛♠❜✐é♥ ❧♦ ❤❛❝❡♥✱ ❡s ❞❡❝✐r✱ t❡♥❡♠♦s q✉❡ (¬p ∧ ¬q)
❝♦♠♦ q✉❡rí❛♠♦s ❞❡♠♦str❛r✳ P♦r ♦tr♦ ❧❛❞♦✱ s✐ s✉♣♦♥❡♠♦s q✉❡ ¬p∧¬q t❡♥❡♠♦s✱ ♣♦r ❞❡✜♥✐❝✐ó♥
q✉❡ p → ⊥ ② q → ⊥✳ ❈♦♠♦ q✉❡r❡♠♦s ❞❡♠♦str❛r ¬(p ∨ q) ❡s s✉✜❝✐❡♥t❡ ❝♦♥ ❞❡♠♦str❛r q✉❡
(p ∨ q) → ⊥✳ P❡r♦ ♣♦r ❝♦♥str✉❝❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ p ∨ q ♣❛r❛ ❝♦♥str✉✐r ✉♥ ♠♦r✜s♠♦ p ∨ q → r✱ ❡s
s✉✜❝✐❡♥t❡ ❝♦♥ t❡♥❡r ♠♦r✜s♠♦s p → r ② q → r✳ ❆❤♦r❛ ❜✐❡♥✱ ❝♦♠♦ t❡♥❡♠♦s p → ⊥ ② q → ⊥
t❡♥❡♠♦s (p ∨ q) → ⊥ ❝♦♠♦ q✉❡rí❛♠♦s ❞❡♠♦str❛r✳

❈♦♠♦ ✈✐♠♦s ❡♥ ❧❛ Pr♦♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ✷✳✹ ❡♥ ❧❛ ❧ó❣✐❝❛ ✐♥t✉✐❝✐♦♥✐st❛ s❡ t✐❡♥❡ q✉❡ p → ¬(¬(p))✳

❊st❡ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦ s❡ t✐❡♥❡ t❛♠❜✐é♥ ❡♥ ❧❛ ❧ó❣✐❝❛ ❝❧ás✐❝❛✱ ♣❡r♦ ✈✐❡♥❡ ❛❝♦♠♣❛ñ❛❞♦ ❞❡ ✉♥ r❡❝í♣r♦❝♦
❝♦♥ ❡❧ q✉❡ s❡ ❞❛ ❧✉❣❛r ❛ ❧❛ ❧❡② ❞❡ ❧❛ ❞♦❜❧❡ ♥❡❣❛❝✐ó♥✳ ❊♥ ❡❧ ❝❛s♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❧ó❣✐❝❛ ✐♥t✉✐❝✐♦♥✐st❛✱
② ❝♦♠♦ ❡s ❞❡ ❡s♣❡r❛r✱ ❡st❡ ♥♦ ❡s ❡❧ ❝❛s♦✳ P❛r❛ ✈❡r ❡st♦ ❞❡♠♦str❛r❡♠♦s q✉❡ ❛ ♣❡s❛r ❞❡ q✉❡
p ∨ ¬p ♥♦ ❡s ✉♥❛ ♣r♦♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ q✉❡ s❡ ❝✉♠♣❧❛ s✐❡♠♣r❡ ❡♥ ❧❛ ❧ó❣✐❝❛ ✐♥t✉✐❝✐♦♥✐st❛ sí ❧♦ ❡s s✉
❞♦❜❧❡ ♥❡❣❛❝✐ó♥✳

Pr♦♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ✷✳✽✳ ¬[¬(p ∨ ¬p)]✳

❉❡♠♦str❛❝✐ó♥✳ ❊♠♣❡③❛♠♦s✱ ❝♦♠♦ s✐❡♠♣r❡✱ ✐♥t❡r♣r❡t❛♥❞♦ ❧❛ ♥❡❣❛❝✐ó♥ ❡♥ s✉ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛❝✐ó♥

✐♥t✉✐❝✐♦♥✐st❛✳ ❆sí ❧❛ ♣r♦♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ q✉❡ q✉❡r❡♠♦s ❞❡♠♦str❛r ❡s q✉❡ [¬(p ∨ ¬p)] → ⊥✳ ❯s❛♥❞♦
❉❡ ▼♦r❣❛♥ ♦❜t❡♥❡♠♦s q✉❡ ❡st♦ ❡q✉✐✈❛❧❡ ❛ [¬p ∧ ¬(¬p)] → ⊥✱ ♣❡r♦ ❡st♦ ❡s tr✐✈✐❛❧ ♣✉❡st♦
q✉❡ ❡❧ ❛♥t❡❝❡❞❡♥t❡ ❡s ✉♥❛ ❝♦♥tr❛❞✐❝❝✐ó♥ ② ♣♦r t❛♥t♦ ✐♠♣❧✐❝❛ ✉♥❛ ❢❛❧s❡❞❛❞✳

▲❛ ❛♥t❡r✐♦r ❞❡♠♦str❛❝✐ó♥ ✉s❛ ❧❛s ❧❡②❡s ❞❡ ▼♦r❣❛♥ ❞❡ ❢♦r♠❛ ❡①♣❧í❝✐t❛✱ ♣❡r♦ ❝❛❜❡ ❞❡♠♦s✲
tr❛r s✐♥ ✉s❛r❧❛ ❞❡ t❛❧ ❢♦r♠❛✳ ❯♥ ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦ ❡s ❧❛ s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡ ❞❡♠♦str❛❝✐ó♥ ❛❧t❡r♥❛t✐✈❛✿
✷✳✺✳ ❚❖P❖▲❖●❮❆ ❨ ▲Ó●■❈❆❙ ◆❖ ❈▲➪❙■❈❆❙ ✸✶

❉❡♠♦str❛❝✐ó♥✳ ◗✉❡r❡♠♦s ❞❡♠♦str❛r q✉❡ [¬(p ∨ ¬p)] → ⊥✳ P❛r❛ ❡❧❧♦ ❡s s✉✜❝✐❡♥t❡ ❝♦♥
❞❡♠♦str❛r q✉❡ ¬(p ∨ ¬p) ❧❧❡✈❛ ❛ ✉♥❛ ❝♦♥tr❛❞✐❝❝✐ó♥✱ ♣♦r ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦ q✉❡ ✐♠♣❧✐❝❛ p ∨ negp✳
P❛r❛ ♣r♦❜❛r ✉♥❛ ❞✐s②✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❜❛st❛ ♣r♦❜❛r ✉♥♦ ❞❡ s✉s ❝♦♥st✐t✉②❡♥t❡s✱ ❡♥ ♣❛rt✐❝✉❧❛r ♣♦❞❡♠♦s
♣r♦❜❛r ¬p✱ ❡q✉✐✈❛❧❡♥t❡♠❡♥t❡ p → ⊥✳ ❆❤♦r❛ ❜✐❡♥✱ s✐ t❡♥❡♠♦s p t❡♥❡♠♦s p ∨ ¬p ② t❡♥❡♠♦s
✉♥❛ ❢❛❧s❡❞❛❞✳

P❛r❛ ♠ás ✐♥❢♦r♠❛❝✐ó♥ s♦❜r❡ ❡st❡ s✐st❡♠❛ ❧ó❣✐❝♦ ② s✉ ♣❛♣❡❧ ❡♥ ❧❛ t❡♦rí❛ ❤♦♠♦tó♣✐❝❛ ❞❡
t✐♣♦s r❡❝♦♠❡♥❞❛♠♦s s❡❣✉✐r ❬✽❪✱ ❞❡❧ ❝✉❛❧ ❤❡♠♦s ❡①tr❛í❞♦ ❧❛s ✐❞❡❛s ❞❡ ❡st❛ s❡❝❝✐ó♥✳

✷✳✺✳ ❚♦♣♦❧♦❣í❛ ② ❧ó❣✐❝❛s ♥♦ ❝❧ás✐❝❛s

❊♥ ❧❛ s❡❝❝✐ó♥ ❛♥t❡r✐♦r ❤❡♠♦s ❡st✉❞✐❛❞♦ ✉♥ s✐st❡♠❛ ❧ó❣✐❝♦ ❝♦♠♦ ✉♥ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ ❞❡ ♣r♦♣♦s✐✲

❝✐♦♥❡s ♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛s ❜❛❥♦ ❧❛ r❡❧❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ✐♠♣❧✐❝❛❝✐ó♥ ② ❝♦♥ ❛❧❣✉♥❛s ♣r♦♣✐❡❞❛❞❡s ❡①tr❛s✳ ❘❡s✉❧t❛
q✉❡ ❡st❛ ✐❞❡❛ ❡s ♠✉② ❢ért✐❧ ♣❛r❛ ❡♥t❡♥❞❡r ✉♥❛ ✐♠♣♦rt❛♥t❡ r❡❧❛❝✐ó♥ ❡♥tr❡ ❧❛s ❧ó❣✐❝❛s ♣❛r❛❝♦♥✲
s✐st❡♥t❡s ② ❧❛s ❧ó❣✐❝❛s ♣❛r❛❝♦♠♣❧❡t❛s ✈✐♥❝✉❧❛❞❛s ❛ ❧❛ ❞✉❛❧✐❞❛❞ ❡♥tr❡ ❧♦s ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦s ❛❜✐❡rt♦s ②
❝❡rr❛❞♦s ❞❡ ✉♥ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦ t♦♣♦❧ó❣✐❝♦✳ ❊♥ ❡st❛ s❡❝❝✐ó♥ ❛❜♦r❞❛r❡♠♦s ❡st❛s r❡❧❛❝✐♦♥❡s ❡♠♣❧❡❛♥❞♦
♣❛r❛ ❡❧❧♦ ❧❛s ✐❞❡❛s ❡①♣✉❡st❛s ❡♥ ❬✶✶❪✳ P❛r❛ r❡❛❧✐③❛r ❡❧ ♦❜❥❡t✐✈♦ q✉❡ s❡ ❤❛ ♣r♦♣✉❡st♦ ✈❡r❡♠♦s
♣r❡✈✐❛♠❡♥t❡ ✉♥❛s ♣❡q✉❡ñ❛s ♥♦❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ t♦♣♦❧♦❣í❛✳ ❆q✉❡❧❧♦s q✉❡ t❡♥❣❛♥ ✉♥ ❞♦♠✐♥✐♦ ❞❡ ❧♦s
❢✉♥❞❛♠❡♥t♦s ❞❡ ❡st❛ ❞✐s❝✐♣❧✐♥❛ ♣✉❡❞❡♥ s❛❧t❛rs❡ ❧❛ s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡ s✉❜s❡❝❝✐ó♥✳

✷✳✺✳✶✳ ◆♦❝✐♦♥❡s ❜ás✐❝❛s ❞❡ t♦♣♦❧♦❣í❛

▲❛ t♦♣♦❧♦❣í❛ ❡s ✉♥❛ r❛♠❛ ❞❡ ❧❛s ♠❛t❡♠át✐❝❛s q✉❡ ❜✉s❝❛ ❡st✉❞✐❛r ♣r♦♣✐❡❞❛❞❡s q✉❡ ❝❛✲
r❛❝t❡r✐③❛♥ ❧♦s ✓❡s♣❛❝✐♦s✔ ♣❡r♦ q✉❡ ✈❛♥ ♠ás ❛❧❧á ❞❡ ❧❛s ♣r♦♣✐❛s ❞❡ ❧❛s ❣❡♦♠❡trí❛s q✉❡ ❡st✉❞✐❛
✐♥✈❛r✐❛♥t❡s ❜❛❥♦ tr❛♥s❢♦r♠❛❝✐♦♥❡s q✉❡ ♣r❡s❡r✈❛♥ ❧❛ ♠étr✐❝❛ ✭♣♦❞rí❛♠♦s ❞❡❝✐r ❧❛ ❞✐st❛♥❝✐❛✮✳
P♦❞❡♠♦s ❡♥t❡♥❞❡r ❡st♦ ú❧t✐♠♦ ❝♦♠♦ ❡q✉✐✈❛❧❡♥t❡ ❛ ❧❛ ❛✜r♠❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ q✉❡ ❛q✉❡❧❧♦ q✉❡ ❜✉s❝❛ ❧❛
t♦♣♦❧♦❣í❛ ❡s ❡st✉❞✐❛r ❧♦s ❡s♣❛❝✐♦s ✓s✐♥ ✐♠♣♦rt❛r ❡❧ t❛♠❛ñ♦✔ ♦ ❜✉s❝❛♥❞♦ ♣r♦♣✐❡❞❛❞❡s ♠✉❝❤♦
♠ás ❣❡♥❡r❛❧❡s ❝♦♠♦ s✐ ✉♥ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦ t✐❡♥❡ ❞♦s ♣❛rt❡s s❡♣❛r❛❞❛s ♦ ♥♦✳
▲❛ ✐❞❡❛ ❜ás✐❝❛ ❞❡ ❡st❛ r❛♠❛ ❡s ❧❛ ❞❡ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦ t♦♣♦❧ó❣✐❝♦✱ ❧♦s ♦❜❥❡t♦s q✉❡ ❢♦r♠❛♥ ❡st❛
❝❛t❡❣♦rí❛✳ P❛r❛ ❞❡✜♥✐r ❡st❡ ❡①✐st❡♥ ♠ú❧t✐♣❧❡s ❛❧t❡r♥❛t✐✈❛s ❛✉♥q✉❡ ♥♦s♦tr♦s ✈❡r❡♠♦s ❞♦s
✐❞❡❛s ❞✉❛❧❡s q✉❡ ♥♦s s❡r✈✐rá♥ ♣❛r❛ ❡❧ ♣r♦♣ós✐t♦ ❞❡ ❡st✉❞✐❛r ❧ó❣✐❝❛s ♥♦ ❝❧ás✐❝❛s✳ ❆♠❜❛s ✐❞❡❛s
♣❛rt❡♥ ❞❡ ✉♥ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦ X ❡♥ ❡❧ ❝✉❛❧ ❤❛❝❡♠♦s ✉♥❛ ❡❧❡❝❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ❝♦❧❡❝❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ s✉❜❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦s
❞❡ X ❞❡ ❢♦r♠❛ q✉❡ t❛❧ q✉❡ ❧❛ ❝♦❧❡❝❝✐ó♥ ♣r❡s❡♥t❡ ❝✐❡rt❛s ♣r♦♣✐❡❞❛❞❡s ✐♥t❡r❡s❛♥t❡s✳ ❊st❛s
❡❧❡❝❝✐♦♥❡s s✐r✈❡♥ ♣❛r❛ ❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❛r ❞❡ ❛❧❣✉♥❛ ❢♦r♠❛ ❝ó♠♦ ❡stá♥ ✉♥♦s ♣✉♥t♦s ❥✉♥t♦ ❛ ♦tr♦s ②
❝ó♠♦ ❝♦♥✈❡r❣❡♥ ❡♥tr❡ sí✱ ❡s ❞❡❝✐r ❧❛s ♣r♦♣✐❡❞❛❞❡s q✉❡ ❡st✉❞✐❛ ❧❛ t♦♣♦❧♦❣í❛✳ ❱❡❛♠♦s ❛♠❜❛s
❞❡✜♥✐❝✐♦♥❡s✳
P♦r ✉♥ ❧❛❞♦ t❡♥❡♠♦s ✉♥❛ ❞❡✜♥✐❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ ❛❜✐❡rt♦ ❜❛s❛❞❛ ❡♥ ❧❛ ✐❞❡❛ ✐♥t✉✐t✐✈❛ ❞❡
✸✷ ❈❆P❮❚❯▲❖ ✷✳ ▲❆ ◆❊●❆❈■Ó◆ ❊◆ ▲❆❙ ▲Ó●■❈❆❙ ❋❖❘▼❆▲❊❙

❡s♣❛❝✐♦s q✉❡ ❝❛r❡❝❡♥ ❞❡ ✓❢r♦♥t❡r❛✔ ♦ q✉❡ ❝❛r❡❝❡♥ ❞❡ ✉♥ ✓❜♦r❞❡✔ ❡♥ ❝❛s♦s ❝♦♠♦ ❧❛s ❧❧❛♠❛❞❛s
✓❜♦❧❛s ❛❜✐❡rt❛s✔ ❡♥ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦s ❝♦♠♦ R ♦ Rn ✿

P♦r ♦tr♦ t❡♥❡♠♦s ❧❛ ✐❞❡❛ ❞❡ ✉♥ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ ❝❡rr❛❞♦ s❡ ❝♦♥str✉②❡ ❛ ♣❛rt✐r ❞❡ ❧❛ ✐❞❡❛ ✐♥t✉✐t✐✈❛
❞❡ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦s ❝♦♥ ✉♥❛ ✓❢r♦♥t❡r❛✔ ♦ ✓❜♦r❞❡✔✳

❉❡✜♥✐♠♦s ❛sí ✉♥ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦ t♦♣♦❧ó❣✐❝♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡ ❢♦r♠❛✿

❉❡✜♥✐❝✐ó♥ ✷✳✾✳ ❉✐r❡♠♦s q✉❡ ✉♥ ♣❛r ♦r❞❡♥❛❞♦ (X, T) ❡s ✉♥ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦ t♦♣♦❧ó❣✐❝♦ ② ❞✐r❡♠♦s
q✉❡ T ❡s ❡❧ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ ❞❡ ❛❜✐❡rt♦s ❞❡ ❞✐❝❤❛ t♦♣♦❧♦❣í❛ s✐ s❡ ❝✉♠♣❧❡ q✉❡ T ⊂ P (X) ② ❛❞❡♠ás
s❡ t✐❡♥❡ q✉❡✿

✶✳ X ∈ T ② ∅ ∈ T✳

✷✳ ❙✐ Ui ∈ T ♣❛r❛ t♦❞♦ i ∈ i ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s ∪i∈I Ui ∈ T✳

✸✳ ❙✐ U ∈ T ② V ∈ T ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s U ∩ V ∈ T

▲♦ q✉❡ q✉✐❡r❡ ❞❡❝✐r ❡st❛ ❞❡✜♥✐❝✐ó♥ ❡s q✉❡ t❛♥t♦ ❡❧ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦ t♦t❛❧ ❝♦♠♦ ❡❧ ✈❛❝í♦ s♦♥
❛❜✐❡rt♦s✱ ❧❛ ✉♥✐ó♥ ❛r❜✐tr❛r✐❛ ❞❡ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦s ❛❜✐❡rt♦s ❡s ✉♥ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ ❛❜✐❡rt♦ ② ❧❛ ✐♥t❡rs❡❝❝✐ó♥
❞❡ ❞♦s ❛❜✐❡rt♦s ❡s ✉♥ ❛❜✐❡rt♦✳
❆ s✉ ✈❡③ ♣♦❞❡♠♦s ❞❡✜♥✐r ✉♥ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦ t♦♣♦❧ó❣✐❝♦ ❛ ♣❛rt✐r ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ❝♦❧❡❝❝✐ó♥ ❝❡rr❛❞♦s ❞❡
❧❛ s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡ ❢♦r♠❛✿

❉❡✜♥✐❝✐ó♥ ✷✳✶✵✳ ❉✐r❡♠♦s q✉❡ ✉♥ ♣❛r ♦r❞❡♥❛❞♦ (X, F) ❡s ✉♥ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦ t♦♣♦❧ó❣✐❝♦ ② ❞✐r❡♠♦s
q✉❡ F ❡s ❡❧ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ ❞❡ ❝❡rr❛❞♦s ❞❡ ❞✐❝❤❛ t♦♣♦❧♦❣í❛ s✐ s❡ ❝✉♠♣❧❡ q✉❡ F ⊂ P (X) ② ❛❞❡♠ás
s❡ t✐❡♥❡ q✉❡✿

✶✳ X ∈ F ② ∅ ∈ F✳

✷✳ ❙✐ Fi ∈ F ♣❛r❛ t♦❞♦ i ∈ i ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s ∩i∈I Fi ∈ T✳

✷✳✺✳ ❚❖P❖▲❖●❮❆ ❨ ▲Ó●■❈❆❙ ◆❖ ❈▲➪❙■❈❆❙ ✸✸

✸✳ ❙✐ F ∈ T ② H ∈ T ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s F ∪ H ∈ T

▲♦ q✉❡ q✉✐❡r❡ ❞❡❝✐r ❡st❛ ❞❡✜♥✐❝✐ó♥ ❡s q✉❡ t❛♥t♦ ❡❧ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦ t♦t❛❧ ❝♦♠♦ ❡❧ ✈❛❝í♦ s♦♥
❝❡rr❛❞♦s✱ ❧❛ ✐♥t❡rs❡❝❝✐ó♥ ❛r❜✐tr❛r✐❛ ❞❡ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦s ❝❡rr❛❞♦s ❡s ✉♥ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ ❝❡rr❛❞♦ ② ❧❛ ✉♥✐ó♥
❞❡ ❞♦s ❝❡rr❛❞♦s ❡s ✉♥ ❝❡rr❛❞♦✳
❆❞❡♠ás ❡st❛s ❞♦s ♥♦❝✐♦♥❡s s❡ r❡❧❛❝✐♦♥❛♥ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ❢♦r♠❛ ♠✉② s❡♥❝✐❧❧❛ ✉s❛♥❞♦ ❡❧ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦
❝♦♠♣❧❡♠❡♥t❛r✐♦✱ ❡s ❞❡❝✐r ❡❧ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ ❝✉②♦s ❡❧❡♠❡♥t♦s s♦♥ t♦❞♦s ❛q✉❡❧❧♦s q✉❡ ♥♦ ♣❡rt❡♥❡❝❡♥
❛❧ ♦r✐❣✐♥❛❧✳ ❆sí✱ s✐ t❡♥❡♠♦s ✉♥ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦ t♦♣♦❧ó❣✐❝♦ ❛ tr❛✈és ❞❡ ❧♦s ❛❜✐❡rt♦s ♣♦❞❡♠♦s ♦❜t❡♥❡r
❧♦s ❝❡rr❛❞♦s t♦♠❛♥❞♦ ❡❧ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ ❞❡ t♦❞♦s ❧♦s ❝♦♠♣❧❡♠❡♥t❛r✐♦s ❞❡ ❧♦s ❛❜✐❡rt♦s✱ ❡s ❞❡❝✐r ✉♥
❝❡rr❛❞♦ ♥♦ ❡s ♠ás q✉❡ ❡❧ ❝♦♠♣❧❡♠❡♥t❛r✐♦ ❞❡ ✉♥ ❛❜✐❡rt♦✳ ❉❡ ✐❣✉❛❧ ❢♦r♠❛ ♣♦❞❡♠♦s ❞❡✜♥✐r
❧♦s ❛❜✐❡rt♦s ❛ ♣❛rt✐r ❞❡ ❧♦s ❝❡rr❛❞♦s ❞✐❝✐❡♥❞♦ q✉❡ ❡st♦s s♦♥ ❧♦s ❝♦♠♣❧❡♠❡♥t❛r✐♦s ❞❡ ❧♦s
❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦s ❝❡rr❛❞♦s✳

❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✷✳✶✶✳ ▲❛ t♦♣♦❧♦❣í❛ ❤❛❜✐t✉❛❧ ❞❡ ❧❛ r❡❝t❛ ❞❡ ❧♦s ♥ú♠❡r♦s r❡❛❧❡s R s❡ ♣✉❡❞❡ ❝♦♥str✉✐r
❛ tr❛✈és ❞❡ ❧♦s ❛❜✐❡rt♦s ❞❡✜♥✐❡♥❞♦ ❝♦♠♦ t❛❧❡s ❛ ❧♦s ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦s ♦❜t❡♥✐❞♦s ❛ tr❛✈és ❞❡ ❧❛s
✉♥✐♦♥❡s ❛r❜✐tr❛r✐❛s ❡ ✐♥t❡rs❡❝❝✐♦♥❡s ✜♥✐t❛s ❞❡ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧♦s ❛❜✐❡rt♦s ❞❡ ❧❛ ❢♦r♠❛✿
(a, b) = {x ∈ R|a < x < b} ❝♦♥ a ∈ R ∪ {−∞, +∞} ② b ∈ R ∪ {−∞, +∞}✳
❉❡ ❢♦r♠❛ ❛❧t❡r♥❛t✐✈❛ ❡st❛ t♦♣♦❧♦❣í❛ ♣✉❡❞❡ ❝♦♥str✉✐rs❡ ❛ ♣❛rt✐r ❞❡ ❧♦s ❝❡rr❛❞♦s ✉t✐❧✐③❛♥❞♦
t♦❞♦s ❛q✉❡❧❧♦s ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦s ❣❡♥❡r❛❞♦s ❛ ♣❛rt✐r ❞❡ ✐♥t❡rs❡❝❝✐♦♥❡s ❛r❜✐tr❛r✐❛s ② ✉♥✐♦♥❡s ✜♥✐t❛s
❞❡ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦s ❞❡ ❧❛ ❢♦r♠❛✿
[a, b] = {x ∈ R|a ≤ x ≤ b} ❝♦♥ a ∈ R ∪ {−∞, +∞} ② b ∈ R ∪ {−∞, +∞}✳

❈♦♠♦ s❡ ♣✉❡❞❡ ❝♦♠♣r♦❜❛r ❧❛s ❞♦s ❞❡✜♥✐❝✐♦♥❡s ♣r❡s❡♥t❛♥ ✉♥❛ ❝✐❡rt❛ ❞✉❛❧✐❞❛❞ ♠ás ❛❧❧á ❞❡
❧❛ ✐❞❡❛ ❞❡ q✉❡ ✉♥❛ ♣✉❡❞❡ ♦❜t❡♥❡rs❡ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♦tr❛ ✉s❛♥❞♦ ❡❧ ❝♦♠♣❧❡♠❡♥t♦✳ ▲❛s ❞♦s ❞❡✜♥✐❝✐♦♥❡s
s♦♥ ❧❛ ♠✐s♠❛ s❛❧✈♦ ❡♥ ❡❧ ♣❛♣❡❧ q✉❡ ❥✉❡❣❛♥ ❧❛s ✉♥✐♦♥❡s ❡ ✐♥t❡rs❡❝❝✐♦♥❡s ② ❡st♦ t✐❡♥❡ s✉s
❝♦♥s❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛s✳ ❯♥ ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦ ♠✉② ✐♠♣♦rt❛♥t❡ ❞❡ ❡❧❧♦ s♦♥ ❧❛s ❞♦s ♥♦❝✐♦♥❡s q✉❡ ✈❛♠♦s ❛ ❞❡✜♥✐r
❛ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❛❝✐ó♥✳
❙✐ t❡♥❡♠♦s ✉♥ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦ t♦♣♦❧ó❣✐❝♦ ❝♦♥str✉✐❞♦ s♦❜r❡ ❡❧ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ X ♣♦❞❡♠♦s ❤❛❝❡r ♠✉❝❤❛s
❝♦s❛s ❝♦♥ é❧✳ ❊♥ ♣❛rt✐❝✉❧❛r ❞❛❞♦ ✉♥ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ Y ⊂ X q✉❡ ♥♦ ❡s ❛❜✐❡rt♦ ♣♦❞❡♠♦s q✉❡r❡r
♦❜t❡♥❡r ✉♥ ❛❜✐❡rt♦ Y̊ ❛ ♣❛rt✐r ❞ ❡❡st❡✳ ❈♦♠♦ q✉❡r❡♠♦s q✉❡ ❡s❡ ❛❜✐❡rt♦ t❡♥❣❛ q✉❡ ✈❡r ❝♦♥
Y ❡s r❛③♦♥❛❜❧❡ ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r❛r q✉❡ ❞❡❜❡rí❛ s✉❝❡❞❡r q✉❡ ♦ ❜✐❡♥ Y ⊂ Y̊ ♦ q✉❡ Y̊ ⊂ Y ✳ ▲❛ ♣r✐♠❡r❛
❞❡ ❡st❛s ♦♣❝✐♦♥❡s ♥♦ ❡s ❢á❝✐❧ ❞❡ ❝♦♥s❡❣✉✐r ♣✉❡st♦ q✉❡ s✐ t♦♠❛♠♦s ❡❧ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ ❞❡ ❛❜✐❡rt♦s
q✉❡ ❝♦♥t✐❡♥❡♥ ❛ Y ✿ UY = {V ∈ T|Y ⊂ V }✱ t❛❧ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ ♥♦ t✐❡♥❡ q✉❡ t❡♥❡r ✉♥ ♠í♥✐♠♦✳ ❊♥
❝❛♠❜✐♦ ❡❧ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ VY = {U ∈ T|U ⊂ Y } t✐❡♥❡ ✉♥ ♠á①✐♠♦ q✉❡ ♥♦ ❡s ♠ás q✉❡ ❧❛ ✉♥✐ó♥ ❞❡
t♦❞♦s ❡s❡s ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦s✳ P♦r t❛♥t♦ t✐❡♥❡ s❡♥t✐❞♦ ❞❡✜♥✐r Y̊ ❞❡ ❡s❛ ❢♦r♠❛✳
❊♥ ❝❛♠❜✐♦ ❝✉❛♥❞♦ ♥♦s ♣❛s❛♠♦s ❛❧ ♠✉♥❞♦ ❞❡ ❧♦s ❝❡rr❛❞♦s ❧❛ s✐t✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❡s ❧❛ ♦♣✉❡st❛✳
❉❛❞♦ ✉♥ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ Y ⊂ X q✉❡ ♥♦ ❡s ❝❡rr❛❞♦ ♣♦❞❡♠♦s q✉❡r❡r ❢♦r♠❛r ✉♥ ❝❡rr❛❞♦ Ȳ ❛ ♣❛rt✐r
❞❡ ❞✐❝❤♦ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦✳ ▲❛ ❢♦r♠❛ ♠ás s❡♥s❛t❛ ❞❡ ❤❛❝❡r❧♦ ❡s ♣✐❞✐❡♥❞♦ q✉❡ Y ⊂ Ȳ ② ❧❛ ✐❞❡❛
✸✹ ❈❆P❮❚❯▲❖ ✷✳ ▲❆ ◆❊●❆❈■Ó◆ ❊◆ ▲❆❙ ▲Ó●■❈❆❙ ❋❖❘▼❆▲❊❙

✐♥t✉✐t✐✈❛ ♣❛r❛ ❥✉st✐✜❝❛r ❡st♦ ♥♦ ❡s ♠ás q✉❡ ❧❛ ✐♥t❡rs❡❝❝✐ó♥ ❛r❜✐tr❛r✐❛ ❞❡ ❝❡rr❛❞♦s ❡s ✉♥

❝❡rr❛❞♦✱ ♣❡r♦ ♥♦ ❛sí ❧❛ ✉♥✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❡st♦s✳
❉❡✜♥✐♠♦s ❛sí ❧♦s s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡s ❞♦s ✓♦♣❡r❛❞♦r❡s✔✿

❉❡✜♥✐❝✐ó♥ ✷✳✶✷✳ ❙❡❛ (X, T) ✉♥ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦ t♦♣♦❧ó❣✐❝♦ ❡ Y ⊂ X ✱ ❞❡✜♥✐♠♦s Y̊ ② ❧❧❛♠❛♠♦s

✐♥t❡r✐♦r ❞❡ Y ❛❧ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ ❛❜✐❡rt♦ ♠ás ❣r❛♥❞❡ q✉❡ ❡stá ❝♦♥t❡♥✐❞♦ ❡♥ Y ✳

❉❡✜♥✐❝✐ó♥ ✷✳✶✸✳ ❙❡❛ (X, T) ✉♥ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦ t♦♣♦❧ó❣✐❝♦ ❡ Y ⊂ X ✱ ❞❡✜♥✐♠♦s Ȳ ② ❧❧❛♠❛♠♦s

❝❧❛✉s✉r❛ ❞❡ Y ❛❧ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ ❝❡rr❛❞♦ ♠ás ♣❡q✉❡ñ♦ q✉❡ ❝♦♥t❡♥✐❡♥❡ ❛ Y ✳

❈♦♥ ❡st♦ ❞❡✜♥✐♠♦s ✉♥❛ ♥♦❝✐ó♥ q✉❡ ✈❛ ♠♦str❛rs❡ ❝♦♠♦ ❧❛ ❝❧❛✈❡ ♣❛r❛ ❡♥t❡♥❞❡r ❧❛s ❧ó❣✐❝❛s
♣❛r❛❝♦♥s✐st❡♥t❡s ② ♣❛r❛❝♦♠♣❧❡t❛s✿ ❧❛ ❢r♦♥t❡r❛ ❞❡ ✉♥ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦✳

❉❡✜♥✐❝✐ó♥ ✷✳✶✹✳ ❙❡❛ (X, T) ✉♥ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦ t♦♣♦❧ó❣✐❝♦ ❡ Y ⊂ X ✱ ❞❡✜♥✐♠♦s Fr(Y ) ② ❧❧❛♠❛♠♦s

❢r♦♥t❡r❛ ❞❡ Y ❛❧ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ Ȳ \ Y̊ ✳

❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✷✳✶✺✳ ❙✐ ❡st❛♠♦s ❡♥ ❡❧ ❝❛s♦ ❞❡ R ❝♦♥ ❧❛ t♦♣♦❧♦❣í❛ ✉s✉❛❧ ② t♦♠❛♠♦s ❡❧ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦

Y = (0, 1] = {x ∈ R|0 < x ≤ 1} s❡ t✐❡♥❡♥ ❧♦s s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡s r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦s

Y̊ = (0, 1)✳

Ȳ = [0, 1]✳

Fr(Y ) = {0} ∪ {1}✳

✷✳✺✳✷✳ ▲❛ ❧ó❣✐❝❛ ❞❡ ❧♦s ❛❜✐❡rt♦s ② ❝❡rr❛❞♦s

❉❛❞♦ ✉♥ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦ t♦♣♦❧ó❣✐❝♦ (X, T) t❛♥t♦ ❡❧ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ ❞❡ ❧♦s ❛❜✐❡rt♦s O(X) ❝♦♠♦ ❡❧
❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ ❞❡ s✉s ❝❡rr❛❞♦s C(X) ❢♦r♠❛♥ ✉♥ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ ♦r❞❡♥❛❞♦ ❜❛❥♦ ❧❛ r❡❧❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦r❞❡♥
❡st❛❜❧❡❝✐❞❛ ♣♦r ❧❛ r❡❧❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❝♦♥t❡♥✐❞♦ ❡♥tr❡ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦s ② q✉❡ ❛q✉í ♣♦❞❡♠♦s ✐♥t❡r♣r❡t❛r
❝♦♠♦ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛♥❞♦ ✉♥❛ r❡❧❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ✐♠♣❧✐❝❛❝✐ó♥✳ ❆❞❡♠ás✱ ❡st❡ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ ♦r❞❡♥❛❞♦ ❝✉♠♣❧❡
q✉❡ t✐❡♥❡ ✉♥ ♠á①✐♠♦ ② ✉♥ ♠í♥✐♠♦ ❡♥ X ② ∅ q✉❡ ❡♥ tér♠✐♥♦s ❧ó❣✐❝♦s ♣♦❞❡♠♦s ❡♥t❡♥❞❡r
❝♦♠♦ ❧❛ ♣r♦♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ✈❡r❞❛❞❡r❛ ② ❧❛ ♣r♦♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ❢❛❧s❛✳ ❊s ♠ás✱ ❧❛s ✉♥✐♦♥❡s ❡ ✐♥t❡rs❡❝❝✐♦♥❡s
❞❡ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦s s✐❣✉❡♥ ❡st❛♥❞♦ ② ❡st❛s s❡ ❝♦♥str✉②❡♥ ❞❡ ❢♦r♠❛ ❛♥á❧♦❣❛ ❛ ❧❛ ❞✐s②✉♥❝✐ó♥ ②
❧❛ ❝♦♥❥✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♣r♦♣♦s✐❝✐♦♥❡s✳ ❊st❛♠♦s✱ ♣♦r t❛♥t♦✱ ❜❛st❛♥t❡ ❝❡r❝❛ ❞❡ ✉♥ s✐st❡♠❛ ❧ó❣✐❝♦
❢♦r♠❛❞♦ ♦ ❜✐❡♥ ♣♦r ❧♦s ❛❜✐❡rt♦s ♦ ❜✐❡♥ ♣♦r ❧♦s ❝❡rr❛❞♦s✳
▲♦ q✉❡ ♥♦s ❢❛❧t❛ ♣♦r ✐♥tr♦❞✉❝✐r ❡s ✉♥ ✓✐♥❣r❡❞✐❡♥t❡✔ ♠✉② ✐♠♣♦rt❛♥t❡ ② ❡s ❡❧ q✉❡ ❞❛
♥♦♠❜r❡ ❛ ❡st❡ tr❛❜❛❥♦✿ ❧❛ ♥❡❣❛❝✐ó♥✳ ▲❛ ✐❞❡❛ ♠ás ♥❛t✉r❛❧ q✉❡ s❡ ❧❡ ♦❝✉rr❡ ❛ ✉♥♦ ♣❛r❛
❞❡✜♥✐r ❧❛ ♥❡❣❛❝✐ó♥ ❡s t♦♠❛r ❡❧ ❝♦♠♣❧❡♠❡♥t❛r✐♦ ❞❡ ✉♥ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦✱ ♥♦ ♦❜st❛♥t❡ ❡st♦ ♣r❡s❡♥t❛
✉♥ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠❛ s✐❣♥✐✜❝❛t✐✈♦ ② ❡s q✉❡ ♥♦ s❡ t✐❡♥❡ q✉❡ ❝✉♠♣❧✐r q✉❡ ❡❧ ❝♦♠♣❧❡♠❡♥t❛r✐♦ ❞❡ ✉♥
❛❜✐❡rt♦ s❡❛ ✉♥ ❛❜✐❡rt♦✱ t❛♠♣♦❝♦ q✉❡ ❡❧ ❝♦♠♣❧❡♠❡♥t❛r✐♦ ❞❡ ✉♥ ❝❡rr❛❞♦ s❡❛ ✉♥ ❝❡rr❛❞♦✳ P❛r❛
✷✳✺✳ ❚❖P❖▲❖●❮❆ ❨ ▲Ó●■❈❆❙ ◆❖ ❈▲➪❙■❈❆❙ ✸✺

s♦❧✉❝✐♦♥❛r ❡st♦ ♣r❡❝✐s❛♠♦s ❞❡ ❧❛s ♥♦❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ✐♥t❡r✐♦r ② ❝❧❛✉s✉r❛ ❞❡ ✉♥ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ ❞❡✜♥✐❞❛s

❛♥t❡s✳
❊♥ ❡❧ ❝❛s♦ ❞❡ q✉❡ ❡st❡♠♦s tr❛❜❛❥❛♥❞♦ ❝♦♥ O(X) ❞❡✜♥✐♠♦s ❧❛ ♥❡❣❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ✉♥ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦
❛❜✐❡rt♦ Y ❝♦♠♦ ¬Y = X ˚ \ Y ✱ ❡s ❞❡❝✐r ❝♦♠♦ ❡❧ ✐♥t❡r✐♦r ❞❡❧ ❝♦♠♣❧❡♠❡♥t❛r✐♦✳ ▲❛ ♥♦✈❡❞❛❞
q✉❡ t✐❡♥❡ ❡st❛ ❞❡✜♥✐❝✐ó♥ ❡s q✉❡ ♣❡r♠✐t❡ q✉❡ ♥♦ s❡ t❡♥❣❛ ❡❧ ♣r✐♥❝✐♣✐♦ ❞❡❧ t❡r❝✐♦ ❡①❝❧✉s♦✱ ❡s
❞❡❝✐r ❡s ✉♥❛ ❧ó❣✐❝❛ ♣❛r❛❝♦♠♣❧❡t❛✳ P❡♥s❡♠♦s ♣♦r ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦ ❡♥ ❧❛ t♦♣♦❧♦❣í❛ ❤❛❜✐t✉❛❧ ❞❡ R ②
❡❧ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ ❛❜✐❡rt♦ Y = (−∞, 0)✱ s✉ ❝♦♠♣❧❡♠❡♥t❛r✐♦ ❡s ❡❧ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ ❝❡rr❛❞♦ [0, +∞) ② s✉
♥❡❣❛❝✐ó♥ ❡s ❡❧ ✐♥t❡r✐♦r ❞❡ ❡st❡ ú❧t✐♠♦✱ ❡s ❞❡❝✐r ¬Y = (0, +∞)✳ ❆❤♦r❛ ❜✐❡♥✱ ❡♥ ❡st❡ ❝❛s♦ ♥♦
s❡ ❝✉♠♣❧❡ q✉❡ Y ∪ ¬Y = X ✱ ❡s ❞❡❝✐r✱ ♥♦ ❡s ❝✐❡rt♦ ❡❧ t❡r❝✐♦ ❡①❝❧✉s♦✳ ❨ ❡st♦ s❡ ❞❡❜❡ ❛ q✉❡
Fr(Y ) = {0} t✐❡♥❡ ✉♥ ❡❧❡♠❡♥t♦ q✉❡ ♥♦ ❡stá ❡♥ Y ♥✐ ❡♥ s✉ ♥❡❣❛❝✐ó♥✳
❆ s✉ ✈❡③ s✐ ❡st❛♠♦s ❝♦♥ C(X) ♣♦❞❡♠♦s ❞❡✜♥✐r ❧❛ ♥❡❣❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ✉♥ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ ❝❡rr❛❞♦
Y ❝♦♠♦ ¬Y = X \ Y ✱ ❡st♦ ❡s✱ ❧❛ ❝❧❛✉s✉r❛ ❞❡ s✉ ❝♦♠♣❧❡♠❡♥t❛r✐♦✳ ❊♥ ❡st❡ ❝❛s♦ ❧♦ q✉❡
s✉❝❡❞❡ ❡s q✉❡ ❡st❛♠♦s ❛♥t❡ ✉♥❛ ❧ó❣✐❝❛ ♣❛r❛❝♦♥s✐st❡♥t❡ ❡♥ ❧❛ ❝✉❛❧ ❝❛❜❡♥ ❧❛s ❝♦♥tr❛❞✐❝❝✐♦♥❡s
✈❡r❞❛❞❡r❛s✳ ❉✐❝❤❛ ❝♦♥tr❛❞✐❝❝✐ó♥ s❡ ♦❜t✐❡♥❡ ❞❡ ❢♦r♠❛ ❛♥á❧♦❣❛ ❛ ❧❛ ❛♥t❡r✐♦r ❡♠♣❧❡❛♥❞♦ ❧❛
♥✉❡✈❛ ❞❡✜♥✐❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♥❡❣❛❝✐ó♥✳ ❆sí s✐ ❡st❛♠♦s ❡♥ ❧❛ t♦♣♦❧♦❣í❛ ❤❛❜✐t✉❛❧ ❞❡ R ② t♦♠❛♠♦s ❡❧
❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ ❝❡rr❛❞♦ Y = (−∞, 0] s❡ t✐❡♥❡ q✉❡ s✉ ❝♦♠♣❧❡♠❡♥t❛r✐♦ ❡s (0, +∞) ② s✉ ♥❡❣❛❝✐ó♥
❡s [0, +∞)✳ ❊♥ ❡st❡ ❝❛s♦ ❧♦ q✉❡ s❡ t✐❡♥❡ q✉❡ ❡s q✉❡ ❡①✐st❡ ❡❧ ♣✉♥t♦ 0 q✉❡ ❡stá ❡♥ ❧❛ ❢r♦♥t❡r❛
❞❡ (−∞, 0] ② ❛❞❡♠ás ❡stá ❡♥ ❡st❡ ❝♦♠♦ ❡♥ s✉ ♥❡❣❛❝✐ó♥✳ ❊st♦ ♥♦ ❡s ♠ás q✉❡ ❞❡❝✐r q✉❡ ❧❛
✐♥t❡rs❡❝❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ Y ② ¬Y ❡s ❞✐st✐♥t♦ ❞❡ ∅ ② ♣♦r t❛♥t♦ ♥♦ ❡s ❢❛❧s❛✳
❙✐ q✉❡r❡♠♦s r❡❝✉♣❡r❛r ❝♦♥ ❡st❛s ♥♦❝✐♦♥❡s ❛❧❣♦ ♣❛r❡❝✐❞♦ ❛ ❧❛s t❛❜❧❛s ❞❡ ✈❡r❞❛❞ ❡①✐st❡
✉♥❛ ❢♦r♠❛ ♠✉② s❡♥❝✐❧❧❛ ❞❡ ❤❛❝❡r❧♦✳ P❛r❛ ❡❧❧♦ ❡s s✉✜❝✐❡♥t❡ ❝♦♥ ❝♦♥str✉✐r ✉♥❛ ❧ó❣✐❝❛ ❡♥ ❧❛ q✉❡
❡①✐st❛♥ t❛♥t♦s ✈❛❧♦r❡s ❞❡ ✈❡r❞❛❞ ❝♦♠♦ ❡❧❡♠❡♥t♦s ❡♥ O(X) ♦ C(X) ② ❡♥ ❧❛ q✉❡ ✐♥t❡r♣r❡t❛♠♦s
❧❛s ♦♣❡r❛❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ❢♦r♠❛ ✓♥❛t✉r❛❧✔✳ ❊st♦ ú❧t✐♠♦ ♥♦ q✉✐❡r❡ ❞❡❝✐r ♥❛❞❛ ♠ás q✉❡ ❧❛s s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡s
❞♦s ✐❞❡❛s✿

❙✐ ❡st❛♠♦s ❡♥ ✉♥❛ s✐t✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❡♥ ❧❛ ❝✉❛❧ ❛ ❧❛ ♣r♦♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ p s❡ ❧❡ ❛s✐❣♥❛ ❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r ❞❡

✈❡r❞❛❞ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐❡♥t❡ ❛ ✉♥ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ Y ✱ ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s ❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r ❞❡ ✈❡r❞❛❞ ❞❡ ¬p s❡rá ❡❧
❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ ❛s♦❝✐❛❞♦ ❛ ¬Y ✳

❙✐ p ② q ❡stá♥ ❡♥ ✉♥❛ s✐t✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❡♥ ❧❛ q✉❡ s❡ ❧❡s ❛s♦❝✐❛♥ ❧♦s ✈❛❧♦r❡s Y ② Z r❡s♣❡❝t✐✈❛✲

♠❡♥t❡✱ ❛s♦❝✐❛♠♦s ❛ p ∧ q ❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r Y ∩ Z ② ❛ p ∨ q ❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r ❞❡ Y ∪ Z ✳

P❛r❛ ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r ♦♣❡r❛❞♦r ♣r♦♣✐♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❧ó❣✐❝❛ ❝❧ás✐❝❛ ❝♦♠♦ → ❡st❡ s❡rá ✐♥t❡r♣r❡t❛❞♦ ❛
tr❛✈és ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ❡①♣r❡s✐ó♥ ❡q✉✐✈❛❧❡♥t❡ ❡♥ ❧ó❣✐❝❛ ❝❧ás✐❝❛ ❡♥ ❡❧ q✉❡ s♦❧♦ ❛♣❛r❡③❝❛ ¬✱ ∧ ♦
∨✳ P♦r ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✐♥t❡r♣r❡t❛♠♦s p → q ❝♦♠♦ ¬p ∨ q ♦ ¬(p ∧ ¬q)✳

P❛r❛ ❡♥t❡♥❞❡r ♠❡❥♦r ❡st♦ ✈❡❛♠♦s ❡❧ s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡ ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦ q✉❡ ♥♦s ♣❡r♠✐t❡ ❝♦♥str✉✐r ✉♥❛
❧ó❣✐❝❛ ♣❛r❛❝♦♠♣❧❡t❛ ② ✉♥❛ ❧ó❣✐❝❛ ♣❛r❛❝♦♥s✐st❡♥t❡✿
✸✻ ❈❆P❮❚❯▲❖ ✷✳ ▲❆ ◆❊●❆❈■Ó◆ ❊◆ ▲❆❙ ▲Ó●■❈❆❙ ❋❖❘▼❆▲❊❙

❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✷✳✶✻✳ ❚♦♠❡♠♦s ❡❧ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ ❞❡ ❧♦s ♥ú♠❡r♦s r❡❛❧❡s R ❝♦♠♦ ✉♥ ❡s♣❛❝✐♦ t♦♣♦❧ó❣✐❝♦
❝♦♥ ❡❧ s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ ❞❡ ❛❜✐❡rt♦s✿

T = {R, R \ {0}, ∅}

♦✱ ❞❡ ❢♦r♠❛ ❡q✉✐✈❛❧❡♥t❡✱ ❛ tr❛✈és ❞❡❧ s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ ❞❡ ❝❡rr❛❞♦s✿

F = {R, {0}, ∅}.

❆❤♦r❛✱ ❞❛❞♦ ✉♥ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ ❞❡ ♣r♦♣♦s✐❝✐♦♥❡s ♣♦❞❡♠♦s ❞❡✜♥✐r ❞♦s ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦s ❞❡ ✈❛❧♦r❡s ♣♦s✐✲
❜❧❡s✳ ❙✐ ❡st❛♠♦s ❡♥ ❡❧ ❝❛s♦ ❞❡ O(X) ❞❡✜♥✐♠♦s ❧♦s ✈❛❧♦r❡s ♣♦s✐❜❧❡s ❞❡ p ❝♦♠♦ R✱R \ {0} ♦ ∅✱
❛ ❧♦s q✉❡ ♣♦r ❝♦♠♦❞✐❞❛❞ ❞❡♥♦t❛r❡♠♦s ❝♦♠♦ 1✱ N ♦ 0✳ ❊♥ ❡st❡ ❝❛s♦ t❡♥❡♠♦s ❧❛s s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡s
t❛❜❧❛ ❞❡ ✈❡r❞❛❞ q✉❡ ♥♦s ♠✉❡str❛♥ q✉❡ ❡st❛♠♦s ❛♥t❡ ✉♥ s✐st❡♠❛ ♣❛r❛❝♦♠♣❧❡t♦✿

p ¬p p ∨ ¬p
1 0 1
N 0 N
0 1 1

❊♥ ❝❛♠❜✐♦✱ s✐ t♦♠❛♠♦s ❛ C(X) s❡ t✐❡♥❡ q✉❡ ❧♦s ✈❛❧♦r❡s ♣♦s✐❜❧❡s ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♣r♦♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ p
s♦♥ R✱ {0} ♦ ∅ ② q✉❡ ❞❡♥♦t❛♠♦s ❞❡ ❢♦r♠❛ s✐♠♣❧✐✜❝❛❞❛ ② ♠ás ♣ró①✐♠❛ ❛ ❧❛ ❧ó❣✐❝❛ ❝♦♠♦ 1✱
B ② 0✳ ❈♦♥ ❡st♦ ❡s ❢á❝✐❧ ❝♦♠♣r♦❜❛r q✉❡ ❡st❛♠♦s ❛♥t❡ ✉♥ s✐st❡♠❛ ♣❛r❛❝♦♠♣❧❡t♦✳ ❊♥ ❡❢❡❝t♦✱
♣✉❡st♦ q✉❡ ❜❛st❛ ♦❜s❡r✈❛r ❧❛ s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡ t❛❜❧❛ ❞❡ ✈❡r❞❛❞✿

p ¬p p ∧ ¬p
1 0 0
B 1 B
0 1 0
❈❛♣ít✉❧♦ ✸

❈♦♥s❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛s ② ❛♣❧✐❝❛❝✐♦♥❡s
▲❛s r❡❞❡s s♦❝✐❛❧❡s ❡stá♥ r❡♣❧❡t❛s ❞❡ ♣♦❧é♠✐❝❛s✱ ♠✉❝❤❛s ❞❡ ❡❧❧❛s ✐♥s✉st❛♥❝✐❛❧❡s ② ♠♦t✐✈❛✲
❞❛s ♣♦r ❧❛ ❜úsq✉❡❞❛ ❞❡❧ r❡❝♦♥♦❝✐♠✐❡♥t♦ ❛❥❡♥♦ ♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♠✉❡str❛ ❞❡ s✉♣❡r✐♦r✐❞❛❞ ♠♦r❛❧ ♦ ❞❡
❛❧❣✉♥❛ í♥❞♦❧❡ s❡♠❡❥❛♥t❡✳ ◆♦ ♦❜st❛♥t❡✱ ❡❧ ♦❥♦ ❛t❡♥t♦ ♣♦❞rá✱ ❡♥ ♦❝❛s✐♦♥❡s✱ r❡❝♦♥♦❝❡r ❛❧❣✉♥❛
✐❞❡❛ ♦ t❡♠❛ ❞❡ r❡✢❡①✐ó♥ ✐♥t❡r❡s❛♥t❡✳ ❆q✉í q✉✐s✐❡r❛ tr❛❡r ✉♥❛ ♣♦❧é♠✐❝❛ ♦r✐❣✐♥❛❞❛ ♣♦r ✉♥❛
❝rít✐❝❛ ✈❡rt✐❞❛ ❛ ❧❛s ♠❛t❡♠át✐❝❛s ❝♦♠♦ ✉♥❛ s✉❡rt❡ ❞❡ ❤❡rr❛♠✐❡♥t❛ ❞❡ ❞♦♠✐♥✐♦ ❖❝❝✐❞❡♥t❛❧
❧❧❡♥❛ ❞❡ ♣r❡❥✉✐❝✐♦s✳ ❈♦♠♦ s♦② ✐♥❝❛♣❛③ ❞❡ ♥❛✈❡❣❛r ❛ tr❛✈és ❞❡❧ ❜❛st♦ ♦❝é❛♥♦ ❞❡ ✐♥t❡r♥❡t
❤❛st❛ ❞❛r ❝♦♥ ❧❛ ♣♦❧é♠✐❝❛ ❧♦ q✉❡ r❡❛❧✐③❛ré s❡rá ✉♥ r❡❧❛t♦ ❝♦♥str✉✐❞♦ ❛ ♣❛rt✐r ❞❡ r❡❝✉❡r❞♦s
♣♦s✐❜❧❡♠❡♥t❡ s❡s❣❛❞♦s ② q✉❡ ❤❛❣❛♥ ♣❛r♦❞✐❛ ❞❡ ❧♦s ♣❛rt✐❝✐♣❛♥t❡s✳ ❈♦♥ t♦❞♦✱ ❡st♦ ♥♦ ❞❡❜❡rí❛
♣r❡♦❝✉♣❛r♥♦s✳ ❨ ❡s q✉❡ ❧♦ ✐♠♣♦rt❛♥t❡✱ ❝♦♠♦ s❡ ✈❡rá✱ ♥♦ ❡s t❛♥t♦ q✉✐é♥ ❞✐❥♦ ❛❧❣♦ ♦ q✉é s❡
❞✐❥♦✱ s✐♥♦ ❧❛s ❝♦♥❝❧✉s✐♦♥❡s q✉❡ ♣♦❞❡♠♦s ♦❜t❡♥❡r r❡✜♥❛♥❞♦ ❞✐❝❤♦s ❞✐s❝✉rs♦s✳
▲❛ ♣❡rs♦♥❛ q✉❡ r❡❛❧✐③❛❜❛ ❧❛ ❝rít✐❝❛ ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r❛❜❛ q✉❡ ❧❛s ♠❛t❡♠át✐❝❛s ♣❛rtí❛♥ ❞❡ ✉♥❛
❝♦♥❝❡♣❝✐ó♥ ✓❢rí❛ ② r❛❝✐♦♥❛❧✔ ② s✉♠❛♠❡♥t❡ ❛❜str❛❝t❛ q✉❡ ♥♦ ❡♥t❡♥❞í❛ ❧❛ r✐q✉❡③❛ ❞❡❧ ♠✉♥❞♦
r❡❛❧✳ P❛r❛ ❡❥❡♠♣❧✐✜❝❛r ❡st♦ s❡ ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r❛❜❛ ✉♥ ❡rr♦r ❧❛ ♦♣❡r❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ s✉♠❛r q✉❡ ❛♣r❡♥❞❡♠♦s
❞✉r❛♥t❡ ♥✉❡str❛ ✐♥❢❛♥❝✐❛✳ ❆sí s❡ ❛r❣✉♠❡♥t❛❜❛ q✉❡ ❡st❛ ✐❞❡❛ ❢❛❧❧❛❜❛ ♣✉❡st♦ q✉❡ ♥♦ t❡♥í❛ ❡♥
❝✉❛♥t♦✱ ♣♦r ❞❡❝✐r❧♦ ❛♣❡❧❛♥❞♦ ❛ ❧❛ ❢❛♠♦s❛ ❝❛♥❝✐ó♥✱ q✉❡ ❛ ✈❡❝❡s 1+1 = 7✳ ❊s ❞❡❝✐r✱ s✐ ✉♥♦ t✐❡♥❡
✉♥ ♣❡rr♦ ② ✉♥❛ ♣❡rr❛ ❛❧ ✓❥✉♥t❛r❧♦s✔ ♣✉❡❞❡ ♦❜t❡♥❡r ♠✉❝❤♦ ♠ás ❞❡ ❧♦ q✉❡ t❡♥í❛ ❛❧ ❝♦♠✐❡♥③♦✱
❡❧ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦ ♣✉❡❞❡ ♥♦ s❡r ✓❞♦s ♣❡rr♦s✔✳ ❊❧ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠❛ ❞❡ t♦❞❛ ❡st❛ ❝rít✐❝❛ ❡s q✉❡ ❢❛❧❧❛ ❛❧
❝♦♥s✐❞❡r❛r ❡❧ ♣❛♣❡❧ ❞❡ ❧❛s ♠❛t❡♠át✐❝❛s ❡♥ ♥✉❡str♦ ❝♦♥♦❝✐♠✐❡♥t♦✳ P❡r♦ ♥♦ s❡ ♣r❡♦❝✉♣❡♥✱
❡❧ ❢❛❧❧♦ ❡♥ ❡❧ q✉❡ ♣✉❡❞❡ ❝❛❡r ❡st❛ ♣❡rs♦♥❛ ❞❡❜✐❞♦ ❛ ✉♥ ❝✐❡rt♦ ❛❢á♥ ❞❡❧ r❡❧❛t✐✈✐s♠♦ ❡s✱ ❡♥
❡❧ ❢♦♥❞♦✱ ❡❧ ♠✐s♠♦ q✉❡ ♣✉❡❞❡ ♣r❡s❡♥t❛r ❧♦s ❞❡❢❡♥s♦r❡s ❞❡ ❝✐❡rt♦ ❝✐❡♥t✐✜❝✐s♠♦ ❡①❛❝❡r❜❛❞♦✳
❊♥ ❝♦♥❝r❡t♦✱ ❡❧ ❢❛❧❧♦ q✉❡ s❡ ❝♦♠❡t❡ ❡s ❡❧ ♠✐s♠♦ q✉❡ ❡❧ ❞❡ ❛q✉❡❧❧♦s q✉❡ ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r❛♥ q✉❡
❧❛s ♠❛t❡♠át✐❝❛s s♦♥ ✉♥❛ s✉❡rt❡ ❞❡ ❛r❝❛♥♦ ❧❡♥❣✉❛❥❡ ❡♥ q✉❡ ❛❧❣✉♥❛ ❡s♣❡❝✐❡ ❞❡ Pr♦✈✐❞❡♥❝✐❛
❡s❝r✐❜✐ó ❧❛ r❡❛❧✐❞❛❞ ♦ ❛❧ ♠❡♥♦s ❝♦♥❢♦r♠❛♥ ❡str✉❝t✉r❛s q✉❡ s♦♥ ❛❜s♦❧✉t❛s ② ❝♦♥❢♦r♠❛♥ ♣♦r
sí ♠✐s♠❛s ❧❛ r❡❛❧✐❞❛❞✳
❊❧ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠❛ ❞❡ ❢♦♥❞♦ ❡s t♦♠❛r ❧❛s ♠❛t❡♠át✐❝❛s ❝♦♠♦ ✉♥❛ ❤✐♣óst❛s✐s ✭✈é❛s❡ ❡❧ ❝❛♣ít✉❧♦

✸✼
✸✽ ❈❆P❮❚❯▲❖ ✸✳ ❈❖◆❙❊❈❯❊◆❈■❆❙ ❨ ❆P▲■❈❆❈■❖◆❊❙

1✮✳ ▲❛s ♠❛t❡♠át✐❝❛s ♥♦ s♦♥ ❛❧❣♦ q✉❡ ✢♦t❡ ❡♥ ✉♥ ✈❛❝í♦ ❛❜str❛❝t♦✱ s♦♥ ❤❡rr❛♠✐❡♥t❛s q✉❡
❤❡♠♦s ❝r❡❛❞♦ ♥♦s♦tr♦s ♣❛r❛ ❝♦♠♣r❡♥❞❡r ② ❞❡s❝r✐❜✐r ❧❛ r❡❛❧✐❞❛❞✳ ❊♥ ❡st♦ ❢❛❧❧❛ ② ❛❝✐❡rt❛ ❧❛
❝rít✐❝❛ r❡❧❛t✐✈✐st❛ ❛ ❧❛s ♠❛t❡♠át✐❝❛s✳ ❆❝✐❡rt❛ ❡♥ ❧❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ q✉❡ ❧♦ q✉❡ ♣r♦❝✉r❛ ❞❡♠♦str❛r ❡s
❧❛ ✐♥✉t✐❧✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ❧♦s ♥ú♠❡r♦s ♥❛t✉r❛❧❡s ② ❧❛ ❛❞✐❝✐ó♥ ♣❛r❛ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛r ❝✐❡rt❛s ❢❡♥ó♠❡♥♦s✱ ♣❡r♦
❢❛❧❧❛ ❝✉❛♥❞♦ ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r❛ q✉❡ ❡s ❡s❛ s✉ ✉t✐❧✐❞❛❞✳ ❊s ♠ás✱ ❧❛s ♠❛t❡♠át✐❝❛s s♦♥ ♠✉② ❛♠♣❧✐❛s ②
♣❡r♠✐t❡♥ ❝♦♥str✉✐r ❤❡rr❛♠✐❡♥t❛s ♣❛r❛ ❛♥❛❧✐③❛r ❢❡♥ó♠❡♥♦s ❝♦♠♦ s♦♥ ❧❛ r❡♣r♦❞✉❝❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧♦s
s❡r❡s ✈✐✈♦s✱ ❡ ✐♥❝❧✉s♦ s❡ ♣✉❡❞❡ ❞❡❝✐r q✉❡ ❛❧❣✉♥❛s ❞❡ ❡s❛s ✐❞❡❛s ❤❛♥ ❢♦♠❡♥t❛❞♦ ❝♦♥str✉❝❝✐♦✲
♥❡s ♠❛t❡♠át✐❝❛s✳ ❘❡❝♦r❞❡♠♦s q✉❡✱ ♣♦r ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦✱ ❧❛ ❢❛♠♦s❛ s✉❝❡s✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❋✐❜♦♥❛❝❝✐ ❛♣❛r❡❝❡
❥✉st❛♠❡♥t❡ ♣❛r❛ ❡st✉❞✐❛r ❧❛ r❡♣r♦❞✉❝❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧♦s ❝♦♥❡❥♦s✳
❆♥t❡ ❡st♦ ❡❧ ❧❡❝t♦r ♣✉❡❞❡ ♣r❡❣✉♥t❛rs❡ q✉é t✐❡♥❡ t♦❞♦ ❡st♦ q✉❡ ✈❡r ❝♦♥ ❧♦ ❡①♣✉❡st♦ ❡♥
❡st❡ tr❛❜❛❥♦✳ ▲❛ r❡s♣✉❡st❛ ❡s q✉❡ ❧❛ s✐t✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❧ó❣✐❝❛ ❡s ❛♥á❧♦❣❛✳ ❈♦♥s✐❞❡r❛♠♦s q✉❡
♠✉❝❤❛s ♣r❡❣✉♥t❛s s♦❜r❡ s✐ ❛❧❣♦ ❡s ✉♥❛ ✈❡r❞❛❞ ❧ó❣✐❝❛✱ s♦❜r❡ s✐ ✉♥ s✐st❡♠❛ ❧ó❣✐❝♦ ❡s ✈❡r❞❛❞❡r♦✱
s♦❜r❡ s✐ ❡❧ ♣r✐♥❝✐♣✐♦ ❞❡ ♥♦ ❝♦♥tr❛❞✐❝❝✐ó♥ ❡s ❝✐❡rt♦✱ ✳✳✳ ♥♦ s♦♥ ♣r❡❣✉♥t❛s ♣❡rt✐♥❡♥t❡s✳ ❊s❛s
♣r❡❣✉♥t❛s ❡stá♥ ♠❛❧ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛❞❛s ♣♦rq✉❡ ❧♦ ✐♠♣♦rt❛♥t❡ ❡s ♠ás ❜✐❡♥ s✉ ✉t✐❧✐❞❛❞✳ ▲❛ ❧ó❣✐❝❛✱
❝♦♠♦ ❧❛s ♠❛t❡♠át✐❝❛s✱ ♥♦ s♦♥ ❧❡♥❣✉❛❥❡s ❡①✐st❡♥t❡s ❞❡ s✉②♦ ❡♥ ❛❧❣✉♥❛ ❡s♣❡❝✐❡ ❞❡ ❝✐❡❧♦ ❡t❡r♥♦
♣❧❛tó♥✐❝♦✱ s♦♥ ❤❡rr❛♠✐❡♥t❛s ② s✉s ✈✐rt✉❞❡s ❞❡❜❡♥ ❛♥❛❧✐③❛r ❞❡ ❢♦r♠❛ ♣r❛❣♠át✐❝❛✳
P❛r❛ ❞❡s❛rr♦❧❧❛r ♠ás ❡st❛s ✐❞❡❛s ❡s ❝♦♥✈❡♥✐❡♥t❡ ❡❥❡♠♣❧✐✜❝❛r❧❛s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❛♥❞♦ ❝♦♥ ✉♥ ❝❛s♦
❝♦♥❝r❡t♦✳ ❚♦♠❡♠♦s ❛❤♦r❛ ❧❛ r❡❣❧❛ ❧ó❣✐❝❛ ❝♦♥♦❝✐❞❛ ❝♦♠♦ ✓♠♦❞✉s t♦❧❧❡♥s✔✳ ❊st❛ r❡❣❧❛ ♥♦s
✈✐❡♥❡ ❛ ❞❡❝✐r✱ ❝♦♠♦ ②❛ ❝♦♠❡♥t❛♠♦s✱ q✉❡ s✐ t❡♥❡♠♦s p → q ② ¬q ♣♦❞❡♠♦s ❞❡❞✉❝✐r ¬p✳
❊s ❞❡❝✐r✱ ♣❛r❛ ✈❡r q✉❡ ✉♥❛ ❤✐♣ót❡s✐s ❡s ❢❛❧s❛ ❜❛st❛ ❝♦♥ ✈❡r q✉❡ ❛❧❣✉♥❛ ❝♦♥s❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛ ❞❡
❡st❛ ❧♦ ❡s✳ ➽❈✉á❧ ❡s s✉ ❡st❛t✉t♦ ❞❡ ✈❡r❞❛❞❄ ➽❊s ❛❧❣♦ q✉❡ ❡stá ✐♥s❝r✐t♦ ❡♥ ❧❛ ♥❛t✉r❛❧❡③❛❄
❆ ♥✉❡str♦ ❥✉✐❝✐♦ ❧♦ q✉❡ s✉❝❡❞❡ ❡s ❛❧❣♦ ❜❛st❛♥t❡ ❞✐❢❡r❡♥t❡ ❛ ❧♦ q✉❡ ♣✉❡❞❡♥ s✉❣❡r✐r ❡s❛s
♣r❡❣✉♥t❛s✳ ❊❧ ✐♥✈❡st✐❣❛❞♦r ❞❡ ❧❛ r❡❛❧✐❞❛❞ ♥♦ ❞❡❜❡rí❛ ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r❛r ❡❧ ♠♦❞✉s t♦❧❧❡♥s ❝♦♠♦ ✉♥❛
✈❡r❞❛❞ r❡✈❡❧❛❞❛✱ ❡s ✉♥❛ ❤❡rr❛♠✐❡♥t❛✳ ❈✉❛♥❞♦ ❡st❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛ ✉♥❛ t❡♦rí❛ ② ❞❡❞✉❝❡ ❛❧❣✉♥❛
❝♦♥s❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛ ❞❡ ❡st❛ q✉❡ ❛♣❛r❡❝❡ r❡❢✉t❛❞❛ ❞❡ ❢♦r♠❛ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❛❞❛ ♣✉❡❞❡ ♦ ❜✐❡♥ ♥❡❣❛r ❡❧
♠♦❞✉s t♦❧❧❡♥s ♦ ❜✐❡♥ ♥❡❣❛r ❧❛ ❤✐♣ót❡s✐s✳ ▲❛ ♦♣❝✐ó♥ q✉❡ ♣❛r❡❝❡ ❤❛❜❡r ❞❛❞♦ ♠ás ❢r✉t♦ ❡s ❧❛
s❡❣✉♥❞❛✳
❈✉❛♥❞♦ ❤❛❜❧❛♠♦s ❞❡ ❧❡ ♥❡❣❛❝✐ó♥ ❡❧ ❝❛s♦ ❡s ❡❧ ♠✐s♠♦✳ ❙✐ ✉♥♦ q✉✐❡r❡ ❡♠♣❧❡❛r ❧❛ ❞♦❜❧❡
♥❡❣❛❝✐ó♥✱ ❧❛ ♥♦ ❝♦♥tr❛❞✐❝❝✐ó♥ ♦ ❡❧ t❡r❝✐♦ ❡①❝❧✉s♦ ❧♦ ❞❡❜❡ ❤❛❝❡r ❡♥ ❧❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ q✉❡ ❡s♦ ♣❡r♠✐t❛
❢♦r♠✉❧❛r t❡♦rí❛s ♠❡❥♦r❡s ♦ ♠ás r✐❝❛s✳ ❨ ❛❧ r❡✈és✱ ♣♦❞rá ✐♥t❡♥t❛r ❞❡ ❢♦r♠❛ r❛③♦♥❛❞❛ t♦♠❛r
✉♥ s✐st❡♠❛ ❧ó❣✐❝♦ ❛❧t❡r♥❛t✐✈♦ ❝✉❛♥❞♦ ❡st♦ ♣❛r❡③❝❛ ❧❛ ♠❡❥♦r ♦♣❝✐ó♥✳ ❊s♦ sí✱ ❧♦ q✉❡ sí ❞❡❜❡rí❛
q✉❡❞❛r ♣r♦❤✐❜✐❞♦✱ ♠✐❡♥tr❛s ♥♦ s❡ ❞❡♠✉❡str❛ ❛❧❣ú♥ ❜❡♥❡✜❝✐♦ ❞❡ ❧♦ ❝♦♥tr❛r✐♦✱ ❡s ✐r s❛❧t❛♥❞♦
❞❡♥tr♦ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♠✐s♠❛ t❡♦rí❛ ❞❡ ✉♥ s✐st❡♠❛ ❧ó❣✐❝♦ ❛ ♦tr♦✳
❈♦♥ t♦❞♦ ❡st♦ ❧♦ q✉❡ ♣r❡t❡♥❞❡♠♦s ❤❛❝❡r ✈❡r ❡s q✉❡ ❧❛ ♣r❡❣✉♥t❛ ♥♦ ❡s ➽❡s ❡❧ ♣r✐♥❝✐♣✐♦
❞❡ ♥♦ ❝♦♥tr❛❞✐❝❝✐ó♥ ❝✐❡rt♦❄ s✐♥♦ ➽❡s út✐❧ ✉t✐❧✐③❛r ❛❧❣ú♥ s✐st❡♠❛ ❧ó❣✐❝♦ ❞♦♥❞❡ ♥♦ s❡ ❝✉♠♣❧❛❄
➽❤❛② ♠♦t✐✈♦s r❡❛❧❡s ♣❛r❛ q✉❡r❡r ✉t✐❧✐③❛r❧♦❄ ❨ ❛sí ❞❡ ❢♦r♠❛ ❛♥á❧♦❣❛ ♣❛r❛ ♦tr♦s ♣r✐♥❝✐♣✐♦s
✸✳✶✳ P❆❘❆❉❖❏❆❙ ✸✾

❤❛❜✐t✉❛❧❡s ❞❡ ❧❛ ❧ó❣✐❝❛ ❝❧ás✐❝❛✳ ▲❛ ❡①✐st❡♥❝✐❛ ❞❡ ❡st❛ ❝❧❛s❡ ❞❡ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠❛s ❞♦♥❞❡ ❤❛ ❤❛❜✐❞♦

q✉✐é♥ ❤❛ q✉❡r✐❞♦ ❛♣❧✐❝❛r ❧ó❣✐❝❛s ❛❧t❡r♥❛t✐✈❛s ❡①✐st❡ ❞❡s❞❡ ❧❛ ❛♥t✐❣ü❡❞❛❞ ② ❡s ✉♥ ❤❡❝❤♦
✐♥❞✐s❝✉t✐❜❧❡✳ ▲♦ q✉❡ sí r❡s✉❧t❛ s❡r ✉♥ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠❛ ❛❜✐❡rt♦ ❡s ❧❛ ♣❡rt✐♥❡♥❝✐❛ ② ❧❛ ✉t✐❧✐❞❛❞ q✉❡
♣✉❡❞❡♥ ♦❢r❡❝❡r ❡st♦s s✐st❡♠❛s✳ ❊❧ ♦❜❥❡t✐✈♦ ❞❡ ❧♦ q✉❡ q✉❡❞❛ ❞❡ ❡st❡ t❡①t♦ s❡rá ❛❜♦r❞❛r
❛❧❣✉♥♦s ❞❡ ❡st♦s ♣r♦❜❧❡♠❛s ② ❝♦♠❡♥t❛r ♠✉② ♣♦r ❡♥❝✐♠❛ ❧❛s ✉t✐❧✐❞❛❞❡s q✉❡ ♣✉❡❞❛♥ ❜r✐♥❞❛r
❧❛s ❧ó❣✐❝❛s ♥♦ ❝❧ás✐❝❛s✳ ❙♦❜r❡ ❧❛ ✈❛❧♦r❛❝✐ó♥ ② ♣❡rt✐♥❡♥❝✐❛s ❞❡ ❡st❛s ❛♣❧✐❝❛❝✐♦♥❡s ❣✉❛r❞❛♠♦s
s✐❧❡♥❝✐♦ ♣♦r ✉♥❛ ❝✉❡st✐ó♥ ❞❡ t✐❡♠♣♦✱ ❝❛♣❛❝✐❞❛❞ ② ❡s♣❛❝✐♦✳

✸✳✶✳ P❛r❛❞♦❥❛s

▲❛ ♣r✐♠❡r❛ ❝❧❛s❡ ❞❡ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠❛s q✉❡ s✉❡❧❡♥ ❛❜♦r❞❛rs❡ ❛❧ tr❛t❛r ❞❡ ❧❛ ❝♦♥tr❛❞✐❝❝✐ó♥ s♦♥

❧❛s ♣❛r❛❞♦❥❛s✳ ❚♦❞♦s ❛❧❣✉♥❛ ✈❡③ ❤❡♠♦s ❡s❝✉❝❤❛❞♦ ❛❧❣✉♥❛ ② s♦♥ ❢r❡❝✉❡♥t❡s ❛❧ ❡st✉❞✐❛r ♥✉❡s✲
tr❛s ❢♦r♠❛s ❞❡ ♣❡♥s❛r ❤❛❜✐t✉❛❧❡s ❝✉❛♥❞♦ ♥♦ s❡ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛♥ ❞❡ ❢♦r♠❛ t♦t❛❧♠❡♥t❡ ❝❧❛r❛s ② s❡
t♦♠❛♥ s❡♥t✐❞♦s ❞❡♠❛s✐❛❞♦s ❛♠♣❧✐♦s✳ ❆♥t❡ ❛❧❣✉♥❛s ❞❡ ❡st❛s ♣❛r❛❞♦❥❛s ♠✉❝❤♦s ♣❡♥s❛❞♦r❡s
❤❛♥ t❡r♠✐♥❛❞♦ ♣♦r ❛❝❡♣t❛r ❧❛s ❝♦♥❝❧✉s✐♦♥❡s ❡♥ ❧❛s q✉❡ ❛♣❛r❡❝❡♥ ❝♦♥tr❛❞✐❝❝✐♦♥❡s ♠ás q✉❡
✐♥t❡♥t❛r ❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❛r ❛❧❣ú♥ ❢❛❧❧♦ ❡♥ ❧♦s r❛③♦♥❛♠✐❡♥t♦s✳ ❖tr♦s ❤❛♥ q✉❡r✐❞♦ ❡♥❝♦♥tr❛r ❢❛❧❧♦s
❡♥ ❧♦s r❛③♦♥❛♠✐❡♥t♦s✱ ♣❡r♦ ✈❡♥✐❞♦s ❞❡ ♣r❡♠✐s❛s ♣r♦♣✐❛s ❞❡ ❧❛ ❧ó❣✐❝❛ ❝❧ás✐❝❛ ② q✉❡ ♣♦r t❛♥t♦
❤❛♥ ❞❡ r❡❝❤❛③❛rs❡✳ ❱❡❛♠♦s ❛❧❣✉♥♦s ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦s✳

✸✳✶✳✶✳ P❛r❛❞♦ ❥❛ s♦r✐t❡s

▲❛ ♣❛r❛❞♦❥❛ s♦r✐t❡s ✭❞❡❧ ❣r✐❡❣♦ ✓♠♦♥tó♥✔✮ ❛♣❛r❡❝❡ ❞❡ ❢♦r♠❛ ♥❛t✉r❛❧ ♣♦r ❧❛ ♦♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥
❡♥tr❡ ❝❛♠❜✐♦s q✉❡ ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r❛♠♦s ❧♦ s✉✜❝✐❡♥t❡♠❡♥t❡ ♣❡q✉❡ñ♦s ❝♦♠♦ ♣❛r❛ ♥♦ ❛❢❡❝t❛r ❛ ✉♥
❝♦♥❝❡♣t♦ ❡♥ ❝♦♥tr❛♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ❛ ❧♦s ❡❢❡❝t♦s q✉❡ t✐❡♥❡ ❧❛ ❛❝✉♠✉❧❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❡st♦s✳ P♦r ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦✱
s♦❧❡♠♦s ❛❝❡♣t❛r q✉❡ ❧❛ ♣ér❞✐❞❛ ❞❡ ✉♥ ♣❡❧♦ ♦ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ♠♦♥❡❞❛ ❞❡ ✉♥ ❡✉r♦ ♥♦ ♥♦s ❤❛❝❡✱
r❡s♣❡❝t✐✈❛♠❡♥t❡✱ ♠ás ❝❛❧✈♦s ♦ r✐❝♦s✳ ❙✐♥ ❡♠❜❛r❣♦ ❡stá ❝❧❛r♦ q✉❡ ❧❛ ♣ér❞✐❞❛ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ❝❛♥t✐❞❛❞
❝♦♥s✐❞❡r❛❜❧❡ ❞❡ ❡st♦s sí ❛❢❡❝t❛ ❛ ❡s❛ ❝✉❛❧✐❞❛❞✳ ◆♦ ♦❜st❛♥t❡ t♦❞❛s ❡s❛s ♣ér❞✐❞❛s s❡ ♣✉❡❞❡♥
❞❡s❝♦♠♣♦♥❡r ❡♥ ♣r♦❝❡s♦s q✉❡ ❤❡♠♦s ❞❡✜♥✐❞♦ q✉❡ ♥♦ ❛❢❡❝t❛♥ ❛ s✐ s❡ ❛♣❧✐❝❛ ♦ ♥♦ ❡❧ ❝♦♥❝❡♣t♦
❞❡ ❝❛❧✈♦ ♦ ❞❡ r✐❝♦✳ ❊s ♠ás✱ s✐ ✉♥♦ ❛♣❧✐❝❛ ❡❧ ♣r✐♥❝✐♣✐♦ ❞❡ ✐♥❞✉❝❝✐ó♥ ♣✉❡❞❡✱ ♣♦r ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦✱
❞❡♠♦str❛r q✉❡ ♥❛❞✐❡ ❡s r✐❝♦ ♣✉❡st♦ q✉❡✿

✶✳ ❈♦♥ 0 ❡✉r♦s ♥♦ s❡ ❡s r✐❝♦✳

✷✳ ❙✐ ❝♦♥ n ❡✉r♦s ♥♦ s♦② r✐❝♦✱ t❛♠♣♦❝♦ ❧♦ s♦② ❝♦♥ n + 1✳

❉❡ ❧♦ q✉❡ s❡ ❞❡❞✉❝❡ q✉❡✿

✸✳ P❛r❛ t♦❞♦ n ∈ N✱ ❛❧❣✉✐❡♥ ❝♦♥ n ❡✉r♦s ♥♦ ❡s r✐❝♦✳

✹✵ ❈❆P❮❚❯▲❖ ✸✳ ❈❖◆❙❊❈❯❊◆❈■❆❙ ❨ ❆P▲■❈❆❈■❖◆❊❙

❆♥t❡ ❡st❛ ❝❧❛s❡ ❞❡ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠❛s ❧❛s s♦❧✉❝✐♦♥❡s ❤❛♥ ✈❡♥✐❞♦ ♣♦r ❞♦s ❧❛❞♦s✳ ❯♥♦s ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r❛♥
q✉❡ ❧♦ ❞❡❜❡♠♦s ❤❛❝❡r ❡s ✜❥❛r ❧í♠✐t❡s ❛r❜✐tr❛r✐♦s ❛ ❡st❛ ❝❧❛s❡ ❞❡ ❝♦♥❝❡♣t♦s✱ ♣♦r ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦
s♦st❡♥❡r q✉❡ ❛ ♣❛rt✐r ❞❡✱ ♣♦♥❣❛♠♦s✱ 105 ❡✉r♦s ❛❧❣✉✐❡♥ ❡s r✐❝♦✳ ❖tr❛ s♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ ❛❧t❡r♥❛t✐✈❛ ②
q✉❡ ❛❧❣✉♥♦s ❡♥t✐❡♥❞❡♥ ❝♦♠♦ ✉♥❛ ✈✐rt✉❞ ❞❡ ❧❛s ❧ó❣✐❝❛s ❞✐❢✉s❛s ❡s ❡♥t❡♥❞❡r q✉❡ ❡❧ ♣r❡❞✐❝❛❞♦
✓❡s r✐❝♦✔ ❛♣❧✐❝❛❞♦ ❛ ❛❧❣✉✐❡♥ t✐❡♥❡ ✈❛❧♦r❡s ❞❡ ✈❡r❞❛❞ q✉❡ ♥♦ s♦♥ s♦❧♦ 0 ♦ 1✱ s✐♥♦ q✉❡ ❤❛②
✈❛❧♦r❡s ✐♥t❡r♠❡❞✐♦s q✉❡ ✈❛rí❛♥ ❛❧ ❛✉♠❡♥t❛r ❡♥ ❛❧❣✉♥❛ ✉♥✐❞❛❞ ♠♦♥❡t❛r✐❛✳

✸✳✶✳✷✳ P❛r❛❞♦ ❥❛ ❞❡❧ ♠❡♥t✐r♦s♦

▲❛ ♣❛r❛❞♦❥❛ ❞❡❧ ♠❡♥t✐r♦s♦ ❛♣❛r❡❝❡ ❛❧ q✉❡r❡r ❡✈❛❧✉❛r ❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r ❞❡ ✈❡r❞❛❞ ❞❡ ♦r❛❝✐♦♥❡s

❝♦♠♦✿

❊st❛ ♦r❛❝✐ó♥ ❡s ❢❛❧s❛✳

❊❧ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠❛ ❡stá ❡♥ q✉❡ s✐ ❛❞♠✐t✐♠♦s q✉❡ t❛❧ ♦r❛❝✐ó♥ ❡s ✉♥❛ ♣r♦♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ❝♦♥ ✈❛❧♦r ❞❡
✈❡r❞❛❞ ❝❧ás✐❝♦ ❡♥ ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r❛ ❞❡ ❧♦s ❞♦s ❝❛s♦s ❡st❛rí❛♠♦s ❛♥t❡ ✉♥❛ ❝♦♥tr❛❞✐❝❝✐ó♥✳ ❙✐ ❞❡❝✐♠♦s
q✉❡ ❡s ✈❡r❞❛❞❡r❛ ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s ❡s ❢❛❧s❛✱ ♣❡r♦ s✐ ❛❞♠✐t✐♠♦s q✉❡ ❡s ❢❛❧s❛ ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s ❡s ✈❡r❞❛❞❡r❛✳✳✳
➽q✉é ❤❛❝❡♠♦s❄ ▲❛ s♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ ❝❧ás✐❝❛ ❝♦♥s✐st❡ ❡♥ ♥❡❣❛r ❧❛ ♣r❡♠✐s❛ ❞❡ q✉❡ ❡s❛ ♦r❛❝✐ó♥ s❡❛ ✉♥❛
♣r♦♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ② t❡♥❣❛ ✉♥ ✈❛❧♦r ❞❡ ✈❡r❞❛❞✳ ❊st♦ ✈✐❡♥❡ ❛❝♦♠♣❛ñ❛❞♦ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ❝✐❡rt❛ s♦✜st✐✜❝❛❝✐ó♥
❧ó❣✐❝❛ ❞❡s❛rr♦❧❧❛❞❛ ♣♦r ❧ó❣✐❝♦s ❝♦♠♦ ❚❛rs❦✐ s❡❣ú♥ ❧❛ ❝✉❛❧ ❧❛s ♦r❛❝✐♦♥❡s q✉❡ ❤❛❜❧❛♥ s♦❜r❡
❧❛s ✈❡r❞❛❞❡s ❞❡ ♦tr❛s s♦♥ ❞❡ ✉♥ ✓♥✐✈❡❧✔ ❡str✐❝t❛♠❡♥t❡ ♠❛②♦r q✉❡ ❧❛s ♦r❛❝✐♦♥❡s s♦❜r❡ ❧❛s
q✉❡ s❡ ❤❛❜❧❛✳ P♦r t❛♥t♦✱ ♥♦ ❝❛❜❡ ✉♥❛ ♣r♦♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ❝♦♠♦ ❧❛ q✉❡ ❞❛ ❧✉❣❛r ❛ ❧❛ ♣❛r❛❞♦❥❛ ❞❡❧
♠❡♥t✐r♦s♦ ❞❡❜✐❞♦ ❛ q✉❡ s❡ t❡♥❞rí❛ ✉♥❛ ♦r❛❝✐ó♥ q✉❡ ❡st❛rí❛ ❡♥ ❞♦s ♥✐✈❡❧❡s ❞✐st✐♥t♦s ❛ ❧❛ ✈❡③✳
▲❛ s♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ ♣r♦♣✐❛ ❞❡ ❧❛s ❧ó❣✐❝❛s ♥♦ ❝❧ás✐❝❛s ❝♦♥s✐st❡ ♥♦ ❡♥ ♥❡❣❛r ❡❧ ❝❛rá❝t❡r ❞❡ ♣r♦✲
♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ s✐♥♦ ❡♥ t♦♠❛r t❛❧ ♣r♦♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ❝♦♠♦ ✉♥❛ ❝♦♥tr❛❞✐❝❝✐ó♥ ✈❡r❞❛❞❡r❛ ♦ ❝♦♥ ✉♥ ✈❛❧♦r
❞❡ ✈❡r❞❛❞ ❡s♣❡❝✐❛❧✳ P❛r❛ ❡❧❧♦ ❤❛② ✈❛r✐❛s ♦♣❝✐♦♥❡s✱ ✉♥❛ ❞❡ ❡❧❧❛s ♣✉❡❞❡ s❡r t♦♠❛r ✉♥❛ ❧ó❣✐❝❛
♠✉❧t✐✈❛❧✉❛❞❛ ❡♥ ❧❛ q✉❡ ❧❛s ♣r♦♣♦s✐❝✐♦♥❡s ♣✉❡❞❛♥ t♦♠❛r ✈❛❧♦r❡s ❝♦♠♦ ✓✐♥❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❛❞♦✔ ♦
✓❝♦♥tr❛❞✐❝t♦r✐❛✔✳ ❖tr❛ s♦❧✉❝✐ó♥✱ ♠ás ❝❡r❝❛♥❛ ❛ ❧♦ ✈✐st♦ ❡♥ ❡❧ ❝❛♣ít✉❧♦ 2✱ ❝♦♥s✐st❡ ❡♥ ✈❡r ❧❛
♣r♦♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ❝♦♠♦ ✉♥❛ ♣r♦♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ✈❡r❞❛❞❡r❛ q✉❡ ❛❞❡♠ás ❝✉♠♣❧❡ q✉❡ s✉ ♥❡❣❛❝✐ó♥ t❛♠❜✐é♥
❡s ✈❡r❞❛❞❡r❛✳
▲❛s r❛③♦♥❡s q✉❡ s✉❡❧❡♥ ♦❢r❡❝❡r ❧♦s ❞❡❢❡♥s♦r❡s ❞❡ ❧❛ ✈í❛ ✓❞✐❛❧é❝t✐❝❛✔ ❝♦♥s✐st❡ ❡♥ ❝r✐t✐❝❛r
❧❛s ✐❞❡❛s ❞❡ ❚❛rs❦✐ ❝♦♠♦ ❝♦♥str✉❝❝✐♦♥❡s ❛rt✐✜❝✐♦s❛s q✉❡ ❛❞❡♠ás ♣r♦❤✐❜❡♥ ❞❡♠❛s✐❛❞♦✳ P♦r
❡❥❡♠♣❧♦✱ s❡ ❡❧✐♠✐♥❛ ❧❛ ♣♦s✐❜✐❧✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ❛✜r♠❛r q✉❡ ❞❛❞♦ ✉♥❛ ♣r♦♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ✈❡r❞❛❞❡r❛ p t♦❞❛s
❧❛s ♣r♦♣♦s✐❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ❧❛ ❢♦r♠❛ p1 = p ❡s ✈❡r❞❛❞❡r❛✱ p2 = ✓p ❡s ✈❡r❞❛❞❡r❛✔ ❡s ✈❡r❞❛❞❡r❛✱
p3 = p2 ❡s ✈❡r❞❛❞❡r❛✱ ✳✳✳ s♦♥ ✈❡r❞❛❞❡r❛s✳
✸✳✷✳ ❊❙❚❯❉■❖ ❉❊ ▲❆ ❋■▲❖❙❖❋❮❆ ✹✶

✸✳✶✳✸✳ P❛r❛❞♦ ❥❛ ❞❡ ❘✉ss❡❧❧

▲❛ ♣❛r❛❞♦❥❛ ❞❡ ❘✉ss❡❧❧ ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡✱ t❛♠❜✐é♥ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ❡s♣❡❝✐❡ ❞❡ ❛✉t♦r❡❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛ ② s❡ s✉❡❧❡

r❡s♦❧✈❡r ❧✐♠✐t❛♥❞♦ ✉♥ ❝♦♥❝❡♣t♦ q✉❡ ✉s❛♠♦s ❞❡ ❢♦r♠❛ ♠✉② ♣♦❝♦ r❡str✐❝t✐✈❛✳ ❉✐❝❤❛ ♣❛r❛❞♦❥❛
❝♦♥s✐st❡ ❡♥ q✉❡ ❞❡ ❡①✐st✐r ✉♥ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ ♣❛r❛ ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r ♣r♦♣✐❡❞❛❞ t❡♥❞rí❛♠♦s ✉♥ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦
❞❡ ❧❛ ❢♦r♠❛✿
C = {X ❡s ✉♥ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ ② X ∈ / X}
❊❧ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠❛ ❝♦♥ ❡st❡ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ ❡s q✉❡ t❡♥❡♠♦s q✉❡✿

C∈C→C∈
/C

②
C∈
/ C → C ∈ C.

▲❛ s♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ ❝❧ás✐❝❛ ❝♦♥s✐st❡ ❡♥ ♥❡❣❛r q✉❡ ❡①✐st❛♥ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦s t❛♥ ❣r❛♥❞❡s ❝♦♠♦ ❡s❡ ♦
✐♥❝❧✉s♦ ❡♥ ♣r♦❤✐❜✐r q✉❡ ✉♥ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ s❡ ♣❡rt❡♥❡③❝❛ ❛ sí ♠✐s♠♦ ♣❛r❛ ✐♠♣❡❞✐r ❝❛❞❡♥❛s ✐♥✜♥✐t❛s
❞❡ ♣❡rt❡♥❡♥❝✐❛s ✭✉♥ ❛①✐♦♠❛ ❞❡ ❩❋✮✳ ▲❛s s♦❧✉❝✐♦♥❡s ♥♦ ❝❧ás✐❝❛s ✈✐❡♥❡♥ ♣♦r ❞♦s á♠❜✐t♦s✳
❉❡s❞❡ ❧❛s ❧ó❣✐❝❛s ✐♥t✉✐❝✐♦♥✐st❛s s❡ ♣✉❡❞❡ ❞❡❝✐r q✉❡ ♥♦ t✐❡♥❡ s❡♥t✐❞♦ ♣❧❛♥t❡❛r ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦s ❞❡
❡s❛ ❢♦r♠❛✱ ♣❡r♦ ♥♦ ♣♦rq✉❡ ❧❧❡✈❛♥ ❛ ❡s❛s ❝♦♥tr❛❞✐❝❝✐♦♥❡s✱ s✐♥♦ ♣♦rq✉❡ ❡stá♥ ❛❧❡❥❛❞♦s ❞❡
♣r♦❝❡❞✐♠✐❡♥t♦s r❛③♦♥❛❜❧❡s ♣❛r❛ ❝♦♥str✉✐r ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦s✳ ❊s ♠ás✱ t❛♠❜✐é♥ s❡ ♣✉❡❞❡ ❝r✐t✐❝❛r ❡❧
✉s♦ ❞❡❧ t❡r❝✐♦ ❡①❝❧✉s♦ ♣❛r❛ ❞❡r✐✈❛r ❧❛ ❝♦♥tr❛❞✐❝❝✐ó♥✳
▲❛ ♦tr❛ s♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ ♣❛s❛ ♣♦r ❡♥t❡♥❞❡r q✉❡ ❧❛ ♣❛r❛❞♦❥❛ ❡s ❝♦rr❡❝t❛ ② s❡ t✐❡♥❡♥ ❛♠❜❛s
❛✜r♠❛❝✐♦♥❡s✳ ❊st♦ ❛❞❡♠ás ♣✉❡❞❡ ✈❡♥✐r ❛❝♦♠♣❛ñ❛❞♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❞❡❢❡♥s❛ ❞❡ ♥♦❝✐♦♥❡s ♠ás ✓❧✐❜r❡s✔
s♦❜r❡ q✉é ❡s ✉♥ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ ② ❛❧❡❥❛❞❛s ❞❡ ❝♦♥str✉❝❝✐♦♥❡s ❝❛❧✐✜❝❛❞❛s ❞❡ ❛rt✐✜❝✐♦s❛s ♣r♦♣✐❛s ❞❡
❧♦s ❛①✐♦♠❛s ❤❛❜✐t✉❛❧❡s ❞❡ ❧❛ t❡♦rí❛ ❞❡ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦s✳ ❆sí✱ ❛❞❡♠ás s❡ ♣r❡t❡♥❞❡rí❛ ❞♦t❛r ❛ ❧♦s
❝✉❛♥t✐✜❝❛❞♦r❡s ❞❡ ✉♥ s✐❣♥✐✜❝❛❞♦ ♠ás ♥❛t✉r❛❧ ♣✉❞✐❡♥❞♦ ❞♦t❛r ❞❡ s❡♥t✐❞♦ ❛ ❡♥✉♥❝✐❛❞♦s q✉❡
tr❛t❡♥ ❞❡ ♣r♦♣♦s✐❝✐♦♥❡s ✈❡r❞❛❞❡r♦s q✉❡ tr❛t❡♥ ❞❡ t♦❞♦s ❧♦s ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦s ✭❬✶✻❪✮✳

✸✳✷✳ ❊st✉❞✐♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ✜❧♦s♦❢í❛

❉❛❞♦ ❡❧ ❝❛rá❝t❡r ❡♥♦r♠❡♠❡♥t❡ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧ ❞❡ ❧❛ ✐❞❡❛ ❞❡ ♥❡❣❛❝✐ó♥ ② s✉ ♣❛♣❡❧ ❡♥ ❡❧ r❛③♦✲
♥❛♠✐❡♥t♦ ❤✉♠❛♥♦ ♥♦ ❡s ❞❡ ❡①tr❛ñ❛r q✉❡ ♥♦s ❡♥❝♦♥tr❡♠♦s ❝♦♥ ✉t✐❧✐❞❛❞❡s ❡♥ ❡❧ á♠❜✐t♦ ❞❡
❧❛ ✜❧♦s♦❢í❛✳ ❊s ♠ás✱ ❡st♦ ú❧t✐♠♦ ♥♦ ❞❡❜❡rí❛ s♦r♣r❡♥❞❡r♥♦s t❡♥✐❡♥❞♦ ❡♥ ❝✉❡♥t❛ ❧♦s ✓❝❛s♦s
❧í♠✐t❡s✔ ② ♣r♦❜❧❡♠❛s ❝♦♠♣❧❡❥♦s q✉❡ tr❛t❛ ❞✐❝❤❛ ❞✐s❝✐♣❧✐♥❛✳

✸✳✷✳✶✳ ❑❛♥t✱ ❍❡❣❡❧ ② ❧❛s ❛♥t✐♥♦♠✐❛s

P♦r ✉♥ ❧❛❞♦ ❡❧ ❡st✉❞✐♦ ❞❡ ❧❛s ❧ó❣✐❝❛s ♣❛r❛❝♦♥s✐st❡♥t❡s s✐r✈❡ ♣❛r❛ ❡st✉❞✐❛r ❛ ♦❜r❛s ②
❛✉t♦r❡s ❞❡❧ ♣❛s❛❞♦ ✐♥t❡♥t❛♥❞♦ ❢♦r♠❛❧✐③❛r s✉s ✐❞❡❛s ❛♣❧✐❝❛♥❞♦ ❧ó❣✐❝❛s ♥♦ ❝❧ás✐❝❛s✳ ■♥❝❧✉s♦
✹✷ ❈❆P❮❚❯▲❖ ✸✳ ❈❖◆❙❊❈❯❊◆❈■❆❙ ❨ ❆P▲■❈❆❈■❖◆❊❙

♠ás q✉❡ ❝♦♥ ❛✉t♦r❡s s❡ ♣✉❡❞❡ ✐♥t❡♥t❛r ❡♠♣❧❡❛r ❡st❛ ❧ó❣✐❝❛ ♣❛r❛ ❡st✉❞✐❛r ❧♦s ❞❡❜❛t❡s ②
❝♦♥✢✐❝t♦s q✉❡ ♣♦❞❡♠♦s ❡♥❝♦♥tr❛r ❛ ❧♦ ❧❛r❣♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❤✐st♦r✐❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ✜❧♦s♦❢í❛✳
❈♦♠♦ ✉♥ ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦ ❞❡ ❡st♦ ❡①♣♦♥❡♠♦s ❛q✉í ✉♥❛ ✐♥t❡r♣r❡t❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ❞✐s♣✉t❛ ❡♥tr❡
❑❛♥t ② ❍❡❣❡❧ ❜❛sá♥❞♦♥♦s ❡♥ ✐❞❡❛s q✉❡ ❛♣❛r❡❝❡♥ ❡♥ ❬✷✶❪✳ ▲❛ ✐❞❡❛ q✉❡ ❛q✉í ❞❡❢❡♥❞❡r❡♠♦s ❡s
q✉❡ ❡❧ ♣r✐♠❡r♦ ❞❡ ❡st♦s ❞♦s ✜❧ós♦❢♦s ❞❡✜❡♥❞❡ ✉♥ ♠♦❞❡❧♦ ❞❡❧ ♠✉♥❞♦ q✉❡ ♣♦❞❡♠♦s ❡♥t❡♥❞❡r
❝♦♠♦ ❛s♦❝✐❛❞♦ ❛ ✉♥❛ ❧ó❣✐❝❛ ♣❛r❛❝♦♠♣❧❡t❛✳ P❛r❛ ❡♥t❡♥❞❡r ❡st♦ ❞❡❜❡♠♦s ❞✐r✐❣✐r♥♦s ❛❧ ✜♥❛❧
❞❡ ❧❛ ✓❈rít✐❝❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ r❛③ó♥ ♣✉r❛✔ ❡♥ ❧❛ ❝✉❛❧ ❑❛♥t ✐♥t❡♥t❛ ♠♦str❛r ❧❛ ❢✉t✐❧✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ❧♦s ✐♥t❡♥t♦s
❞❡ ❞❡♠♦str❛r t❡s✐s ✜❧♦só✜❝❛s ✉s❛♥❞♦ s♦❧♦ ❧❛ r❛③ó♥ ♣✉r❛✳ ❊❥❡♠♣❧♦s ❝♦♥ ❧♦s q✉❡ tr❛t❛ ❑❛♥t
s♦♥ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠❛s q✉❡ s✐❣✉❡♥ s✐❡♥❞♦ ✐♥t❡r❡s❛♥t❡s ❛ ❞í❛ ❞❡ ❤♦②✳ ❯♥♦ ❞❡ ❧♦s q✉❡ s❡ ❛❜♦r❞❛♥
❡♥ ❞✐❝❤❛ ♦❜r❛ ❝♦♥s✐st❡❡♥ ❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❛r ❞❡ s✐ ❡①✐st❡♥ ✉♥♦s át♦♠♦s ú❧t✐♠♦s ❞❡ ❧❛ ♠❛t❡r✐❛ q✉❡
s❡❛♥ ✐♥❞✐✈✐s✐❜❧❡s ♦ s✐ t♦❞♦ ♦❜❥❡t♦ ❡①✐st❡♥t❡ ❡s ❞✐✈✐s✐❜❧❡ t❛♥t❛s ✈❡❝❡s ❝♦♠♦ q✉❡r❛♠♦s✳ ▲❛
t❡s✐s q✉❡ s♦st✐❡♥❡ ❑❛♥t ❡s q✉❡ ❤❛② ❛r❣✉♠❡♥t♦s t❛♥t♦ ♣❛r❛ ❞❡❢❡♥❞❡r ✉♥❛ t❡s✐s ❝♦♠♦ s✉
♦♣✉❡st❛✱ ♦ ♠❡❥♦r ❞✐❝❤♦ q✉❡ s❡ ♣✉❡❞❡ ❞❡♠♦str❛r q✉❡ t❛♥t♦ ✉♥❛ t❡s✐s ❝♦♠♦ s✉ ♦♣✉❡st❛ ❧❧❡✈❛♥
❛ ❝♦♥tr❛❞✐❝❝✐♦♥❡s✳ ❆♥t❡ ❡st❛ s✐t✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❧❛ ❛♣✉❡st❛ ❞❡ ❑❛♥t ❡s ♥❡❣❛r q✉❡ ♣♦❞❡♠♦s r❡s♣♦♥❞❡r
❛ ❡s❡ ♣r❡❣✉♥t❛ ② q✉❡ ♣♦❞❛♠♦s ✐♥t❡♥t❛r ❞❡♠♦str❛r ✉♥❛ t❡s✐s ❞❡ ❡s❡ ❡st✐❧♦ ❛♣❡❧❛♥❞♦ ❛ q✉❡
p ∨ ¬p t❡♥❣❛ q✉❡ s❡r ❝✐❡rt♦✳ ❊st♦ ♥♦ ❡s ♠ás q✉❡ ❛✜r♠❛r q✉❡ ❡①✐st❡♥ t❡s✐s ❞❡ ❧❛s ❝✉❛❧❡s ♥♦
♣♦❞❡♠♦s ❞❡❝✐r q✉❡ ❡❧❧❛ ♦ s✉ ♥❡❣❛❝✐ó♥ ❡s ❝✐❡rt❛✳
❊♥ ❝❛♠❜✐♦ ❧❛s ✐❞❡❛s ❞❡ ❍❡❣❡❧ s❡rí❛♥ ♠ás ♣ró①✐♠❛s ❛ ❧❛ ❧ó❣✐❝❛ ♣❛r❛❝♦♥s✐st❡♥t❡✳ ❙❡❣ú♥
❡st❡ ✜❧ós♦❢♦ ❑❛♥t ❝❛❡rí❛ ❡♥ ❡❧ ❡rr♦r ❞❡ s❡r ♠✉② ✓❛♠❛❜❧❡✔ ❝♦♥ ❧❛s ❝♦s❛s ② ♥♦ s❡ ❛tr❡✈❡rí❛
❡♥ ✈❡r ❡♥ ❡❧❧❛s ❧❛s ❝♦♥tr❛❞✐❝❝✐♦♥❡s✱ s✐♥♦ q✉❡ ❡♥t❡♥❞❡rí❛ ❡st❛s ❝♦♠♦ ✉♥ ❢r✉t♦ ❞❡ ✉♥ ♠❛❧ ✉s♦
❞❡ ♥✉❡str❛s ❝❛♣❛❝✐❞❛❞❡s✳ P♦r t❛♥t♦ ❧❛ s♦❧✉❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❍❡❣❡❧ ❡st❛rí❛ ♥♦ ❡♥ ♥❡❣❛r q✉❡ ❤❛②❛ ✉♥
❣❡♥✉✐♥♦ ❞❡❜❛t❡ ② q✉❡ ❡s❛s ♣r♦♣♦s✐❝✐♦♥❡s ♥♦ t❡♥❣❛♥ ✈❛❧♦r ❞❡ ✈❡r❞❛❞ ♦ ❛❧❣♦ ♣♦r ❡❧ ❡st✐❧♦✱ s✐♥♦
❡♥ ❡♥t❡♥❞❡r q✉❡ ❧❛s ❝♦♥tr❛❞✐❝❝✐♦♥❡s s♦♥ ♣❛rt❡ ❞❡ ❧❛ r❡❛❧✐❞❛❞✳

✸✳✷✳✷✳ ▲♦s t♦❞♦s ② ❧❛s ♣❛rt❡s

▲❛s ❛♣♦rt❛❝✐♦♥❡s q✉❡ ♦❢r❡❝❡ ❡❧ ✉s♦ ❞❡ ❧❛s ❧ó❣✐❝❛s ♣❛r❛❝♦♥s✐st❡♥t❡s ❛ ❧❛ ✜❧♦s♦❢í❛ ✈❛♥ ♠ás
❛❧❧á ❞❡❧ á♠❜✐t♦ ❞♦①♦❣rá✜❝♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ✐♥t❡r♣r❡t❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧❛s ❞♦❝tr✐♥❛s ❞❡ ✜❧ós♦❢♦s ♣❛s❛❞♦s ❡♥
✉♥ ❝✐❡rt♦ ❡❥❡r❝✐❝✐♦ ❞❡ ❛♥❛❝r♦♥✐s♠♦✳ ❊st❛s t❛♠❜✐é♥ s✐r✈❡♥ ♣❛r❛ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛r ✐❞❡❛s ♠ás ♦ ♠❡♥♦s
♥♦✈❡❞♦s❛s✳ ❈♦♠♦ ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦ ❞❡ ❡st♦ ♠❡♥❝✐♦♥❛♠♦s ❛q✉í ❧❛s ✐❞❡❛s ❡①♣✉❡st❛s ♣♦r ❡❧ ✜❧ós♦❢♦
●r❛❤❛♠ Pr✐❡st ❡♥ ❬✷✷❪✳
❊♥ ❞✐❝❤❛ ♦❜r❛ ❡❧ ✜❧ós♦❢♦ ❛✉str✐❛❝♦ ② ❣r❛♥ ❞❡❢❡♥s♦r ❞❡ ❧❛s ❧ó❣✐❝❛s ♣❛r❛❝♦♥s✐st❡♥t❡s ❡♠♣❧❡❛
❡st❛s ♣❛r❛ ✐♥t❡♥t❛r ❢♦r♠❛❧✐③❛r ❧❛ ❞✐❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛ ❡♥tr❡ ✉♥ t♦❞♦ ② ✉♥ ♠❡r♦ ❛❣r❡❣❛❞♦ ❞❡ ❝♦s❛s✳ ▲❛
✐❞❡❛ ❢✉♥❞❛♠❡♥t❛❧ ❞❡ ❡s❛ t❡s✐s ❝♦♥s✐st❡ ❡♥ q✉❡ ✉♥ t♦❞♦ s❡ ❞✐❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛ ❞❡ ✉♥ ♠❡r♦ ❛❣r❡❣❛❞♦ ❞❡
❝♦s❛s ❡♥ ❧❛ ♣r❡s❡♥❝✐❛ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ✓♣❛rt❡ ❡①tr❛✔ ❛ ❧❛ q✉❡ ❞❡♥♦t❛ ❝♦♠♦ ✓❣❧✉ó♥✔✳ ❊st❛ ♣❛rt❡ s❡rí❛
✉♥❛ s✉❡rt❡ ❞❡ ✓♣❛rt❡ ❝♦♥tr❛❞✐❝t♦r✐❛✔ q✉❡ s❡rí❛ ✐❣✉❛❧ ❛ ❝❛❞❛ ✉♥❛ ❞❡ ❧❛s ♣❛rt❡s✳ ❊❧ tr❛❜❛❥♦
❞❡ ❧❛ ❧ó❣✐❝❛ ♣❛r❛❝♦♥s✐st❡♥t❡ ❡♥ ❡st❡ ❝❛s♦ s❡rí❛ ❡❧ ❞❡ ♣❡r♠✐t✐r ❞❛r ✉♥ s✐st❡♠❛ ❡♥ ❡❧ ❝✉❛❧
✸✳✸✳ ❊❙❚❯❉■❖ ❉❊▲ ▼❯◆❉❖ ✓❘❊❆▲✔ ✹✸

❡s♦ t❡♥❣❛ s❡♥t✐❞♦ ♥❡❣❛♥❞♦ ♣r♦♣✐❡❞❛❞❡s ❝♦♥ ❧❛s q✉❡ s♦❧❡♠♦s tr❛❜❛❥❛r ❞❡ r❡❧❛❝✐♦♥❡s ❝♦♠♦ ❧❛
✐❞❡♥t✐❞❛❞✳ ❆sí✱ s❡❣ú♥ Pr✐❡st✱ ❡❧ ❣❧✉ó♥ s❡rí❛ ✐❣✉❛❧ ❛ ❝❛❞❛ ✉♥❛ ❞❡ ❧❛s ♣❛rt❡s ♣❡r♦ ❡st♦ ♥♦ ♥♦s
♣❡r♠✐t❡ ✐♥❢❡r✐r ❧❛ t❡s✐s ❝❧❛r❛♠❡♥t❡ ❡rró♥❡❛ ❞❡ q✉❡ t♦❞❛s ❧❛s ♣❛rt❡s s♦♥ ✐❣✉❛❧❡s ❡♥tr❡ sí✳

✸✳✸✳ ❊st✉❞✐♦ ❞❡❧ ♠✉♥❞♦ ✓r❡❛❧✔

❖tr♦ ✐♠♣♦rt❛♥t❡ ❢✉♥❞❛♠❡♥t♦ q✉❡ s❡ ❤❛ s♦❧✐❞♦ ❞❛r ❛ ❧❛ ✐❞❡❛ ❞❡ q✉❡ ❞❡❜❡♠♦s ❡♠♣❧❡❛r
❧ó❣✐❝❛s ♥♦ ❝❧ás✐❝❛s ❡s ❡❧ ❡st✉❞✐♦ ❞❡ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠❛s r❡❛❧❡s✳ ❆ ♠❡♥✉❞♦ ❡st❛s ✐❞❡❛s ✈✐❡♥❡♥ ❢♦❝❛❧✐③❛❞❛s
❡♥ ❧❛ ❡str❡❝❤❡③ ❞❡ ♠✐r❛s ♦ ❡♥ ✉♥ ❝✐❡rt♦ ❡①❝❡s♦ ❞❡ r✐❣✐❞❡③ ♣♦r ♣❛rt❡ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❧ó❣✐❝❛ ❝❧ás✐❝❛✳
❊st❛ ❝❧❛s❡ ❞❡ ♣❡♥s❛♠✐❡♥t♦ t❛♠❜✐é♥ ❞❛t❛ ❞❡s❞❡ ❧❛ ❛♥t✐❣ü❡❞❛❞ ② ❤❛ ♣❡r✈✐✈✐❞♦ ❡♥ ♥✉♠❡r♦s♦s
❛✉t♦r❡s ❛ ❧♦ ❧❛r❣♦ ❞❡❧ t✐❡♠♣♦✳ ❊❥❡♠♣❧♦s ❞❡ ❡st♦ s♦♥✿

✸✳✸✳✶✳ ❊❧ ♠♦✈✐♠✐❡♥t♦

▲♦s ✜❧ós♦❢♦s ♣r❡s♦❝rát✐❝♦s ❝♦♠♦ P❛r♠é♥✐❞❡s ♦ ❩❡♥ó♥ ❡r❛♥ r❡❝♦♥♦❝✐❞♦s ♣♦r ♥❡❣❛r ❧❛
r❡❛❧✐❞❛❞ ❞❡❧ ♠♦✈✐♠✐❡♥t♦ ② ❡❧ ❝❛♠❜✐♦✳ P❛r❛ ❥✉st✐✜❝❛r t❛❧ s❡♥t❡♥❝✐❛ ❛❝✉❞í❛♥✱ ♣r❡❝✐s❛♠❡♥t❡✱ ❛
✐❞❡❛s q✉❡ ❛ ❞í❛ ❞❡ ❤♦② ♣♦❞❡♠♦s ✈❡r ❝♦♠♦ s❡♠❡❥❛♥t❡s ❛ ❧❛ ❧ó❣✐❝❛ ❝❧ás✐❝❛✳ P♦r ❡❧❧♦✱ ②❛ ❞❡s❞❡
❛♥t✐❣✉♦ s❡ ♣❡♥só ❡❧ ♠♦✈✐♠✐❡♥t♦ ❝♦♠♦ ❛❧❣♦ q✉❡ ♣❛r❛ s❡r ❡st✉❞✐❛❞♦ r❡q✉❡rí❛ ❞❡ s✐st❡♠❛s ♠ás
✢❡①✐❜❧❡s✳ ❊st❛ ❧í♥❡❛ ❞❡ ♣❡♥s❛♠✐❡♥t♦ ♣❡r❞✉ró ❞✉r❛♥t❡ ❜❛st❛♥t❡ t✐❡♠♣♦ ♣❡r♦ ❛ ❞í❛ ❞❡ ❤♦②
❡s ❜❛st❛♥t❡ ♣♦❝♦ ❞❡❢❡♥❞✐❞❛ ② s❡ ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r❛ q✉❡ ❧❛s ❛♣♦rt❛❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡❧ ❝á❧❝✉❧♦ ❤❛♥ ❡❧✐♠✐♥❛❞♦
t♦❞❛s ❧❛s ❜❛rr❡r❛s q✉❡ ♣♦❞í❛ ❤❛❜❡r ♣❛r❛ ❧❛ ❝♦♥❝❡♣t✉❛❧✐③❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡❧ t✐❡♠♣♦✳
❈♦♥ t♦❞♦✱ s✐❣✉❡ ❤❛❜✐❡♥❞♦ ♣❡♥s❛❞♦r❡s q✉❡ s♦st✐❡♥❡♥ q✉❡ ✉♥❛ t❡♦rí❛ ❞❡❧ ♠♦✈✐♠✐❡♥t♦ ❝♦♠♦
❧❛ ❛❝t✉❛❧ r❡q✉✐❡r❡ ❝✐❡rt♦s ❛❥✉st❡s✳ ❊♥tr❡ ❡❧❧♦s ♣♦❞❡♠♦s ❞❡st❛❝❛r s♦❜r❡t♦❞♦ ❛ ●r❛❤❛♠ Pr✐❡st
q✉❡ ❡♥ s✉ ❛rtí❝✉❧♦ ❬✶✽❪ ❛r❣✉♠❡♥t❛ q✉❡ ❡st❛s ❝♦♥❝❡♣❝✐♦♥❡s t✐❡♥❡♥ ❞❡❢❡❝t♦s✳ P♦r ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦✱
❝♦♥s✐❞❡r❛ q✉❡ ✉♥❛ ✈❡r❞❛❞❡r❛ t❡♦rí❛ ❞❡❧ ♠♦✈✐♠✐❡♥t♦ ② ❡❧ ❝❛♠❜✐♦ ❞❡❜❡rí❛ ♣♦❞❡r ❞✐❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛r
❡❧ ♠♦✈✐♠✐❡♥t♦ ❞❡❧ r❡♣♦s♦ ② ❞❡❜❡rí❛ ❞❛r ❛❧❣✉♥❛ ✈✐s✐ó♥ ✐♥st❛♥tá♥❡❛ ♠ás ❞✐♥á♠✐❝❛✳ ▲❛ ✐❞❡❛
❢✉♥❞❛♠❡♥t❛❧ ❞❡ Pr✐❡st ❡s q✉❡ ❞✉r❛♥t❡ ✉♥ ♠♦✈✐♠✐❡♥t♦ ❡♥ ❝❛❞❛ ✐♥st❛♥t❡ ✉♥ ♦❜❥❡t♦ ❡stá ♥♦
❡♥ ✉♥❛ ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ✜❥❛✱ s✐♥♦ ❡♥ ✉♥ ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧♦✱ ❡s ❞❡❝✐r ❡stá ② ♥♦ ❡stá ❡♥ ✉♥❛ ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥✳ P❛r❛
❞❛r ✉♥❛ ✈✐s✐ó♥ r❛③♦♥❛❜❧❡ ❞❡ ❡st♦ ❡♠♣❧❡❛ ✉♥ s✐st❡♠❛ ♣❛r❛❝♦♥s✐st❡♥t❡ ❡♥ q✉❡ ♣✉❡❞❛ ❞❛rs❡
❡s❛ ❝♦♥tr❛❞✐❝❝✐ó♥✳ ❊♥ ❝❛♠❜✐♦ ❝✉❛♥❞♦ ✉♥ ♦❜❥❡t♦ s❡ ❡♥❝✉❡♥tr❛ ❡♥ r❡♣♦s♦ ❡❧ ♦❜❥❡t♦ ❡♥ ❝❛❞❛
✐♥st❛♥t❡ ❡stá s♦❧♦ ❡♥ ❡s❛ ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ② ♥✐♥❣✉♥❛ ♠ás✱ ❡s ❞❡❝✐r s❡ ❛♣❧✐❝❛ ✉♥❛ ❧ó❣✐❝❛ ❝❧ás✐❝❛✳

✸✳✸✳✷✳ ▲♦ ❞✐❢✉s♦

❖tr♦ ✐♠♣♦rt❛♥t❡ á♠❜✐t♦ ❞❡ ❛♣❧✐❝❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧❛s ❧ó❣✐❝❛s ♥♦ ❝❧ás✐❝❛s ② q✉❡ ❞❛ ♥♦♠❜r❡ ❛

✉♥❛ ❝❧❛s❡ ❞❡ ❡st❛s s♦♥ ❧♦s ♣r♦❜❧❡♠❛s ❞✐❢✉s♦s✳ ❊♥ ❧❛ r❡❛❧✐❞❛❞ ❛ ♠❡♥✉❞♦ ❡♥❝♦♥tr❛♠♦s q✉❡ ❧❛s
❢r♦♥t❡r❛s ❡♥tr❡ ❝♦s❛s s✉❡❧❡♥ s❡r ✈❛❣❛s ② ♣♦❝♦ ❞❡✜♥✐❞❛s ♦ ❛❧ ♠❡♥♦s q✉❡ ❣r❛♥ ♣❛rt❡ ❞❡ ♥✉❡str♦s
❝♦♥❝❡♣t♦s ❧♦ s♦♥✳ ❆❧❣✉♥♦s ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦s ❞❡ ❡st♦s ❧♦s ♣♦❞❡♠♦s ✈❡r ❡♥ t♦❞♦s ❛q✉❡❧❧♦s ❝♦♥❝❡♣t♦s
✹✹ ❈❆P❮❚❯▲❖ ✸✳ ❈❖◆❙❊❈❯❊◆❈■❆❙ ❨ ❆P▲■❈❆❈■❖◆❊❙

q✉❡ ❝❛❡♥ ❜❛❥♦ ❧❛ ♣❛r❛❞♦❥❛ s♦r✐t❡s ❛♥t❡r✐♦r♠❡♥t❡ ❡st✉❞✐❛❞❛✳ P♦r t❛♥t♦ ♣❛r❛ ❝❛s♦s ❝♦♠♦ ❡st♦s
❡s ✐♥t❡r❡s❛♥t❡ ❞✐s♣♦♥❡r ❞❡ ❧ó❣✐❝❛s q✉❡ ♣❡r♠✐t❛♥ ❢♦r♠❛❧✐③❛r ❡st❛s s✐t✉❛❝✐♦♥❡s ❡♥ ❧❛s q✉❡ ♦
❜✐❡♥ ❡♥❝♦♥tr❛♠♦s ✉♥❛ r❡❛❧✐❞❛❞ ✐♠♣r❡❝✐s❛ ♦ ❜✐❡♥ ✉s❛♠♦s ❝♦♥❝❡♣t♦s ✐♠♣r❡❝✐s♦s✳ ❆❞❡♠ás✱
❛❧❣✉♥♦s ❛r❣✉♠❡♥t❛♥✱ ❧❛ s❡❣✉♥❞❛ ❝❧❛s❡ ❞❡ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠❛s t✐❡♥❡ ✐♥t❡rés ❡♥ ❧❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ q✉❡ ❡st❛
❝❧❛s❡ ❞❡ ❝♦♥❝❡♣t♦s s♦♥ ✐♥❤❡r❡♥t❡s ❛❧ ♠✉♥❞♦ ❤✉♠❛♥♦ ❞♦♥❞❡ ♦♣❡r❛♠♦s ❝♦♥ s✐♠♣❧✐✜❝❛❝✐♦♥❡s ❡
✐❞❡❛s ✈❛❣❛s✳ ❊s ♠ás✱ s✐ q✉❡r❡♠♦s ❞❛r ❝♦♥ ✉♥❛ ✐♥t❡❧✐❣❡♥❝✐❛ ❛rt✐✜❝✐❛❧ ❝❛♣❛③ ❞❡ ✓❡♥t❡♥❞❡r♥♦s✔
❞❡❜❡rí❛ s❡r ✉♥❛ ❝❛♣❛③ ❞❡ ❡♥t❡♥❞❡r t❛♠❜✐é♥ ❧♦s tér♠✐♥♦s ✈❛❣♦s✳

✸✳✸✳✸✳ ▲❛ ❝♦♠♣✉t❛❝✐ó♥✱ ❜❛s❡s ❞❡ ❞❛t♦s ② ❧❛ t♦♠❛ ❞❡ ❞❡❝✐s✐♦♥❡s

❊♥ r❡❧❛❝✐ó♥ ❝♦♥ ❧♦ ú❧t✐♠♦ q✉❡ s❡ ❤❛ ❝♦♠❡♥t❛❞♦ ❡♥ ❧❛ s✉❜s❡❝❝✐ó♥ ❛♥t❡r✐♦r ❞❡❜❡♠♦s

❝♦♠❡♥t❛r q✉❡ ✉♥ ✐♠♣♦rt❛♥t❡ ✉s♦ ❞❡ ❧❛s ❧ó❣✐❝❛s ♣❛r❛❝♦♥s✐st❡♥t❡s s❡ ❡♥❝✉❡♥tr❛ ❡♥ ❞✐❝❤♦
á♠❜✐t♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ✐♥t❡❧✐❣❡♥❝✐❛ ❛rt✐✜❝✐❛❧✳ ❙✐ ♣r❡t❡♥❞❡♠♦s ❝♦♥str✉✐r ✉♥ s✐st❡♠❛ ❝❛♣❛③ ♥♦ s♦❧♦
❞❡ ❛❧♠❛❝❡♥❛r ❞❛t♦s s✐♥♦ ❞❡ ❤❛❝❡r ✐♥❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛s s❡rí❛ ❛❧❣♦ ♠✉② ♣♦❝♦ ❞❡s❡❛❜❧❡ q✉❡ ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r
❡rr♦r ❛ ❧❛ ❤♦r❛ ❞❡ ✐♥tr♦❞✉❝✐r ❡st♦s ❞❛t♦s s✉♣✉s✐❡r❛ q✉❡ ❡❧ s✐st❡♠❛ ❡♥ ❝✉❡st✐ó♥ ♣✉❞✐❡r❛
❞❡❞✉❝✐r ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r ❝♦s❛✳ ❊s ♠ás✱ s✐ ❡❧ s✐st❡♠❛ ❡stá ❝♦♥❡❝t❛❞♦ ❝♦♥ ❛❧❣ú♥ ♠❡❝❛♥✐s♠♦ ❝❛♣❛③
❞❡ ❛❝t✉❛r✱ s❡rí❛ ❜❛st❛♥t❡ ♥❡❣❧✐❣❡♥t❡ q✉❡ ❛❧ ✐♥tr♦❞✉❝✐r ❛❧❣ú♥ ❞❛t♦ ❡q✉✐✈♦❝❛❞♦ ❡❧ s✐st❡♠❛
♣✉❞✐❡r❛ ❞❡❞✉❝✐r q✉❡ t✐❡♥❡ q✉❡ ❤❛❝❡r ❛❧❣✉♥❛ ❛❝❝✐ó♥ ✐♥❞❡s❡❛❞❛✳ ❊♥ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧ s✐ q✉❡r❡♠♦s ✉♥❛
✐♥t❡❧✐❣❡♥❝✐❛ ❛rt✐✜❝✐❛❧✱ ♣♦❞❡♠♦s ❛r❣✉♠❡♥t❛r✱ ❞❡❜❡♠♦s ♣r♦❝✉r❛r q✉❡ s✉s s✐st❡♠❛ ❧ó❣✐❝♦ ✈❛②❛
♠ás ❛❧❧á ❞❡ ❧♦ ❝❧ás✐❝♦ ✭❬✷✵❪✮✳

✸✳✸✳✹✳ ▲♦s s✐st❡♠❛s ❞❡ r❡❣❧❛s

❉❡ ♥✉❡✈♦✱ r❡t♦♠❛♥❞♦ ❡❧ ♣✉♥t♦ ❛♥t❡r✐♦r✱ ♥♦ ❡s r❛③♦♥❛❜❧❡ q✉❡ s✐ t❡♥❡♠♦s ✉♥ s✐st❡♠❛ ❞❡

r❡❣❧❛s ♣❛r❛ ❣✉✐❛r ♥✉❡str❛ ❝♦♥❞✉❝t❛ ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r ✐♠♣❡r❢❡❝❝✐ó♥ ♦ ❝♦♥tr❛❞✐❝❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❡st❛s ♣❡r♠✐t❛
❞❡r✐✈❛r ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r ♦tr❛ r❡❣❧❛✳ ❊s ♠ás✱ ❞❛❞♦ ❡❧ t❛♠❛ñ♦ ② ❧❛ ❝♦♥st❛♥t❡ ♠♦❞✐✜❝❛❝✐ó♥ ❛ ❧❛
q✉❡ s♦♥ s♦♠❡t✐❞♦s ♠✉❧t✐t✉❞ ❞❡ ❡st♦s s✐st❡♠❛s ♥♦ ❡s ❞❡ ❡①tr❛ñ❛r q✉❡ ❛ ♠❡♥✉❞♦ ♣r❡s❡♥t❡♥
❝♦♥tr❛❞✐❝❝✐♦♥❡s ♠❡♥♦r❡s q✉❡ ♥♦ ♦❜st❛♥t❡✱ ❜❛❥♦ ❧❛ ❧ó❣✐❝❛ ❝❧ás✐❝❛✱ ❞❡r✐✈❛rí❛♥ ❡♥ ✉♥ s✐st❡♠❛
tr✐✈✐❛❧ ❞♦♥❞❡ t♦❞❛ ♣r♦♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ❡s ✈❡r❞❛❞❡r❛✳
P❡r♦ ❤❛② ♠ás ♣r♦❜❧❡♠❛s ❞❡r✐✈❛❞♦s ❞❡❧ ❡st✉❞✐♦ ❞❡ ❧❛s r❡❣❧❛s ② ❧♦s s✐st❡♠❛s ❥✉❞✐❝✐❛❧❡s✳
❈♦♠♦ t♦❞♦s s❛❜❡♠♦s ❡♥ ❡❧ ♠✉♥❞♦ ❤❛② ♠✉❧t✐t✉❞ ❞❡ ♣❛ís❡s ❝♦♥ r❡❣❧❛s ♠✉② ❞✐s♣❛r❡s ② ❛ ✈❡❝❡s
♦♣✉❡st❛s ❡♥tr❡ sí✳ ◆♦ ♦❜st❛♥t❡ ❡st❛ s✐t✉❛❝✐ó♥ ♥♦ ❞❡❜❡rí❛ ♣❡r♠✐t✐r ❞❡❞✉❝✐r ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r r❡❣❧❛
② s❡ ❞❡❜❡rí❛♥ ❛❞♠✐t✐r s✐st❡♠❛s ❧ó❣✐❝♦s ♠ás ♦ ♠❡♥♦s t♦❧❡r❛♥t❡s q✉❡ s❡♣❛♥ ❡st✉❞✐❛r t❛❧❡s
s✐t✉❛❝✐♦♥❡s ✭❬✶✾❪✮✳
✸✳✹✳ ❊❙❚❯❉■❖ ❉❊ ▲❆❙ ▼❆❚❊▼➪❚■❈❆❙ ✹✺

✸✳✹✳ ❊st✉❞✐♦ ❞❡ ❧❛s ♠❛t❡♠át✐❝❛s

❯♥❛ ❞❡ ❧❛s ♣r✐♥❝✐♣❛❧❡s ❛♣❧✐❝❛❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ❧❛ ❧ó❣✐❝❛ ❡s ❡❧ ♠✉♥❞♦ ♠❛t❡♠át✐❝♦ ♣✉❡st♦ q✉❡

❡♥ ❡❧❧❛ r❡✐♥❛r ❝❛s♦s ♠✉② s✐♠♣❧❡s ❡♥ ❧♦s ❝✉❛❧❡s ♣♦❞❡♠♦s ❝r❡❡r q✉❡ ❧❛ ❧ó❣✐❝❛ ♥♦ s✉♣♦♥❡
✓r❡str✐❝❝✐♦♥❡s✔✳ ◆♦ ♦s❜t❛♥t❡ ❤❛ s✐❞♦ ❢r❡❝✉❡♥t❡ q✉❡ ❤✐stór✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ ❧❛ ♣r♦❢✉♥❞✐③❛❝✐ó♥ ❡♥ ❧❛s
♠❛t❡♠át✐❝❛s ❤❛②❛ ❧❧❡✈❛❞♦ t❛♠❜✐é♥ ❛❧ ❞❡s❛rr♦❧❧♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❧ó❣✐❝❛✳ ❊s ♠ás✱ ❛ ♠❡♥✉❞♦ s❡ ❤❛♥
✐♥t❡♥t❛❞♦ ❢✉♥❞✐r ❛♠❜❛s✱ ②❛ s❡❛ r❡❞✉❝✐❡♥❞♦ ❡♥ ❛❧❣✉♥❛ ❞✐r❡❝❝✐ó♥ ♦ ❜✉s❝❛♥❞♦ ❛❧❣✉♥❛ ❡s♣❡❝✐❡
❞❡ ✓❢✉s✐ó♥✔ ❞❡ ❛♠❜❛s✳ ◆♦ ❡s✱ ♣♦r t❛♥t♦✱ ❞❡ ❡①tr❛ñ❛r q✉❡ ❤❛②❛ ♥✉♠❡r♦s❛s ❛♣❧✐❝❛❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡
s✐st❡♠❛s ❧ó❣✐❝♦s ❛❧t❡r♥❛t✐✈♦s ❛ ❧❛s ♠❛t❡♠át✐❝❛s✳

✸✳✹✳✶✳ ❋✉♥❞❛♠❡♥t♦s

▲❛ ♣r✐♠❡r❛ ❝❧❛s❡ ❞❡ ❛♣❧✐❝❛❝✐♦♥❡s t✐❡♥❡ q✉❡ ✈❡r ❝♦♥ ❧♦s ❢✉♥❞❛♠❡♥t♦s ♠✐s♠♦s ❞❡ ❧❛s
♠❛t❡♠át✐❝❛s✳ ❈♦♠♦ t♦❞♦ s❛❜❡♠♦s ❤❛ ❤❛❜✐❞♦ ♥✉♠❡r♦s♦s ✐♥t❡♥t♦s ❞❡ ❥✉st✐✜❝❛r ② r❡❞✉❝✐r ❧❛s
♠❛t❡♠át✐❝❛s ❛ ♠❡r♦s s✐st❡♠❛s ❧ó❣✐❝♦s ♦ ❛❧ ♠❡♥♦s ❢✉♥❞❛r ❛ ❡st❛ ❞✐s❝✐♣❧✐♥❛ s♦❜r❡ ❧❛ ❧ó❣✐❝❛✳
❆❞❡♠ás✱ ❛✉♥q✉❡ ❡st❡♠♦s ❡♥ ❝♦♥tr❛ ❞❡ ❡st♦s ♣r♦❣r❛♠❛s✱ t♦❞♦s ♣♦❞❡♠♦s ❛❝❡♣t❛r q✉❡ ✉♥❛
❝♦♥❝❡♣❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❧ó❣✐❝❛ ❛❢❡❝t❛ ❛ ❧❛s ♠❛t❡♠át✐❝❛s ❞❡ ❢♦r♠❛s ♥♦ tr✐✈✐❛❧❡s✳
❊♥ ♣❛rt✐❝✉❧❛r ✐❞❡❛s ❝♦♠♦ ❧❛s ❞❡❧ ✐♥t✉✐❝✐♦♥✐s♠♦ ❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❛♥ ❢♦r♠❛s ❞❡ ✐♥✈❡st✐❣❛r ② tr❛t❛r
❝♦♥ ❧❛s ♠❛t❡♠át✐❝❛s q✉❡ ♣✉❡❞❡♥ ✈❛r✐❛r ❝♦♥ r❡s♣❡❝t♦ ❛ ❧❛s ❝❧ás✐❝❛s✳ P✉❡❞❡ q✉❡ ✐♥❝❧✉s♦ ❤❛②❛
t❡♦r❡♠❛s q✉❡ ❞❡❥❡♥ ❞❡ ✈❛❧❡r ♦ ❝✉②❛ ❞❡♠♦str❛❝✐ó♥ ❤❛②❛ ❞❡ s❡r r❡✈✐s❛❞❛✳ ❊♥ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧✱ s✐
t❡♥❡♠♦s q✉❡ ❝✐❡rt❛s ❞❡❞✉❝❝✐♦♥❡s ♥♦ s♦♥ ❝♦rr❡❝t❛s ❡♥ ✉♥ s✐st❡♠❛ ❧ó❣✐❝♦ ❡stá ❝❧❛r♦ q✉❡ ♥♦
♣♦❞❡♠♦s ✉s❛r❧❛ ❡♥ ❡❧ t❡rr❡♥♦ ❞❡ ❧❛s ♠❛t❡♠át✐❝❛s✳
❊♥ ❝✉❛♥t♦ ❛ ❧♦s ♣r♦❜❧❡♠❛s ❞❡ ❢✉♥❞❛♠❡♥t♦s ❧♦s r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦s ❝♦♠♦ ❧♦s t❡♦r❡♠❛s ❞❡ ●ö❞❡❧
♦ ♣❛r❛❞♦❥❛s ❝♦♠♦ ❧❛s ❞❡ ❘✉ss❡❧❧ ♦ ❧❛s ❞❡ ❚❛rs❦✐ ❤❛♥ ❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❛❞♦ ❤❛st❛ ❝✐❡rt♦ ♣✉♥t♦ ❧❛
✐♥✈❡st✐❣❛❝✐ó♥ ♠❛t❡♠át✐❝❛✳ ❉❡❢❡♥s♦r❡s ❞❡ ❧ó❣✐❝❛s ♣❛r❛❝♦♥s✐st❡♥t❡s ❤❛♥ ♣❡♥s❛❞♦ q✉❡ ❡st❡
t✐♣♦ ❞❡ r❡str✐❝❝✐♦♥❡s s♦♥ ♣r♦♣✐❛s ❞❡ ❧❛ ❧ó❣✐❝❛ ❝❧ás✐❝❛ ② ❞❡s❛♣❛r❡❝❡rí❛♥ ♦ s❡ r❡❞✉❝✐rí❛♥ ❛♥t❡
❧ó❣✐❝❛s ♥♦ ❝❧ás✐❝❛s ✭❬✶✻❪✮✳

✸✳✹✳✷✳ ❆r✐t♠ét✐❝❛

❆❞❡♠ás ❞❡ ❧♦s ♣r♦❜❧❡♠❛s ❞❡ ❢✉♥❞❛♠❡♥t♦s s❡ ❤❛ ✐♥t❡♥t❛❞♦ ♠♦str❛r ❧❛ ✉t✐❧✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ❧❛s

❧ó❣✐❝❛s ❛❧t❡r♥❛t✐✈❛s ❛❧ ♦❢r❡❝❡r ❞✐❢❡r❡♥t❡s ♠♦❞❡❧♦s ❞❡ t❡♦rí❛s ♠❛t❡♠át✐❝❛s✳ ❊st♦ ❛ ♠❡♥✉❞♦
❤❛ ✈❡♥✐❞♦ ❛❝♦♠♣❛ñ❛❞❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ✐❞❡❛ ❞❡ q✉❡ ❧❛s ❧ó❣✐❝❛s ♥♦ ❝❧ás✐❝❛s ♣✉❡❞❡♥ ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❛r ❝♦♠♦
❧❛s ❣❡♦♠❡trí❛s ♥♦ ❡✉❝❧✐❞✐❛♥❛s✱ ❡s ❞❡❝✐r✱ ❝♦♠♦ s✐st❡♠❛s ♠ás ❣❡♥❡r❛❧❡s q✉❡ ♣✉❡❞❛♥ ❛♠♣❧✐❛r
♥✉❡str♦ ❤♦r✐③♦♥t❡ ❤❛❝✐é♥❞♦♥♦s ❝♦♥t❡♠♣❧❛r ♦❜❥❡t♦s ② s✐t✉❛❝✐♦♥❡s q✉❡ ❛♥t❡s ♣❡♥sá❜❛♠♦s q✉❡
♥♦ ❡r❛♥ ❛❝❝❡s✐❜❧❡s ♦ q✉❡ s❡rí❛♥ ✓❛❜s✉r❞❛s✔✳
❊♥ ❡❧ ❝❛s♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❛r✐t♠ét✐❝❛ ❤❛ ❤❛❜✐❞♦ tr❛❜❛❥♦s ❝♦♠♦ ❧♦s ❞❡ Pr✐❡st ❡♥ ❬✶✼❪ ♣❛r❛ ✐♥t❡♥t❛r
❞❛r ❝♦♥ ♠♦❞❡❧♦s ❞❡ ❧❛ ❛r✐t♠ét✐❝❛ q✉❡ ❝♦♥t✉✈✐❡r❛♥ ❝♦♥tr❛❞✐❝❝✐♦♥❡s ✈❡r❞❛❞❡r❛s✳ P❛r❛ ❡❧❧♦
✹✻ ❈❆P❮❚❯▲❖ ✸✳ ❈❖◆❙❊❈❯❊◆❈■❆❙ ❨ ❆P▲■❈❆❈■❖◆❊❙

Pr✐❡st ❡♠♣❧❡❛ ✉♥ s✐st❡♠❛ ♣❛r❛❝♦♥s✐st❡♥t❡ ❡♥ ❡❧ q✉❡ s❡ ❤❛ ❡❧✐♠✐♥❛❞♦ ✉♥ ♣♦st✉❧❛❞♦ ♣r♦♣✐♦

❞❡ ❧❛s ❧ó❣✐❝❛s ❝❧ás✐❝❛s ② ❡♥ ❡❧ ❝✉❛❧ s❡ ♣✉❡❞❡♥ ❢♦r♠❛r ♠♦❞❡❧♦s ❝♦♥ ❝♦♥tr❛❞✐❝❝✐♦♥❡s ❛ ♣❛rt✐r
❞❡ ♠♦❞❡❧♦s ❝❧ás✐❝♦s✳ ❊st♦ ú❧t✐♠♦ s❡ ❝♦♥s✐❣✉❡ ❡♠♣❧❡❛♥❞♦ ✉♥ ❧❡♠❛ ❝♦♥♦❝✐❞♦ ❝♦♠♦ ✓❧❡♠❛ ❞❡❧
❝♦❧❛♣s♦✔ q✉❡ ♣❡r♠✐t❡ ❞❛❞❛ ✉♥❛ ✓r❡❧❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❡q✉✐✈❛❧❡♥❝✐❛✔ ❝♦♥str✉✐r ✉♥ ♥✉❡✈♦ ♠♦❞❡❧♦ ❡♥
❡❧ ❝✉❛❧ s❡ ✐❞❡♥t✐✜❝❛♥ ② ❛ ❧❛ ✈❡③ s❡ ♠❛♥t✐❡♥❡♥ ❝♦♠♦ ❞✐❢❡r❡♥t❡s ❧♦s ♦❜❥❡t♦s r❡❧❛❝✐♦♥❛❞♦s✳ P♦r
❡❥❡♠♣❧♦✱ s❡ ♣✉❡❞❡ ❝♦♥str✉✐r ✉♥ ♠♦❞❡❧♦ ❞❡ ❧♦s ♥ú♠❡r♦s ♥❛t✉r❛❧❡s ❡♥ ❧♦s ❝✉❛❧❡s s❡ ✐❞❡♥t✐✜❝❛♥
❞♦s ♥ú♠❡r♦s x ❡ y s✐ ② s♦❧♦ s✐ ✭x, y < n ② x = y ✮ ♦ ✭x, y ≥ n ② x = ymod(p)✮✳
❆❞❡♠ás s✐st❡♠❛s ❝♦♠♦ ❧❛ ❧ó❣✐❝❛ r❡❧❡✈❛♥t❡ ♣❡r♠✐t❡♥✱ ❤❛st❛ ❝✐❡rt♦ ♣✉♥t♦✱ ❡✈❛❞✐r ♣r♦❜❧❡✲
♠❛s ❝♦♠♦ ❡❧ t❡♦r❡♠❛ ❞❡ ●ö❞❡❧ ✭❬✶✵❪✮✳

✸✳✹✳✸✳ ●❡♦♠❡trí❛

❙✐ ❧❛ ❛r✐t♠ét✐❝❛ ❡s ✉♥♦ ❞❡ ❧♦s ♣✐❧❛r❡s s♦❜r❡ ❧♦s q✉❡ s❡ ❝♦♥str✉②❡♥ ❧❛s ♠❛t❡♠át✐❝❛s
② ❞❡ ❧❛s q✉❡ ❞❡r✐✈❛♥ ❤✐stór✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ ❡❧ r❡st♦ ❞❡ ❞✐s❝✐♣❧✐♥❛s✱ ❡stá ❝❧❛r♦ q✉❡ ❡❧ ♦tr♦ ♣✐❧❛r
❡s ❧❛ ❣❡♦♠❡trí❛✳ ▲✉❡❣♦ ❡s r❛③♦♥❛❜❧❡ q✉❡ ❡st❛ ❞✐s❝✐♣❧✐♥❛ s❡❛ ♦tr♦ á♠❜✐t♦ ♠❛t❡♠át✐❝♦ ❡♥
❡❧ q✉❡ q✉✐❡r❛ ♠♦str❛rs❡ ❧❛s ✈✐rt✉❞❡s ❞❡ ❧❛s ❧ó❣✐❝❛s ❛❧t❡r♥❛t✐✈❛s✳ ❆❞❡♠ás✱ ❤❛② ✉♥ ♠♦t✐✈♦
♠✉② r❛③♦♥❛❜❧❡ ② ❡s q✉❡ ❤❛② ✉♥❛ ❝❧❛s❡ ❞❡ ♦❜❥❡t♦s q✉❡ ♣❛r❡❝❡♥ ♥❡❝❡s✐t❛r ❞❡ ❣❡♦♠❡trí❛s
r❡❛❧✐③❛❞❛s ❝♦♥ ❧ó❣✐❝❛s ❛❧t❡r♥❛t✐✈❛s✳ ❊❥❡♠♣❧♦s ❞❡ ❡st♦s s♦♥ ❧♦s ❞✐❜✉❥♦s ❞❡ ✜❣✉r❛s ✐♠♣♦s✐❜❧❡s
q✉❡ ❡♥❝♦♥tr❛♠♦s ❡♥ ❛rt✐st❛s ❝♦♠♦ ❊s❝❤❡r ♦ ❢ís❝♦s✲♠❛t❡♠át✐❝♦s ❝♦♠♦ P❡♥r♦s❡✿

❋✐❣✉r❛ ✸✳✶✿ ❚r✐á♥❣✉❧♦ ❞❡ Pé♥r♦s❡ ② ❊s❝❛❧❡r❛ ❞❡ ❊s❝❤❡r

P❛r❛ ❛q✉❡❧❧♦s q✉❡ t❡♥❣❛♥ ✉♥ ❡s♣❡❝✐❛❧ ✐♥t❡rés ❡♥ ❡❧ ❡st✉❞✐♦ ❞❡ ❡st❛s ✜❣✉r❛s r❡❝♦♠❡♥❞❛♠♦s
❧❛s s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡s ❞♦s ♦❜r❛s✳ P♦r ✉♥ ❧❛❞♦ ✉♥❛ q✉❡ ❛♣❧✐❝❛ ✐❞❡❛s ♠❛t❡♠át✐❝❛s ❝♦♥✈❡♥❝✐♦♥❛❧❡s ❝♦♠♦
❧❛ ❝♦❤♦♠♦❧♦❣í❛ ✭❬✶✸❪✮ ② ♣♦r ♦tr❛ ❧❛ ♦❜r❛ ②❛ ♠❡♥❝✐♦♥❛❞♦ ❡♥ ❧❛ ú❧t✐♠❛ s❡❝❝✐ó♥ ❞❡❧ ❝❛♣ít✉❧♦
❛♥t❡r✐♦r ❡♥ ❧❛ q✉❡ s❡ ❡st✉❞✐❛♥ ❡♠♣❧❡❛♥❞♦ ❤❡rr❛♠✐❡♥t❛s ❜❛s❛❞❛s ❡♥ ❧ó❣✐❝❛s ♥♦ ❝❧ás✐❝❛s ✭❬✶✶❪✮✳
❇✐❜❧✐♦❣r❛❢í❛
❬✶❪ ❤tt♣s✿✴✴✇✇✇✳♣❤✐❧♦s♦♣❤✐❝❛✳✐♥❢♦✴✈♦❝❡s✴❛♥❛❧♦❣✐❛✴❆♥❛❧♦❣✐❛✳❤t♠❧

❬✷❪ ❤tt♣s✿✴✴✇✇✇✳②♦✉t✉❜❡✳❝♦♠✴✇❛t❝❤❄✈❂♣✐①❯✸❆❚▲❤❛❯✳

❬✸❪ ❇✉♥❣❡ ▼✳ ❆✳✿ ❖♥t♦❧♦❣② ■✿ ❚❤❡ ❢✉r♥✐t✉r❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ✇♦r❧❞ ✱ ❉♦r❞r❡❝❤t✿ ❑❧✉✇❡r✱ ✶✾✾✼✳

❬✹❪ ❲✳ ❈❛r♥✐❡❧❧✐✱ ▼✳ ❊✳ ❈♦♥✐❣❧✐♦✱ P❛r❛❝♦♥s✐st❡♥t ▲♦❣✐❝✿ ❈♦♥s✐st❡♥❝②✱ ❈♦♥tr❛❞✐❝t✐♦♥ ❛♥❞

◆❡❣❛t✐♦♥ ✱ ▲♦❣✐❝✱ ❊♣✐st❡♠♦❧♦❣②✱ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❯♥✐t② ♦❢ ❙❝✐❡♥❝❡ ✹✵✱ ❙♣r✐♥❣❡r✱ ✷✵✶✻✳

❬✺❪ ▼✳ ❍❡✐❞❡❣❣❡r✱ ➽◗✉é ❡s ♠❡t❛❢ís✐❝❛❄ ✳

❬✻❪ ❉✳ ❍♦❢st❛❞t❡r✱ ❊✳ ❙❛♥❞❡r✱ ❙✉r❢❛❝❡s ❛♥❞ ❊ss❡♥❝❡s✿ ❆♥❛❧♦❣② ❛s t❤❡ ❋✉❡❧ ❛♥❞ ❋✐r❡ ♦❢

❚❤✐♥❦✐♥❣ ✱❇❛s✐❝ ❇♦♦❦s✱ ✷✵✶✸✳

❬✼❪ ❊✳ ❍✉ss❡r❧✱ ❆♥❛❧②s②s ❝♦♥❝❡r♥✐♥❣ ♣❛ss✐✈❡ ❛♥❞ ❛❝t✐✈❡ s②♠t❤❡s✐s✳ ▲❡❝t✉r❡s ♦♥ tr❛♥s❝❡♥✲

❞❡♥t❛❧ ❧♦❣✐❝❛ ✱ ❑❧✉✇❡r ❆❝❛❞❡♠✐❝✱ ▲♦♥❞♦♥✱ ✷✵✵✶✳

❬✽❪ ❤tt♣s✿✴✴✇✇✇✳②♦✉t✉❜❡✳❝♦♠✴✇❛t❝❤❄✈❂✉✾✷❱✵❖▼❣✈❤▼✫❧✐st❂P▲✶✲✷❉❴
r❈◗❇❛r❥❞q♥▼✷✶s❖s①✵✾❈t❋❙❱❖✻❩✳

❬✾❪ ●✳ ❏✳ ❑❧✐r✱ ❇✳ ❨✉❛♥✱ ❋✉③③② s❡ts ❛♥❞ ❢✉③③② ❧♦❣✐❝✳ ❚❤❡♦r② ❛♥❞ ❆♣♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥s ✱ Pr❡♥t✐❝❡ ❍❛❧❧
P❚❘ ❯♣♣❡r ❙❛❞❞❧❡ ❘✐✈❡r✱ ◆❡✇ ❏❡rs❡②✱ ✶✾✾✺✳

❬✶✵❪ ❘✳ ❑✳ ▼❡②❡r✱ ❈✳ ▼♦rt❡♥s❡♥ ■♥❝♦♥s✐st❡♥t ▼♦❞❡❧s ❢♦r ❘❡❧❡✈❛♥t ❆r✐t❤♠❡t✐❝s✱ ❚❤❡ ❏♦✉r♥❛❧
♦❢ ❙②♠❜♦❧✐❝ ▲♦❣✐❝✱ ❱♦❧✳ ✹✾✱ ◆♦✳ ✸ ✭❙❡♣✳✱ ✶✾✽✹✮✱ ♣♣✳ ✾✶✼✲✾✷✾

❬✶✶❪ ❈✳ ▼♦rt❡♥s❡♥✱ ■♥❝♦♥s✐st❡♥t ●❡♦♠❡tr② ✱ ❈♦❧❧❡❣❡ P✉❜❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥s✱ ❙t✉❞✐❡s ✐♥ ▲♦❣✐❝ ✷✼✱ ✷✵✶✵✳

❬✶✷❪ ❤tt♣s✿✴✴♣❧❛t♦✳st❛♥❢♦r❞✳❡❞✉✴❡♥tr✐❡s✴❧♦❣✐❝✲♠❛♥②✈❛❧✉❡❞✴★❙②s▼❛♥❱❛❧▲♦❣✳

❬✶✸❪ ❘✳ P❡♥r♦s❡✱ ❖♥ t❤❡ ❈♦❤♦♠♦❧♦❣② ♦❢ ■♠♣♦ss✐❜❧❡ ❋✐❣✉r❡s ✱ ❱♦❧✳ ✷✺✱ ◆♦✳ ✸✴✹✱ ❱✐s✉❛❧ ▼❛t❤❡✲
♠❛t✐❝s✿ ❙♣❡❝✐❛❧ ❉♦✉❜❧❡ ■ss✉❡ ✭✶✾✾✷✮✱ ♣♣✳ ✷✹✺✕✷✹✼✳

✹✼
✹✽ ❇■❇▲■❖●❘❆❋❮❆
❬✶✹❪ ▲✳ P❡ñ❛✱ ➽◗✉❡❞ó ❛rr❛s❛❞❛ ❧❛ ❞✐❛❧é❝t✐❝❛❄ ❞✐s❝✉s✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧♦s ❛r❣✉♠❡♥t♦s ❞❡ ▼❛r✐♦ ❇✉♥❣❡✱
▲❡♥❣✉❛❥❡s ♥❛t✉r❛❧❡s ② ❧❡♥❣✉❛❥❡s ❢♦r♠❛❧❡s ✿ ❛❝t❛s ❞❡❧ ❱■■ ❝♦♥❣r❡s♦ ❞❡ ❧❡♥❣✉❛❥❡s ♥❛t✉✲
r❛❧❡s ② ❧❡♥❣✉❛❥❡s ❢♦r♠❛❧❡s ✿ ✭❱✐❝✲❇❛r❝❡❧♦♥❛✱ ✷✸✲✷✼ ❞❡ s❡♣t✐❡♠❜r❡ ❞❡ ✶✾✾✶✮ ✴ ❝♦♦r❞✳ ♣♦r
❈❛r❧♦s ▼❛rtí♥ ❱✐❞❡✱ ✶✾✾✷✱ ♣á❣s✳ ✺✵✶✕✺✶✹✳

❬✶✺❪ ▲✳ P❡ñ❛✱ ❘✉❞✐♠❡♥t♦s ❞❡ ▲ó❣✐❝❛ ▼❛t❡♠át✐❝❛✱ ❈♦♥s❡❥♦ ❙✉♣❡r✐♦r ❞❡ ✐♥✈❡st✐❣❛❝✐♦♥❡s ❝✐❡♥✲

tí✜❝❛s✱ ▼❛❞r✐❞✱ ✶✾✾✶✳

❬✶✻❪ ●✳ Pr✐❡st✱ ❇❡②♦♥❞ t❤❡ ▲✐♠✐ts ♦❢ ❚❤♦✉❣❤t✱ ❈❛♠❜r✐❞❣❡ ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t② Pr❡ss✱ ✶✾✾✺✳

❬✶✼❪ ●✳ Pr✐❡st✱ ■♥❝♦♥s✐st❡♥t ❆r✐t❤♠❡t✐❝✿ ■ss✉❡s ❚❡❝❤♥✐❝❛❧ ❛♥❞ P❤✐❧♦s♦♣❤✐❝❛❧✱✱♣♣✳ ✷✼✸✲✾✾ ❞❡

❱✳ ❋✳ ❍❡♥❞r✐❝❦s ❛♥❞ ❏✳ ▼❛❧✐♥♦✇s❦✐ ✭❡❞s✳✮ ❚r❡♥❞s ✐♥ ▲♦❣✐❝✿ ✺✵ ❨❡❛rs ♦❢ ❙t✉❞✐❛ ▲♦❣✐❝❛
✭❙t✉❞✐❛ ▲♦❣✐❝❛ ▲✐❜r❛r②✱ ❱♦❧✳ ✷✶✷✮✱ ❑❧✉✇❡r ❆❝❛❞❡♠✐❝ P✉❜❧✐s❤❡rs✱ ✷✵✵✸✳

❬✶✽❪ ●✳ Pr✐❡st✱ ❈♦♥tr❛❞✐❝t✐♦♥ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ■♥st❛♥t ♦❢ ❈❤❛♥❣❡ ❘❡✈✐s✐t❡❞✱ ❱✐✈❛r✐✉♠ ✺✺ ✭✷✵✶✼✮✱
✷✶✼✕✷✷✻

❬✶✾❪ ●✳ Pr✐❡st✱ ❲❤❡r❡ ▲❛✇s ❈♦♥✢✐❝t✿ ❛♥ ❆♣♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ▼❡t❤♦❞ ♦❢ ❈❤✉♥❦ ❛♥❞ P❡r♠❡❛t❡
❝❤✳ ✽ ❞❡ ❍✳ P✳ ●❧❡♥♥ ❛♥❞ ▲✳ ❉✳ ❙♠✐t❤ ✭❡❞s✳✮✱ ▲❛✇ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ◆❡✇ ▲♦❣✐❝s✱ ❈❛♠❜r✐❞❣❡
❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t② Pr❡ss✱ ✷✵✶✼✳

❬✷✵❪ ●✳ Pr✐❡st✱ ❘❡❛s♦♥✐♥❣ ❆❜♦✉t ❚r✉t❤✳ ❆rt✐✜❝✐❛❧ ■♥t❡❧❧✐❣❡♥❝❡✱ ✶✾✽✾✱ ✸✾ ✭✷✮ ✷✸✶✲✷✹✹✳

❬✷✶❪ ●✳ Pr✐❡st✱ ❑❛♥t✬s ❊①❝❡ss✐✈❡ ❚❡♥❞❡r♥❡ss ❢♦r ❚❤✐♥❣s ✐♥ t❤❡ ❲♦r❧❞✱ ❛♥❞ ❍❡❣❡❧✬s ❉✐❛✲
❧❡t❤❡✐s♠ ❝❤✳ ✷ ❞❡ ❙✳ ▲❛♣♦✐♥t❡ ✭❡❞✳✮✱ ▲♦❣✐❝ ❢r♦♠ ❑❛♥t t♦ ❘✉ss❡❧❧✿ ▲❛②✐♥❣ t❤❡ ❋♦✉♥❞❛t✐♦♥s
❢♦r ❆♥❛❧②t✐❝ P❤✐❧♦s♦♣❤②✱ ❘♦✉t❧❡❞❣❡✱ ✷✵✶✾✳

❬✷✷❪ ●✳ Pr✐❡st✱ ❯♥♦✱ ❆❧♣❤❛ ❉❡❝❛②✱ ✷✵✶✻✳

❬✷✸❪ ❘♦♠❡r♦ ●✳❊✳✿ ❙❝✐❡♥t✐✜❝ P❤✐❧♦s♦♣❤②✱ ❙♣r✐♥❣❡r✱ ✷✵✶✽✳

❬✷✹❪ ❏✳ P✳ ❙❛rtr❡✱ ❊❧ s❡r ② ❧❛ ◆❛❞❛✳

❬✷✺❪ P✳ ❙✐♠♦♥s✱ P❛rts✳ ❆ ❙t✉❞② ✐♥ ❖♥t♦❧♦❣②✱ ❖①❢♦r❞ ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t② Pr❡ss✱ ◆❡✇ ❨♦r❦✱ ✷✵✵✸✳

❬✷✻❪ ❙♠✐t❤ ❇✳✱ ❙♣❡❛r ❆✳❉✳✱ ❆r♣ ❘✳✿ ❇✉✐❧❞✐♥❣ ❖♥t♦❧♦❣✐❡s ✇✐t❤ ❇❛s✐❝ ❋♦r♠❛❧ ❖♥t♦❧♦❣②✱ ❚❤❡
▼■❚ Pr❡ss✱ ✷✵✶✺✳

❬✷✼❪ ❤tt♣s✿✴✴✇✇✇✳②♦✉t✉❜❡✳❝♦♠✴✇❛t❝❤❄✈❂♣❘❨✺❆❋❚❊❲r❆✳