◆♦t❛s ❞❡ ❈❧❛s❡s ❞❡ ▲ó❣✐❝❛ ▼❛t❡♠át✐❝❛ ✭❇♦rr❛❞♦r✱ ❉r❛❢t✮

❈❛r❧♦s ❆❧❜❡rt♦ ❇❛♥q✉❡t ❇r❛♥❣♦

❉❡♣❛rt❛♠❡♥t♦ ❞❡ ▼❛t❡♠át✐❝❛s ② ❊st❛❞íst✐❝❛

❯♥✐✈❡rs✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ❈ór❞♦❜❛

▼♦♥t❡rí❛✱ ❈♦❧♦♠❜✐❛

❆❜r✐❧ ❞❡ ✷✵✶✺
Pr❡❢❛❝✐♦
❊st❡ ❧✐❜r♦ ❡stá ❞✐s❡ñ❛❞♦ ♣❛r❛ s❡r ❞❡s❛rr♦❧❧❛❞♦ ❡♥ ❡❧ ♣r✐♠❡r s❡♠❡str❡ ❞❡❧ ♣r♦❣r❛♠❛ ❞❡ ■♥❣❡♥✐❡rí❛

❞❡ ❙✐st❡♠❛s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳✳

✐✐
❮♥❞✐❝❡ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧

Pr❡❢❛❝✐♦ ✐✐

✶✳ ▲ó❣✐❝❛ ■♥❢♦r♠❛❧ ✶

✶✳✶✳ ■♥tr♦❞✉❝❝✐ó♥✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✶

✶✳✷✳ ❆✜r♠❛❝✐♦♥❡s ♦ ❊♥✉♥❝✐❛❞♦s✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✶

✶✳✷✳✶✳ ❖♣❡r❛❝✐♦♥❡s ❇ás✐❝❛s✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✷

✶✳✸✳ ❘❡❧❛❝✐♦♥❡s ❡♥tr❡ ❆✜r♠❛❝✐♦♥❡s✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✺

✶✳✸✳✶✳ ■♠♣❧✐❝❛❝✐♦♥❡s ■♠♣♦rt❛♥t❡s✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✻

✶✳✸✳✷✳ ❊q✉✐✈❛❧❡♥❝✐❛s ■♠♣♦rt❛♥t❡s✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✼

✶✳✹✳ ❆r❣✉♠❡♥t♦s ❱á❧✐❞♦s✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✽

✶✳✹✳✶✳ ❘❡❣❧❛s ❞❡ ■♥❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✾

✶✳✺✳ ❈✉❛♥t✐✜❝❛❞♦r❡s✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✶✸

✶✳✺✳✶✳ ❈✉❛♥t✐✜❝❛❞♦r ❯♥✐✈❡rs❛❧✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✶✸

✶✳✺✳✷✳ ❈✉❛♥t✐✜❝❛❞♦r ❊①✐st❡♥❝✐❛❧✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✶✹

✶✳✺✳✸✳ ◆❡❣❛♥❞♦ ❛✜r♠❛❝✐♦♥❡s ❝♦♥ ❈✉❛♥t✐✜❝❛❞♦r❡s✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✶✹

✶✳✻✳ ❊❥❡r❝✐❝✐♦s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✶✺

✷✳ ❈♦♥❥✉♥t♦s ✶✽

✷✳✶✳ ❉❡✜♥✐❝✐♦♥❡s ❇ás✐❝❛s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✶✽

✷✳✷✳ ❖♣❡r❛❝✐♦♥❡s ❡♥tr❡ ❈♦♥❥✉♥t♦s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✶✾

✐✐✐
✐✈ ❮♥❞✐❝❡ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧

✷✳✷✳✶✳ ➪❧❣❡❜r❛ ❞❡ ❈♦♥❥✉♥t♦s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✷✶

✷✳✸✳ ❈♦♥❥✉♥t♦s ❋✐♥✐t♦s ② Pr✐♥❝✐♣✐♦ ❞❡ ❈♦♥t❡♦ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✷✻

✸✳ ❈ó❞✐❣♦s ② ❙✐st❡♠❛s ❞❡ ◆✉♠❡r❛❝✐ó♥ ✸✷

✸✳✶✳ ❙✐st❡♠❛ ❞❡ ◆✉♠❡r❛❝✐ó♥ ❉❡❝✐♠❛❧ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✸✷

✸✳✷✳ ❙✐st❡♠❛ ❞❡ ◆✉♠❡r❛❝✐ó♥ ❇✐♥❛r✐♦ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✸✹

✸✳✷✳✶✳ ❈♦♥t❡♦ ❡♥ ❇✐♥❛r✐♦ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✸✹

✸✳✸✳ ❙✐st❡♠❛ ❞❡ ◆✉♠❡r❛❝✐ó♥ ❖❝t❛❧ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✸✺

✸✳✹✳ ❙✐st❡♠❛ ❞❡ ◆✉♠❡r❛❝✐ó♥ ❍❡①❛❞❡❝✐♠❛❧ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✸✻

✸✳✺✳ ❈♦♥✈❡rs✐ó♥ ❡♥tr❡ ❙✐st❡♠❛s ❞❡ ◆✉♠❡r❛❝✐ó♥ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✸✻

✸✳✺✳✶✳ ❈♦♥✈❡rs✐ó♥ ❉❡❝✐♠❛❧ ❛ ❇✐♥❛r✐♦ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✸✼

✸✳✺✳✷✳ ❈♦♥✈❡rs✐ó♥ ❞❡❧ ❙✐st❡♠❛ ❉❡❝✐♠❛❧ ❛❧ ❖❝t❛❧ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✸✽

✸✳✺✳✸✳ ❈♦♥✈❡rs✐ó♥ ❞❡❧ ❙✐st❡♠❛ ❉❡❝✐♠❛❧ ❛ ❍❡①❛❞❡❝✐♠❛❧ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✸✾

✸✳✺✳✹✳ ❈♦♥✈❡rs✐ó♥ ❡♥tr❡ ❧♦s ❙✐st❡♠❛s ❇✐♥❛r✐♦ ② ❖❝t❛❧ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✹✵

✸✳✺✳✺✳ ❈♦♥✈❡rs✐ó♥ ❡♥tr❡ ❧♦s ❙✐st❡♠❛s ❍❡①❛❞❡❝✐♠❛❧❡s ② ❇✐♥❛r✐♦ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✹✶

✸✳✻✳ ❖♣❡r❛❝✐♦♥❡s ❆r✐t♠ét✐❝❛s ❡♥ ❡❧ ❙✐st❡♠❛ ❇✐♥❛r✐♦ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✹✷

✸✳✻✳✶✳ ❙✉♠❛ ❇✐♥❛r✐❛ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✹✸

✸✳✻✳✷✳ ❘❡st❛ ❇✐♥❛r✐❛ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✹✸

✸✳✻✳✸✳ ▼✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝❛❝✐ó♥ ❇✐♥❛r✐❛ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✹✹

✸✳✻✳✹✳ ❉✐✈✐s✐ó♥ ❇✐♥❛r✐❛ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✹✹

✸✳✼✳ ❊❥❡r❝✐❝✐♦s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✹✹

✹✳ ➪❧❣❡❜r❛ ❞❡ ❇♦♦❧❡ ✹✻

✹✳✶✳ ❉❡✜♥✐❝✐ó♥ ② Pr♦♣✐❡❞❛❞❡s ❇ás✐❝❛s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✹✻

✹✳✷✳ ❊①♣r❡s✐♦♥❡s ♦ ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❜♦♦❧❡❛♥❛s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✺✶

✹✳✷✳✶✳ ❋♦r♠❛ ♥♦r♠❛❧ ❞✐s②✉♥t✐✈❛ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✺✶

✹✳✷✳✷✳ ❋♦r♠❛ ♥♦r♠❛❧ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t✐✈❛ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✺✷

❮♥❞✐❝❡ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧ ✈

✹✳✷✳✸✳ ❈♦♠♦ ♣❛s❛r ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ❢♦r♠❛ ❛ ♦tr❛ ✭❈♦♥❥✉♥t✐✈❛ ↔ ❉✐s②✉♥t✐✈❛✮ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✺✹

✹✳✸✳ ▼❛♣❛s ❞❡ ❑❛r♥❛✉❣❤ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✺✹

✹✳✸✳✶✳ ▼❛♣❛s ❞❡ ❑❛r♥❛✉❣❤ ❞❡ ❞♦s ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✺✺

✹✳✸✳✷✳ ▼❛♣❛s ❞❡ ❑❛r♥❛✉❣❤ ❞❡ tr❡s ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✺✺

✹✳✸✳✸✳ ▼❛♣❛s ❞❡ ❑❛r♥❛✉❣❤ ❞❡ ❝✉❛tr♦ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✺✻

✹✳✸✳✹✳ ❆❧❣♦r✐t♠♦ ❞❡ ▼✐♥✐♠✐③❛❝✐ó♥ ♠❡❞✐❛♥t❡ ▼❛♣❛s ❞❡ ❑❛r♥❛✉❣❤ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✺✻

✹✳✹✳ ❈♦♠♣✉❡rt❛s ❧ó❣✐❝❛s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✺✽

✹✳✹✳✶✳ ❈♦♠♣✉❡rt❛ ◆❆◆❉ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✺✽

✹✳✹✳✷✳ ❈♦♠♣✉❡rt❛ ◆❖❘ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✺✾

✹✳✺✳ ❊❥❡r❝✐❝✐♦s ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✻✶
✈✐ ❮♥❞✐❝❡ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧
❈❛♣ít✉❧♦ ✶

▲ó❣✐❝❛ ■♥❢♦r♠❛❧

✶✳✶✳ ■♥tr♦❞✉❝❝✐ó♥✳

▲❛ ❧ó❣✐❝❛ ❡s ❧❛ ❝✐❡♥❝✐❛ ❞❡ ❧♦s ♣r✐♥❝✐♣✐♦s ❞❡ ✐♥❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛ ♦ r❛③♦♥❛♠✐❡♥t♦s ❢♦r♠❛❧♠❡♥t❡ ✈á❧✐❞♦s❀ ❡st❛

s❡ ♦❝✉♣❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ✈❛❧✐❞❡③ ❞❡ ❧♦s r❛③♦♥❛♠✐❡♥t♦s ② ♥♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ✈❡r❞❛❞ ♦ ❢❛❧s❡❞❛❞ ❞❡ ❧♦s ❡♥✉♥❝✐❛❞♦s q✉❡ ❧❛

❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥✳ ❊♥ ▼❛t❡♠át✐❝❛s ❧❛ ❧ó❣✐❝❛ ❡s ❡❧ ❡sq✉❡❧❡t♦ s♦❜r❡ ❡❧ ❝✉❛❧ s❡ r❡❛❧✐③❛♥ ❧❛s ♣r✉❡❜❛s ♦ ❞❡♠♦s✲

tr❛❝✐♦♥❡s✳

✶✳✷✳ ❆✜r♠❛❝✐♦♥❡s ♦ ❊♥✉♥❝✐❛❞♦s✳

❉❡✜♥✐❝✐ó♥ ✶✳✶ ✭❆✜r♠❛❝✐ó♥✮✳ ■♥t✉✐t✐✈❛♠❡♥t❡ ✉♥❛ ❛✜r♠❛❝✐ó♥ ❡s ❛❧❣♦ q✉❡ ❡①♣r❡s❛♠♦s ✭❡♥ ❢♦r♠❛ ♦r❛❧✱
❡s❝r✐t❛ ♦ ❞❡ ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r ♦tr❛ ♠❛♥❡r❛✮ ② q✉❡ ❡♥ ✉♥ ❝♦♥t❡①t♦ ❞❛❞♦ ❡s ✐♥❡q✉í✈♦❝❛♠❡♥t❡ ❝✐❡rt♦ ♦ ❢❛❧s♦✳

❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✶✳✷✳ ✏▲❛ ❝❛♣✐t❛❧ ❞❡ ❈♦❧♦♠❜✐❛ ❡s ❇♦❣♦tá✑ ② ✏❞❡❜❛❥♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ t♦rr❡ ❊✐✛❡❧ ❤❛② ✉♥ ❝❛rr♦ r♦❥♦✑✳
❆♠❜❛s s♦♥ ❛✜r♠❛❝✐♦♥❡s✳ ❉❡ ❧❛ ♣r✐♠❡r❛ ♥♦ t❡♥❡♠♦s ❞✉❞❛ s✐ ❡s ✈❡r❞❛❞❡r❛ ♦ ❢❛❧s❛ ② ❞❡ ❧❛ s❡❣✉♥❞❛
♥♦ ❤❛② ❝❡rt❡③❛✱ s✐♥ ❡♠❜❛r❣♦✱ t❛♠❜✐é♥ ❡s ✉♥❛ ❛✜r♠❛❝✐ó♥ ② ♥♦ ❡s ♥❡❝❡s❛r✐♦ ❡st❛r ❡♥ ❧❛ ❝❛♣❛❝✐❞❛❞ ❞❡
s❛❜❡r ♣❡rs♦♥❛❧♠❡♥t❡ ❧❛ r❡s♣✉❡st❛✳

❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✶✳✸✳ ✏❱✐❛❥❛r ❡♥ ❧❛ ♥♦❝❤❡✑ ② ✏♠✐r❛r t❡❧❡✈✐s✐ó♥✑✳ ◆♦ s♦♥ ❛✜r♠❛❝✐♦♥❡s✳ ❉❡ ést❛s ♥♦ s❡ ♣✉❡❞❡
❞❡❝✐r q✉❡ s❡❛♥ ✈❡r❞❛❞❡r❛s ♦ ❢❛❧s❛s✳

❚♦❞❛ ❛✜r♠❛❝✐ó♥ ❡s ✈❡r❞❛❞❡r❛ ♦ ❢❛❧s❛ ② ♥♦ ❤❛② ✉♥❛ ❛✜r♠❛❝✐ó♥ q✉❡ s❡❛ ✈❡r❞❛❞❡r❛ ② ❢❛❧s❛ ❛❧ ♠✐s♠♦

t✐❡♠♣♦✳ ❊st❛ s✉♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ❧❡ ❧❧❛♠❛♠♦s ❧❛ ▲❡② ❞❡❧ ▼❡❞✐♦ ❊①❝❧✉✐❞♦✳ ▲❛ ♠❛②♦rí❛ ❞❡ ❧♦s ♠❛t❡♠át✐❝♦s
❧❛ ❛❝❡♣t❛♥✱ s✐♥ ❡♠❜❛r❣♦✱ ❛❧❣✉♥♦s ❞❡♠❛s✐❛❞♦ ❢♦r♠❛❧❡s s❡ r❡❤✉s❛♥ ❛ ✉s❛r❧❛✳ ❯♥❛ ❝♦♥s❡❝✉❡♥❝✐❛ ❞❡ ❡st❛

s✉♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ❡s q✉❡ s✐ ✉♥❛ ❛✜r♠❛❝✐ó♥ ♥♦ ❡s ❢❛❧s❛ t❡♥❞rá q✉❡ s❡r ✈❡r❞❛❞❡r❛✳

❆ ♣❛rt✐r ❞❡ ❛✜r♠❛❝✐♦♥❡s ♣♦❞❡♠♦s ❝♦♥str✉✐r ♦tr❛s ❛✜r♠❛❝✐♦♥❡s✳ ❚❡♥✐❡♥❞♦ ❝♦♠♦ ❜❛s❡ ❧❛s ❛✜r♠❛✲

❝✐♦♥❡s✿ P✿ ✏▲❛ ❝❛♣✐t❛❧ ❞❡ ❈♦❧♦♠❜✐❛ ❡s ❇♦❣♦tá✑✱ Q✿ ✏❞❡❜❛❥♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ t♦rr❡ ❊✐✛❡❧ ❤❛② ✉♥ ❝❛rr♦ r♦❥♦✑✱

✶
✷ ❈❛♣ít✉❧♦ ✶✳ ▲ó❣✐❝❛ ■♥❢♦r♠❛❧

♣♦❞❡♠♦s ❝♦♥str✉✐r ♥✉❡✈❛s ❛✜r♠❛❝✐♦♥❡s✱ ♣♦r ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦✿ P ② Q✿ ✏▲❛ ❝❛♣✐t❛❧ ❞❡ ❈♦❧♦♠❜✐❛ ❡s ❇♦❣♦tá ②

❞❡❜❛❥♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ t♦rr❡ ❊✐✛❡❧ ❤❛② ✉♥ ❝❛rr♦ r♦❥♦✑✱ P ó Q✿ ✏▲❛ ❝❛♣✐t❛❧ ❞❡ ❈♦❧♦♠❜✐❛ ❡s ❇♦❣♦tá ♦ ❞❡❜❛❥♦ ❞❡

❧❛ t♦rr❡ ❊✐✛❡❧ ❤❛② ✉♥ ❝❛rr♦ r♦❥♦✑✳

✶✳✷✳✶✳ ❖♣❡r❛❝✐♦♥❡s ❇ás✐❝❛s✳

▲❛s ♣❛❧❛❜r❛s ✏②✑✱ ✏♦✑✱ ✏♥♦✑✱ ✏s✐✱✳✳✳✱ ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s✑✱ ✏s✐ ② só❧♦ s✐✑✱ ♥♦s ♣❡r♠✐t✐rá♥ ❤❛❝❡r ♥✉❡✈❛s ❛✜r♠❛❝✐♦♥❡s

② ❛❞❡♠ás✱ ❝♦♥♦❝✐❡♥❞♦ ❧♦s ✈❛❧♦r❡s ❞❡ ✈❡r❞❛❞ ❞❡ ❧❛s ❛✜r♠❛❝✐♦♥❡s q✉❡ ❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥ ❧❛ ♥✉❡✈❛ ❛✜r♠❛❝✐ó♥✱

♣♦❞r❡♠♦s ❞❡❞✉❝✐r ❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r ❞❡ ✈❡r❞❛❞ ❞❡ ❡st❛✳ ❉✐❝❤❛s ♣❛❧❛❜r❛s t✐❡♥❡♥ ✉♥❛ ♥♦t❛❝✐ó♥ ❡s♣❡❝✐❛❧ ② s✉

s❡♥t✐❞♦ ❡♥ ♠❛t❡♠át✐❝❛s ❡s ♣r❡❝✐s♦✳

✶✳ ❈♦♥❥✉♥❝✐ó♥✿ ∧ ✭❈♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞❡ ❛❧ ✏②✑ ❞❡❧ ❧❡♥❣✉❛❥❡ ❝♦♠ú♥✮✳ ❙❡❛♥ P ② Q ❛✜r♠❛❝✐♦♥❡s✳ ▲❛

❛✜r♠❛❝✐ó♥ P ∧ Q s❡ ❧❡❡ ✏ P ② Q✑ ❡ ✐♥t✉✐t✐✈❛♠❡♥t❡ ❡s ✈❡r❞❛❞❡r❛ s✐ ❛♠❜❛s s♦♥ ✈❡r❞❛❞❡r❛s ②
❢❛❧s❛ s✐ ❛❧❣✉♥❛ ❞❡ ❡❧❧❛s ❡s ❢❛❧s❛✱ ♣❡r♦ s✉ ❞❡✜♥✐❝✐ó♥ ♣r❡❝✐s❛ s❡ ❝♦♥s✐❣♥❛ ❡♥ ❧❛ s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡ t❛❜❧❛✱ q✉❡

❧❧❛♠❛♠♦s t❛❜❧❛ ❞❡ ✈❡r❞❛❞✳

P Q P ∧Q
❱ ❱ ❱

❱ ❋ ❋

❋ ❱ ❋

❋ ❋ ❋

❊♥ ❡❧ ❧❡♥❣✉❛❥❡ ❝♦♠ú♥ ❧❛ ♣❛❧❛❜r❛ ✏②✑ ♣♦❞rí❛ t❡♥❡r ♦tr♦s s✐❣♥✐✜❝❛❞♦s✱ s✐♥ ❡♠❜❛r❣♦ ♣❛r❛ ♥♦s♦tr♦s
❡❧ s✐❣♥✐✜❝❛❞♦ ❡s ❡❧ q✉❡ ♥♦s ❞❛ ❧❛ t❛❜❧❛✳

✷✳ ❉✐s②✉♥❝✐ó♥✿ ∨ ✭❈♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞❡ ❛❧ ✏♦✑ ❞❡❧ ❧❡♥❣✉❛❥❡ ❝♦♠ú♥✮✳ ▲❛ ❛✜r♠❛❝✐ó♥ P ∨Q s❡ ❧❡❡ ✏ P ♦

Q✑✱ ✐♥t✉✐t✐✈❛♠❡♥t❡ P ∨Q ❡s ✈❡r❞❛❞❡r♦ s✐ ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r❛ ❞❡ ❧❛s ❞♦s ❛✜r♠❛❝✐♦♥❡s ❧♦ ❡s ♦ s✐ ❛♠❜❛s ❧♦

s♦♥✳ ❉❡ ❢♦r♠❛ ♠❛s ♣r❡❝✐s❛✿

P Q P ∨Q
❱ ❱ ❱

❱ ❋ ❱

❋ ❱ ❱

❋ ❋ ❋

❊st❡ ❡s ✉♥ ✏♦✑ ✐♥❝❧✉s✐✈♦ ② ♥♦ ❡①❝❧✉s✐✈♦✳ ❊♥ ❡❧ ❧❡♥❣✉❛❥❡ ❝♦❧♦q✉✐❛❧ ♠✉❝❤❛s ✈❡❝❡s ♥♦ s❡ ♣❡r♠✐t❡

q✉❡ ❛♠❜❛s s❡❛♥ ✈❡r❞❛❞❡r❛s✳ P♦r ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦✿ ❉❡s♣✉és ❞❡❧ ❛❧♠✉❡r③♦ ❝♦♠♦ ♣♦str❡ ♦ ♠❡ ❧❛✈♦ ❧♦s

❞✐❡♥t❡s✳ ❊♥ ❧❛ ❛✜r♠❛❝✐ó♥ ❛♥t❡r✐♦r ❞❛❞❛ ❡♥ ❧❡♥❣✉❛❥❡ ❝♦♠ú♥ ✉♥♦ ❡♥t✐❡♥❞❡ q✉❡ ♥♦ ❤❛rá ❧❛s ❞♦s

❝♦s❛s ❞❡s♣✉és ❞❡ ❛❧♠✉❡r③♦✳ ❆q✉í ❡❧ ✏♦✑ ❡s ❡①❝❧✉s✐✈♦✱ ♣❡r♦ ❡♥ ❡❧ ❧❡♥❣✉❛❥❡ ♠❛t❡♠át✐❝♦ ❡❧ ✏♦✑ q✉❡

s❡ ✉s❛ ❡s ❡❧ ✐♥❝❧✉s✐✈♦✳

✸✳ ◆❡❣❛❝✐ó♥✿ ∼ ✭❈♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞❡ ❛❧ ✏♥♦✑ ❞❡❧ ❧❡♥❣✉❛❥❡ ❝♦♠ú♥✮✳ ▲❛ ❛✜r♠❛❝✐ó♥ ∼P s❡ ❧❡❡ ✏♥♦ P ✑✱

✐♥t✉✐t✐✈❛♠❡♥t❡ ∼P ❡s ❢❛❧s♦ ❝✉❛♥❞♦ P ❡s ✈❡r❞❛❞❡r♦ ② ∼P ❡s ✈❡r❞❛❞❡r♦ ❝✉❛♥❞♦ P ♥♦ ❧♦ ❡s✳ ▲❛

❞❡✜♥✐❝✐ó♥ ♣r❡❝✐s❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♥❡❣❛❝✐ó♥ ❡s✿

✶✳✷✳ ❆✜r♠❛❝✐♦♥❡s ♦ ❊♥✉♥❝✐❛❞♦s✳ ✸

P ∼P
❱ ❋

❋ ❱

P♦r ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦✱ s✐ P✿ ▲❛ ❝❛♣✐t❛❧ ❞❡ ❈♦❧♦♠❜✐❛ ❡s ❇♦❣♦tá✱ s✉ ♥❡❣❛❝✐ó♥ s❡rá ∼ P✿ ▲❛ ❝❛♣✐t❛❧ ❞❡

❈♦❧♦♠❜✐❛ ♥♦ ❡s ❇♦❣♦tá✳

✹✳ ❈♦♥❞✐❝✐♦♥❛❧✿ → ✭❈♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞❡ ❛❧ ✏s✐✱✳✳✳✱ ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s✳✳✳✑ ❞❡❧ ❧❡♥❣✉❛❥❡ ❝♦♠ú♥✮✳ ▲❛ ❛✜r♠❛❝✐ó♥

P → Q s❡ ❧❡❡ ✏❙✐ P✱ ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s Q✑✳ ■♥t✉✐t✐✈❛♠❡♥t❡ ❡s ✈❡r❞❛❞❡r❛ s✐ ♥✉♥❝❛ ♦❝✉rr❡ q✉❡ P s❡❛

✈❡r❞❛❞❡r❛ ② q✉❡ Q s❡❛ ❢❛❧s♦ ❛❧ ♠✐s♠♦ t✐❡♠♣♦✳ ▲❛ ❞❡✜♥✐❝✐ó♥ ♣r❡❝✐s❛ ❡s✿

P Q P →Q
❱ ❱ ❱

❱ ❋ ❋

❋ ❱ ❱

❋ ❋ ❱

▲❛s ❞♦s ♣r✐♠❡r❛s ❧í♥❡❛s s♦♥ ✏❝r❡✐❜❧❡s✑✱ ❧❛s ❞♦s ú❧t✐♠❛s ♥♦s ❝✉❡st❛♥ ♠ás tr❛❜❛❥♦✳ ❚r❛t❡♠♦s ❞❡

❡♥t❡♥❞❡r❧❛s ❝♦♥ ❡❧ s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡ ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦✿ ❙✐ t✉ ♠❛❞r❡ ❞✐❝❡✏❙✐ ❣❛♥❛s ❈á❧❝✉❧♦ ❉✐❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛❧✱ ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s

t❡ ❝♦♠♣r♦ ✉♥ ❝♦♠♣✉t❛❞♦r✑✳ ❊s ❝❧❛r♦ q✉❡ s✐ ❣❛♥❛s ❈á❝✉❧♦ ② t✉ ♠❛❞r❡ ❝♦♠♣r❛ ❡❧ ❝♦♠♣✉t❛❞♦r✱

❡♥t♦♥❝❡s ❧❛ ❛✜r♠❛❝✐ó♥ ❝♦♥❞✐❝✐♦♥❛❧ s❡ ✈❡r✐✜❝❛✳ ❚❛♠❜✐é♥ ❡s ❝❧❛r♦ q✉❡ s✐ ❣❛♥❛s ❈á❝✉❧♦ ② t✉ ♠❛❞r❡

♥♦ ❝♦♠♣r❛ ❡❧ ❝♦♠♣✉t❛❞♦r✱ ❧❛ ❛✜r♠❛❝✐ó♥ ❝♦♥❞✐❝✐♦♥❛❧ ♥♦ s❡ ✈❡r✐✜❝❛✳ P❡r♦ t❛♠❜✐é♥ ❡s ❝✐❡rt♦ q✉❡

s✐ ♥♦ ❣❛♥❛s ❈á❧❝✉❧♦✱ ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s t✉ ♠❛❞r❡ ♣✉❡❞❡ ♦ ♥♦ ❝♦♠♣r❛r ❡❧ ❝♦♠♣✉t❛❞♦r✱ ❡♥ ❡st♦s ❝❛s♦s

❞❡❜❡♠♦s ♣❡♥s❛r q✉❡ ❧❛ ❛✜r♠❛❝✐ó♥ ❡s ❝✐❡rt❛✳

P → Q s❡ ♣✉❡❞❡ ❡s❝r✐❜✐r Q ← P✳ ❯s✉❛❧♠❡♥t❡ ❛ P ❧♦ ❧❧❛♠❛♠♦s ❡❧ ❛♥t❡❝❡❞❡♥t❡ ② ❛ Q ❡❧

❝♦♥s❡❝✉❡♥t❡✳ ❆sí ♣✉❡s✱ ❧♦s ❞♦s ú❧t✐♠♦s r❡♥❣❧♦♥❡s ❞❡ ❧❛ t❛❜❧❛ ❧♦s ✐♥t❡r♣r❡t❛♠♦s ❛sí✿ ❙✐ ❡❧ ❛♥t❡✲
❝❡❞❡♥t❡ ❡s ❢❛❧s♦✱ ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r ❝♦s❛ ♣✉❡❞❡ ♦❝✉rr✐r ❝♦♥ ❡❧ ❝♦♥s❡❝✉❡♥t❡✳

P →Q t❛♠❜✐é♥ s❡ ❧❡❡ ✏s✐ P, Q✑❀ ✏ Q s✐ P ✑❀ ✏ P só❧♦ s✐ Q✑❀ ✏ Q s✐❡♠♣r❡ q✉❡ P ✑❀ ✏s✉♣♦♥✐❡♥❞♦ P ✱

❡♥t♦♥❝❡s Q✑❀ ✏ Q ❞❛❞♦ q✉❡ P ✑❀ ✏ P ❡s s✉✜❝✐❡♥t❡ ♣❛r❛ Q✑ ② ✏ Q ❡s ♥❡❝❡s❛r✐♦ ♣❛r❛ P ✑✳

❊♥ ❡❧ s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡ ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦ t♦❞❛s ❧❛s ❛✜r♠❛❝✐♦♥❡s q✉✐❡r❡♥ ❞❡❝✐r ❧♦ ♠✐s♠♦✳

❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✶✳✹✳ ✮ ❙✐ p ❡s ✉♥ ♥ú♠❡r♦ ♣❛r✱ p = 2m ♣❛r❛ ❛❧❣ú♥ m ∈ Z✳

❛

❜✮ p = 2m ♣❛r❛ ❛❧❣ú♥ m ∈ Z ✱ s✐ p ❡s ♣❛r✳

❝✮ p ❡s ✉♥ ♥ú♠❡r♦ ♣❛r só❧♦ s✐ p = 2m ♣❛r❛ ❛❧❣ú♥ m ∈ Z✳
❞✮ p = 2m ♣❛r❛ m ∈ Z s✐❡♠♣r❡ q✉❡ p s❡❛ ♣❛r✳
❡✮ ❙✉♣♦♥✐❡♥❞♦ q✉❡ p s❡❛ ♣❛r ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s p = 2m ♣❛r❛ ❛❧❣ú♥ m ∈ Z✳
❢✮ p ❡s ♣❛r ❡s s✉✜❝✐❡♥t❡ ♣❛r❛ q✉❡ p = 2m ♣❛r❛ ❛❧❣ú♥ m ∈ Z✳
❣✮ p = 2m ♣❛r❛ ❛❧❣ú♥ m ∈ Z ❡s ♥❡❝❡s❛r✐♦ ♣❛r❛ q✉❡ p s❡❛ ♣❛r✳

✺✳ ❇✐❝♦♥❞✐❝✐♦♥❛❧✳ ↔ ✏❙✐ ② só❧♦ s✐✑ ✳ ▲❛ ❛✜r♠❛❝✐ó♥ P ↔ Q ✐♥t✉✐t✐✈❛♠❡♥t❡ ♥♦s ❞✐❝❡ q✉❡ ❡s

✈❡r❞❛❞❡r❛ s✐❡♠♣r❡ q✉❡ P ② Q s❡❛♥ ❛♠❜❛s ✈❡r❞❛❞❡r❛s ♦ ❛♠❜❛s ❢❛❧s❛s✱ ♣❡r♦ q✉❡ ❡s ❢❛❧s❛ ❡♥ ❝❛s♦
❝♦♥tr❛r✐♦✳ ▼ás ♣r❡❝✐s❛♠❡♥t❡✿
✹ ❈❛♣ít✉❧♦ ✶✳ ▲ó❣✐❝❛ ■♥❢♦r♠❛❧

P Q P ↔Q
❱ ❱ ❱

❱ ❋ ❋

❋ ❱ ❋

❋ ❋ ❱

❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✶✳✺✳ ❨♦ ❡st✉❞✐❛ré ❈á❧❝✉❧♦ ❉✐❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛❧ ❤♦② s✐ ② só❧♦ s✐ t✉ ❧♦ ❤❛❝❡s t❛♠❜✐é♥✳ ❊st♦ s❡
✈❡r✐✜❝❛ s✐ ❛♠❜♦s ❡st✉❞✐❛♠♦s ♦ ❛♠❜♦s ♥♦ ❧♦ ❤❛❝❡♠♦s✱ ♣❡r♦ ❝❧❛r❛♠❡♥t❡ s✐ ②♦ ❧♦ ❤❛❣♦ ② t✉ ♥♦ ❧♦
❤❛❝❡s ♥♦ s❡ ✈❡r✐✜❝❛ ✭♦ ✈✐❝❡✈❡rs❛✮✳ ❊s ❞❡❝✐r✱ ♥♦ ♣✉❡❞❡ s❡r ❡❧ ❝❛s♦ q✉❡ ✉♥♦ ❡st✉❞✐❡ ② ❡❧ ♦tr♦ ♥♦✳

❖tr❛s ❢♦r♠❛s ❞❡ ❧❡❡r P ↔ Q✱ P s✐ ② só❧♦ s✐ Q✱ P s✐ ② s♦❧❛♠❡♥t❡ s✐ Q, P ❡s ♥❡❝❡s❛r✐♦

② s✉✜❝✐❡♥t❡ ♣❛r❛ Q✳ ❚❛♠❜✐é♥ ♣♦❞❡♠♦s ❡s❝r✐❜✐r ❛ Q ↔ P ❡♥ ✈❡③ ❞❡ P ↔ Q. ❆❧❣✉♥❛s ✈❡❝❡s

❛❜r❡✈✐❛♠♦s ✏s✐ ② só❧♦ s✐✑ ♣♦r ✏s✐✐✑✳

❈♦♥ ❡st❛s ❝✐♥❝♦ ♦♣❡r❛❝✐♦♥❡s ❜ás✐❝❛s ∧, ∨, ∼, → ② ↔ ♣♦❞❡♠♦s ❛r♠❛r ❛✜r♠❛❝✐♦♥❡s ♠ás ❝♦♠♣❧✐❝❛❞❛s✳

❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✶✳✻✳ ➽◗✉é s✐❣♥✐✜❝❛❞♦ t✐❡♥❡ P ∨ (Q →∼ R)❄ ❊st♦ ❧♦ ♣♦❞❡♠♦s ✈❡r ❡♥ ✉♥❛ t❛❜❧❛ ❞❡ ✈❡r❞❛❞✳

P Q R ∼R Q →∼ R P ∨ (Q →∼ R)
❱ ❱ ❱ ❋ ❋ ❱

❱ ❱ ❋ ❱ ❱ ❱

❱ ❋ ❱ ❋ ❱ ❱

❱ ❋ ❋ ❱ ❱ ❱

❋ ❱ ❱ ❋ ❋ ❋

❋ ❱ ❋ ❱ ❱ ❱

❋ ❋ ❱ ❋ ❱ ❱

❋ ❋ ❋ ❱ ❱ ❱

❡st❛ t❛❜❧❛ ❧❛ ♣♦❞❡♠♦s r❡s✉♠✐r ❞❡ ❧❛ s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡ ❢♦r♠❛✿

P Q R [P ∨ (Q → ∼ R)]
❱ ❱ ❱ ❱ ❱ ❱ ❋ ❋

❱ ❱ ❋ ❱ ❱ ❱ ❱ ❱

❱ ❋ ❱ ❱ ❱ ❋ ❱ ❋

❱ ❋ ❋ ❱ ❱ ❋ ❱ ❱

❋ ❱ ❱ ❋ ❋ ❱ ❋ ❋

❋ ❱ ❋ ❋ ❱ ❱ ❱ ❱

❋ ❋ ❱ ❋ ❱ ❋ ❱ ❋

❋ ❋ ❋ ❋ ❱ ❋ ❱ ❱

❊♥ ❧❛ ❝♦❧✉♠♥❛ ❡♥ ♥❡❣r✐❧❧❛ q✉❡❞❛ ❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r ❞❡ ✈❡r❞❛❞ ❞❡ P ∨ (Q →∼ R)✳

❖❜sér✈❡s❡ ❡❧ ♣❛♣❡❧ q✉❡ ❞❡s❡♠♣❡ñ❛♥ ❧♦s ♣❛ré♥t❡s✐s ❡♥ ❧❛ ❛✜r♠❛❝✐ó♥ P ∨(Q →∼ R)✳ ❊❧❧♦s ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❛♥
❝♦♠♦ ❧❛ ♣✉♥t✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❡♥ ❡❧ ❧❡♥❣✉❛❥❡ ❝♦♠ú♥ ② ❡❧✐♠✐♥❛ ❛♠❜✐❣ü❡❞❛❞❡s✳
✶✳✸✳ ❘❡❧❛❝✐♦♥❡s ❡♥tr❡ ❆✜r♠❛❝✐♦♥❡s✳ ✺

❊❥❡r❝✐❝✐♦ ✶✳✼✳ ❍❛❝❡r ❧❛ t❛❜❧❛ ❞❡ (P ∨ Q) →∼ R ② ❝♦♠♣❛r❛r❧❛ ❝♦♥ ❧❛ t❛❜❧❛ ❞❡

P ∨ (Q →∼ R).

❯♥❛ ❚❛✉t♦❧♦❣í❛ ❡s ✉♥❛ ❛✜r♠❛❝✐ó♥ q✉❡ s✐❡♠♣r❡ ❡s ✈❡r❞❛❞❡r❛✱ s✐♥ ✐♠♣♦rt❛r ❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r ❞❡ ✈❡r❞❛❞ ❞❡
s✉s ❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥t❡s✳
❊❥❡r❝✐❝✐♦ ✶✳✽✳ ▲❛ ❛✜r♠❛❝✐ó♥ P ∨∼P ❡s ✉♥❛ t❛✉t♦❧♦❣í❛✳ ❊♥ ❡❢❡❝t♦ ♦❜s❡r✈❡♠♦s s✉ t❛❜❧❛ ❞❡ ✈❡r❞❛❞✳

P ∼P P∨ ∼ P
❱ ❋ ❱
❋ ❱ ❱

❯♥❛ ❈♦♥tr❛❞✐❝❝✐ó♥ ❡s ✉♥❛ ❛✜r♠❛❝✐ó♥ q✉❡ s✐❡♠♣r❡ ❡s ❢❛❧s❛ s✐♥ ✐♠♣♦rt❛r ❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r ❞❡ ✈❡r❞❛❞ ❞❡
s✉s ❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥t❡s✳
❊❥❡r❝✐❝✐♦ ✶✳✾✳ ▲❛ ❛✜r♠❛❝✐ó♥ P ∧∼P ❡s ✉♥❛ ❝♦♥tr❛❞✐❝❝✐ó♥✳ ❊st♦ ❧♦ ✈❡♠♦s ❡♥ s✉ t❛❜❧❛ ❞❡ ✈❡r❞❛❞✳

P ∼P P ∧∼P
❱ ❋ ❋
❋ ❱ ❋

❊❥❡r❝✐❝✐♦ ✶✳✶✵✳ ▲❛ ❛✜r♠❛❝✐ó♥ (X ∨ Y ) ↔ (∼ X → Y ) ❡s ✉♥❛ t❛✉t♦❧♦❣í❛✳ ❊♥ ❡❢❡❝t♦ ✈❡❛♠♦s s✉ t❛❜❧❛

❞❡ ✈❡r❞❛❞

X Y (X ∨ Y ) ↔ (∼ X → Y ✮
❱ ❱ ❱ ❱ ❋ ❱ ❱
❱ ❋ ❱ ❱ ❋ ❱ ❋
❋ ❱ ❱ ❱ ❱ ❱ ❱
❋ ❋ ❋ ❱ ❱ ❋ ❋

✶✳✸✳ ❘❡❧❛❝✐♦♥❡s ❡♥tr❡ ❆✜r♠❛❝✐♦♥❡s✳

▲❛s r❡❧❛❝✐♦♥❡s ❡♥tr❡ ❛✜r♠❛❝✐♦♥❡s ♥♦ s♦♥ ♣r♦♣✐❛♠❡♥t❡ ❛✜r♠❛❝✐♦♥❡s s✐♥♦ ❛❧❣♦ q✉❡ ❧❧❛♠❛♠♦s ▼❡t❛✲
❛✜r♠❛❝✐♦♥❡s✳
❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✶✳✶✶✳ ▲❛s s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡s ❢r❛s❡s s♦♥ ▼❡t❛✲❛✜r♠❛❝✐♦♥❡s✿ ❙✐ ❧❛ ❛✜r♠❛❝✐ó♥ ✏❏✉❛♥ ❡s ❛❧t♦ ② P❡❞r♦
❡s ❜❛❥♦✑ ❡s ✈❡r❞❛❞❡r❛✱ ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s ❡st♦ ✐♠♣❧✐❝❛ q✉❡ ❧❛ ❛✜r♠❛❝✐ó♥ ✏P❡❞r♦ ❡s ❜❛❥♦ ❡s ✈❡r❞❛❞❡r❛✑✳ ▲❛
❛✜r♠❛❝✐ó♥ ✏❏✉❛♥ t✐❡♥❡ ❡❧ ❝❛❜❡❧❧♦ ♥❡❣r♦ ♦ ❘♦s❛ t✐❡♥❡ ❡❧ ❝❛❜❡❧❧♦ r♦❥♦✑ ❡s ❡q✉✐✈❛❧❡♥t❡ ❛ ❧❛ ❛✜r♠❛❝✐ó♥
✏❘♦s❛ t✐❡♥❡ ❡❧ ❝❛❜❡❧❧♦ r♦❥♦ ♦ ❏✉❛♥ t✐❡♥❡ ❡❧ ❝❛❜❡❧❧♦ ♥❡❣r♦✑✳

P♦❞❡♠♦s ❞❡❝✐r ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s q✉❡ ✉♥❛ ♠❡t❛✲❛✜r♠❛❝✐ó♥ ❡s ❛❧❣♦ q✉❡ s❡ ❡①♣r❡s❛ ❞❡ ❛❧❣✉♥❛s ❛✜r♠❛❝✐♦✲
♥❡s✳ ❊st❛ ❝❧❛s❡ ❞❡ ♠❡t❛✲❛✜r♠❛❝✐♦♥❡s s♦♥ ♥✉❡str♦s ♣r♦t♦t✐♣♦s ♣r✐♥❝✐♣❛❧❡s✳ ▲❛ ❞❡❧ ♣r✐♠❡r ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦ ❡s
✻ ❈❛♣ít✉❧♦ ✶✳ ▲ó❣✐❝❛ ■♥❢♦r♠❛❧

❧❧❛♠❛❞❛ ✐♠♣❧✐❝❛❝✐ó♥ q✉❡ ❡s ❛♥á❧♦❣♦ ❛❧ ❝♦♥❞✐❝✐♦♥❛❧✱ ② ❧❛ ❞❡❧ s❡❣✉♥❞♦ ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦ ❡s ❧❧❛♠❛❞❛ ❡q✉✐✈❛❧❡♥❝✐❛✱

❛♥á❧♦❣❛ ❛❧ ❜✐❝♦♥❞✐❝✐♦♥❛❧ ② ♥♦s ❛②✉❞❛rá ❛ ❝♦♥str✉✐r ❛r❣✉♠❡♥t♦s ✈á❧✐❞♦s✳

❉❡✜♥✐❝✐ó♥ ✶✳✶✷ ✭■♠♣❧✐❝❛❝✐ó♥✮✳ P ⇒ Q ✭❧é❛s❡ P ✐♠♣❧✐❝❛ Q✮✳ ❉✐r❡♠♦s q✉❡ P ⇒ Q s✐ ❧❛ ❛✜r♠❛❝✐ó♥

P → Q ❡s ✉♥❛ t❛✉t♦❧♦❣í❛✳ ❊s ❞❡❝✐r✱ ❞❡❜❡ s❡r ❝✐❡rt❛ ❡♥ ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r ❝✐r❝✉♥st❛♥❝✐❛✱ ♥♦ ✐♠♣♦rt❛♥❞♦ ❧♦s
✈❛❧♦r❡s ❞❡ ✈❡r❞❛❞ ❞❡ ❧❛s ❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥t❡s P ② ◗✳

❖❜sér✈❡s❡ q✉❡ ❡❧ ❝♦♥❞✐❝✐♦♥❛❧ ♥♦ ❡s ❧♦ ♠✐s♠♦ q✉❡ ❧❛ ✐♠♣❧✐❝❛❝✐ó♥✳ P → Q ❡s ✉♥❛ ❛✜r♠❛❝✐ó♥✱

♠✐❡♥tr❛s q✉❡ P ⇒ Q ❡s ✉♥❛ ♠❡t❛✲❛✜r♠❛❝✐ó♥✳ ❊♥ r❡❛❧✐❞❛❞ P ⇒ Q ♥♦s ❞✐❝❡ q✉❡ ♥♦ ✐♠♣♦rt❛♥ ❧♦s

✈❛❧♦r❡s ❞❡ P óQ ♣❛r❛ q✉❡ P →Q s❡❛ ✈❡r❞❛❞❡r❛ ② ♣♦r ❡s♦ s❡ ♣✉❡❞❡ ❞❡❝✐r q✉❡ P s✐❡♠♣r❡ ✐♠♣❧✐❝❛ Q✳

✶✳✸✳✶✳ ■♠♣❧✐❝❛❝✐♦♥❡s ■♠♣♦rt❛♥t❡s✳

▲❛s s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡s ✐♠♣❧✐❝❛❝✐♦♥❡s s♦♥ ❝✐❡rt❛s ② s❡rá♥ ♠✉② ✉s❛❞❛s ❡♥ ❧❛ ❝♦♥str✉❝❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❛r❣✉♠❡♥t♦s

✈á❧✐❞♦s✳

❙❡❛♥ P, Q, R ② S ❛✜r♠❛❝✐♦♥❡s✳

✶✳ [(P → Q) ∧ P ] ⇒ Q ✭▼♦❞✉s P♦♥❡♥s✮✳

✷✳ [(P → Q)∧ ∼ Q] ⇒∼ P ✭▼♦❞✉s ❚♦❧❧❡♥s✮✳

✸✳ (P ∧ Q) ⇒ P ✭❙✐♠♣❧✐✜❝❛❝✐ó♥✮✳

✹✳ (P ∧ Q) ⇒ Q ✭❙✐♠♣❧✐✜❝❛❝✐ó♥✮✳

✺✳ Q ⇒ (P ∨ Q) ✭❆❞✐❝✐ó♥✮✳

✻✳ P ⇒ (P ∨ Q) ✭❆❞✐❝✐ó♥✮✳

✼✳ [(P ∨ Q)∧ ∼ P ] ⇒ Q ✭▼♦❞✉s ❚♦❧❧❡♥❞♦ P♦♥❡♥s✮✳

✽✳ [(P ∨ Q)∧ ∼ Q] ⇒ P ✭▼♦❞✉s ❚♦❧❧❡♥❞♦ P♦♥❡♥s✮✳

✾✳ (P ↔ Q) ⇒ (P → Q) ✭❇✐❝♦♥❞✐❝✐♦♥❛❧✲❈♦♥❞✐❝✐♦♥❛❧✮✳

✶✵✳ (P ↔ Q) ⇒ (Q → P ) ✭❇✐❝♦♥❞✐❝✐♦♥❛❧✲❈♦♥❞✐❝✐♦♥❛❧✮✳

✶✶✳ [(P → Q) ∧ (Q → P )] ⇒ (P ↔ Q) ✭❈♦♥❞✐❝✐♦♥❛❧✲❇✐❝♦♥❞✐❝✐♦♥❛❧✮✳

✶✷✳ [(P → Q) ∧ (Q → R)] ⇒ (P → R) ✭❙✐❧♦❣✐s♠♦ ❍✐♣♦t❡t✐❝♦✮✳

✶✸✳ [(P → Q) ∧ (R → S) ∧ (P ∨ R)] ⇒ (Q ∨ S) ✭❉✐❧❡♠❛ ❈♦♥str✉❝t✐✈♦✮✳

❆❧ ❞❡❝✐r q✉❡ ❡st❛s ✐♠♣❧✐❝❛❝✐♦♥❡s s♦♥ ❝✐❡rt❛s✱ ❧♦ q✉❡ ❡st❛♠♦s ❞✐❝✐❡♥❞♦ ❡s q✉❡ ❧♦s ❝♦♥❞✐❝✐♦♥❛❧❡s

❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐❡♥t❡s s♦♥ t❛✉t♦❧♦❣í❛s✳ Pr♦❜❡♠♦s ♣♦r ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦ ❡❧ ✏▼♦❞✉s ❚♦❧❧❡♥❞♦ P♦♥❡♥s✑✳ P❛r❛ ❡st♦

❞❡❜❡♠♦s ✈❡r q✉❡ [(P ∨ Q)∧ ∼ P ] → Q ❡s ✉♥❛ t❛✉t♦❧♦❣í❛ ② ❡st♦ ❧♦ ❤❛❝❡♠♦s ♣♦r ♠❡❞✐♦ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ t❛❜❧❛

❞❡ ✈❡r❞❛❞✳
✶✳✸✳ ❘❡❧❛❝✐♦♥❡s ❡♥tr❡ ❆✜r♠❛❝✐♦♥❡s✳ ✼

P Q ∼P [(P ∨ Q) ∧ ∼ P] → Q
❱ ❱ ❋ ❱ ❋ ❋ ❱ ❱
❱ ❋ ❋ ❱ ❋ ❋ ❱ ❋
❋ ❱ ❱ ❱ ❱ ❱ ❱ ❱
❋ ❋ ❱ ❋ ❋ ❱ ❱ ❋

▲✉❡❣♦ ❡s t❛✉t♦❧♦❣í❛✳ ❖❜s❡r✈❛♠♦s q✉❡ ❡♥ ❡❧ ❧❡♥❣✉❛❥❡ ❝♦♠ú♥ ✉♥❛ ❛✜r♠❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ▼♦❞✉s ❚♦❧❧❡♥❞♦ P♦♥❡♥s
❡s ♠✉② ❧ó❣✐❝❛✳ P♦r ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦ ❏✉❛♥ t✐❡♥❡ ♦❥♦s ✈❡r❞❡s ♦ ❘♦s❛ ❡❧ ❝❛❜❡❧❧♦ r♦❥♦✱ ♣❡r♦ ❏✉❛♥ ♥♦ t✐❡♥❡ ♦❥♦s
✈❡r❞❡s✱ ❧✉❡❣♦ ❘♦s❛ t✐❡♥❡ ❡❧ ❝❛❜❡❧❧♦ r♦❥♦✳
❉❡✜♥✐❝✐ó♥ ✶✳✶✸✳ ❉✐r❡♠♦s q✉❡ ✏ P ❡q✉✐✈❛❧❡ ❛ Q✑ s✐ ❧❛ ❛✜r♠❛❝✐ó♥ P ↔ Q ❡s ✉♥❛ t❛✉t♦❧♦❣í❛✳ ❊st♦ s❡
❞❡♥♦t❛ ♣♦r P ⇔ Q✳ ❙❡ ♣✉❡❞❡ ✈❡r q✉❡ P ⇔Q ❡s ✈❡r❞❛❞❡r♦ s✐ ② só❧♦ s✐ P ⇒ Q ② Q ⇒ P s♦♥ ❛♠❜❛s
✈❡r❞❛❞❡r❛s✳

❖❜s❡r✈❡ q✉❡ P ⇔ Q ♥♦ ❡s ❧♦ ♠✐s♠♦ q✉❡ P ↔ Q✱ ♣✉❡s ❧❛ ♣r✐♠❡r❛ ❡s ✉♥❛ ♠❡t❛✲❛✜r♠❛❝✐ó♥ ② ❧❛

s❡❣✉♥❞❛ ❡s ✉♥❛ ❛✜r♠❛❝✐ó♥✳

✶✳✸✳✷✳ ❊q✉✐✈❛❧❡♥❝✐❛s ■♠♣♦rt❛♥t❡s✳

▲❛s s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡s ❛✜r♠❛❝✐♦♥❡s s❡rá♥ t❛♠❜✐é♥ ✈á❧✐❞❛s ❡♥ ❧❛ ❝♦♥str✉❝❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❛r❣✉♠❡♥t♦s ✈á❧✐❞♦s✳

✶✳ ∼ (∼ P ) ⇔ P ✭❉♦❜❧❡ ♥❡❣❛❝✐ó♥✮✳
✷✳ (P ∨ Q) ⇔ (Q ∨ P ) ✭▲❡② ❈♦♥♠✉t❛t✐✈❛✮✳
✸✳ (P ∧ Q) ⇔ (Q ∧ P ) ✭▲❡② ❈♦♥♠✉t❛t✐✈❛✮✳
✹✳ [(P ∨ Q) ∨ R] ⇔ [P ∨ (Q ∨ R)] ✭▲❡② ❆s♦❝✐❛t✐✈❛✮✳
✺✳ [(P ∧ Q) ∧ R] ⇔ [P ∧ (Q ∧ R)] ✭▲❡② ❆s♦❝✐❛t✐✈❛✮✳
✻✳ [P ∧ (Q ∨ R)] ⇔ [(P ∧ Q) ∨ (P ∧ R)] ✭▲❡② ❉✐str✐❜✉t✐✈❛✮✳
✼✳ [P ∨ (Q ∧ R)] ⇔ [(P ∨ Q) ∧ (P ∨ R)] ✭▲❡② ❉✐str✐❜✉t✐✈❛✮✳
✽✳ (P → Q) ⇔ (∼ P ∨ Q) ✭❉❡✜♥✐❝✐ó♥ ❆❧t❡r♥❛ ❞❡❧ ❈♦♥❞✐❝✐♦♥❛❧✮✳
✾✳ (P → Q) ⇔ (∼ Q →∼ P ) ✭❈♦♥tr❛rr❡❝í♣r♦❝♦✮✳
✶✵✳ (P ↔ Q) ⇔ (Q ↔ P ) ✭❙✐♠❡trí❛✮✳
✶✶✳ (P ↔ Q) ⇔ [(P → Q) ∧ (Q → P )] ✭❇✐❝♦♥❞✐❝✐♦♥❛❧✲❈♦♥❞✐❝✐♦♥❛❧✮✳
✶✷✳ [∼ (P ∧ Q)] ⇔ (∼ P ∨ ∼ Q) ✭▲❡② ❞❡ ❉❡ ▼♦r❣❛♥✮✳
✶✸✳ [∼ (P ∨ Q)] ⇔ (∼ P ∧ ∼ Q) ✭▲❡② ❞❡ ❉❡ ▼♦r❣❛♥✮✳
✽ ❈❛♣ít✉❧♦ ✶✳ ▲ó❣✐❝❛ ■♥❢♦r♠❛❧

✶✹✳ [∼ (P → Q)] ⇔ (P ∧ ∼ Q) ✭◆❡❣❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡❧ ❈♦♥❞✐❝✐♦♥❛❧✮✳

✶✺✳ [∼ (P ↔ Q)] ⇔ [(P ∧ ∼ Q) ∨ (∼ P ∧ Q)] ✭◆❡❣❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡❧ ❇✐❝♦♥❞✐❝✐♦♥❛❧✮✳

Pr♦❜❡♠♦s q✉❡ [∼ (P → Q)] ⇔ (P ∧ ∼ Q)✳ ❊♥ ❡❢❡❝t♦✱ ❞❡❜❡♠♦s ♠♦str❛r q✉❡ ❡❧ ❜✐❝♦♥❞✐❝✐♦♥❛❧ ❝♦rr❡s✲
♣♦♥❞✐❡♥t❡ ❡s ✉♥❛ t❛✉t♦❧♦❣í❛✳ ▲♦ ❝✉❛❧ s❡ ✈❡ ❝❧❛r❛♠❡♥t❡ ❡♥ ❧❛ s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡ t❛❜❧❛✳

P Q ∼Q [∼ (P → Q)] ↔ (P ∧ ∼ Q)
❱ ❱ ❋ ❋ ❱ ❱ ❋
❱ ❋ ❱ ❱ ❋ ❱ ❱
❋ ❱ ❋ ❋ ❱ ❱ ❋
❋ ❋ ❱ ❋ ❱ ❱ ❋

✶✳✹✳ ❆r❣✉♠❡♥t♦s ❱á❧✐❞♦s✳

▲❛s ♣r✉❡❜❛s q✉❡ ❤❡♠♦s ❤❡❝❤♦ ❤❛st❛ ❛❤♦r❛ ❤❛♥ s✐❞♦ ♣♦r ♠❡❞✐♦ ❞❡ t❛❜❧❛s ❞❡ ✈❡r❞❛❞✱ s✐♥ ❡♠❜❛r❣♦✱
❧♦ ✉s✉❛❧ ❡♥ ♠❛t❡♠át✐❝❛s ❡s ❡❧ ❞❡ ❞❛r ❛✜r♠❛❝✐♦♥❡s q✉❡ s❡ ✈❛♥ ❡♥❝❛❞❡♥❛♥❞♦ ❛ ♣❛rt✐r ❞❡ ✉♥❛s ❤✐♣ót❡s✐s
❤❛st❛ ❧❧❡❣❛r ♣❛s♦ ❛ ♣❛s♦ ❛ ✉♥❛ ❝♦♥❝❧✉s✐ó♥ ❞❡s❡❛❞❛✳ ❊♥ ❡st❛ s❡❝❝✐ó♥ ♠✐r❛r❡♠♦s ❡st❡ ♣r♦❝❡s♦ ❞❡s❞❡
❡❧ ♣✉♥t♦ ❞❡ ✈✐st❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❧ó❣✐❝❛✱ s✐♥ ❡♠❜❛r❣♦ ❛ ♣❛rt✐r ❞❡❧ ❝❛♣ít✉❧♦ s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡ ❤❛r❡♠♦s ♣r✉❡❜❛s ❝♦♠♦ s❡
❤❛❝❡♥ ❡♥ ♠❛t❡♠át✐❝❛s✱ s✐♥ t❡♥❡r ❡①♣❧í❝✐t❛s ❧❛s r❡❣❧❛s ❞❡ ❧❛ ❧ó❣✐❝❛✱ ❛✉♥q✉❡ ❞❡ t♦❞❛s ❢♦r♠❛s r❡❝♦♥♦❝❡✲
r❡♠♦s q✉❡ ❡❧❧❛s ❡stá♥ ❛❧❧í ❞❡trás ❣✉✐á♥❞♦♥♦s ❡♥ ❧❛s ♣r✉❡❜❛s✳
❆r❣✉♠❡♥t♦✳ ❙❡❣✉♥ ❧❛ ❧ó❣✐❝❛ ❡s ✉♥❛ ❝♦❧❡❝❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❛✜r♠❛❝✐♦♥❡s✱ s✐❡♥❞♦ ❧❛ ú❧t✐♠❛ ❧❧❛♠❛❞❛ ❧❛ ❝♦♥❝❧✉✲

s✐ó♥ ② ❡❧ r❡st♦ s❡ ❧❧❛♠❛♥ ❧❛s ♣r❡♠✐s❛s✳

❆r❣✉♠❡♥t♦ ❱á❧✐❞♦✳ ❊s ❛q✉❡❧ ❛r❣✉♠❡♥t♦ ❝✉②❛ ❝♦♥❝❧✉s✐ó♥ s❡ s✐❣✉❡ ♥❡❝❡s❛r✐❛♠❡♥t❡ ❞❡ ❧❛s ♣r❡♠✐s❛s✳

P♦r ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦✱ s✐ ❧❛s ♣r❡♠✐s❛s ❢✉❡r❛♥ t♦❞❛s ✈❡r❞❛❞❡r❛s✱ ❧❛ ❝♦♥❝❧✉s✐ó♥ ♥♦ ♣♦❞rí❛ s❡r ❢❛❧s❛✳
❖❜s❡r✈❡♠♦s ❡❧ s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡ ❛r❣✉♠❡♥t♦ ❧ó❣✐❝♦✳

❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✶✳✶✹✳ ■♥t❡r♣r❡t❡ s✐♠❜♦❧✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ ❡❧ s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡ ❛r❣✉♠❡♥t♦✿ ✏❙✐ ❘♦s❛ ❡stá ❜❛✐❧❛♥❞♦ ♦ ❡stá

❝♦♠✐❡♥❞♦✱ ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s ❡stá ❡♥ s✉ ❝❛s❛✳ ❙✐ ❘♦s❛ ❡stá ❧❡②❡♥❞♦ ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s ♥♦ ❡stá ❡♥ s✉ ❝❛s❛✳ ❘♦s❛ ❡stá
❜❛✐❧❛♥❞♦✱ ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s ♥♦ ❡stá ❧❡②❡♥❞♦✳✑
❙♦❧✉❝✐ó♥✳ P❛r❛ ❤❛❝❡r ❧❛ ✐♥t❡r♣r❡t❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡✜♥❛♠♦s A, B, C ② D ❞❡ ❧❛ s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡ ❢♦r♠❛✳
A = ❘♦s❛ ❡stá ❜❛✐❧❛♥❞♦✳
B = ❘♦s❛ ❡stá ❝♦♠✐❡♥❞♦✳
C = ❘♦s❛ ❡stá ❡♥ s✉ ❝❛s❛✳
D = ❘♦s❛ ❡stá ❧❡②❡♥❞♦✳
❆sí q✉❡ ❞❡ ❢♦r♠❛ s✐♠❜ó❧✐❝❛ ❡❧ ❛r❣✉♠❡♥t♦ q✉❡❞❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡ ❢♦r♠❛✳

A ∨ B → C
D → ∼C
A
∼D
✶✳✹✳ ❆r❣✉♠❡♥t♦s ❱á❧✐❞♦s✳ ✾

▲♦ ❛♥t❡r✐♦r ❡s ❧♦ ♠✐s♠♦ q✉❡ [(A ∨ B → C) ∧ (D →∼ C) ∧ A] →∼ D✳ ❖❜s❡r✈❛ ❧♦s ♣❛ré♥t❡s✐s ②

❝♦r❝❤❡t❡s ❝♦♠♦ ❤❛❝❡♥ s✉ tr❛❜❛❥♦✳ ❨ ♣♦❞rí❛♠♦s ❤❛❝❡r ✉♥❛ t❛❜❧❛ ❞❡ ✈❡r❞❛❞ ♣❛r❛ ♣r♦❜❛r q✉❡ ❡s ✉♥❛

t❛✉t♦❧♦❣í❛✱ ♣❡r♦ ést❛ s❡ ❤❛❝❡ ❞❡♠❛s✐❛❞♦ ❧❛r❣❛ ② t❡❞✐♦s❛✳ ❊♥ ✈❡③ ❞❡ s❡❣✉✐r ✉s❛♥❞♦ t❛❜❧❛s ❞❡ ✈❡r❞❛❞✱

❞❛r❡♠♦s ✉♥❛ r❡❣❧❛s ❞❡ ✐♥❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛ q✉❡ ♥♦s ♣❡r♠✐t✐rá♥ ✐r ♣r♦❞✉❝✐❡♥❞♦ ❧♦s ❡♥❝❛❞❡♥❛♠✐❡♥t♦s ♥❡❝❡s❛r✐♦s

♣❛r❛ ❧❧❡❣❛r ❛ ❧❛ ❝♦♥❝❧✉s✐ó♥✳

✶✳✹✳✶✳ ❘❡❣❧❛s ❞❡ ■♥❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛✳

▲❛s r❡❣❧❛s ❞❡ ✐♥❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛ ♣r♦✈✐❡♥❡♥ ❞❡ ❧❛s ❧✐st❛s ❞❡ ✐♠♣❧✐❝❛❝✐♦♥❡s ② ❡q✉✐✈❛❧❡♥❝✐❛s ✈✐st❛s ❛♥t❡r✐♦r✲

♠❡♥t❡✳ ❆✉♥q✉❡ ❞❡st❛❝❛r❡♠♦s só❧♦ ❧❛s ♠ás ✐♠♣♦rt❛♥t❡s ❛❝❧❛r❛♠♦s q✉❡ ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r❛ ❞❡ ❧❛s ✐♠♣❧✐❝❛❝✐♦♥❡s

♦ ❡q✉✐✈❛❧❡♥❝✐❛s ✈✐st❛s ♣❡r♠✐t❡♥ ❡①tr❛❡r r❡❣❧❛s ❞❡ ✐♥❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛✳ ❆❤♦r❛ ❧❛s ❡s❝r✐❜✐r❡♠♦s ❡♥ ❞✐❢❡r❡♥t❡ ❢♦r✲

♠❛t♦✳

▼♦❞✉s P♦♥❡♥s✳

P → Q
P
Q

▼♦❞✉s ❚♦❧❧❡♥s✳

P → Q
∼Q
∼P

❉♦❜❧❡ ◆❡❣❛❝✐ó♥✳

∼∼P P
②
P ∼∼ P

❘❡♣❡t✐❝✐ó♥✳

P
P

❙✐♠♣❧✐✜❝❛❝✐ó♥✳

P ∧ Q P ∧ Q
②
P Q

❆❞❥✉♥❝✐ó♥✳
✶✵ ❈❛♣ít✉❧♦ ✶✳ ▲ó❣✐❝❛ ■♥❢♦r♠❛❧

P
Q
P ∧ Q

❆❞✐❝✐ó♥✳

P Q
②
P ∨ Q P ∨ Q

▼♦❞✉s ❚♦❧❧❡♥❞♦ P♦♥❡♥s✳

P ∨ Q P ∨ Q
∼P ② ∼Q
Q P

❇✐❝♦♥❞✐❝✐♦♥❛❧✳

P ↔ Q P ↔ Q
②
P → Q Q → P

❈♦♥❞✐❝✐♦♥❛❧ ❇✐❝♦♥❞✐❝✐♦♥❛❧✳

P → Q
Q → P
P ↔ Q

❙✐❧♦❣✐s♠♦ ❍✐♣♦tét✐❝♦✳

P → Q
Q → R
P → R

❉✐❧❡♠❛ ❈♦♥str✉❝t✐✈♦✳

P → Q
R → S
P ∨ R
Q ∨ S

❊st❛s r❡❣❧❛s ❞❡ ✐♥❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛ ♥♦s ♣❡r♠✐t✐rá♥ ❝♦♥str✉✐r ❧♦s ❛r❣✉♠❡♥t♦s ✈á❧✐❞♦s✳ ❘❡♣❡t✐♠♦s q✉❡ ❛q✉í ❤❡♠♦s

❧✐st❛❞♦ só❧♦ ❧❛s ♠ás ✐♠♣♦rt❛♥t❡s✱ ♣❡r♦ ❞❡❜❡♠♦s s❛❜❡r q✉❡ ❤❛② ♠✉❝❤❛s ♦tr❛s r❡❣❧❛s ❞❡ ✐♥❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛✳ ❈❛❞❛

✈❡③ q✉❡ s❡ t❡♥❣❛ ✉♥❛ ✐♠♣❧✐❝❛❝✐ó♥ ♦ ✉♥❛ ❡q✉✐✈❛❧❡♥❝✐❛ ❡❧❧❛ ❢❛❝✐❧✐t❛ ✉♥❛ r❡❣❧❛ ❞❡ ✐♥❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛✳
✶✳✹✳ ❆r❣✉♠❡♥t♦s ❱á❧✐❞♦s✳ ✶✶

❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✶✳✶✺✳ ❯s❡♠♦s ♥✉❡str❛s r❡❣❧❛s ♣❛r❛ ❥✉st✐✜❝❛r ♥✉❡str♦ ❛r❣✉♠❡♥t♦ ❡♥ ❡❧ ❝✉❛❧ ❝♦♥❝❧✉✐♠♦s q✉❡
❘♦s❛ ♥♦ ❡stá ❧❡②❡♥❞♦✳ ❙✐♠❜ó❧✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ ést❡ ❡s✳

A∨B → C
D → ∼C
A
∼D

❙♦❧✉❝✐ó♥✿

✭✶✮ A∨B → C
✭✷✮ D → ∼C ▲❛s ♣r❡♠✐s❛s ♥♦ ♥❡❝❡s✐t❛♥ ❥✉st✐✜❝❛❝✐ó♥
✭✸✮ A
✭✹✮ A ∨B ✭✸✮ ② ❆❞✐❝✐ó♥✳
✭✺✮ C ✭✶✮ ② ✭✹✮ ▼♦❞✉s P♦♥❡♥s✳
✭✻✮ ∼∼ C ✭✺✮ ❉♦❜❧❡ ◆❡❣❛❝✐ó♥✳
✭✼✮ ∼D ✭✷✮ ② ✭✻✮ ▼♦❞✉s ❚♦❧❧❡♥s✳

❊st❛ ❝❧❛s❡ ❞❡ ♣r✉❡❜❛✱ ❛ ♠❡♥✉❞♦ ❧❧❛♠❛❞❛ ✉♥❛ ❞❡r✐✈❛❝✐ó♥ ♣♦r ❧♦s ❧ó❣✐❝♦s✱ ❡s ✉♥❛ s❡r✐❡ ❞❡ ❛✜r♠❛❝✐♦✲
♥❡s ❝♦♥❡❝t❛❞❛s ❝♦♥ ♠❡t❛✲❛✜r♠❛❝✐♦♥❡s q✉❡ s♦♥ ❥✉st❛♠❡♥t❡ ❧❛s ❥✉st✐✜❝❛❝✐♦♥❡s q✉❡ ❡st❛♠♦s ❡s❝r✐❜✐❡♥❞♦
❡♥ ❧❛ s❡❣✉♥❞❛ ❝♦❧✉♠♥❛✳ ◆ót❡s❡ q✉❡ ❧❛s tr❡s ♣r✐♠❡r❛s ❛✜r♠❛❝✐♦♥❡s✱ q✉❡ s♦♥ ❧❛s ♣r❡♠✐s❛s ♥♦ ❧❛s ❥✉st✐✲
✜❝❛♠♦s✳ ❙✐ ✉♥ ❛r❣✉♠❡♥t♦ t✐❡♥❡ ✉♥❛ ❞❡r✐✈❛❝✐ó♥ s❡ ❞✐❝❡ q✉❡ ❡s ❞❡r✐✈❛❜❧❡✳ ▲❛ ❞❡r✐✈❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞ ♥♦ ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡
❞❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r ✈❡r❞❛❞ ❞❡ ❧❛s ♣r❡♠✐s❛s ♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❝♦♥❝❧✉s✐ó♥✳ P❛r❛ ✉♥ ❛r❣✉♠❡♥t♦ ♣✉❡❞❡ ❤❛❜❡r ❞✐st✐♥t❛s ❞❡r✐✲
✈❛❝✐♦♥❡s✳

❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✶✳✶✻✳ ❱❡❛♠♦s ♦tr❛ ❞❡r✐✈❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡❧ ❛r❣✉♠❡♥t♦ ❛♥t❡r✐♦r✳

✭✶✮ A∨B → C
✭✷✮ D → ∼C
✭✸✮ A
✭✹✮ A ∨B ✭✸✮ ② ❆❞✐❝✐ó♥✳
✭✺✮ ∼∼ C → ∼D ✭✷✮ ② ❈♦♥tr❛rr❡❝í♣r♦❝♦✳
✭✻✮ C ↔ ∼∼ C ❉♦❜❧❡ ◆❡❣❛❝✐ó♥✳
✭✼✮ C → ∼∼ C ✭✻✮ ② ❇✐❝♦♥❞✐❝✐♦♥❛❧✲❈♦♥❞✐❝✐♦♥❛❧✳
✭✽✮ C → ∼D ✭✼✮✱ ✭✺✮ ② ❙✐❧♦❣✐s♠♦ ❍✐♣♦tét✐❝♦✳
✭✾✮ A ∨B → ∼D ✭✶✮ ② ✭✽✮ ❙✐❧♦❣✐s♠♦ ❍✐♣♦tét✐❝♦✳
✭✶✵✮ ∼D ✭✾✮ ② ✭✹✮ ② ▼♦❞✉s P♦♥❡♥s✳

❆♣❛r❡♥t❡♠❡♥t❡ ❡st❛♠♦s ❤❛❜❧❛♥❞♦ ❞❡ ❞♦s ❝♦s❛s ❞✐❢❡r❡♥t❡s ❝✉❛♥❞♦ ❞❡❝✐♠♦s ❛r❣✉♠❡♥t♦ ✈á❧✐❞♦ ②
❛r❣✉♠❡♥t♦ ❞❡r✐✈❛❜❧❡✳ ❙✐♥ ❡♠❜❛r❣♦ ✭❛✉♥q✉❡ ♥♦ ❡s ❢á❝✐❧ ❞❡ ♣r♦❜❛r✮✱ t❡♥❡♠♦s q✉❡ ✉♥ ❛r❣✉♠❡♥t♦ ❡s
✈á❧✐❞♦ s✐ ② só❧♦ s✐ ❡s ❞❡r✐✈❛❜❧❡✳ ❆sí ♣✉❡s✱ ♣❛r❛ ♠♦str❛r q✉❡ ✉♥ ❛r❣✉♠❡♥t♦ ❡s ✈á❧✐❞♦ ❧♦ q✉❡ ❞❡❜❡♠♦s
♠♦str❛r ❡s q✉❡ ❡s ❞❡r✐✈❛❜❧❡✱ ❡♥ ✈❡③ ❞❡ tr❛t❛r ❞❡ ❤❛❝❡r❧♦ ♣♦r ♠❡❞✐♦ ❞❡ t❛❜❧❛s ❞❡ ✈❡r❞❛❞✳ P❛r❛ ♠♦str❛r
✶✷ ❈❛♣ít✉❧♦ ✶✳ ▲ó❣✐❝❛ ■♥❢♦r♠❛❧

q✉❡ ✉♥ ❛r❣✉♠❡♥t♦ ❡s ✐♥✈❛❧✐❞♦ ❧♦ q✉❡ ❞❡❜❡♠♦s ❡s tr❛t❛r ❞❡ ❡♥❝♦♥tr❛r ❛❧❣✉♥♦s ✈❛❧♦r❡s ❞❡ ✈❡r❞❛❞ ❡♥ ❧❛s
❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥t❡s ❞❡ ❧❛s ❛✜r♠❛❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ t❛❧ ♠❛♥❡r❛ q✉❡ t♦❞❛s ❧❛s ♣r❡♠✐s❛s r❡s✉❧t❛♥ ✈❡r❞❛❞❡r❛s ❡①❝❡♣t♦
❧❛ ❝♦♥❝❧✉s✐ó♥✳
❊❧ ❛r❣✉♠❡♥t♦ ❞❡❧ s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡ ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦ ❡s ✐♥✈á❧✐❞♦✳
❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✶✳✶✼✳

A → R
S → H
A ∧ H
R ∧ S

❊♥ ❡❢❡❝t♦✱ s✐ s✉♣♦♥❡♠♦s q✉❡ A ❡s V ❀ R ❡s V ❀ S ❡s F ② H ❡s V ♦❜t❡♥❡♠♦s q✉❡ A → R ❡s V ❀

S → H ❡s V ② q✉❡ A ∧ H t❛♠❜✐é♥ ❡s V ✱ ♣❡r♦ R ∧ S ❡s ❢❛❧s♦✳ ❊st♦ ♥♦s ♣❡r♠✐t❡ ❝♦♥❝❧✉✐r q✉❡ ❡❧
❛r❣✉♠❡♥t♦ ❡s ✐♥✈á❧✐❞♦✳ P❡r♦ ❞❡❜❡♠♦s t❡♥❡r ❝✉✐❞❛❞♦✱ ♣♦rq✉❡ ❝♦♥ ♦tr❛ ❡s❝♦❣❡♥❝✐❛ ❞❡ ✈❛❧♦r❡s ♣♦❞rí❛
s❡r q✉❡ t♦❞♦✱ ♣r❡♠✐s❛s ② ❝♦♥❝❧✉s✐♦♥❡s✱ ❢✉❡r❛♥ ✈❡r❞❛❞❡r❛s✳
❊♥ ✉♥ ❛r❣✉♠❡♥t♦ ❞❡❜❡♠♦s t❡♥❡r ❝✉✐❞❛❞♦ ♣❛r❛ q✉❡ ❧❛s ♣r❡♠✐s❛s ♥♦ s❡❛♥ ❝♦♥tr❛❞✐❝t♦r✐❛s ❡♥tr❡ sí✱ ②❛
q✉❡ ❞❡ ❛❧❣♦ ❢❛❧s♦ s❡ ♣✉❡❞❡ ✐♥❢❡r✐r ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r ❝♦s❛✳

❍á❣❛♠♦s ✉♥ ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦ ♠ás✳

❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✶✳✶✽✳ ❉❡t❡r♠✐♥❡ s✐ ❡❧ s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡ ❛r❣✉♠❡♥t♦ ❡s ✈á❧✐❞♦ ♦ ♥♦✳
∼ Q →∼ P
Q→R
∼ (∼ P ∨ S)

∼ (R → S)

❙♦❧✉❝✐ó♥✿ ❊♥ ❡st❡ ❝❛s♦ s❡ t✐❡♥❡ ❧♦ s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡✳

✭✶✮ ∼ Q →∼ P
✭✷✮ Q→R
✭✸✮ ∼ (∼ P ∨ S)
✭✹✮ P →Q ✭✶✮ ② ❈♦♥tr❛r❡❝í♣r♦❝♦✳
✭✺✮ P →R ✭✷✮✱ ✭✹✮ ② ❙✐❧♦❣✐s♠♦ ❍✐♣♦tét✐❝♦✳
✭✻✮ P∧ ∼ S ✭✸✮ ② ▲❡② ❞❡ ▼♦r❣❛♥✳
✭✼✮ P ✭✻✮ ② ❙✐♠♣❧✐✜❝❛❝✐ó♥✳
✭✽✮ ∼S ✭✻✮ ② ❙✐♠♣❧✐✢✐❝❛❝✐ó♥✳
✭✾✮ R ✭✺✮✱ ✭✼✮ ② ▼♦❞✉s P♦♥❡♥s✳
✭✶✵✮ R ∧∼S ✭✽✮✱ ✭✾✮ ② ❆❞❥✉♥❝✐ó♥✳
✭✶✶✮ ∼ (∼ R ∨ S) ✭✶✵✮ ② ▲❡② ❞❡ ▼♦r❣❛♥
✭✶✷✮ ∼ (R → S) ✭✶✶✮ ② ❉❡✜♥✐❝✐ó♥ ❆❧t❡r♥❛ ❞❡❧ ❈♦♥❞✐❝✐♦♥❛❧✳

P♦r t❛♥t♦ ❡❧ ❛r❣✉♠❡♥t♦ ❡s ✈á❧✐❞♦✳

✶✳✺✳ ❈✉❛♥t✐✜❝❛❞♦r❡s✳ ✶✸

✶✳✺✳ ❈✉❛♥t✐✜❝❛❞♦r❡s✳

❆ ✈❡❝❡s ❡♥❝♦♥tr❛♠♦s ❡①♣r❡s✐♦♥❡s✱ q✉❡ ✐♥✈♦❧✉❝r❛♥ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s✱ t❛❧❡s ❝♦♠♦ 8 ≤ x3 ❀ y 2 = 3 ó x+y 2 = 7

❞❡ ❧❛s ❝✉❛❧❡s ♥♦ ♣♦❞❡♠♦s ❞❡❝✐r q✉❡ s❡❛♥ ❡①♣r❡s✐♦♥❡s ✈❡r❞❛❞❡r❛s ♦ ❢❛❧s❛s✱ ❛ ♠❡♥♦s q✉❡ ❞✐❣❛♠♦s ❛❧❣♦

s♦❜r❡ ❧❛s ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s✳ ▼✐❡♥tr❛s ♥♦ s❡ ❤❛②❛ ❡s♣❡❝✐✜❝❛❞♦ ❝♦♠♦ s♦♥ ❧❛s ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s✱ ❞✐❝❤❛s ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s s❡ ❧❧❛✲

♠❛♥ ❧✐❜r❡s✳ ❯♥❛ ❡①♣r❡s✐ó♥ ❝♦♥ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s ❧✐❜r❡s ♥♦ ❡s ✉♥❛ ❛✜r♠❛❝✐ó♥✳

❘❡t♦♠❡♠♦s 8 ≤ x3 ✳ Pr❡❣✉♥té♠♦♥♦s ❝✉á♥❞♦ s❡rí❛ ❝✐❡rt❛ ❞✐❝❤❛ ❛✜r♠❛❝✐ó♥✳ ▲❛ r❡s♣✉❡st❛ s❡rí❛✿

✏P❛r❛ t♦❞♦ ♥ú♠❡r♦ r❡❛❧ 2 ≤ x, 8 ≤ x3 ✧✳ ❊st❛ ♥✉❡✈❛ ❡①♣r❡s✐ó♥ s✐ ❡s ✉♥❛ ❛✜r♠❛❝✐ó♥✱ ❛❧❧í ❧❛ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡

♥♦ ❡s ❧✐❜r❡✱ ♣✉❡s ❤❡♠♦s ♣✉❡st♦ ❝♦♥❞✐❝✐♦♥❡s ♣❛r❛ ❡❧❧❛✳ ❊♥ ❡st❡ ❝❛s♦ ❞❡❝✐♠♦s q✉❡ ❧❛ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡ ❡stá ❛♠❛✲

rr❛❞❛✱ ❛❝♦t❛❞❛ ♦ ❞❡❧✐♠✐t❛❞❛✳ ❊st❛ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡ ❧❛ ❤❡♠♦s ❛♠❛rr❛❞♦ ♣♦r ♠❡❞✐♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❡①♣r❡s✐ó♥ ✏P❛r❛ t♦❞♦

♥ú♠❡r♦ r❡❛❧ 2 ≤ x✧✳ ❊st❛ ❡①♣r❡s✐ó♥ ❡s ✉♥ ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦ ❞❡ ✉♥ ❝✉❛♥t✐✜❝❛❞♦r✳ ❚❛♠❜✐é♥ ♣♦❞rí❛♠♦s ❤❛❜❡r

❞✐❝❤♦✳ ✏P❛r❛ t♦❞♦ ♥ú♠❡r♦ r❡❛❧ x < 1, 8 ≤ x3 ✧✱ ♣❡r♦ ❡st❛ ú❧t✐♠❛ ❛✜r♠❛❝✐ó♥ ❡s ❢❛❧s❛✳ P♦❞❡♠♦s ❞❡❝✐r

q✉❡ x ❡stá ❞❡❧✐♠✐t❛❞❛ ♣♦r ❡❧ ❝✉❛♥t✐✜❝❛❞♦r ✏P❛r❛ t♦❞♦ ♥ú♠❡r♦ r❡❛❧ x < 1✧✳

❊♥ ♦tr❛s ♣❛❧❛❜r❛s ❝✉❛♥❞♦ t❡♥❣❛♠♦s ❡①♣r❡s✐♦♥❡s ❞♦♥❞❡ ❛♣❛r❡③❝❛♥ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s ❧✐❜r❡s✱ ❧❛s ♣♦❞❡♠♦s

❝♦♥✈❡rt✐r ❡♥ ❛✜r♠❛❝✐♦♥❡s ✏❛♠❛rr❛♥❞♦✧s✉s ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s ♣♦r ♠❡❞✐♦ ❞❡ s✉s ❝✉❛♥t✐✜❝❛❞♦r❡s✱ ❡❧ ♦❜❥❡t♦ ❞❡

❡st♦s ❡s ❡❧ ❞❡ ❞❛r❧❡ ❝♦♥❞✐❝✐♦♥❡s ❛ ❧❛s ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s✳

❉❡❜❡♠♦s s❡r ♠✉② ❝✉✐❞❛❞♦s♦s ❡♥ ❡❧ ♠❛♥❡❥♦ ❞❡ ❧♦s ❝✉❛♥t✐✜❝❛❞♦r❡s✳ ❊s ♠✉② ❢á❝✐❧ ✐♥tr♦❞✉❝✐r ❡rr♦r❡s s✐

❡❧❧♦s ♥♦ s❡ ♠❛♥❡❥❛♥ ❜✐❡♥✳ ▼✉❝❤❛s ✈❡❝❡s ❡s r❡❝♦♠❡♥❞❛❜❧❡ ✉s❛r ❧❛ s✐♠❜♦❧✐③❛❝✐ó♥ ♠❛t❡♠át✐❝❛ ❞❡ ❡❧❧♦s

♣❛r❛ ♣♦❞❡r ✉s❛r❧♦s ♠❡❥♦r✳ ❊♥ ❡❧ ❧❡♥❣✉❛❥❡ ❝♦rr✐❡♥t❡ s❡ ❡s ♠✉② ✐♠♣r❡❝✐s♦ ❡♥ ❡❧ ✉s♦ ❞❡ ❧♦s ❝✉❛♥t✐✜❝❛✲

❞♦r❡s✱ s✐♥ ❡♠❜❛r❣♦ ❡♥ ❡❧ ❧❡♥❣✉❛❥❡ ♠❛t❡♠át✐❝♦ ♥♦ ❞❡❜❡ ❤❛❜❡r ❞✉❞❛ ❝♦♥ s✉ ♠❛♥❡❥♦✳

▲❛ ❢r❛s❡ ✏❆❧❣✉✐❡♥ ❡s ❣♦❧♣❡❛❞♦ ♣♦r ✉♥ ❝❛rr♦ ❝❛❞❛ ❤♦r❛✑ ➽q✉é s✐❣♥✐✜❝❛❄ ◗✉❡ ✉♥❛ ♠✐s♠❛ ♣❡rs♦♥❛ ❡s

❣♦❧♣❡❛❞❛ ♣♦r ✉♥ ❝❛rr♦ ❝❛❞❛ ❤♦r❛✳ ➼◆♦✦✱ ❧♦ q✉❡ q✉❡r❡♠♦s ❞❡❝✐r ❡s q✉❡ ♣❛r❛ ❝❛❞❛ ❤♦r❛ ❡①✐st❡ ✉♥❛ ♣❡rs♦♥❛

q✉❡ ❡s ❣♦❧♣❡❛❞❛ ♣♦r ✉♥ ❝❛rr♦✳ ▲❛ s❡❣✉♥❞❛ ❢r❛s❡ ❡s ♠ás ♣r❡❝✐s❛ q✉❡ ❧❛ ♣r✐♠❡r❛✳ ➽P♦r q✉é ❧♦ ❡s❄ ❱❡r❡♠♦s

q✉❡ ❡❧❧❛ s❡ ❛❞❡❝ú❛ ♠ás ❛❧ ❧❡♥❣✉❛❥❡ ♠❛t❡♠át✐❝♦✱ ❝✉❛♥❞♦ ❤❛② ❞♦s ❝✉❛♥t✐✜❝❛❞♦r❡s✳ P♦r ❡s♦✱ ❝✉❛♥❞♦

✈❡❛♠♦s q✉❡ ❤❛② ❛✜r♠❛❝✐♦♥❡s q✉❡ ✐♥✈♦❧✉❝r❛♥ ❝✉❛♥t✐✜❝❛❞♦r❡s ❡s ❝♦♥✈❡♥✐❡♥t❡ r❡❡s❝r✐❜✐r s✐♠❜ó❧✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡

♣❛r❛ q✉❡ ❧♦s ❝✉❛♥t✐✜❝❛❞♦r❡s s❡ ✈❡❛♥ ❡①♣❧í❝✐t❛♠❡♥t❡ ② ❧♦s ♣♦❞❛♠♦s ♠❛♥❡❥❛r ❝♦rr❡❝t❛♠❡♥t❡✳

✶✳✺✳✶✳ ❈✉❛♥t✐✜❝❛❞♦r ❯♥✐✈❡rs❛❧✳

❉❡✜♥✐❝✐ó♥ ✶✳✶✾✳ ❙❡❛ P (x) ✉♥❛ ❡①♣r❡s✐ó♥ ❞♦♥❞❡ x ❛♣❛r❡❝❡ ❧✐❜r❡✳ ❙❡❛ U ❧❛ ❝♦❧❡❝❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧♦s ♣♦s✐❜❧❡s
✈❛❧♦r❡s ❞❡ x✳ ❯♥ ❝✉❛♥t✐✜❝❛❞♦r ✉♥✐✈❡rs❛❧ ❛♣❧✐❝❛❞♦ ❛ P (x) ♣r♦❞✉❝❡ ✉♥❛ ❛✜r♠❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡♥♦t❛❞❛ ♣♦r (∀x
❡♥ U )P (x) ❧❛ ❝✉❛❧ ❡s ✈❡r❞❛❞❡r❛ s✐ P (x) ❡s ✈❡r❞❛❞❡r❛ ♣❛r❛ t♦❞♦s ❧♦s ♣♦s✐❜❧❡s ✈❛❧♦r❡s ❞❡ x ② ❢❛❧s❛ ❡♥
♦tr♦ ❝❛s♦✳

❊♥ ❧♦ q✉❡ s✐❣✉❡ ❞❡♥♦t❛r❡♠♦s ♣♦r N ❛❧ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ ❞❡ ❧♦s ♥ú♠❡r♦s ♥❛t✉r❛❧❡s ② r❡❝♦r❞❡♠♦s q✉❡

N = {1, 2, 3, 4, ...}.
✶✹ ❈❛♣ít✉❧♦ ✶✳ ▲ó❣✐❝❛ ■♥❢♦r♠❛❧

❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✶✳✷✵✳ ▲❛ ❛✜r♠❛❝✐ó♥

(∀ x ❡♥ N)(x + 1 ≥ 0)

❡s ✈❡r❞❛❞❡r❛✱ ♣✉❡s t♦❞♦ ♥❛t✉r❛❧ x s❛t✐s❢❛❝❡ q✉❡ x ≥ 1, ♣♦r t❛♥t♦ x+1 ≥ 2 > 0. P❡r♦ (∀x ❡♥ R)(x+1 ≥
0) ❡s ❢❛❧s❛✱ ♣♦rq✉❡ ♥♦ t♦❞♦s ❧♦s ✈❛❧♦r❡s ❞❡ x ❡♥ R ❤❛❝❡♥ q✉❡ x + 1 s❡❛ ♠❛②♦r ♦ ✐❣✉❛❧ q✉❡ ❝❡r♦✳ P♦r
❡❥❡♠♣❧♦ t♦♠❡ x = −6 ② ♥♦t❡ q✉❡ ❡♥ ❡st❡ ❝❛s♦ x + 1 = −6 + 1 = −5 < 0.

❙✐ ❧❛ ❝♦❧❡❝❝✐ó♥ U s❡ s♦❜r❡❡♥t✐❡♥❞❡ ♣♦r ❡❧ ❝♦♥t❡①t♦✱ ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s ❡s❝r✐❜✐♠♦s s✐♣❧❡♠❡♥t❡ (∀x)P (x)✳ ▲❛

❛✜r♠❛❝✐ó♥ (∀x ❡♥ U )P (x) s❡ ♣✉❡❞❡ ❧❡❡r ❞❡ ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r❛ ❞❡ ❧❛s s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡s ❢♦r♠❛s✿ P❛r❛ t♦❞♦s ❧♦s ✈❛❧♦r❡s
❞❡ x ❡♥ U ✱ ❧❛ ❛✜r♠❛❝✐ó♥ P (x) ❡s ✈❡r❞❛❞❡r❛❀ ❧❛ ❛✜r♠❛❝✐ó♥ P (x) ❡s ✈❡r❞❛❞❡r❛ ♣❛r❛ t♦❞♦ x ❡♥ U ❀ t♦❞♦s
❧♦s ✈❛❧♦r❡s ❞❡ x ❡♥ U s❛t✐s❢❛❝❡♥ P (x)❀ ♣❛r❛ t♦❞♦ x ❡♥ U s❡ t✐❡♥❡ P (x)❀ ♣❛r❛ t♦❞♦ x ❡♥ U ✱ P (x)✳

❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✶✳✷✶✳ ❙❡❛ P (x) ❧❛ ❛✜r♠❛❝✐ó♥ ✏❡❧ ♣❡rr♦ x ❡s ❝❛❢é✑✳ ❙❡❛ D ❧❛ ❝♦❧❡❝❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ t♦❞♦s ❧♦s ♣❡rr♦s
❞❡❧ ♠✉♥❞♦✳ (∀x ❡♥ D)P (x) q✉✐❡r❡ ❞❡❝✐r ✏❚♦❞♦ ♣❡rr♦ ❡♥ ❡❧ ♠✉♥❞♦ ❡s ❝❛❢é✑✱ ❧❛ ❝✉❛❧ ✐♥❞✉❞❛❜❧❡♠❡♥t❡
❡s ❢❛❧s❛✳ ❖❜sér✈❡s❡ q✉❡ ❝✉❛♥❞♦ s❡ ❛♠❛rr❛ ❧❛ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡ ②❛ ♥♦ ❧❛ ♥❡❝❡s✐t❛♠♦s ❡①♣❧✐❝✐t❛r✱ ❡st♦ t❛♠❜✐é♥
q✉✐❡r❡ ❞❡❝✐r q✉❡ ❡❧ ♥♦♠❜r❡ ❞❡ ❧❛ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡ ❡s ✐♥tr❛s❝❡♥❞❡♥t❡✳ ❆sí ♣✉❡s✱ ❧❛s ❛✜r♠❛❝✐♦♥❡s (∀x ❡♥ D)P (x)
② (∀z ❡♥ D)(P (z)) t✐❡♥❡♥ ❡❧ ♠✐s♠♦ s✐❣♥✐✜❝❛❞♦✳

✶✳✺✳✷✳ ❈✉❛♥t✐✜❝❛❞♦r ❊①✐st❡♥❝✐❛❧✳

❉❡✜♥✐❝✐ó♥ ✶✳✷✷✳ ❙❡❛ P (x) ✉♥❛ ❡①♣r❡s✐ó♥ ❞♦♥❞❡ x ❛♣❛r❡❝❡ ❧✐❜r❡✳ U ❡s ✉♥❛ ❝♦❧❡❝❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♣♦s✐❜❧❡s
✈❛❧♦r❡s ❞❡ x✳ ❯♥ ❝✉❛♥t✐✜❝❛❞♦r ❡①✐st❡♥❝✐❛❧ ❛♣❧✐❝❛❞♦ ❛ P (x) ♣r♦❞✉❝❡ ✉♥❛ ❛✜r♠❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡♥♦t❛❞❛ ♣♦r (∃x
❡♥ U )P (x) ❧❛ ❝✉❛❧ ❡s ✈❡r❞❛❞❡r❛✱ s✐ ② só❧♦ s✐ ❡s ✈❡r❞❛❞❡r❛ ❛❧ ♠❡♥♦s ♣❛r❛ ❛❧❣ú♥ ✈❛❧♦r ❞❡ x ❡♥ ❧❛
❝♦❧❡❝❝✐ó♥ U ✳ ❙✐ ❡st♦ ♥♦ s❡ ❝✉♠♣❧❡ ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s ❡s ❢❛❧s❛✳

❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✶✳✷✸✳ ▲❛ ❛✜r♠❛❝✐ó♥ ✏❊①✐st❡ ✉♥ ❡st✉❞✐❛♥t❡ ❡♥ ❡st❛ ❝❧❛s❡ ❞❡ ❝❛❜❡❧❧♦ ♥❡❣r♦✑✳ ◗✉✐❡r❡ ❞❡❝✐r
q✉❡ ❤❛② ✉♥♦✱ ❞♦s✱ tr❡s ♦ ♠ás ❡st✉❞✐❛♥t❡s q✉❡ t✐❡♥❡♥ ❝❛❜❡❧❧♦ ♥❡❣r♦✳

❊♥ ♣❛rt✐❝✉❧❛r s✐ (∀x ❡♥ U )P (x) ❡s ✈❡r❞❛❞❡r♦✱ ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s (∃x ❡♥ U )P (x) t❛♠❜✐é♥ ❧♦ ❡s✳ ▲❛ ❛✜r♠❛❝✐ó♥
(∃x ❡♥ U )P (x) s❡ ♣✉❡❞❡ ❧❡❡r ❞❡ ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r❛ ❞❡ ❧❛s s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡s ❢♦r♠❛s✿ ❊①✐st❡ ✉♥ x ❡♥ U t❛❧ q✉❡ P (x)
s❡ s❛t✐s❢❛❝❡❀ ♣❛r❛ ❛❧❣ú♥ ✈❛❧♦r ❞❡ x✱ t❡♥❡♠♦s q✉❡ P (x) ❡s ❝✐❡rt♦❀ ❡①✐st❡ ❛❧❣ú♥ x ❡♥ U t❛❧ q✉❡ P (x) ❡s
✈❡r❞❛❞❡r♦❀ ❡①✐st❡ ❛❧ ♠❡♥♦s ✉♥ ✈❛❧♦r x ❡♥ U t❛❧ q✉❡ P (x) s❡ s❛t✐s❢❛❝❡✳

❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✶✳✷✹✳ ❙✐ P (x) ❡s ❧❛ ❛✜r♠❛❝✐ó♥✿ ✏❊❧ ♣❡rr♦ ❡s ❝❛❢é✑✳ D ❡s ❧❛ ❝♦❧❡❝❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ t♦❞♦s ❧♦s ♣❡rr♦s✱
❡♥t♦♥❝❡s (∃x ❡♥ D)P (x) ❡s ✈❡r❞❛❞❡r♦✳

❖❜sér✈❡s❡ q✉❡ ❧❛ ✐♠♣❧✐❝❛❝✐ó♥ (∀x)P (x) ⇒ (∃x)P (x) ❡s ❝✐❡rt❛❀ ♣❡r♦ ♥♦ ❛❧ r❡✈és✳

✶✳✺✳✸✳ ◆❡❣❛♥❞♦ ❛✜r♠❛❝✐♦♥❡s ❝♦♥ ❈✉❛♥t✐✜❝❛❞♦r❡s✳

❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✶✳✷✺✳ ◆❡❣✉❡♠♦s✿ ✏❚♦❞♦ ❛❧✉♠♥♦ ❡♥ ❡st❡ s❛❧ó♥ t✐❡♥❡ ❝❛❜❡❧❧♦ ♥❡❣r♦✑✳ P❛r❛ ❡❧❧♦ ❜❛st❛ ❞❡❝✐r
✏❊①✐st❡ ✉♥ ❛❧✉♠♥♦ ❡♥ ❡st❡ s❛❧ó♥ q✉❡ ♥♦ t✐❡♥❡ ❡❧ ❝❛❜❡❧❧♦ ♥❡❣r♦✑✳
✶✳✻✳ ❊❥❡r❝✐❝✐♦s ✶✺

❊st❛ ❡s ❧❛ ❝❧❛✈❡✿ ∼ (∀x)P (x) ⇔ (∃x)(∼ P (x)) ❖❜sér✈❡s❡ q✉❡ ♣❛r❛ ♥❡❣❛r ❡❧ ♣r✐♠❡r ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦✱ ♥♦

❡s ♥❡❝❡s❛r✐♦ ❞❡❝✐r q✉❡ t♦❞♦ ❛❧✉♠♥♦ ❡♥ ❡st❡ s❛❧ó♥ ♥♦ t✐❡♥❡ ❡❧ ❝❛❜❡❧❧♦ ♥❡❣r♦✱ q✉❡ s✐♠❜ó❧✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ s❡rí❛

(∀x)(∼ P (x))✳ ❊s ❞❡❝✐r (∀x)(∼ P (x)) ♥♦ ❡s ❧♦ ♠✐s♠♦ q✉❡ (∃x)(∼ P (x))✳

❙✐♠✐❧❛r♠❡♥t❡✱ ♥❡❣❛r q✉❡ ✏❊①✐st❡ ✉♥ ❛❧✉♠♥♦ ❝♦♥ ❝❛❜❡❧❧♦ ♠♦r❛❞♦✑ ❡s ❡q✉✐✈❛❧❡♥t❡ ❛ ❞❡❝✐r q✉❡ ✏❚♦❞♦s

❧♦s ❛❧✉♠♥♦s ♥♦ t✐❡♥❡♥ ❡❧ ❝❛❜❡❧❧♦ ♠♦r❛❞♦✑✳

▲❛ ❝❧❛✈❡ ❡s ∼ (∃x)P (x) ⇔ (∀x)(∼ P (x))✳ ❨ ♥♦ ❡st❛rí❛ ❜✐❡♥ ♥❡❣❛❞♦ ❞❡❝✐r q✉❡ ✏❊①✐st❡ ✉♥ ❛❧✉♠♥♦ q✉❡

♥♦ t✐❡♥❡ ❡❧ ❝❛❜❡❧❧♦ ♠♦r❛❞♦✑✳

❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✶✳✷✻✳ ◆❡❣❛r ❧❛ s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡ ❛✜r♠❛❝✐ó♥ (∀x ❡♥ N)(x = 2 ∨ x ≥ 1)

❙♦❧✉❝✐ó♥✿ ❈♦♠♦ ❧❛ ♥❡❣❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ❝✉❛♥t✐✜❝❛❞♦r ✉♥✐✈❡rs❛❧ ❡s ✉♥♦ ❡①✐st❡♥❝✐❛❧ ② ❛♣❧✐❝❛♥❞♦ ❧❛ ▲❡② ❞❡

▼♦r❣❛♥✱ t❡♥❡♠♦s q✉❡

∼ (∀x ❡♥ N)(x = 2 ∨ x ≥ 1) ⇔ (∃x ❡♥ N)(∼ (x = 2 ∨ x ≥ 1))

⇔ (∃x ❡♥ N)(x 6= 2 ∧ x < 1)

❆sí q✉❡ ❧❛ ♥❡❣❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ (∀x ❡♥ N)(x = 2 ∨ x ≥ 1) ❡s (∃x ❡♥ N)(x 6= 2 ∧ x < 1).

✶✳✻✳ ❊❥❡r❝✐❝✐♦s

✶✳ ❍❛❝❡r ✉♥❛ t❛❜❧❛ ❞❡ ✈❡r❞❛❞ ♣❛r❛ ❧❛s s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡s ❛✜r♠❛❝✐♦♥❡s

❛ ✮ [(P → Q) ∧ (R → S)] → [(P ∧ R) → (Q ∧ S)].

❜ ✮ [(P →∼ Q) ∧ (R → (S ∨ T ))] → [(P ∧ (R ∨ T )) →∼ T ].
❝ ✮ (P → Q) → [(P ∨ R) → (Q ∨ S)].
❞ ✮ (A →∼ E) ∧ [∼ C ↔ (A ∨ ∼ B)].
✷✳ ❙✐ P ❡s ✉♥❛ ❛✜r♠❛❝✐ó♥ ✈❡r❞❛❞❡r❛✱ Q ❡s ❢❛❧s❛✱ R ❡s ✈❡r❞❛❞❡r❛ ② S ❡s ❢❛❧s❛ ➽❈✉á❧ ❡s ❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r ❞❡

✈❡r❞❛❞ ❞❡ ❧❛s s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡s ❛✜r♠❛❝✐♦♥❡s❄

❛ ✮ [(∼ P → Q) ∧ (R ∨ ∼ S)] →∼ P.
❜ ✮ (P ∨ Q) → [∼ R → ((P ∧ ∼ S) →∼ Q)].
✸✳ P♦r ❝❛❞❛ ✉♥♦ ❞❡ ❧♦s s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡s ❛r❣✉♠❡♥t♦s✱ s✐ ❡s ✈á❧✐❞♦✱ ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ❞❡r✐✈❛❝✐ó♥✱ ② s✐ ♥♦ ❡s ✈á❧✐❞♦

❥✉st✐✜q✉❡✳

❛✮ ❙✐ ❧❛ ❝♦♠✐❞❛ ❡s ✈❡r❞❡✱ ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s ❡stá ❝r✉❞❛✳ ❙✐ ❧❛ ❝♦♠✐❞❛ ❤✉❡❧❡ ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s ❡stá r❛♥❝✐❛✳ ▲❛

❝♦♠✐❞❛ ❡s ✈❡r❞❡ ♦ ❡stá r❛♥❝✐❛✳ ▲✉❡❣♦ ❧❛ ❝♦♠✐❞❛ ❡stá ❝r✉❞❛ ♦ ❤✉❡❧❡✳

❜✮ ❙✐ ❛ ❙✉s❛♥ ❧❡ ❣✉st❛ ❡❧ ♣❡s❝❛❞♦✱ ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s ❧❡ ❣✉st❛♥ ❧❛s ❝❡❜♦❧❧❛s✳ ❙✐ ❛ ❙✉s❛♥ ♥♦ ❧❡ ❣✉st❛ ❡❧

❛❥♦ ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s ♥♦ ❧❡ ❣✉st❛♥ ❧❛s ❝❡❜♦❧❧❛s✳ ❙✐ ❧❡ ❣✉st❛ ❡❧ ❛❥♦✱ ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s ❧❡ ❣✉st❛♥ ❧❛s ❣✉❛②❛❜❛s✳

▲❡ ❣✉st❛ ❡❧ ♣❡s❝❛❞♦ ♦ ❧❡ ❣✉st❛ ❡❧ ❝✐❧❛♥tr♦✳ ◆♦ ❧❡ ❣✉st❛♥ ❧❛s ❣✉❛②❛❜❛s✳ P♦r t❛♥t♦ ❛ ❙✉s❛♥

❧❡ ❣✉st❛ ❡❧ ❝✐❧❛♥tr♦✳

❝✮ ◆♦ ❡s ❡❧ ❝❛s♦ q✉❡ ❋r❡❞ t♦q✉❡ t❛♥t♦ ❣✉✐t❛rr❛ ❝♦♠♦ ✉♥❛ ✢❛✉t❛✳ ❙✐ ❋r❡❞ ♥♦ t♦❝❛ ❣✉✐t❛rr❛

② ♥♦ t♦❝❛ ✢❛✉t❛✱ ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s ❡❧ t♦❝❛ ór❣❛♥♦ ② ❛r♣❛✳ ❙✐ é❧ t♦❝❛ ❛r♣❛✱ ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s t♦❝❛ ór❣❛♥♦✳

▲✉❡❣♦ ❋r❡❞ t♦❝❛ ór❣❛♥♦✳

✶✻ ❈❛♣ít✉❧♦ ✶✳ ▲ó❣✐❝❛ ■♥❢♦r♠❛❧

❞✮ ❙✐ t✉ r♦❜❛s ✉♥ ❜❛♥❝♦✱ ✈❛ ❛ ❧❛ ❝ár❝❡❧✳ ❙✐ ✈❛s ❛ ❧❛ ❝ár❝❡❧✱ t✉ ♥♦ t❡ ❞✐✈✐❡rt❡s✳ ❙✐ t✐❡♥❡s

✈❛❝❛❝✐♦♥❡s✱ t✉ t❡ ❞✐✈✐❡rt❡s✳ ❚✉ r♦❜❛s ✉♥ ❜❛♥❝♦ ♦ t✐❡♥❡s ✈❛❝❛❝✐♦♥❡s✳ P♦r t❛♥t♦ t✉ ✈❛s ❛ ❧❛
❝ár❝❡❧ ♦ t❡ ❞✐✈✐❡rt❡s✳

✹✳ ❙✐ ❧♦s s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡s ❛r❣✉♠❡♥t♦s s♦♥ ✈á❧✐❞♦s✱ ❞é ✉♥❛ ❞❡r✐✈❛❝✐ó♥ ② s✐ ♥♦ ❧♦ s♦♥✱ ❞❡♠✉❡str❡❧♦✳

❛✮ ❢✮

∼ Q →∼ S (∼ A ∨ C) ∨ (D∧ ∼ A)

(∼ P ∨ R) ∨ ∼ Q D→A

S
∼ C →∼ A

P →R ❣✮
∼D
❜✮
∼ R →∼ P
R∧S P ∨D
∼ P →∼ (S ∨ R)
∼ Q →∼ P ∼R→S
❤✮
Q
Q →∼ S
❝✮ ∼S→A
∼A
S →∼ P
R→Q
Q→T
∼ (∼ P ∧ ∼ R)
✐✮

S→Q P →∼ Q
∼ P → (R →∼ Q)
❞✮ (∼ S∨ ∼ R) →∼ Q
(∼ S ∨ P ) ∧ (∼ P ∨ R) ∼S
∼R∨Q
∼R
S→Q ❥✮
P → (Q ∨ R)
❡✮
Q → (S ∨ T )
(∼ A → B) → (P ∧ ∼ R) ∼ (U ∨ S)
P →R T →U

∼ (A ∨ B) ∼P
✶✳✻✳ ❊❥❡r❝✐❝✐♦s ✶✼

❦✮ ❧✮

(P ∨ Q) → R
(P ∧ ∼ R) ∨ (Q∧ ∼ R) (R ∨ Q) → (P → (S ↔ T ))
(P → R) ∧ (Q → S) P ∧S

S S↔T

✺✳ ◆✐❡❣✉❡ ❝❛❞❛ ✉♥❛ ❞❡ ❧❛s s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡s ❛✜r♠❛❝✐♦♥❡s✳

❛ ✮ (P ∧ Q) → R.
❜ ✮ (∼ P → R) ∧ (∼ R → Q).
❝ ✮ [∼ (P ∨ ∼ R)] → (P ∨ S).
❞ ✮ (∀ x > 0)(∃ y > 0)[∼ P (x) ↔ (P (y) ∧ R(x))].
❡ ✮ (∀ ǫ > 0)(∃ δ > 0)(|x − 1| < δ → |f (x) − f (1)| < ǫ).
❢ ✮ (∀ R > 0)(∃ x, y ❡♥ A)[(|x − y| < R ∧ x2 6= y 2 ) → |x2 + y| ≥ 2].

✻✳ ❙✐ F A ❡s ❢❛❧❛❝✐❛✱ T A ❡s ✉♥❛ t❛✉❧♦❣í❛ ② P ❡s ✉♥❛ ♣r♦♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥✱ ♠✉❡str❡ q✉❡

❛ ✮ P ∧ F A ❡s ✉♥❛ ❢❛❧❛❝✐❛✳
❜ ✮ P ∨ T A ❡s ✉♥❛ t❛✉t♦❧♦❣í❛✳
❝ ✮ P ∨ F A ⇔ P.
❞ ✮ P ∧ T A ⇔ P.

✼✳ ❉❡t❡r♠✐♥❡ s✐ ❝❛❞❛ ✉♥❛ ❞❡ ❧❛s s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡s ❛✜r♠❛❝✐♦♥❡s ❡s ✈❡r❞❛❞❡r❛ ♦ ❢❛❧s❛✳

❛ ✮ (∀x ❡♥ N)(x + 1 < 0).
❜ ✮ (∀x ❡♥ N)(x + 1 > 0 ∧ x − 1 = 8).
❝ ✮ (∃x ❡♥ N)(x + 4 = 0 → x + 1 > 0).
❞ ✮ (∃x ❡♥ N)(x + 8 = 0 ∨ x + 1 > 0).
❈❛♣ít✉❧♦ ✷

❈♦♥❥✉♥t♦s
✷✳✶✳ ❉❡✜♥✐❝✐♦♥❡s ❇ás✐❝❛s

❈♦♥str✉✐r❡♠♦s ♥✉❡str❛ t❡♦rí❛ ❡st❛❜❧❡❝✐❡♥❞♦ tr❡s ❝♦♥❝❡♣t♦s ✐♥❞❡✜♥✐❜❧❡s✳ ❊❧❧♦s s♦♥ ✏❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦✑✱ ✏❡❧❡✲

♠❡♥t♦✑ ② ✏♣❡rt❡♥❡❝❡ ❛✑✳ ❆✉♥q✉❡ s♦♥ ❝♦♥❝❡♣t♦s ✐♥❞❡✜♥✐❞♦s✱ ❞❛r❡♠♦s ✉♥❛ ❞❡✜♥✐❝✐ó♥ ✐♥t✉✐t✐✈❛ ❞❡ ❡❧❧♦s✱

❜❛s❛❞❛ ❡♥ ❡❧ ❧❡♥❣✉❛❥❡ ❝♦♠ú♥✳ ❙❡ ♥♦t❛rá q✉❡ ❡♥ ❝✐❡rt♦ s❡♥t✐❞♦ ést❛s ♥♦ s♦♥ ❜✉❡♥❛s ❞❡✜♥✐❝✐♦♥❡s✱ ♣✉❡s

✉s❛♥ ♣❛❧❛❜r❛s q✉❡ ❛ s✉ ✈❡③ ♥♦ ❤❡♠♦s ❞❡✜♥✐❞♦✳

❈♦♥❥✉♥t♦✿ ❈✉❛❧q✉✐❡r ❝♦❧❡❝❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♦❜❥❡t♦s ✭♥♦ ♥❡❝❡s❛r✐❛♠❡♥t❡ ♠❛t❡♠át✐❝♦s✮✳

❊❧❡♠❡♥t♦ ♦ ♠✐❡♠❜r♦✿ ❯♥ ♦❜❥❡t♦ ❞❡ ✉♥ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ ❡s ❧❧❛♠❛❞♦ ❡❧❡♠❡♥t♦ ♦ ♠✐❡♠❜r♦ ❞❡❧ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦✳

✏a ∈ A✑ s✐❣♥✐✜❝❛ ✏❡❧ ❡❧❡♠❡♥t♦ a ♣❡rt❡♥❡❝❡ ❛❧ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ A✑

✏a ∈
/ A✑ ❡s ❧❛ ♥❡❣❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❛✜r♠❛❝✐ó♥ ❛♥t❡r✐♦r✳

▲❡② ❞❡❧ ▼❡❞✐♦ ❊①❝❧✉✐❞♦✿ ❉❛❞♦ ✉♥ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ ❆ ② ✉♥ ♦❜❥❡t♦ ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r❛ x s✉♣♦♥❡♠♦s q✉❡ ✉♥✐❝❛✲

♠❡♥t❡ ✉♥❛ ❞❡ ❧❛s ❞♦s ❛✜r♠❛❝✐♦♥❡s s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡s s❡ ✈❡r✐✜❝❛ ✏ x ∈ A✑ ó ✏x ∈

/ A✑✳

▲❛ ♠❛♥❡r❛ ♠ás s✐♠♣❧❡ ❞❡ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛r ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦s ❡s ❤❛❝❡r ✉♥❛ ❧✐st❛ q✉❡ ❡♥❝❡rr❛♠♦s ❡♥tr❡ ❧❧❛✈❡s✳

P♦r ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦

A = {a, b, c, d},
B = {m ∈ Z : ❊①✐st❡ ✉♥ ❡♥t❡r♦ k t❛❧ q✉❡ m = 2k},
C = {x ∈ Z : ❊①✐st❡ ✉♥ ❡♥t❡r♦ q t❛❧ q✉❡ x = 2q}✳ ❖❜s❡r✈❡ q✉❡ ❡♥ ❧❛s ❞♦s ú❧t✐♠❛s ❞❡✜♥✐❝✐♦♥❡s ❧♦

ú♥✐❝♦ q✉❡ ❝❛♠❜✐❛ ❡s ❧❛ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡✱ ♣❡r♦ ❧♦s ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦s ❞❡s❝r✐t♦s s♦♥ ❧♦s ♠✐s♠♦s✱ ❡s ❞❡❝✐r✱ ❡❧ ♥♦♠❜r❡ ❞❡

❧❛s ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s ❡s ✐rr❡❧❡✈❛♥t❡✳

❆❝❡♣t❛r❡♠♦s t❛♠❜✐é♥ ❧❛ ❡①✐st❡♥❝✐❛ ❞❡❧ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ ✈❛❝í♦ ② ❡❧ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ ✉♥✐✈❡rs❛❧✳ ❊❧ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ ✈❛❝í♦

❡s ❡❧ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ q✉❡ ♥♦ t✐❡♥❡ ❡❧❡♠❡♥t♦s ② ❧♦ ❞❡♥♦t❛r❡♠♦s ♣♦r ∅. ❊❧ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ ✉♥✐✈❡rs❛❧ ❡s ❡❧ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦

q✉❡ ❝♦♥t✐❡♥❡ ❛ t♦❞♦s ❧♦ ❡❧❡♠❡♥t♦s ❞❡ ❧♦s ❝✉❛❧❡s ❡st❛♠♦s ❤❛❜❧❛♥❞♦✱ ❧♦ ❞❡♥♦t❛r❡♠♦s ♣♦r U.

✶✽
✷✳✷✳ ❖♣❡r❛❝✐♦♥❡s ❡♥tr❡ ❈♦♥❥✉♥t♦s ✶✾

✷✳✷✳ ❖♣❡r❛❝✐♦♥❡s ❡♥tr❡ ❈♦♥❥✉♥t♦s

❈♦♥t❡♥❡♥❝✐❛ ❞❡ ❈♦♥❥✉♥t♦s
❉❛❞♦s ❞♦s ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦s A ② B ❞✐r❡♠♦s q✉❡ A ❡st❛ ❝♦♥t❡♥✐❞♦ ❡♥ B, ❧♦ ❝✉❛❧ ❞❡♥♦t❛♠♦s ♣♦r A ⊆ B,
s✐ ♣❛r❛ t♦❞♦ x ∈ A, s❡ t✐❡♥❡ q✉❡ x ∈ B. ❊♥ sí♠❜♦❧♦s s❡rí❛

A ⊆ B ⇐⇒ (∀x)(x ∈ A → x ∈ B)

❆ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❛❝✐ó♥ s❡ ♣✉❡❞❡ ♦❜s❡r✈❛r ❣r❛✜❝❛♠❡♥t❡ ❧♦ q✉❡ s✐❣♥✐✜❝❛ q✉❡ A ⊆ B,

A⊂B

B
A

❊st❡ t✐♣♦ ❞❡ ❡sq✉❡♠❛s ✉s✉❛❧♠❡♥t❡ s♦♥ ❧❧❛♠❛❞♦s ❞❡ ❉✐❛❣r❛♠❛s ❞❡ ❱❡♥♥✳

■❣✉❛❧❞❛❞ ❞❡ ❈♦♥❥✉♥t♦s
❉✐r❡♠♦s q✉❡ ❞♦s ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦s A ② B s♦♥ ✐❣✉❛❧❡s s✐ A⊆B ② B ⊆ A. ❯s❛♥❞♦ ❧❛ ❞❡✜♥✐❝✐ó♥ ❛♥t❡r✐♦r

t❡♥❡♠♦s q✉❡

A = B ⇐⇒ (∀x)(x ∈ A ↔ x ∈ B).

❯♥✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❈♦♥❥✉♥t♦s
▲❛ ✉♥✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❞♦s ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦s A ② B ❡s ❡❧ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ ❢♦r♠❛❞♦ ♣♦r t♦❞♦s ❧♦s ❡❧❡♠❡♥t♦s q✉❡ ♣❡rt❡♥❝❡♥

❛ A ♦ ❛ B✳ ❙❡ ❞❡♥♦t❛ ♣♦r A ∪ B. ❉❡ ❢♦r♠❛ ♠❛s ♣r❡❝✐s❛

A ∪ B = {x : x ∈ A ∨ x ∈ B} .

▲❛ ❞✐s②✉♥❝✐ó♥✱ ∨✱ s❡ ✉t✐❧✐③❛ ❡♥ ❡❧ s❡♥t✐❞♦ ✐♥❝❧✉s✐✈♦✱ ❡s ❞❡❝✐r✱ s✐❣♥✐✜❝❛ ✏♦✑✳

■♥t❡rs❡❝❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❈♦♥❥✉♥t♦s
▲❛ ✐♥t❡rs❡❝❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❞♦s ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦s A ② B ❡s ❡❧ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ ❢♦r♠❛❞♦ ♣♦r t♦❞♦s ❧♦s ❡❧❡♠❡♥t♦s q✉❡

♣❡rt❡♥❝❡♥ ❛ A ② ❛ B✳ ❙❡ ❞❡♥♦t❛ ♣♦r A ∩ B.

A ∩ B = {x : x ∈ A ∧ x ∈ B} .
✷✵ ❈❛♣ít✉❧♦ ✷✳ ❈♦♥❥✉♥t♦s

❙✐ A ② B ♥♦ t✐❡♥❡♥ ❡❧❡♠❡♥t♦s ❡♥ ❝♦♠ú♥✱ ❡s ❞❡❝✐r✱ s✐ A ∩ B = ∅✱ ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s ❞✐r❡♠♦s q✉❡ A ② B s♦♥

❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦s ❞✐s❥✉♥t♦s✳

❆ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❛❝✐ó♥ s❡ ✐❧✉str❛ ❡♥ ❞✐❛❣r❛♠❛s ❞❡ ❱❡♥♥ ❧❛ ✉♥✐ó♥ ❡ ✐♥t❡rs❡❝❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦s✱ ❧♦s ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦s

q✉❡ q✉❡r❡♠♦s ♠♦str❛r ❛♣❛r❡❝❡♥ s♦♠❜r❡❛❞♦s✳

A∪B A∩B

A B A B

❉✐❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛ ❞❡ ❈♦♥❥✉♥t♦s
▲❛ ❞✐❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛ ❡♥tr❡ ❞♦s ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦s A ② B ❡s ❡❧ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ ❢♦r♠❛❞♦ ♣♦r t♦❞♦s ❧♦s ❡❧❡♠❡♥t♦s q✉❡

♣❡rt❡♥❡❝❡♥ ❛ A ② ♥♦ ❛ B✳ ❙❡ ❞❡♥♦t❛ ♣♦r A − B. ▼❛s ♣r❡❝✐s❛♠❡♥t❡

A − B = {x : x ∈ A ∧ x 6∈ B} .

❊❧ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ A−B s❡ ❧❡❡ ✏ A ♠❡♥♦s B✑ ② r❡❝✐❜❡ t❛♠❜✐é♥ ❡❧ ♥♦♠❜r❡ ❞❡ ❝♦♠♣❧❡♠❡♥t♦ r❡❧❛t✐✈♦ ❞❡❧

❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ B r❡s♣❡❝t♦ ❞❡❧ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ A✳

❈♦♠♣❧❡♠❡♥t♦
❊❧ ❝♦♠♣❧❡♠❡♥t♦ ❞❡ ✉♥ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ A ❡s ❡❧ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ ❢♦r♠❛❞♦ ♣♦r t♦❞♦s ❧♦s ❡❧❡♠❡♥t♦s ❞❡❧ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦

✉♥✐✈❡rs❛❧ q✉❡ ♥♦ ♣❡rt❡♥❡❝❡♥ ❛ A✳ ❙❡ ❞❡♥♦t❛ ♣♦ Ac .

Ac = {x : x ∈
/ A} .

◆♦t❡ q✉❡ ❡❧ ❝♦♠♣❧❡♠❡♥t♦ ❞❡ A ❡s ❧❛ ❞✐❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛ ❡♥tr❡ U ② A✱ ❡s ❞❡❝✐r✱ Ac = U − A✳ ❆❞❡♠ás✱ s❡

t✐❡♥❡ ❧❛ s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡ ♣r♦♣✐❡❞❛❞ q✉❡ ❡s ♠✉② út✐❧ ♣❛r❛ r❡s♦❧✈❡r ♣r♦❜❧❡♠❛s r❡❧❛❝✐♦♥❛❞♦s ❝♦♥ ❡❧ ➪❧❣❡❜r❛ ❞❡

❈♦♥❥✉♥t♦s✳

❆ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❛❝✐ó♥ s❡ ✐❧✉str❛ ✉s❛♥❞♦ ❞✐❛❣r❛♠❛s ❞❡ ❱❡♥♥ ❧❛ ❞✐❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛ ② ❝♦♠♣❧❡♠❡♥t♦ ❞❡ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦s✱

❧♦s ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦s q✉❡ q✉❡r❡♠♦s ♠♦str❛r ❛♣❛r❡❝❡♥ s♦♠❜r❡❛❞♦s✳

✷✳✷✳ ❖♣❡r❛❝✐♦♥❡s ❡♥tr❡ ❈♦♥❥✉♥t♦s ✷✶

A−B Ac

A B

Pr♦♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ✷✳✶✳ ❙❡❛♥ A ② B ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦s✳ ❊♥t♦♥❝❡s A − B = A ∩ Bc.

Pr✉❡❜❛✿

/ B ⇔ x ∈ A ∧ x ∈ B c ⇔ x ∈ (A ∩ B c ).
x ∈ (A − B) ⇔ x ∈ A ∧ x ∈

▲♦ q✉❡ t❡r♠✐♥❛ ❧❛ ♣r✉❡❜❛✳ 

✷✳✷✳✶✳ ➪❧❣❡❜r❛ ❞❡ ❈♦♥❥✉♥t♦s

❇❛❥♦ ❧❛s ♦♣❡r❛❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡✜♥✐❞❛s ❡♥ ❧♦s ❛♣❛rt❛❞♦s ❛♥t❡r✐♦r❡s✱ ❧♦s ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦s s❛t✐s❢❛❝❡♥ ✈❛r✐❛s ❧❡②❡s
♦ ✐❞❡♥t✐❞❛❞❡s✳ ❖❜s❡r✈❛r❡♠♦s q✉❡ ❡①✐st❡ ✉♥❛ ❞✉❛❧✐❞❛❞ ❡♥tr❡ ❧❛s ❧❡②❡s q✉❡ ✉t✐❧✐③❛♥ ❧❛ ✐♥t❡rs❡❝❝✐ó♥✱
✉♥✐ó♥✱ ❡❧ ✉♥✐✈❡rs♦ ♦ ❡❧ ✈❛❝í♦✳ ▼ás ❡①❛❝t❛♠❡♥t❡✱ ❝✉❛♥❞♦ t❡♥❡♠♦s ✉♥❛ ♣r♦♣✐❡❞❛❞ ❞❡ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦s s✐❡♠♣r❡
♣♦❞❡♠♦s ♦❜t❡♥❡r ♦tr❛ ✐♥t❡r❝❛♠❜✐❛♥❞♦ ❧❛ ✉♥✐ó♥ ❝♦♥ ✐♥t❡s❡❝❝✐ó♥ ② ❡❧ ✉♥✐✈❡rs♦ ❝♦♥ ❡❧ ✈❛❝í♦✱ ❝♦♠♦ ❧♦
♣♦❞❡♠♦s ♦❜s❡r✈❛r ❡♥ ❧❛s s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡s ♣r♦♣✐❡❞❛❞❡s✳

▲❡②❡s ■❞❡♠♣♦t❡♥t❡s

❉❛❞♦ ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ A ❡♥ ✉♥ ✉♥✐✈❡rs❛❧ ❛r❜✐tr❛r✐♦ U, s❡ ✈❡r✐✜❝❛

✶✳ A ∪ A = A

✷✳ A ∩ A = A

Pr✉❡❜❛✿ ❙❡❛ x ✉♥ ❡❧❡♠❡♥t♦ ❛r❜✐tr❛r✐♦ ❞❡❧ ✉♥✐✈❡rs❛❧ U, ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s ✉s❛♥❞♦ ❡❧ ❤❡❝❤♦ q✉❡ p ∨ p ⇐⇒ p
s❡ t✐❡♥❡

x ∈ (A ∪ A) ⇐⇒ [x ∈ A ∨ x ∈ A]
⇐⇒ x∈A

❉❡ ❧❛ ❛r❜✐tr❛r✐❡❞❛❞ ❞❡ x s❡ s✐❣✉❡ q✉❡ ∀x [x ∈ (A ∪ A) ↔ x ∈ A] . P♦r t❛♥t♦ A ∪ A = A. ❉❡ ❢♦r♠❛

❆♥á❧♦❣❛ s❡ ♣r✉❡❜❛ q✉❡ A ∩ A = A. 
✷✷ ❈❛♣ít✉❧♦ ✷✳ ❈♦♥❥✉♥t♦s

▲❡②❡s ❈♦♥♠✉t❛t✐✈❛s

❉❛❞♦s ❞♦s ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦s A ② B ❞❡ ✉♥ ✉♥✐✈❡rs❛❧ ❛r❜✐tr❛r✐♦ U ✱ s❡ ✈❡r✐✜❝❛

✶✳ A ∪ B = B ∪ A
✷✳ A ∩ B = B ∩ A

Pr✉❡❜❛✿ ❙❡❛ x ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r ❡❧❡♠❡♥t♦ ❞❡ U, ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s ✉s❛♥❞♦ ❡❧ ❤❡❝❤♦ q✉❡ p ∨ q ⇐⇒ q ∨ p, t❡♥❡♠♦s

q✉❡

x ∈ (A ∪ B) ⇐⇒ x∈A∨x∈B
⇐⇒ x∈B∨x∈A
⇐⇒ x ∈ (B ∪ A)

❈♦♠♦ x ❡s ✉♥ ❡❧❡♠❡♥t♦ ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r❛ ❞❡ U ✱ s❡ s✐❣✉❡ q✉❡ ∀x [x ∈ A ∪ B ↔ x ∈ B ∪ A] . P♦r t❛♥t♦ A∪B =

B ∪ A. ❉❡ ✉♥❛ ❢♦r♠❛ s✐♠✐❧❛r s❡ ❞❡♠✉❡str❛ q✉❡ A ∩ B = B ∩ A✳ 

▲❡②❡s ❆s♦❝✐❛t✐✈❛s

❉❛❞♦s tr❡s ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦s A, B ② C ❞❡ ✉♥ ✉♥✐✈❡rs❛❧ ❛r❜✐tr❛r✐♦ U ✱ s❡ ✈❡r✐✜❝❛

✶✳ A ∪ (B ∪ C) = (A ∪ B) ∪ C
✷✳ A ∩ (B ∩ C) = (A ∩ B) ∩ C

Pr✉❡❜❛✿ ❊♥ ❡❢❡❝t♦✱ s❡❛ x ✉♥ ❡❧❡♠❡♥t♦ ❛r❜✐tr❛r✐♦ ❞❡ U. ❈♦♠♦ p ∨ (q ∨ r) ⇐⇒ (p ∨ q) ∨ r, t❡♥❡♠♦s

q✉❡

x ∈ [A ∪ (B ∪ C)] ⇐⇒ x ∈ A ∨ [x ∈ (B ∪ C)]
⇐⇒ x ∈ A ∨ (x ∈ B ∨ x ∈ C)
⇐⇒ (x ∈ A ∨ x ∈ B) ∨ x ∈ C
⇐⇒ x ∈ (A ∪ B) ∨ x ∈ C
⇐⇒ x ∈ [(A ∪ B) ∪ C].

❉❡ ❧❛ ❛r❜✐tr❛r✐❡❞❛❞ ❞❡ x s❡ s✐❣✉❡ q✉❡ (∀x)[x ∈ A ∪ (B ∪ C) ↔ x ∈ (A ∪ B) ∪ C], ❞❡ ❛q✉í s❡ s✐❣✉❡

q✉❡ A ∪ (B ∪ C) = (A ∪ B) ∪ C. ❆♥á❧♦❣❛♠❡♥t❡ s❡ ❞❡♠✉❡str❛ q✉❡ A ∩ (B ∩ C) = (A ∩ B) ∩ C. 

▲❡②❡s ❉✐str✐❜✉t✐✈❛s

❉❛❞♦ tr❡s ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦s A, B ② C ❞❡ ✉♥ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ ✉♥✐✈❡rs❛❧ U ✱ s❡ ✈❡r✐✜❝❛

✷✳✷✳ ❖♣❡r❛❝✐♦♥❡s ❡♥tr❡ ❈♦♥❥✉♥t♦s ✷✸

✶✳ A ∪ (B ∩ C) = (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C)
✷✳ A ∩ (B ∩ C) = (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C)

Pr✉❡❜❛✿ ❊♥ ❡❢❡❝t♦✱ s❡❛ x ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r ❡❧❡♠❡♥t♦ ❞❡ ✉♥ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ ✉♥✐✈❡rs❛❧ U, ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s

x ∈ [A ∪ (B ∩ C)] ⇐⇒ x ∈ A ∨ [x ∈ (B ∩ C)]
⇐⇒ x ∈ A ∨ (x ∈ B ∧ x ∈ C)
⇐⇒ (x ∈ A ∨ x ∈ B) ∧ (x ∈ A ∨ x ∈ C)
⇐⇒ x ∈ (A ∪ B) ∧ x ∈ (A ∪ C)
⇐⇒ x ∈ [(A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C)],
❞♦♥❞❡ ✉s❛♠♦s ❡❧ ❤❡❝❤♦ q✉❡ p ∨ (q ∧ r) ⇐⇒ (p ∨ q) ∧ (p ∨ r). ❆❧ s❡r x ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r ❡❧❡♠❡♥t♦ ❞❡ U ✱ s❡
s✐❣✉❡ q✉❡
(∀x)[x ∈ A ∪ (B ∩ C) ↔ x ∈ (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C)],
❝♦♥s❡❝✉❡♥t❡♠❡♥t❡✱ A∪(B ∩C) = (A∪B)∩(A∪C). ❉❡ ✉♥❛ ❢♦r♠❛ s✐♠✐❧❛r s❡ ♣r✉❡❜❛ q✉❡ A∩(B ∪C) =
(A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C). 

▲❡②❡s ❞❡ ■❞❡♥t✐❞❛❞

❉❛❞♦ ✉♥ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r❛ A ❞❡ ✉♥ ✉♥✐✈❡rs❛❧ ❛r❜✐tr❛r✐♦ U ✱ s❡ ✈❡r✐✜❝❛

✶✳ A ∪ ∅ = A
✷✳ A ∪ U = U
✸✳ A ∩ ∅ = ∅
✹✳ A ∩ U = A

Pr✉❡❜❛✿ ❙♦❧♦ ♠♦str❛r❡♠♦s (1) ② (3), ❡❧ r❡st♦ q✉❡❞❛ ❝♦♠♦ ❡❥❡r❝✐❝✐♦ ❛❧ ❧❡❝t♦r✳

✶✳ A ∪ ∅ = A✳ ❊♥ ❡❢❡❝t♦✱ s❡❛ x ✉♥ ❡❧❡♠❡♥t♦ ❛r❜✐tr❛r✐♦ ❞❡ U, ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s ✉s❛♥❞♦ ❡❧ ❤❡❝❤♦ q✉❡

p ∨ F A ⇐⇒ p, t❡♥❡♠♦s q✉❡
x ∈ (A ∪ ∅) ⇐⇒ x∈A∨x∈∅
⇐⇒ x ∈ A, (x ∈ ∅ ❡s ❢❛❧s♦ s✐❡♠♣r❡).
▲✉❡❣♦✱ (∀x)[x ∈ (A ∪ ∅) ↔ x ∈ A], ❞❡ ❛q✉í s❡ s✐❣✉❡ q✉❡ A ∪ ∅ = A.
✸✳ A ∩ ∅ = ∅✳ ❙❡❛ x ❡s ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r ❡❧❡♠❡♥t♦ ❞❡ U, ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s ❝♦♠♦ p ∧ F A ⇐⇒ F A, s❡ ♦❜t✐❡♥❡
x ∈ (A ∩ ∅) ⇐⇒ x∈A∧x∈∅
⇐⇒ x ∈ ∅, (x ∈ ∅ ❡s ❢❛❧s♦ s✐❡♠♣r❡).


✷✹ ❈❛♣ít✉❧♦ ✷✳ ❈♦♥❥✉♥t♦s

▲❡② ■♥✈♦❧✉t✐✈❛

❉❛❞♦ ✉♥ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r❛ A ❞❡ ✉♥ ✉♥✐✈❡rs❛❧ U, s❡ ✈❡r✐✜❝❛

(Ac )c = A.

Pr✉❡❜❛✿ ❙❡❛ x ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r❛ ❞❡ U, ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s ✉s❛♥❞♦ ❡❧ ❤❡❝❤♦ q✉❡ ∼ (∼ p) ⇐⇒ p, s❡ t✐❡♥❡

x ∈ (Ac )c ⇐⇒ / Ac
x∈
⇐⇒ x ∈ A.

▲✉❡❣♦✱ (∀x)[x ∈ (Ac )c ↔ x ∈ A], ❡s ❞❡❝✐r✱ (Ac )c = A. 

▲❡②❡s ❞❡❧ ❈♦♠♣❧❡♠❡♥t♦

❉❛❞♦ ✉♥ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r❛ A ❞❡ ✉♥ ✉♥✐✈❡rs❛❧ ❛r❜✐tr❛r✐♦ U, s❡ ✈❡r✐✜❝❛

✶✳ A ∪ Ac = U
✷✳ U c = ∅
✸✳ A ∩ Ac = ∅
✹✳ ∅c = U

Pr✉❡❜❛✿ ❉❡♠♦str❛r❡♠♦s (1) ② (3) ② ❧♦s ♦tr❛s q✉❡❞❛♥ ❝♦♠♦ ❡❥❡r❝✐❝✐♦✳

✶ A ∪ Ac = U ✳ ❈♦♠♦ ❡❧ ✉♥✐✈❡rs❛❧ ❝♦♥t✐❡♥❡ ❛ t♦❞♦s ❧♦s ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦s t❡♥❡♠♦s q✉❡ A ∪ Ac ⊆ U. ❙♦❧♦

❞❡❜❡♠♦s ♠♦str❛r q✉❡ U ⊆ A ∪ Ac . P❛r❛ ❡st♦ ✉s❛r❡♠♦s ❧❛ ▲❡② ❞❡❧ ▼❡❞✐♦ ❊①❝❧✉✐❞♦✳ ❊♥ ❡❢❡❝t♦✱
s❡❛ x ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r ❡❧❡♠❡♥t♦ ❞❡ U, ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s x ∈ A ó x ∈ Ac . ▲♦ q✉❡ ♠✉❡str❛ q✉❡ U ⊆ A ∪ Ac . P♦r
t❛♥t♦ A ∪ Ac = U.
✸✳ A∩Ac = ∅✳ ❊♥ ❡❢❡❝t♦✱ ❝♦♠♦ ✈❛❝í♦ ❡st❛ ❡♥ ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦✱ t❡♥❡♠♦s q✉❡ ∅ ⊆ A∩Ac . ❉❡❜❡♠♦s
♠♦str❛r ❧❛ ♦tr❛ ❝♦♥t❡♥❡♥❝✐❛✳ P❛r❛ ❡st♦ ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r❡ x ∈ (A ∩ Ac ), ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s x ∈ A ∧ x ∈ Ac , ❛sí q✉❡
x ∈ A∧x ∈ / A, ❧♦ ❝✉❛❧ ❡s ❛❜s✉r❞♦✱ ♣♦r t❛♥t♦ ♣♦❞❡♠♦s ❝♦♥❝❧✉✐r ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r ❝♦s❛✱ ❡♥ ♣❛rt✐❝✉❧❛r
q✉❡ x ∈ ∅. ▲♦ q✉❡ t❡r♠✐♥❛ ❧❛ ♣r✉❡❜❛✳

▲❡②❡s ❞❡ ▼♦r❣❛♥

❉❛❞♦s ❞♦s ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦s A ② B ❡♥ ✉♥ ✉♥✐✈❡rs❛❧ U ✱ s❡ t✐❡♥❡ q✉❡

✶✳ (A ∪ B)c = Ac ∩ B c
✷✳ (A ∩ B)c = Ac ∪ B c
✷✳✷✳ ❖♣❡r❛❝✐♦♥❡s ❡♥tr❡ ❈♦♥❥✉♥t♦s ✷✺

Pr✉❡❜❛✿ ❙♦❧♦ ♠♦str❛r❡♠♦s ✭✶✮✱ ❡❧ r❡st♦ q✉❡❞❛ ❝♦♠♦ ❡❥❡r❝✐❝✐♦ ❛❧ ❧❡❝t♦r✳ ❊♥ ❡❢❡❝t♦✱ s❡❛ x ✉♥ ❡❧❡♠❡♥t♦
❛r❜✐tr❛r✐♦ ❞❡❧ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ ✉♥✐✈❡rs❛❧ U. ❊♥t♦♥❝❡s✱
x ∈ (A ∪ B)c ⇐⇒ x∈
/ (A ∪ B)
⇐⇒ (x ∈
/ A∧x∈
/ B)
⇐⇒ (x ∈ Ac ∧ x ∈ B c )
⇐⇒ x ∈ (Ac ∩ B c ).
◆♦t❡ q✉❡ ❛q✉í s❡ ✉s♦ ❡❧ ❤❡❝❤♦ q✉❡ ∼ (p ∨ q) ⇐⇒ (∼ p ∧ ∼ q). ❈♦♠♦ x ❡s ✉♥ ❡❧❡♠❡♥t♦ ❛r❜✐tr❛r✐♦
❞❡ U, s❡ s✐❣✉❡ q✉❡ (∀x)[x ∈ (A ∪ B)c ↔ x ∈ (Ac ∩ B c )], ❧✉❡❣♦ (A ∪ B)c = Ac ∩ B c . 

❆ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❛❝✐ó♥ s❡ ♣r✉❡❜❛♥ ❛❧❣✉♥❛s ♣r♦♣✐❡❞❛❞❡s ✐♠♣♦rt❛♥t❡s ❞❡ ❧❛ t❡♦rí❛ ❞❡ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦s ❧❛s ❝✉❛❧❡s

❡stá♥ ❜❛st❛♥t❡ r❡❧❛❝✐♦♥❛❞❛s ❝♦♥ ❧❛s ♣r♦♣✐❡❞❛❞❡s ❞❡ ❧❛s ♣r♦♣♦s✐❝✐♦♥❡s ❡①♣✉❡st❛s ❡♥ ❡❧ ❝❛♣ít✉❧♦ ❛♥t❡r✐♦r✳
Pr♦♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ✷✳✷✳ ❙❡❛♥ A, B, C ② D s✉❜❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦s ❛r❜✐tr❛r✐♦s ❞❡ ✉♥ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ ✉♥✐✈❡rs❛❧ U. ❊♥t♦♥❝❡s✱

✶✳ A⊆A∪B

✷✳ A∩B ⊆A

✸✳ ❙✐ A ⊆ B✱ ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s A∪B =B

✹✳ ❙✐ A ⊆ B✱ ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s A∩B =A

✺✳ A ∪ (B − A) = A ∪ B

Pr✉❡❜❛✿

✶✳ A ⊆ A ∪ B. ❊♥ ❡❢❡❝t♦✱ s✐ x ❡s ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r ❡❧❡♠❡♥t♦ ❞❡ U ✱ ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s ✉s❛♥❞♦ ❛❞✐❝✐ó♥ s❡ t✐❡♥❡

x∈A =⇒ x∈A∨x∈B
⇐⇒ x ∈ A ∪ B.
▲✉❡❣♦✱ (∀x)[x ∈ A → x ∈ (A ∪ B)], ♣♦r t❛♥t♦ A ⊆ (A ∪ B).
✷✳ A ∩ B ⊆ A. ❊♥ ❡❢❡❝t♦✱ s❡❛ x ✉♥ ❡❧❡♠❡♥t♦ ❞❡ U. ❊♥t♦♥❝❡s ✉s❛♥❞♦ s✐♠♣❧✐✜❝❛❝✐ó♥ s❡ t✐❡♥❡ q✉❡
x∈A∩B ⇐⇒ x∈A∧x∈B
=⇒ x∈A
P♦r t❛♥t♦ (∀x)[x ∈ (A ∩ B) → x ∈ A], ❞❡ ❞♦♥❞❡ s❡ s✐❣✉❡ q✉❡ A ∩ B ⊆ A.
✸✳ ❙✐ A ⊆ B ✱ ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s A ∪ B = B. ❊♥ ❡❢❡❝t♦✱ s❡❛ x ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r❛ ❞❡ U ② s✉♣♦♥❣❛♠♦s q✉❡ A ⊆ B.
❊♥t♦♥❝❡s
x ∈ (A ∪ B) ⇐⇒ x∈A∨x∈B
=⇒ x∈B∨x∈B
⇐⇒ x ∈ B.
▲♦ q✉❡ ♠✉❡str❛ q✉❡ (∀x)[x ∈ (A ∪ B) → x ∈ B], ❧✉❡❣♦ A ∪ B ⊆ B. P♦r ✭✶✮ s❡ t✐❡♥❡ q✉❡
B ⊆ (A ∪ B)✱ ❧♦ q✉❡ t❡r♠✐♥❛ ❧❛ ♣r✉❡❜❛✳
✷✻ ❈❛♣ít✉❧♦ ✷✳ ❈♦♥❥✉♥t♦s

✹✳ ❙✐ A ⊆ B✱ A ∩ B = A. P♦r ❧❛ ♣❛rt❡ ✭✷✮✱ t❡♥❡♠♦s q✉❡A ∩ B ⊆ A. ❱❡❛♠♦s

❡♥t♦♥❝❡s ❧❛ ✐♥❝❧✉s✐ó♥
❝♦♥tr❛r✐❛✳ ❙✉♣♦♥❣❛♠♦s q✉❡ A ⊆ B ② s❡❛ x ✉♥ ❡❧❡♠❡♥t♦ ❛r❜✐tr❛r✐♦ ❞❡ U ✱ ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s

x∈A =⇒ x∈A∧x∈B
⇐⇒ x ∈ (A ∩ B) .

▲✉❡❣♦✱ (∀x)[x ∈ A → x ∈ (A ∩ B)], ❞❡ ❞♦♥❞❡ s❡ s✐❣✉❡ q✉❡ A ⊆ (A ∩ B). ▲♦ q✉❡ t❡r♠✐♥❛ ❧❛

♣r✉❡❜❛✳

✺✳ A ∪ (B − A) = A ∪ B. ❊♥ ❡❢❡❝t♦

A ∪ (B − A) = A ∪ (B ∩ Ac )
= (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ Ac )
= (A ∪ B) ∩ U
= A∪B

▲❛ ♣r✉❡❜❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡ ♣r♦♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ❡s ❞❡❥❛❞❛ ❝♦♠♦ ❡❥❡r❝✐❝✐♦ ❛❧ ❧❡❝t♦r

Pr♦♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ✷✳✸✳ ❙❡❛♥ A, B, C ② D s✉❜❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦s ❞❡ ✉♥ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ ✉♥✐✈❡rs❛❧ U✳ ❊♥t♦♥❝❡s✱

✶✳ ∅⊆A

✷✳ A−B ⊆A

✸✳ ❙✐ A⊆B ② C ⊆ D✱ ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s (A ∪ C) ⊆ (B ∪ D)

✹✳ ❙✐ A⊆B ② C ⊆ D✱ ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s (A ∩ C) ⊆ (B ∩ D)

✺✳ A−∅=A

✻✳ A ∩ (B − A) = ∅

✼✳ A − (B ∪ C) = (A − B) ∩ (A − C)

✽✳ A − (B ∩ C) = (A − B) ∪ (A − C)

✾✳ A ∪ (A ∩ B) = A

✶✵✳ A ∩ (A ∪ B) = A

✷✳✸✳ ❈♦♥❥✉♥t♦s ❋✐♥✐t♦s ② Pr✐♥❝✐♣✐♦ ❞❡ ❈♦♥t❡♦

❙❡ ❞✐❝❡ q✉❡ ✉♥ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ ❡s ✜♥✐t♦ s✐ ❡s ✈❛❝í♦ ♦ ❝♦♥t✐❡♥❡ ❡①❛❝t❛♠❡♥t❡ m ❡❧❡♠❡♥t♦s ❞✐❢❡r❡♥t❡s✱

❞♦♥❞❡ m ❞❡♥♦t❛ ❛❧❣ú♥ ❡♥t❡r♦ ♥♦ ♥❡❣❛t✐✈♦✳ ❊♥ ❝❛s♦ ❝♦♥tr❛r✐♦✱ s❡ ❞✐❝❡ q✉❡ ❡❧ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ ❡s ✐♥✜♥✐t♦✳
✷✳✸✳ ❈♦♥❥✉♥t♦s ❋✐♥✐t♦s ② Pr✐♥❝✐♣✐♦ ❞❡ ❈♦♥t❡♦ ✷✼

P♦r ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦✱ ❡❧ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ ❞❡ ❧❡tr❛s ❡♥ ❡❧ ❛❧❢❛❜❡t♦ ❡s♣❛ñ♦❧ ❡s ✜♥✐t♦✱ ♠✐❡♥tr❛s q✉❡ ❡❧ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ ❞❡ ❧♦s
❡♥t❡r♦s ♣♦s✐t✐✈♦s ♣❛r❡s✱ {2, 4, 6, . . .} , ❡s ✐♥✜♥✐t♦✳

❙✐ ✉♥ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ A ❡s ✜♥✐t♦✱ n (A) ❞❡♥♦t❛rá ❡❧ ♥ú♠❡r♦ ❞❡ ❡❧❡♠❡♥t♦s ❞❡ A✳ ▲❛ ♣r✉❡❜❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡

❢ór♠✉❧❛ s❡ ❡s❝❛♣❛ ❛ ❧♦s ♦❜❥❡t✐✈♦s ❞❡ ❡st❡ ❧✐❜r♦✱ ♣♦r ❧♦ t❛♥t♦ ❧❛ ❛❝❡♣t❛r❡♠♦s ❝♦♠ ❝✐❡rt❛✳ ❙✐ A ② B s♦♥
❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦s ✜♥✐t♦s✱ ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s A ∪ B ❡s ✜♥✐t♦ ②

n (A ∪ B) = n (A) + n (B) − n(A ∩ B).

P♦❞❡♠♦s ❛♣❧✐❝❛r ❡st❡ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦ ♣❛r❛ ♦❜t❡♥❡r ✉♥❛ ❢ór♠✉❧❛ s❡♠❡❥❛♥t❡ ♣❛r❛ ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r ♥ú♠❡r♦ ✜♥✐t♦
k ❞❡ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦s ✜♥✐t♦s✳ ❆sí✱ ♣❛r❛ k = 3✱ t❡♥❡♠♦s q✉❡ s✐ A, B ② C s♦♥ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦s ✜♥✐t♦s✱ ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s
t❛♠❜✐é♥ ❧♦ ❡s A ∪ B ∪ C ②

n(A ∪ B ∪ C) = n(A) + n(B) + n(C) − n(A ∩ B) − n(A ∩ C) − n(B ∩ C) + n(A ∩ B ∩ C).

❍❛❣❛♠♦s ✉♥ ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦ ❞❡ ❛♣❧✐❝❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❢ór♠✉❧❛ ❛♥t❡r✐♦r✳

❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✷✳✹✳ ❙✉♣♦♥❣❛♠♦s q✉❡ 100 ❞❡ ❧♦s 120 ❡st✉❞✐❛♥t❡s ❞❡ ♠❛t❡♠át✐❝❛s ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ❢❛❝✉❧t❛❞ t♦♠❛♥

♣♦r ❧♦ ♠❡♥♦s ✉♥ ✐❞✐♦♠❛ ❡♥tr❡✱ ❋r❛♥❝és✱ ❆❧❡♠á♥ ② ❘✉s♦✳ ❙✉♣♦♥❣❛ t❛♠❜✐é♥ q✉❡ ✻✺ ❡st✉❞✐❛♥ ❋r❛♥❝és✱

✹✺ ❡st✉❞✐❛♥ ❆❧❡♠á♥✱ ✹✷ ❡st✉❞✐❛♥ ❘✉s♦✱ ✷✵ ❡st✉❞✐❛♥ ❋r❛♥❝és ② ❆❧❡♠á♥✱ ✷✺ ❡st✉❞✐❛♥ ❋r❛♥❝és ② ❘✉s♦✱

✶✺ ❡st✉❞✐❛♥ ❆❧❡♠á♥ ② ❘✉s♦✳ ❊♥❝♦♥tr❛r ❡❧ ♥ú♠❡r♦ ❞❡ ❡st✉❞✐❛♥t❡s q✉❡ ❡st✉❞✐❛♥ ❧♦s tr❡s ✐❞✐♦♠❛s ❛❧

♠✐s♠♦ t✐❡♠♣♦✳

❙♦❧✉❝✐ó♥✿ ❙❡❛♥ F, A ② R ❧♦s ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦s ❞❡ ❡st✉❞✐❛♥t❡s q✉❡ ❡st✉❞✐❛♥ ❋r❛♥❝és✱ ❆❧❡♠á♥ ② ❘✉s♦✱
r❡s♣❡❝t✐✈❛♠❡♥t❡✳ ◗✉❡r❡♠♦s ❡♥❝♦♥tr❛r ❡❧ ♥ú♠❡r♦ ❞❡ ❡st✉❞✐❛♥t❡s q✉❡ ❡st✉❞✐❛♥ t♦❞♦s ❧♦s tr❡s ✐❞✐♦♠❛s✱
❡st♦ ❡s n(F ∩ A ∩ R). ❊♥ ❡❢❡❝t♦✱ ♣♦r ❧❛ ❢ór♠✉❧❛ ❛♥t❡r✐♦r✱

n (F ∪ A ∪ R) = n (F ) + n (A) + n (R) − n (F ∩ A) − n (F ∩ R) − n (A ∩ R) + n (F ∩ A ∩ R) .

❆❤♦r❛✱ n (F ∪ A ∪ R) = 100✱ ②❛ q✉❡ 100 ❞❡ ❧♦s ❡st✉❞✐❛♥t❡s ❡st✉❞✐❛♥ ♣♦r ❧♦ ♠❡♥♦s ✉♥♦ ❞❡ ❧♦s ✐❞✐♦♠❛s✳
❙✉❜st✐t✉②❡♥❞♦ s❡ t✐❡♥❡ q✉❡

100 = 65 + 45 + 42 − 20 − 25 − 15 + n (F ∩ A ∩ R) ,

② ♣♦r ❧♦ t❛♥t♦✱ n (F ∩ A ∩ R) = 8✱ ♦ s❡❛ q✉❡ 8 ❡st✉❞✐❛♥t❡s ❡st✉❞✐❛♥ ❧♦s tr❡s ✐❞✐♦♠❛s✳ ❯s❛♠♦s ❛❤♦r❛
❡st❡ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦ ♣❛r❛ ❧❧❡♥❛r ❡❧ ❞✐❛❣r❛♠❛ ❞❡ ❱❡♥♥ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐❡♥t❡✳ P❛r❛ t❛❧ ✜♥ ♥♦t❡ q✉❡✿

8 ❡st✉❞✐❛♥ t♦❞♦s ❧♦s ✐❞✐♦♠❛s

20 − 8 = 12 ❡st✉❞✐❛♥ ❋r❛♥❝és ② ❆❧❡♠á♥ ♣❡r♦ ♥♦ ❘✉s♦

25 − 8 = 17 ❡st✉❞✐❛♥ ❋r❛♥❝és ② ❘✉s♦ ♣❡r♦ ♥♦ ❆❧❡♠á♥

15 − 8 = 7 ❡st✉❞✐❛♥ ❆❧❡♠á♥ ② ❘✉s♦ ♣❡r♦ ♥♦ ❋r❛♥❝és

65 − 12 − 8 − 17 = 28 ❡st✉❞✐❛♥ s♦❧❛♠❡♥t❡ ❋r❛♥❝és

✷✽ ❈❛♣ít✉❧♦ ✷✳ ❈♦♥❥✉♥t♦s

45 − 12 − 8 − 7 = 18 ❡st✉❞✐❛♥ s♦❧❛♠❡♥t❡ ❆❧❡♠á♥

42 − 17 − 8 − 7 = 10 ❡st✉❞✐❛♥ s♦❧❛♠❡♥t❡ ❘✉s♦

120 − 100 = 20 ♥♦ ❡st✉❞✐❛♥ ♥✐♥❣✉♥♦ ❞❡ ❧♦s ✐❞✐♦♠❛s✳

❆sí ❡❧ ❞✐❛❣r❛♠❛ ❝♦♠♣❧❡t♦ ❡stá ❡♥ ❧❛ ✜❣✉r❛ s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡

F A
28 12
18
8
17 7

10
20 R

❊st❡ ❞✐❛❣r❛♠❛ ♥♦s ♣❡r♠✐t❡ r❡s♣♦♥❞❡r ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r ♣r❡❣✉♥t❛ q✉❡ ♥♦s ❤❛❣❛♥✳ P♦r ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦✱ ❡❧ ♥ú♠❡r♦ ❞❡
♣❡rs♦♥❛s q✉❡ ❡st✉❞✐❛♥ ✉♥✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ ❘✉s♦ ❡s ✶✵✳ ❊❧ ♥ú♠❡r♦ ❞❡ ♣❡rs♦♥❛s q✉❡ ❡st✉❞✐❛♥ ❡①❛❝t❛♠❡♥t❡ ✉♥
s♦❧♦ ✐❞✐♦♠❛ ❡s 28 + 18 + 10 = 56. ▲♦ q✉❡ t❡♥❡♠♦s q✉❡ t❡♥❡r ❝❧❛r♦ ❡s q✉❡ s✐❣♥✐✜❝❛ ❝❛❞❛ ár❡❛ ❞❡❧
❞✐❛❣r❛♠❛ ❞❡ ❱❡♥♥ ❛♥t❡r✐♦r✳

❊❥❡r❝✐❝✐♦s
✶✳ ❉❡♠♦str❛r ❧❛s s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡s r❡❧❛❝✐♦♥❡s ❡♥tr❡ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦s✳
❛ ✮ A ∩ (B − C) = (A ∩ B) − C
❜ ✮ A − (B ∪ C) = (A − B) ∩ (A − C)
❝ ✮ (A − B) ∩ (B − A) = ∅
❞ ✮ ❙✐ A ∪ B = A ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s B ⊆ A
❡ ✮ ❙✐ A ∩ B = B ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s B ⊆ A
❢ ✮ ❙✐ X ⊆ A ② X ⊆ B ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s X ⊆ A ∩ B
❣ ✮ ❙✐ B ⊆ A ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s B ∪ C ⊆ A ∪ C
❤ ✮ ❙✐ B ⊆ A ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s B ∩ C ⊆ A ∩ C
✐ ✮ ❙✐ A ⊆ φ ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s A = ∅
❥ ✮ A − B = A − (A ∩ B) = (A ∪ B) − B
❦ ✮ (A ∪ B) − C = (A − C) ∪ (B − C)
❧ ✮ (A ∩ B) − C = (A − C) ∩ (B − C)
♠ ✮ (A − B) − C = A − (B ∪ C)
♥ ✮ A − (B − C) = (A − B) ∪ (A ∩ C)
ñ ✮ A ∪ (B − C) = (A ∪ B) − (C − A)
✷✳✸✳ ❈♦♥❥✉♥t♦s ❋✐♥✐t♦s ② Pr✐♥❝✐♣✐♦ ❞❡ ❈♦♥t❡♦ ✷✾

♦ ✮ A = (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ (A − B))

✷✳ ❉❛r ✉♥ ❝♦♥tr❛❡❥❡♠♣❧♦ ♣❛r❛ ♣r♦❜❛r q✉❡ ❧❛s s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡s ♣r♦♣♦s✐❝✐♦♥❡s ♥♦ s♦♥ ✈á❧✐❞❛s s✐❡♠♣r❡✳

❛ ✮ (A ∪ B = A ∪ D) =⇒ B = D
❜ ✮ (A ∩ B = A ∩ D) =⇒ B = D
❝ ✮ (A − B = ∅) =⇒ A = B
❞ ✮ (B ∪ C ⊆ A ∪ C) =⇒ (B ⊆ A)
❡ ✮ (A ⊆ C) =⇒ (A ⊆ B ∧ B ⊆ C)
❢ ✮ (B ∩ C ⊆ A ∩ C) =⇒ (B ⊆ A)
❣ ✮ (X ⊆ A ∪ B) =⇒ (X ⊆ A ∧ X ⊆ B)
❤ ✮ (A − B) − C = A − (B − C)
✐ ✮ ((A ∩ B) = ∅) =⇒ ((A = ∅) ∨ (B = ∅))

✸✳ P❛r❛ ❝❛❞❛ ✉♥♦ ❞❡ ❧♦s ♥✉♠❡r❛❧❡s s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡s✱ ❡❧❛❜♦r❛r ✉♥ ❞✐❛❣r❛♠❛ ❞❡ ❱❡♥♥✲❊✉❧❡r q✉❡ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❡
❡❧ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ ✐♥❞✐❝❛❞♦✳

❛ ✮ (A − B) − C
❜ ✮ (A ∩ C) − (B ∪ A)
❝ ✮ (A ∩ B) − C
❞ ✮ (A − B) ∪ (C − B)
❡ ✮ (A ∪ B ∪ C)c
❢ ✮ (A ∩ B ∩ C)c
❣ ✮ Ac ∩ B c ∩ C c
❤ ✮ (Ac − C c ) − B c

✹✳ ❆ ✉♥❛ ❝♦♥❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛ ✐♥t❡r♥❛❝✐♦♥❛❧ s♦❜r❡ ❝♦♥t❛♠✐♥❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡❧ ♠❡❞✐♦ ❛♠❜✐❡♥t❡✱ ❛s✐st❡♥ 100 ❡s♣❡✲
❝✐❛❧✐st❛s✱ ❞❡ ❧♦s ❝✉❛❧❡s 50 ❤❛❜❧❛♥ ■♥❣❧és✱ 60 P♦rt✉❣✉és ② 50 ❈❛st❡❧❧❛♥♦❀ ❞❡ ❡❧❧♦s 30 ❤❛❜❧❛♥
P♦rt✉❣✉és ❡ ■♥❣❧és❀ 20 ■♥❣❧és ② ❈❛st❡❧❧❛♥♦❀ 20 P♦rt✉❣✉és ② ❈❛st❡❧❧❛♥♦✳ ➽❈✉á♥t♦s ❛s✐st❡♥t❡s
❤❛❜❧❛♥ ❧♦s tr❡s ✐❞✐♦♠❛s❄

✺✳ ❯♥❛ ❡♥s❛♠❜❧❛❞♦r❛ ❞❡ ❛✉t♦s r❡❝✐❜✐ó ✉♥❛ ♦r❞❡♥ ❞❡ ❢❛❜r✐❝❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ 38 ❛✉t♦♠ó✈✐❧❡s t✐♣♦ s❡❞á♥✱
❝♦♥ ❧❛s s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡s ❝❛r❛❝t❡ríst✐❝❛s✿ 18 ❝♦♥ ❛✐r❡ ❛❝♦♥❞✐❝✐♦♥❛❞♦❀ 23 ❝♦♥ ✈✐❞r✐♦s ❡❧é❝tr✐❝♦s ② 29 ❝♦♥
❝♦❥✐♥❡rí❛ ❞❡ ❧✉❥♦✳ ❉❡ ❡st♦s✱ 3 ❞❡❜❡♥ t❡♥❡r s♦❧❛♠❡♥t❡ ✈✐❞r✐♦s ❡❧é❝tr✐❝♦s✱ 8 ❞❡❜❡♥ t❡♥❡r s♦❧❛♠❡♥t❡
❝♦❥✐♥❡rí❛ ❞❡ ❧✉❥♦✱ 9 ❞❡ ❧♦s ✈❡❤í❝✉❧♦s ❞❡❜❡♥ t❡♥❡r s♦❧❛♠❡♥t❡ ✈✐❞r✐♦s ❡❧é❝tr✐❝♦s ② ❝♦❥✐♥❡rí❛ ❞❡ ❧✉❥♦✱
5 ❞❡ ❧♦s ✈❡❤í❝✉❧♦s ❞❡❜❡♥ t❡♥❡r ❧♦s tr❡s ❛❞✐t❛♠❡♥t♦s✳ ❉❡t❡r♠✐♥❛r✿

❛✮ ➽❈✉á♥t♦s ✈❡❤í❝✉❧♦s ❧❧❡✈❛♥ ❛✐r❡ ❛❝♦♥❞✐❝✐♦♥❛❞♦ ② ❝♦❥✐♥❡rí❛ ❞❡ ❧✉❥♦✱ s♦❧❛♠❡♥t❡❄

❜✮ ➽❈✉á♥t♦s ✈❡❤í❝✉❧♦s ❧❧❡✈❛♥ ❛✐r❡ ❛❝♦♥❞✐❝✐♦♥❛❞♦ s♦❧❛♠❡♥t❡❄

❝✮ ➽❈✉á♥t♦s ✈❡❤í❝✉❧♦s ❧❧❡✈❛♥ ❛✐r❡ ❛❝♦♥❞✐❝✐♦♥❛❞♦ ② ✈✐❞r✐♦s ❡❧é❝tr✐❝♦s s♦❧❛♠❡♥t❡❄

✻✳ ❊♥ ✉♥ ✐♥✈❡♥t❛r✐♦ ♠✐♥❡r♦ r❡❛❧✐③❛❞♦ ❡♥ ❛❧❣✉♥❛s r❡❣✐♦♥❡s ❞❡❧ ♣❛ís ❛❝❡r❝❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣r♦❞✉❝❝✐ó♥ ❢✉t✉r❛
❞❡ r❡❝✉rs♦s ♥♦ r❡♥♦✈❛❜❧❡s✱ s❡ ❡♥❝♦♥tró q✉❡✿ 8 ♣♦s❡❡♥ P❡tró❧❡♦✱ 15 ♣♦s❡❡♥ ❈❛r❜ó♥ ② 13 ♣♦s❡❡♥
❖r♦❀ 6 ♣♦s❡❡♥ s♦❧❛♠❡♥t❡ ❈❛r❜ó♥ ② ❖r♦❀ 4 s♦❧♦ ♣♦s❡❡♥ ❖r♦✱ 3 ♣♦s❡❡♥ ❧♦s tr❡s r❡❝✉rs♦s❀ ♥✐♥❣✉♥❛
❞❡ ❧❛s r❡❣✐♦♥❡s ♣♦s❡❡ P❡tró❧❡♦ ② ❈❛r❜ó♥ s♦❧❛♠❡♥t❡✳ ❉❡t❡r♠✐♥❛r✿
✸✵ ❈❛♣ít✉❧♦ ✷✳ ❈♦♥❥✉♥t♦s

❛ ✮ ➽❈✉á♥t❛s r❡❣✐♦♥❡s ✐♥t❡r✈✐♥✐❡r♦♥ ❡♥ ❡❧ ✐♥✈❡♥t❛r✐♦❄

❜ ✮ ➽❈✉á♥t❛s r❡❣✐♦♥❡s ♣♦s❡❡♥ s♦❧❛♠❡♥t❡ P❡tró❧❡♦❄
❝ ✮ ➽❈✉á♥t❛s r❡❣✐♦♥❡s ♣♦s❡❡♥ s♦❧❛♠❡♥t❡ ❈❛r❜ó♥❄

✼✳ ▲♦s s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡s s♦♥ ❧♦s ❞❛t♦s q✉❡ ♠✉❡str❛♥ ❧❛s ♣r❡❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛s ❞❡ ❛❧❣✉♥♦s ❛s♣✐r❛♥t❡s ❛ ✐♥❣r❡s❛r ❛ ❧❛
✉♥✐✈❡rs✐❞❛❞ ♣♦r ❝✐❡rt♦s ♣r♦❣r❛♠❛s✿ 50 ♣r❡✜❡r❡♥ ▼❡❞✐❝✐♥❛✱ 47 ♣r❡✜❡r❡♥ ■♥❣❡♥✐❡rí❛✱ 35 ♣r❡✜❡r❡♥
❇✐♦❧♦❣í❛✱ 16 ♣r❡✜❡r❡♥ ■♥❣❡♥✐❡rí❛ ② ❇✐♦❧♦❣í❛✱ 11 ♣r❡✜❡r❡♥ ■♥❣❡♥✐❡rí❛ ② ▼❡❞✐❝✐♥❛✱ 15 ♣r❡✜❡r❡♥
❇✐♦❧♦❣í❛ ② ▼❡❞✐❝✐♥❛✱ 9 ♣r❡✜❡r❡♥ ❧❛s tr❡s✳ ❉❡t❡r♠✐♥❛r✿
❛ ✮ ➽❈✉á♥t♦s ❛s♣✐r❛♥t❡s ❢✉❡r♦♥ ❡♥❝✉❡st❛❞♦s❄
❜ ✮ ➽❈✉á♥t♦s ❛s♣✐r❛♥t❡s ♣r❡✜❡r❡♥ ú♥✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ ▼❡❞✐❝✐♥❛❄
❝ ✮ ➽❈✉á♥t♦s ❛s♣✐r❛♥t❡s ♥♦ ♣r❡✜❡r❡♥ ❇✐♦❧♦❣í❛❄
❞ ✮ ➽❈✉á♥t♦s ❛s♣✐r❛♥t❡s ♣r❡✜❡r❡♥ ▼❡❞✐❝✐♥❛ ♦ ❇✐♦❧♦❣í❛ ♣❡r♦ ♥♦ ■♥❣❡♥✐❡rí❛❄
❡ ✮ ➽❈✉á♥t♦s ❛s♣✐r❛♥t❡s ♣r❡✜❡r❡♥ ▼❡❞✐❝✐♥❛ ♦ ■♥❣❡♥✐❡rí❛❄

✽✳ ▲❛ s❡❝r❡t❛rí❛ ❞❡ ❡❞✉❝❛❝✐ó♥ ♠✉♥✐❝✐♣❛❧ r❡q✉✐❡r❡ ❧❛ ♣r♦✈✐s✐ó♥ ❞❡ 29 ❝❛r❣♦s ❞♦❝❡♥t❡s ❡♥ ❧❛s ár❡❛s✿

13 ♣r♦❢❡s♦r❡s ❞❡ ▼❛t❡♠át✐❝❛s❀ 13 ♣r♦❢❡s♦r❡s ❞❡ ❋ís✐❝❛ ② 15 ♣r♦❢❡s♦r❡s ❞❡ ❙✐st❡♠❛s✳ P❛r❛ ❡❧
❝✉❜r✐♠✐❡♥t♦ ❞❡ ❧♦s ❝❛r❣♦s s❡ r❡q✉✐❡r❡ q✉❡✿ 6 ♣r♦❢❡s♦r❡s ❞✐❝t❡♥ ▼❛t❡♠át✐❝❛s ② ❋ís✐❝❛✱ 4 ♣r♦❢❡s♦r❡s
❞✐❝t❡♥ ❋ís✐❝❛ ② ❙✐st❡♠❛s ② 5 ♣r♦❢❡s♦r❡s ❞✐❝t❡♥ ▼❛t❡♠át✐❝❛s ② ❙✐st❡♠❛s✳ ❉❡t❡r♠✐♥❛r✿
❛ ✮ ➽❈✉á♥t♦s ♣r♦❢❡s♦r❡s s❡ r❡q✉✐❡r❡ q✉❡ ❞✐❝t❡♥ ❧❛s tr❡s ár❡❛s❄
❜ ✮ ➽❈✉á♥t♦s ♣r♦❢❡s♦r❡s s❡ r❡q✉✐❡r❡ q✉❡ ❞✐❝t❡♥ ▼❛t❡♠át✐❝❛s ú♥✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡❄
❝ ✮ ➽❈✉á♥t♦s ♣r♦❢❡s♦r❡s s❡ r❡q✉✐❡r❡ q✉❡ ❞✐❝t❡♥ ▼❛t❡♠át✐❝❛s ② ❙✐st❡♠❛s ♣❡r♦ ♥♦ ❋ís✐❝❛❄

✾✳ ❈♦♥ r❡❧❛❝✐ó♥ ❛❧ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠❛ ❛♥t❡r✐♦r✳ ❊♥ r❡s♣✉❡st❛ ❛ ❧❛ s♦❧✐❝✐t✉❞ ❞❡ tr❛❜❛❥♦✱ s❡ s❡❧❡❝❝✐♦♥❛r♦♥

29 ❛s♣✐r❛♥t❡s ❝✉②❛s s♦❧✐❝✐t✉❞❡s ♣r❡s❡♥t❛♥ ❧❛s s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡ ✐♥❢♦r♠❛❝✐ó♥✿ 15 ♣✉❡❞❡♥ ❞✐❝t❛r ❋ís✐❝❛✱
16 ♣✉❡❞❡♥ ❞✐❝t❛r ❙✐st❡♠❛s✱ 6 ♣✉❡❞❡♥ ❞✐❝t❛r ▼❛t❡♠át✐❝❛s ② ❋ís✐❝❛✱ 5 ♣✉❡❞❡♥ ❞✐❝t❛r ❋ís✐❝❛ ②
❙✐st❡♠❛s✱ 1 ♣✉❡❞❡ ❞✐❝t❛r ❧❛s tr❡s ár❡❛s✱ 7 ♣✉❡❞❡♥ ❞✐❝t❛r s♦❧❛♠❡♥t❡ ❙✐st❡♠❛s✳ ❉❡t❡r♠✐♥❛r✿
❛ ✮ ➽❈✉á♥t♦s ❛s♣✐r❛♥t❡s s❡❧❡❝✐♦♥❛❞♦s s❡ ♣r❡s❡♥t❛r♦♥ ♣❛r❛ ❞✐❝t❛r ♠❛t❡♠át✐❝❛s❄
❜ ✮ ➽◗✉é ♣✉❡st♦s ♥♦ ♣✉❡❞❡♥ ❝✉❜r✐rs❡❄
❝ ✮ ➽❈✉á♥t♦s s♦❧✐❝✐t❛♥t❡s ② ❡♥ q✉é ár❡❛ ♥♦ ♣✉❡❞❡♥ s❡r ✜♥❛❧♠❡♥t❡ ❛❞♠✐t✐❞♦s❄

✶✵✳ ❊♥ ✉♥ ❝✉rs♦ ❝♦♠♣✉❡st♦ ♣♦r ✷✷ ❛❧✉♠♥♦s❀ ✶✷ ❡st✉❞✐❛♥ ❆❧❡♠á♥ ❀ ✶✶ ❡st✉❞✐❛♥ ■♥❣❧és ② ✶✶ ❢r❛♥❝és✱
✻ ❡st✉❞✐❛♥ ❆❧❡♠á♥ ❡ ■♥❣❧és❀ ✼ ❡st✉❞✐❛♥ ■♥❣❧és ② ❋r❛♥❝és ❀ ✺ ❡st✉❞✐❛♥ ❆❧❡♠á♥ ② ❋r❛♥❝és ② ✷
❡st✉❞✐❛♥ ❧♦s tr❡s ✐❞✐♦♠❛s✳ ➽❈✉á♥t♦s ❛❧✉♠♥♦s ❡st✉❞✐❛♥ só❧♦ ✐♥❣❧és❄
✶✶✳ ❊♥ ✉♥❛ ❡♥❝✉❡st❛ s♦❜r❡ ♣r❡❢❡r❡♥❝✐❛s ❞❡ ❧♦s ❝❛♥❛❧❡s ❞❡ t❡❧❡✈✐s✐ó♥ ❆✱ ❇ ② ❈ s❡ ♦❜t✉✈♦ ❧❛ s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡
✐♥❢♦r♠❛❝✐ó♥ ✿ ✺✺ ❡♥❝✉❡st❛❞♦s ✈❡♥ ❡❧ ❝❛♥❛❧ ❆✱ ✶✺ só❧♦ ✈❡♥ ❡❧ ❝❛♥❛❧ ❆ ② ❡❧ ❝❛♥❛❧ ❇ ✱ ✸✸ ✈❡♥ ❡❧
❝❛♥❛❧ ❆ ② ❡❧ ❝❛♥❛❧ ❈✱ ✸ só❧♦ ✈❡♥ ❡❧ ❝❛♥❛❧ ❈ ✱ ✷✺ ✈❡♥ ❧♦s tr❡s ❝❛♥❛❧❡s✱ ✹✻ ✈❡♥ ❡❧ ❝❛♥❛❧ ❇✱ ✻ ♥♦
✈❡♥ t❡❧❡✈✐s✐ó♥ ② ✷ só❧♦ ✈❡♥ ❡❧ ❝❛♥❛❧ ❈ ② ❡❧ ❝❛♥❛❧ ❇✳
❙❡ñ❛❧❡✿
❛ ✮ ▲❛ ❝❛♥t✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ♣❡rs♦♥❛s ❡♥❝✉❡st❛❞❛s
❜ ✮ ▲❛ ❝❛♥t✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ♣❡rs♦♥❛s q✉❡ ✈❡♥ só❧♦ ❡❧ ❈❛♥❛❧ ❇
✷✳✸✳ ❈♦♥❥✉♥t♦s ❋✐♥✐t♦s ② Pr✐♥❝✐♣✐♦ ❞❡ ❈♦♥t❡♦ ✸✶

✶✷✳ ❊♥ ✉♥ t♦t❛❧ ❞❡ ✷✺✵ ♣❡rs♦♥❛s ❡♥❝✉❡st❛❞❛s s♦❜r❡ s✉ ❞❡s❛②✉♥♦ s❡ ♦❜t✉✈✐❡r♦♥ ❧❛s s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡s r❡s✲
♣✉❡st❛s✱ ✸✵ ♣❡rs♦♥❛s t♦♠❛❜❛♥ té ❝♦♥ ❧❡❝❤❡✱ ✹✵ ♣❡rs♦♥❛s t♦♠❛❜❛♥ ❝❛❢é ❝♦♥ ❧❡❝❤❡✱ ✽✵ ♣❡rs♦♥❛s
t♦♠❛❜❛♥ ❧❡❝❤❡✱ ✶✸✵ ♣❡rs♦♥❛s t♦♠❛❜❛♥ té ♦ ❧❡❝❤❡ ② ✶✺✵ t♦♠❛❜❛♥ ❝❛❢é ♦ ❧❡❝❤❡✳ ❈♦♠♦ ❡s ♥❛t✉r❛❧
♥✐♥❣✉♥❛ ♣❡rs♦♥❛ t♦♠❛ ❝❛❢❡✱ ❧❡❝❤❡ ② té ó ❝❛❢❡ ② té ❡♥ ❡❧ ♠✐s♠♦ ❞❡s❛②✉♥♦✳

❛✮ ➽❈✉á♥t❛s ♣❡rs♦♥❛s t♦♠❛❜❛♥ té ♣✉r♦❄

❜✮ ➽❈✉á♥t❛s ♣❡rs♦♥❛s t♦♠❛❜❛♥ ❧❡❝❤❡ ♣✉r❛❄

❝✮ ➽❈✉á♥t❛s ♣❡rs♦♥❛s t♦♠❛❜❛♥ ❝❛❢é ♣✉r♦❄

❞✮ ➽❈✉á♥t❛s ♣❡rs♦♥❛s ♥♦ t♦♠❛❜❛ ♥✐♥❣✉♥❛ ❞❡ ❡st❛s tr❡s ❝♦s❛s ❛❧ ❞❡s❛②✉♥♦❄

✶✸✳ ❯♥❛ t✐❡♥❞❛ ❞❡ ❛rtí❝✉❧♦s ❡❧❡❝tró♥✐❝♦s ✈❡♥❞❡ ❡♥ ✉♥ ❞í❛ ✹✹ ❡q✉✐♣♦s ❞❡ ♠ús✐❝❛✱ t♦❞♦s ❧♦s q✉❡
t✐❡♥❡♥ ❈♦♠♣❛❝ ❞✐s❦ ✭❈❉✮ t✐❡♥❡♥ ❚♦❝❛❝❛ss❡tt❡ ✭❚❈✮✳ ❆❧❣✉♥♦s t✐❡♥❡♥ ❝♦♥tr♦❧ r❡♠♦t♦ ✭❈❘✮ ②
♦tr♦s ♥✐♥❣✉♥❛ ❞❡ ❧❛s t❡❝♥♦❧♦❣í❛s ♥♦♠❜r❛❞❛s✳ ❙✐ s❡ ✈❡♥❞✐❡r♦♥✿ ✶✻ ❡q✉✐♣♦s ❝♦♥ ❈❘ ♣❡r♦ s✐♥ ❈❉❀
✶✷ ❡q✉✐♣♦s ❝♦♥ ❚❈ ♣❡r♦ s✐♥ ❈❉ ♥✐ ❈❘❀ ✷✹ ❡q✉✐♣♦s s✐♥ ❈❘❀ ✾ ❡q✉✐♣♦s ❝♦♥ ❈❘ ② ❚❈❀ ✶✻ ❡q✉✐♣♦s
❝♦♥ ❚❈ ♣❡r♦ s✐♥ ❈❘✳

❛✮ ➽❈✉á♥t♦s ❡q✉✐♣♦s q✉❡ t❡♥í❛♥ ❛❧❣✉♥❛ ❞❡ ést❛s t❡❝♥♦❧♦❣í❛s s❡ ✈❡♥❞✐❡r♦♥❄

❜✮ ➽❈✉á♥t♦s❡ q✉✐♣♦s s❡ ✈❡♥❞✐❡r♦♥ ❝♦♥ ❈❉ ② ❈❘❄

❝✮ ➽❈✉á♥t♦s ❡q✉✐♣♦s ❝♦♥ ❈❘ ♣❡r♦ s✐♥ ❚❈ s❡ ✈❡♥❞✐❡r♦♥❄

❈❛♣ít✉❧♦ ✸

❈ó❞✐❣♦s ② ❙✐st❡♠❛s ❞❡ ◆✉♠❡r❛❝✐ó♥

❯♥ s✐st❡♠❛ ❞❡ ♥✉♠❡r❛❝✐ó♥ ❡s ✉♥ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ ❞❡ sí♠❜♦❧♦s ② r❡❣❧❛s q✉❡ s❡ ✉s❛♥ ♣❛r❛ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛r

❝❛♥t✐❞❛❞❡s ② r❡❛❧✐③❛r ♦♣❡r❛❝✐♦♥❡s ❝♦♥ ❡❧❧❛s✳ ❊❧ s✐st❡♠❛ ♥✉♠❡r❛❝✐ó♥ q✉❡ ♠❛s s❡ ✉s❛ ❡♥ ❧❛ ❛❝t✉❛❧✐❞❛❞

❡s ❡❧ ❞❡❝✐♠❛❧✱ q✉❡ s✐♥ ❞✉❞❛ ❛❧❣✉♥❛ r❡s✉❧t❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❝♦♥t❛❜✐❧✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ❧♦s ❞❡❞♦s ❞❡ ❧❛s ♠❛♥♦s✳ ❊st❡ s✐st❡♠❛

❛♣❛r❡❝❡ ♣♦r ♣r✐♠❡r❛ ✈❡③ ❡♥ ❧❛ ■♥❞✐❛ ❛❧r❡❞❡❞♦r ❞❡❧ ❛ñ♦ ✺✵✵ ❉❈ ② ❛❧ ♣❛s♦ ❞❡❧ ❧♦s ❛ñ♦s ❧❛ ♥♦t❛❝✐ó♥ ❢✉❡

❧❧❡✈❛❞❛ ❛ ❊✉r♦♣❛ ♣♦r ❧♦s ár❛❜❡s ❝♦♠♦ ♠ét♦❞♦ ♣r❡❞♦♠✐♥❛♥t❡ ❞❡❧ ❝❛❧❝✉❧♦✳ ❙✐♥ ❡♠❜❛r❣♦✱ ❧❛s ❝♦♠♣✉✲

t❛❞♦r❛s ✉s❛♥ ✉♥ s✐st❡♠❛ ❡♥ ❜❛s❡ ❞♦s ♣❛r❛ ❡❧ ♠❛♥❡❥♦ ❞❡ ❞❛t♦s ❡ ✐♥❢♦r♠❛❝✐ó♥✱ ❛♣r♦✈❡❝❤❛♥❞♦ ❡❧ ❤❡❝❤♦

q✉❡ ❧♦s ❞✐s♣♦s✐t✐✈♦s ❡❧❡❝tró♥✐❝♦s ❞❡❧ ❝♦♠♣✉t❛❞♦r ♣✉❡❞❡♥ t❡♥❡r ❞♦s ❡st❛❞♦s ❞❡ ♣♦❧❛r✐③❛❝✐ó♥✿ ❖◆ ②

❖❋❋✱ q✉❡ q✉❡❞❛♥ r❡❣✐str❛❞♦s ❡♥ s✉ ♠❡♠♦r✐❛ ❝♦♠♦ 1 ② 0. ❖tr♦s s✐st❡♠❛s ♥✉♠ér✐❝♦s q✉❡ s♦♥ ✉s❛❞♦s

❝✉❛♥❞♦ tr❛❜❛ ❥❛♠♦s ❝♦♥ ❝♦♠♣✉t❛❞♦r❛s✱ s♦♥ ❡❧ ❍❡①❛❞❡❝✐♠❛❧ ② ❡❧ ❖❝t❛❧✱ ❧♦s ❝✉❛❧❡s s♦♥ ✉t✐❧✐③❛❞♦s ♣r✐♥✲

❝✐♣❛❧♠❡♥t❡ ❝♦♠♦ ✉♥ ♠ét♦❞♦ ♣❛r❛ ❧❛ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ♥ú♠❡r♦s ❜✐♥❛r✐♦s✳ ▲♦s s✐st❡♠❛s ❞❡ ♥✉♠❡r❛❝✐ó♥

♠ás ✉s❛❞♦s s♦♥ ❧♦s s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡s✿

✶✳ ❙✐st❡♠❛ ❞❡ ♥✉♠❡r❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡❝✐♠❛❧✱ ❡❧ ❝✉❛❧ ♣♦s❡❡ ❞✐❡③ sí♠❜♦❧♦s✱ ❧♦s ♥ú♠❡r♦s 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9✳

✷✳ ❙✐st❡♠❛ ❜✐♥❛r✐♦✱ ✉s❛ ❧♦s sí♠❜♦❧♦s 0 ② 1✳

✸✳ ❙✐st❡♠❛ ♦❝t❛❧✱ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❞♦ ♣♦r ❧♦s ♥ú♠❡r♦s 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7✳

✹✳ ❙✐st❡♠❛ ❤❡①❛❞❡❝✐♠❛❧✱ ✉s❛ ❞✐❡③❝✐sé✐s sí♠❜♦❧♦s✱ ❧♦s ♥ú♠❡r♦s 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 ② ❧❛s ❧❡tr❛s

A, B, C, D, E ② F✳

✸✳✶✳ ❙✐st❡♠❛ ❞❡ ◆✉♠❡r❛❝✐ó♥ ❉❡❝✐♠❛❧

❊♥ ❣❡♥❡r❛❧ ♣❛r❛ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛r ✉♥ ♥ú♠❡r♦ ❡♥ ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r ❜❛s❡✱ ❞✐❣❛♠♦s b, ✉t✐❧✐③❛r❡♠♦s ❡❧ s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡

❢♦r♠❛t♦

(· · · s3 s2 s1 s0 , s−1 s−2 s−3 · · · )b ,

❞♦♥❞❡ si r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛ ✉♥ sí♠❜♦❧♦ ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r❛ ❞❡❧ s✐st❡♠❛ ❞❡ ♥✉♠❡r❛❝✐ó♥ ② ❡❧ s✉❜í♥❞✐❝❡ i ✐♥❞✐❝❛ ❧❛ ♣♦✲

s✐❝✐ó♥ ❞❡❧ sí♠❜♦❧♦ ❝♦♥ r❡s♣❡❝t♦ ❛❧ ♣✉♥t♦ ❜❛s❡ ♦ ♣✉♥t♦ ❞❡❝✐♠❛❧✳

✸✷
✸✳✶✳ ❙✐st❡♠❛ ❞❡ ◆✉♠❡r❛❝✐ó♥ ❉❡❝✐♠❛❧ ✸✸

❯♥❛ ❝❛♥t✐❞❛❞ ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r❛✱ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❞❛ ♣♦r ❡❧ ♥ú♠❡r♦ Nb ✱ ♣✉❡❞❡ s❡r ❡①♣r❡s❛❞❛ ❡♥ ❧❛ ❢♦r♠❛
X
Nb = ai bib , ✭✸✳✶✮

❞♦♥❞❡ ❧♦s ai s♦♥ ❧♦s sí♠❜♦❧♦s q✉❡ ❝❛r❛❝t❡r✐③❛♥ ❛❧ s✐st❡♠❛ ② bb , t❛❧ ❝♦♠♦ ❧♦ ✐♥❞✐❝❛ ❧❛ ♥♦t❛❝✐ó♥✱ ❡s ❧❛
r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ b ❡♥ ❧❛ ❜❛s❡ b. ❊♥ ♦tr❛s ♣❛❧❛❜r❛s ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r ♥ú♠❡r♦ Nb ❞❡ ✉♥ s✐st❡♠❛ ❞❡ ♥✉♠❡r❛❝✐ó♥
❡♥ ❜❛s❡ b✱ ♣✉❡❞❡ s❡r ❡①♣r❡s❛❞♦ ❝♦♠♦ ✉♥ ♣♦❧✐♥♦♠✐♦ ❞❡ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛s ❡♥ ❧❛ ❜❛s❡ b✱ ❝✉②♦s ❝♦❡✜❝✐❡♥t❡s s♦♥
sí♠❜♦❧♦s ❞❡❧ s✐st❡♠❛ ❞❡ ♥✉♠❡r❛❝✐ó♥ ② ♣✉❡❞❡♥ t♦♠❛r ✉♥ ✈❛❧♦r ❞❡s❞❡ 0 ❤❛st❛ b − 1✳ P♦r ❡❧❧♦ s✐ b = 10✱
t❡♥❞r❡♠♦s ❧♦s sí♠❜♦❧♦s ❞❡ 0 ❛ 10−1 = 9 ② ❞✐r❡♠♦s q✉❡ ❡st❛♠♦s ❡♥ ♣r❡s❡♥❝✐❛ ❞❡❧ s✐st❡♠❛ ❞❡❝✐♠❛❧ ❝✉②❛
❜❛s❡ ❡s ❡❧ ♥ú♠❡r♦ 10. P❛r❛ ❞❡♥♦t❛r ❧♦s ♥ú♠❡r♦s ❞❡❝✐♠❛❧❡s s✐♠♣❧❡♠❡♥t❡ ❡s❝r✐❜✐r❡♠♦s N ❡♥ ✈❡③ ❞❡ N10 .

P♦r ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦ ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r❡ ❡❧ ♥ú♠❡r♦ ❞❡❝✐♠❛❧ 7419, ❡st❡ ♣✉❡❞❡ s❡r ❡s❝r✐t♦ ❝♦♠♦

7419 = 7∗103 + 4∗102 + 1∗101 + 9∗100

▲♦s sí♠❜♦❧♦s 7, 4, 1 ② 9 s♦♥ ❧♦s ❝♦❡✜❝✐❡♥t❡s✳ ▲♦s ✈❛❧♦r❡s ♣♦s✐❝✐♦♥❛❧❡s ♦ ♣❡s♦s ❡stá♥ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❞♦s ♣♦r
❧❛s ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛s ❞❡ 10✳

❊♥ ❡❧ ❝❛s♦ ❞❡ ♥ú♠❡r♦s ❢r❛❝❝✐♦♥❛r✐♦s s❡ ✉t✐❧✐③❛♥ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛s ♥❡❣❛t✐✈❛s ❞❡ ❧❛ ❜❛s❡ 10✱ ❝♦♠♦ ♣✉❡❞❡
✈❡rs❡ ❡♥ ❡❧ s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡ ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦✳

❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✸✳✶✳

435, 232 = 4∗102 + 3∗101 + 5∗100 + 2∗10−1 + 3∗10−2 + 2∗10−3 .

❯♥ ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦ q✉❡ t❛❧ ✈❡③ ♥♦ ❡♥t❡♥❞❛♠♦s ❛❤♦r❛ ❡s ❡❧ s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡✱ ❡♥ ❡st❡ ❝❛s♦ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛r❡♠♦s ✉♥
♥ú♠❡r♦ ❡♥ ❜❛s❡ ✸

❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✸✳✷✳

(2102)3 = 2∗(11)33 + 1∗(11)23 + 0∗(11)13 + 2∗(11)03 .

❊♥ ❡st❡ ❝❛s♦ ✈❛❧❡ ❧❛ ♣❡♥❛ ♥♦t❛r q✉❡ (11)3 r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛ ❡❧ ♥ú♠❡r♦ ✹ ❡♥ ❜❛s❡ tr❡s✳

❯♥ ❤❡❝❤♦ ♠✉② ✐♠♣♦rt❛♥t❡ ❡s ❡❧ s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡✱ s✐ ❤✐❝✐❡r❛♠♦s ❧❛ ❡①♣❛♥s✐ó♥ ✭✸✳✶✮ ♣❡r♦ ❝❛♠❜✐❛♥❞♦ bb ♣♦r
b10 = b ♥♦ ♦❜t❡♥❞r✐❛♠♦s Nb s✐♥♦ N10 . ▲❛ s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡ ♣r♦♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ♥♦s ♣❡r♠✐t❡ ♣❛s❛r ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r ♥✉♠❡r♦
❡♥ ❜❛s❡ b ❛ s✉ ❡q✉✐✈❛❧❡♥t❡ ❡♥ ❜❛s❡ ✶✵✱ ❡♥ ❧❛ s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡ s❡❝❝✐ó♥ ♠♦str❛r❡♠♦s ❛❧❣✉♥♦s ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦s✳

Pr♦♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ✸✳✸✳ ❙❡❛ Nb = (· · · s2 s1 s0 , s−1 s−2 · · · )b ✉♥ ♥ú♠❡r♦ ❡♥ ❜❛s❡ b, ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s

· · · + s2 ∗ b2 + s1 ∗ b1 + s0 ∗ b0 + s−1 ∗ b−1 + s−2 ∗ b−2 + · · ·

❡s ❧❛ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ Nb ❡♥ ❜❛s❡ ❞✐❡③✳

✸✹ ❈❛♣ít✉❧♦ ✸✳ ❈ó❞✐❣♦s ② ❙✐st❡♠❛s ❞❡ ◆✉♠❡r❛❝✐ó♥

✸✳✷✳ ❙✐st❡♠❛ ❞❡ ◆✉♠❡r❛❝✐ó♥ ❇✐♥❛r✐♦

❊❧ s✐st❡♠❛ ❞❡ ♥✉♠❡r❛❝ó♥ ❜✐♥❛r✐♦✱ t❛❧ ❝♦♠♦ ❡❧ ❞❡❝✐♠❛❧ ② ♦tr♦s ❛♥t❡s ♠❡♥❝✐♦♥❛❞♦s✱ ❡s ✉♥ s✐st❡♠❛
❞❡ ♥✉♠❡r❛❝✐ó♥ ♣♦s✐❝✐♦♥❛❧✳ ❈✉❛❧q✉✐❡r s✐st❡♠❛ ❞❡ ❡st♦s s♦❧♦ r❡q✉✐❡r❡ ✉♥ ♥✉♠❡r♦ ✜♥✐t♦ ❞❡ sí♠❜♦❧♦s✱ ❧❧❛✲
♠❛❞♦s ❞í❣✐t♦s ❞❡❧ s✐st❡♠❛✱ ♣❛r❛ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛r ♥ú♠❡r♦s ❡①tr❡♠❛❞❛♠❡♥t❡ ❣r❛❞❡s✳ ❊♥ tér♠✐♥♦s ❞❡ ❡st♦s
❞í❣✐t♦s✱ ❧❛ ❡❥❡❝✉❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❝á❧❝✉❧♦s ♥ú♠❡r✐❝♦s ❡s r❡❧❛t✐✈❛♠❛♥❡t❡ s❡♥❝✐❧❧❛✳ ❊♥ ❡❧ ❝❛s♦ ❞❡❧ s✐st❡♠❛ ❜✐♥❛r✐♦
❧❛ ❜❛s❡ ❡s b = 2 ② ♣♦r ❧♦ t❛♥t♦ t✐❡♥❡ ❞♦s sí♠❜♦❧♦s 0 ② 1✱ ❧♦s ❝✉❛❧❡s s♦♥ ❝♦♥♦❝✐❞♦s ❝♦♠♦ ❜✐ts ✭❞❡❧
✐♥❣❧és ❇✐♥❛r② ❉✐❣✐ts✮✳

❈♦♠♦ ✉♥❛ ❛♣❧✐❝❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧❛ Pr♦♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ✸✳✸ ❛ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❛❝✐ó♥ ♠♦str❛r❡♠♦s ❝♦♠♦ ♣❛s❛r ✉♥ ♥ú♠❡r♦
❜✐♥❛r✐♦ ❛ ❞❡❝✐♠❛❧

❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✸✳✹✳ ❙❡❛ ❡❧ ♥ú♠❡r♦ N2 = (110101)2 , ❞♦♥❞❡ ❡❧ s✉❜í♥❞✐❝❡ 2 ✐♥❞✐❝❛ ❧❛ ❜❛s❡✱ ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s

N10 = 1 ∗ 25 + 1 ∗ 24 + 0 ∗ 23 + 1 ∗ 22 + 0 ∗ 21 + 1 ∗ 20
N10 = 32 + 16 + 4 + 1
N10 = 53

P♦r t❛♥t♦ (110101)2 = (53)10 .

P❛r❛ ❧♦s ♥ú♠❡r♦s ❢r❛❝❝✐♦♥❛r✐♦s s❡ ✉s❛♥ ❧❛s ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛s ♥❡❣❛t✐✈❛s✱ t❛❧ ❝♦♠♦ ❧♦ ✐❧✉str❛♠♦s ❛ ❝♦♥t✐✲
♥✉❛❝✐ó♥

❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✸✳✺✳ ❙❡❛ N2 = (0, 1101)2 ✱ ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s✿

N10 = 0 ∗ 20 + 1 ∗ 2−1 + 1 ∗ 2−2 + 0 ∗ 2−3 + 1 ∗ 2−4

N10 = 0,5 + 0,25 + 0,0625
N10 = (0,8125)10

P♦r t❛♥t♦ (0,1101)2 = (0,8125)10 .

✸✳✷✳✶✳ ❈♦♥t❡♦ ❡♥ ❇✐♥❛r✐♦

❊❧ s✐st❡♠❛ ❜✐♥❛r✐♦ ❡s ❡❧ ♠ás ✉s❛❞♦ ❡♥ s✐st❡♠❛s ❞✐❣✐t❛❧❡s✱ ②❛ q✉❡ ❡❧ ❤❡❝❤♦ ❞❡ t❡♥❡r ❞♦s sí♠❜♦❧♦s ♥♦s
♣❡r♠✐t❡ ❛s♦❝✐❛r ❛ ❝❛❞❛ sí♠❜♦❧♦ ❝♦♥ ❞♦s ❡st❛❞♦s ❧♦s ❝✉❛❧❡s ♣✉❡❞❡♥ s❡r ♣r❡♥❞✐❞♦ ② ❛♣❛❣❛❞♦✱ ♣♦s✐t✐✈♦ ②
♥❡❣❛t✐✈♦✱ ♠❛②♦r q✉é ② ♠❡♥♦r q✉é✱ ♣❡r❢♦r❛❞♦ ② t❛♣❛❞♦❀ ❞❛♥❞♦ ❡st❛ ♣r♦♣✐❡❞❛❞ ✉♥❛ ❣r❛♥ ✈❡rs❛t✐❧✐❞❛❞
❡♥ ❡❧ ❞✐s❡ñ♦ ❝♦♥ ❞✐s♣♦s✐t✐✈♦s ❡❧❡❝tró♥✐❝♦s s❡♥❝✐❧❧♦s✳ ❊❧ ❤❡❝❤♦ ❞❡ t❡♥❡r ❞♦s sí♠❜♦❧♦s ♥♦ ✐♠♣❧✐❝❛ q✉❡
♥♦ ♣♦❞❛♠♦s ❝♦♥t❛r ♥ú♠❡r♦s ❣r❛♥❞❡s✱ ♣❛r❛ ❡❧❧♦ t❡♥❡♠♦s ❡♥ ❝✉❡♥t❛ q✉❡ s✐ q✉❡r❡♠♦s ❝♦♥t❛r n ♦❜❥❡t♦s
♥❡❝❡s✐t❛♠♦s ✉♥ ♥ú♠❡r♦ ❞❡ ❜✐ts✱ K ✱ t❛❧ q✉❡ 2K > n ♦ s❡❛ q✉❡ s✐ q✉❡r❡♠♦s ❡①♣r❡s❛r ♦ ❝♦♥t❛r ❧♦s
♥ú♠❡r♦s ❞❡❝✐♠❛❧❡s ❞❡❧ 0 ❛❧ 9✱ ♥❡❝❡s✐t❛r❡♠♦s ✉♥ ♥ú♠❡r♦ ❡♥t❡r♦ K t❛❧ q✉❡ 2K > 10, ♣♦r t❛♥t♦ ❡s
s✉✜❝✐❡♥t❡ t♦♠❛r K ≥ 4. ❆sí q✉❡ ❝♦♥ 4 ❜✐ts ❢♦r♠❛♠♦s ❧♦s ♥ú♠❡r♦s ❞❡❧ 0 ❛❧ 9 ❞❡ ❛❝✉❡r❞♦ ❛ ❧❛ s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡
✸✳✸✳ ❙✐st❡♠❛ ❞❡ ◆✉♠❡r❛❝✐ó♥ ❖❝t❛❧ ✸✺

t❛❜❧❛✿
❉❡❝✐♠❛❧ ❇✐♥❛r✐♦

0 0000
1 0001
2 0010
3 0011
4 0100
5 0101
6 0110
7 0111
8 1000
9 1001

❙✐ q✉❡r❡♠♦s ❝♦♥t❛r ❞❡❜❡♠♦s r❡❝♦r❞❛r q✉❡ ❡❧ s✐st❡♠❛ ❞❡❝✐♠❛❧ ❧❧❡❣❛ ❤❛st❛ ❡❧ 9✱ ❝♦❧♦❝❛♠♦s ✉♥ 1
❞❡❧❛♥t❡ ② ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❛♠♦s ❤❛st❛ ❧❧❡❣❛r ❛❧ 19✱ ② ❛sí s✉❝❡s✐✈❛♠❡♥t❡✳ ❊♥t♦♥❝❡s ♥♦s q✉❡❞❛ ❛❧❣♦ ❝♦♠♦

0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18...

❊♥ ❜✐♥❛r✐♦ s❡ ❤❛❝❡ ❧♦ ♠✐s♠♦❀ ❝♦♠❡♥③❛♠♦s 0, 1; ❛❣r❡❣❛♠♦s ✉♥ 1 ② ❛❣r❡❣❛♠♦s 0 ② 1 ♣❛r❛ ❢♦r♠❛r ❧♦

s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡s q✉❡ s♦♥ 10, 11; ❧✉❡❣♦ ❛❣r❡❣❛♠♦s ♦tr♦ 1 ❞❡❧❛♥t❡ ② ❛♣❛r❡❝❡♥ ✶✵✵✱ ✶✵✶✱ ✶✶✵✱ ✶✶✶✱ ♣♦r t❛♥t♦

♦❜t❡♥❡♠♦s

0, 1, 10, 11, 100, 101, 110, 111, 1000, 1001, 1010, ...
❯♥❛ ♠❛♥❡r❛ ❞❡ ❝♦♥t❛r ❡♥ ❜✐♥❛r✐♦ ❡s ♣❡♥s❛r ❡♥ ❞❡❝✐♠❛❧ ② ❡❧✐♠✐♥❛r t♦❞♦s ❧♦s ♥ú♠❡r♦s q✉❡ t❡♥❣❛♥

❞í❣✐t♦s ❞✐st✐♥t♦s ❞❡ 0 ② 1✱ ❧♦ ❝✉❛❧ ✈❡♠♦s ❛rr✐❜❛✱ ② ❡st♦ ❡s ❡①t❡♥s✐❜❧❡ ❛ ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r s✐st❡♠❛✳ P♦r ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦

❡♥ ❜❛s❡ tr❡s t❡♥❞r✐❛♠♦s✱ r❡❝✉❡r❞❡ q✉❡ ❡st❡ ❝❛s♦ ❧♦s sí♠❜♦❧♦s s♦♥ 0, 1 ② 2,
0, 1, 2, 10, 11, 12, 20, 21, 22, 100, 101, 102, 110, 111, 112, 121, 122, ...

✸✳✸✳ ❙✐st❡♠❛ ❞❡ ◆✉♠❡r❛❝✐ó♥ ❖❝t❛❧

❊❧ s✐st❡♠❛ ❞❡ ♦❝t❛❧ t✐❡♥❡ ❜❛s❡ b = 8 ② ♣♦r t❛♥t♦ ✉t✐❧✐③❛ ♦❝❤♦ sí♠❜♦❧♦s✱ q✉❡ s♦♥ ❧♦s ❞í❣✐t♦s

0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7✱ ♣❛r❛ ❞❡♥♦t❛r ❧❛s ❝❛♥t✐❞❛❞❡s ♥✉♠ér✐❝❛s✳ ■❣✉❛❧ q✉❡ ❡❧ s✐st❡♠❛ ❜✐♥❛r✐♦✱ t♦❞♦ ♥ú♠❡r♦

♦❝t❛❧ ♣✉❡❞❡ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛rss❡ ❡♥ ❡❧ s✐st❡♠❛ ❞❡❝✐♠❛❧ ✉s❛♥❞♦ s✉s ✈❛❧♦r❡s ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥❛❧❡s ② ❧❛s ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛s ❞❡

♦❝❤♦✱ t❛❧ ❝♦♠♦ ❧♦ ✐❧✉str❛♠♦s ❛ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❛❝✐ó♥✳

❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✸✳✻✳ ❙❡❛ N8 = (373,043)8 . ❊♥t♦♥❝❡s

N10 = 3∗ 82 + 7∗ 81 + 3∗ 80 + 0∗ 8−1 + 4∗ 8−2 + 3∗ 8−3

N10 = 192 + 56 + 3 + 0,0156 + 0,005859...
N10 = (251,021459...)10
❖❜s❡r✈❡ q✉❡ ♥♦ ♥❡❝❡s❛r✐❛♠❡♥t❡ ❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r ❡s ❡①❛❝t♦✳

P❛r❛ ❝♦♥t❛r ❡♥ ♦❝t❛❧✱ s❡❣✉✐♠♦s ❧❛ ♠✐s♠❛ té❝♥✐❝❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ s❡❝❝✐ó♥ ❛♥t❡r✐♦r✿

0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, ...
✸✻ ❈❛♣ít✉❧♦ ✸✳ ❈ó❞✐❣♦s ② ❙✐st❡♠❛s ❞❡ ◆✉♠❡r❛❝✐ó♥

✸✳✹✳ ❙✐st❡♠❛ ❞❡ ◆✉♠❡r❛❝✐ó♥ ❍❡①❛❞❡❝✐♠❛❧

❊st❡ s✐st❡♠❛ t✐❡♥❡ ❝♦♠♦ ❜❛s❡ ❡❧ ♥ú♠❡r♦ ❞❡❝✐♠❛❧ 16 ② ♣♦r t❛♥t♦✱ ♣♦s❡❡ ❞✐❡❝✐sé✐s sí♠❜♦❧♦s✱ ❧♦s
♥ú♠❡r♦s ❡♥t❡r♦s ❞❡❧ 0 ❛❧ 9 ② ❧♦s ❧✐t❡r❛❧❡s ❆✱ ❇✱ ❈✱ ❉✱ ❊✱ ❋ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛♥❞♦ ❡st♦s ú❧t✐♠♦s ❧♦s sí♠❜♦❧♦s
❡♥t❡r♦s ❞❡❧ 10 ❛❧ 15✳
❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✸✳✼✳ ❙❡❛ N16 = (E5D7, A3)16
N10 = E ∗ 163 + 5 ∗ 162 + D ∗ 161 + 7 ∗ 160 + A ∗ 16−1 + 3 ∗ 16−2
N10 = 14 ∗ 163 + 5 ∗ 162 + 13 ∗ 161 + 7 ∗ 160 + 10 ∗ 16−1 + 3 ∗ 16−2

P♦r t❛♥t♦ N16 = (58839, 63671875)10 .

❊♥ ❧❛ s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡ t❛❜❧❛ s❡ ♠✉❡str❛ ✉♥ r❡s✉♠❡♥ ❞❡ ❧♦s ❝✉❛tr♦ s✐st❡♠❛s ❞❡ ♥✉♠❡r❛❝✐ó♥ q✉❡ ✉t✐❧✐③❛r❡✲
♠♦s✱ ② ❡♥ ❧❛ ♣ró①✐♠❛ s❡❝❝✐ó♥ s❡ ❡①♣❧✐❝❛rá ❝♦♠♦ ♣❛s❛r ❞❡ ✉♥♦ ❛ ♦tr♦✳

❙✐st❡♠❛ ❇❛s❡ ❙í♠❜♦❧♦s

❉❡❝✐♠❛❧ 10 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9
❇✐♥❛r✐♦ 2 0, 1
❖❝t❛❧ 8 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7
❍❡①❛❞❡❝✐♠❛❧ 16 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D, E, F

✸✳✺✳ ❈♦♥✈❡rs✐ó♥ ❡♥tr❡ ❙✐st❡♠❛s ❞❡ ◆✉♠❡r❛❝✐ó♥

❊♥ ❧❛s s❡❝❝✐♦♥❡s ❛♥t❡r✐♦r❡s ②❛ ✈✐♠♦s ❝♦♠♦ ♣❛s❛r ✉♥ ♥ú♠❡r♦ ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r❛ ❡♥ ❜❛s❡ b, ❞✐❣❛♠♦s Nb , ❛❧
s✐st❡♠❛ ❞❡❝✐♠❛❧✱ ♣❛r❛ ❧♦ ❝✉❛❧ ✉s❛♠♦s ❧❛s Pr♦♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ✸✳✸✳ ❊♥t♦♥❝❡s ❡♥ ❧♦ q✉❡ s✐❣✉❡ s♦❧♦ ❡①♣❧✐❝❛r❡♠♦s
❝♦♠♦ ♣❛s❛r ✉♥ ♥✉♠❡r♦ ❞❡❝✐♠❛❧ ❛r❜✐tr❛r✐♦ N ❛ ✉♥ ♥ú♠❡r♦ ❡♥ ❜❛s❡ b. ❈♦♠♦ ②❛ s❛❜❡♠♦s✱ ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r
♥ú♠❡r♦ ❞❡❝✐♠❛❧ N ♣✉❡❞❡ s❡r r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❞♦ ❝♦♠♦

N = an bn + an−1 bn−1 + · · · + a0 + a−1 b−1 + · · · + a−m b−m .

❉❡✜♥✐❡♥❞♦
Ne = an bn + an−1 bn−1 + · · · + a0 ② Nf = a−1 b−1 + · · · + a−m b−m ,
s❡ t✐❡♥❡ q✉❡
N = Ne + Nf ,
❞♦♥❞❡ Ne ② Nf s♦♥ ❧❛ ♣❛rt❡ ❡♥t❡r❛ ② ❢r❛❝❝✐♦♥❛r✐❛ ❞❡ N, r❡s♣❡❝t✐✈❛♠❡♥t❡✳

❆❤♦r❛✱ s✐ ❞✐✈✐❞✐♠♦s Ne ♣♦r b, s❡ ♦❜t✐❡♥❡

Ne a0
= an bn−1 + an−1 bn−2 + · · · +
b b
1
= ❝♦❝✐❡♥t❡ ✶ + r❡s✐❞✉♦ .
b
✸✳✺✳ ❈♦♥✈❡rs✐ó♥ ❡♥tr❡ ❙✐st❡♠❛s ❞❡ ◆✉♠❡r❛❝✐ó♥ ✸✼

▲♦ q✉❡ ♥♦s ❞✐❝❡ q✉❡ ❡❧ ♣r✐♠❡r r❡s✐❞✉♦ ❛❧ ❞✐✈✐❞✐r Ne ♣♦r b ❡s a0 . ❙✐ t♦♠❛♠♦s ❛❤♦r❛ ❡❧ ❝♦❝✐❡♥t❡ 1
② ❧♦ ❞✐✈✐❞✐♠♦s ♣♦r b✱ ♦❜t❡♥❡♠♦s ✉♥ ❝♦❝✐❡♥t❡ 2 ② ❡♥ ❡st❡ ❝❛s♦ ❡❧ r❡s✐❞✉♦ s❡rá a1 ② ❛sí ❝♦♥s❡❝✉t✐✈❛♠❡♥t❡✳

❊♥ ❡❧ ❝❛s♦ ❞❡ Nf s❡ ❤❛rá ❧♦ ♠✐s♠♦ ♣❡r♦ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝❛♥❞♦ ♣♦r b ❡♥ ❝❛❞❛ ❝❛s♦✳ ❊♥ ❧❛s s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡s

s✉❜✲s❡❝❝✐♦♥❡s ❤❛r❡♠♦s ✈❛r✐♦s ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦s ❝♦♥ ❧♦s s✐st❡♠❛s ❞❡ ♥✉♠❡r❛❝✐ó♥ q✉❡ ♠ás ♥♦s ✐♥t❡r❡s❛♥✳

✸✳✺✳✶✳ ❈♦♥✈❡rs✐ó♥ ❉❡❝✐♠❛❧ ❛ ❇✐♥❛r✐♦

❙✐❣✉✐❡♥❞♦ ❡❧ ❡sq✉❡♠❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ s❡❝❝✐ó♥ ♣r❡❝❡❞❡♥t❡✱ ❞✐✈✐❞✐r❡♠♦s ❝♦♥s❡❝✉t✐✈❛♠❡♥t❡ ♣♦r ❞♦s ❧❛ ♣❛rt❡

❡♥t❡r❛ ② ♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝❛r❡♠♦s ♣♦r ❞♦s ❧❛ ♣❛rt❡ ❢r❛❝❝✐♦♥❛r✐❛✳

❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✸✳✽✳ ❈♦♥✈❡rt✐r (653)10 ❛ ❜✐♥❛r✐♦✳ ❊♥ ❡st❡ ❝❛s♦ ❝♦♠♦ ❡❧ ♥ú♠❡r♦ ❡s ❡♥t❡r♦ ❞✐✈✐❞✐♠♦s ♣♦r ✷✱

❝♦♠♦ s❡ ♠✉❡str❛ ❛ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❛❝✐ó♥✳

653 2
a0 1 326 2
a1 0 163 2
a2 1 81 2
a3 1 40 2
a4 0 20 2
a5 0 10 2
a6 0 5 2
a7 1 2 2
a8 0 1 2
a9 1 0
P♦r t❛♥t♦

65310 = 10100011012
❖❜s❡r✈❡ q✉❡ ❧♦s r❡s✐❞✉♦s s❡ ❝♦❧♦❝❛♥ ❡♥ ♦r❞❡♥ ✐♥✈❡rs♦✳

❆ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❛❝✐ó♥ ♣r❡s❡♥t❛♠♦s ✉♥ ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦ ❞♦♥❞❡ ❡❧ ♥ú♠❡r♦ t✐❡♥❡ ✉♥❛ ♣❛rt❡ ❢r❛❝❝✐♦♥❛r✐❛✱ ❡♥ ❡st❡

❝❛s♦ s❡ ❝♦♥✈✐❡rt❡ ♣r✐♠❡r♦ ❧❛ ♣❛rt❡ ❡♥t❡r❛✱ ②❛ r❡❛❧✐③❛❞♦ ❡♥ ❡❧ ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦ ❛♥t❡r✐♦r✱ ② ❧✉❡❣♦ ❧❛ ♣❛rt❡

❢r❛❝❝✐♦♥❛r✐❛ ✉s❛♥❞♦ ❧❛ té❝♥✐❝❛ ❞❡ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝❛r s✉❝❡s✐✈❛♠❡♥t❡ ♣♦r ❞♦s✳

❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✸✳✾✳ ❈♦♥✈✐❡rt❛ (653,61)10 ❛ ❜✐♥❛r✐♦✳

0,61∗2 = 1,22 a−1 =1

0,22∗2 = 0,44 a−2 =0
0,44∗2 = 0,88 a−3 =0
0,88∗2 = 1,76 a−3 =1
0,76∗2 = 1,52 a−4 =1
0,52∗2 = 1,04 a−5 =1
P♦r t❛♥t♦ (653,61)10 = (1010001101,10011...)2
✸✽ ❈❛♣ít✉❧♦ ✸✳ ❈ó❞✐❣♦s ② ❙✐st❡♠❛s ❞❡ ◆✉♠❡r❛❝✐ó♥

P♦❞❡♠♦s ❝♦♠♣r♦❜❛r ❡❧ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦ ❛♥t❡r✐♦r ✉t✐❧✐③❛♥❞♦ ❡❧ ❞❡s❛rr♦❧❧♦ ❞❡ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛s ❡♥ ❜❛s❡ ❛ ❞♦s

(0,100111...)2 = 1∗2−1 + 1∗2−4 + 1∗2−5 + 1∗2−6
= 0,5 + 0,625 + 0,03125 + 0,015625
= (0,609375)10
❖❜s❡r✈❡ q✉❡ ❡❧ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦ ♥♦ ❡s ❡①❛❝t♦ ♣♦rq✉❡ ❞❡t✉✈✐♠♦s ❡❧ ♣r♦❝❡s♦ ❡♥ a−6 , s✐ ❝❛❧❝✉❧❛♠♦s ♠ás
❢r❛❝❝✐♦♥❡s ❜✐♥❛r✐❛s ♥♦s ❛❝❡r❝❛r❡♠♦s ♠ás ❛❧ r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦✳

✸✳✺✳✷✳ ❈♦♥✈❡rs✐ó♥ ❞❡❧ ❙✐st❡♠❛ ❉❡❝✐♠❛❧ ❛❧ ❖❝t❛❧

❊st❛ ❝♦♥✈❡rs✐ó♥ s❡ r❡❛❧✐③❛ ❞❡ ♠❛♥❡r❛ s✐♠✐❧❛r ❛ ❧❛ ❞❡ ❞❡❝✐♠❛❧ ❛ ❜✐♥❛r✐♦✱ ❝♦♥ ❧❛ ❡①❝❡♣❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ q✉❡
❡♥ ❡st❡ ❝❛s♦ ❧❛ ❞✐✈✐s✐ó♥ ❝♦♥s❡❝✉t✐✈❛ s❡ ❤❛❝❡ ♣♦r ♦❝❤♦✱ ❡♥ ❧✉❣❛r ❞❡ ❞♦s✳

❙✉♣♦♥❣❛♠♦s q✉❡ q✉❡r❡♠♦s ❝♦♥✈❡rt✐r (653)10 ❛ ♦❝t❛❧

653 8
a0 5 81 8
a1 1 10 8
a2 2 1 8
a3 1 0
(653)10 = (1215)8
❘❡❝✉❡r❞❡ q✉❡ ❧❛ ❡s❝♦❣❡♥❝✐❛ ❞❡ ❧♦s ❞í❣✐t♦s s❡ ❤❛❝❡ ❞❡❧ ú❧t✐♠♦ r❡s✐❞✉♦ ❛❧ ♣r✐♠❡r♦✱ t❛❧ ❝♦♠♦ ❧♦ ✐♥❞✐❝❛
❧❛ ✢❡❝❤❛ ❡♥ ❡❧ ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦ ❛♥t❡r✐♦r✳
❙✐ q✉❡r❡♠♦s ✐r ❞❡ ♦❝t❛❧ ❛ ❞❡❝✐♠❛❧✱ s♦❧♦ t❡♥❡♠♦s q✉❡ ❛♣❧✐❝❛r ❡❧ ❞❡s❛rr♦❧❧♦ ❞❡ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛s ❞❡ ♦❝❤♦✱ ❞❡
❛❝✉❡r❞♦ ❛ ❧♦s ✈❛❧♦r❡s ♣♦s✐❝✐♦♥❛❧❡s✳
❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✸✳✶✵✳ P❛s❛r (1215)8 ❛ ❞❡❝✐♠❛❧✳ ❊♥ ❡st❡ ❝❛s♦ s❡ t✐❡♥❡

(1215)8 = 1 ∗ 83 + 2 ∗ 82 + 1 ∗ 81 + 1 ∗ 80
= 512 + 128 + 8 + 5
= 653
▲✉❡❣♦ (1215)8 = 653.

❙✐ ❡❧ ♥ú♠❡r♦ ❞❡❝✐♠❛❧ ❡s ❢r❛❝❝✐♦♥❛r✐♦ s❡ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝❛ s✉❝❡s✐✈❛♠❡♥t❡ ♣♦r ♦❝❤♦✱ ♣❛s❛♥❞♦ ❧❛ ♣❛rt❡

❡♥t❡r❛ ❞❡ ❧♦s r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦s ❝♦♥s❡❝✉t✐✈♦s ❛ ❢♦r♠❛r ❧❛ ♣❛rt❡ ❢r❛❝❝✐♦♥❛r✐❛ ❞❡❧ ♥ú♠❡r♦ ♦❝t❛❧✳ ❊st❛ ♦♣❡r❛❝✐ó♥
s❡ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❛ ❤❛st❛ ♦❜t❡♥❡r ✉♥❛ ❢r❛❝❝✐ó♥ ♥✉❧❛ ♦ ❤❛st❛ ❧❛ ♣r❡❝✐s✐ó♥ ❞❡s❡❛❞❛✱ s✐ ❡❧ ❝❡r♦ ♥♦ s❡ ❝♦♥s✐❣✉❡✳
❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✸✳✶✶✳ P❛s❛r (0,46875)10 ❛ ♦❝t❛❧✳

0,46875 ∗ 8 = 3,75 a−1 = 3

0,75 ∗ 8 = 6,00 a−2 = 6

▲✉❡❣♦ (0,46875)10 = (0,36)8 .

✸✳✺✳ ❈♦♥✈❡rs✐ó♥ ❡♥tr❡ ❙✐st❡♠❛s ❞❡ ◆✉♠❡r❛❝✐ó♥ ✸✾

P♦r s✉♣✉❡st♦✱ ❡❧ ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦ ❛♥t❡r✐♦r ❡s ✉♥❛ ♠✉❡str❛ ❞❡❧ ♣r✐♠❡r ❝❛s♦✱ ❡s ❞❡❝✐r ❧❛ ❢r❛❝❝✐ó♥ ♦❝t❛❧ ❡s

❡①❛❝t❛✳ ❆ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❛❝✐ó♥ ♠♦str❛♠♦s ✉♥ ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦ ❞♦♥❞❡ ❧❛ ❢r❛❝❝✐ó♥ r❡s✉❧t❛♥t❡ ♥♦ ❡s ❡①❛❝t❛✳

❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✸✳✶✷✳ P❛s❛r (0,136)10 ❛ ♦❝t❛❧✳ ❊♥ ❡st❡ ❝❛s♦

0,136 ∗ 8 = 1,088 a−1 = 1

0,088 ∗ 8 = 1,704 a−2 = 1
0,704 ∗ 8 = 5,632 a−3 = 5
0,632 ∗ 8 = 5,056 a−4 = 5

❙✐ ♥♦s ❞❡t❡♥❡♠♦s ❛q✉í t❡♥❞rí✐❛♠♦s q✉❡ (0,136)10 = (0,1155)8 , ♣❡r♦ s✐ ❞❡s❛rr♦❧❧❛♠♦s (0,1155)8 , ♦❜✲

t❡♥❡♠♦s✿

1 ∗ 8−1 + 1 ∗ 8−2 + 5 ∗ 8−3 + 5 ∗ 8−4 = (0,1359875)10

▲❛ ❝✉❛❧✱ s❛❧✈♦ ♣♦r ✉♥ ❡rr♦r ♠❡♥♦r ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ❞✐❡③♠✐❧és✐♠❛ ❝♦✐♥❝✐❞❡ ❝♦♥ ❡❧ ♥ú♠❡r♦ ♦r✐❣✐♥❛❧✳

❙✐ t❡♥❡♠♦s ✉♥ ♥ú♠❡r♦ ❞❡ ♣❛rt❡ ❡♥t❡r❛ ② ♣❛rt❡ ❢r❛❝❝✐♦♥❛r✐❛ ❤❛❝❡♠♦s ❧❛ ❝♦♥✈❡rs✐ó♥ ♣♦r s❡♣❛r❛❞♦

② ❧✉❡❣♦ ❝♦♠❜✐♥❛♠♦s ❛♠❜♦s r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦s✳

❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✸✳✶✸✳ ❈♦♥✈❡rt✐r (124,78125)10 ❛ ♦❝t❛❧✳ ❈♦♠❡♥③❛♠♦s ❝♦♥ ❧❛ ♣❛rt❡ ❡♥t❡r❛

124 8
a0 4 15 8
a1 7 1 8
a2 1 0

P❛r❛ ❧❛ ♣❛rt❡ ❢r❛❝❝✐♦♥❛r✐❛ t❡♥❡♠♦s

0,78125 ∗ 8 = 6,25 a−1 = 6

0,25 ∗ 8 = 2,00 a−2 = 2

P♦r t❛♥t♦ (124,78125)10 = (174,62)8

✸✳✺✳✸✳ ❈♦♥✈❡rs✐ó♥ ❞❡❧ ❙✐st❡♠❛ ❉❡❝✐♠❛❧ ❛ ❍❡①❛❞❡❝✐♠❛❧

❙✐❣✉✐❡♥❞♦ ❧♦s ♠✐s♠♦s ♣r♦❝❡❞✐♠✐❡♥t♦s ❛♥t❡r✐♦r❡s✱ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞❡ ❞✐✈✐❞✐r ②✴♦ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝❛r ♣♦r 16✳

❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✸✳✶✹✳ ❈♦♥✈❡rt✐r (47632)10 ❛ ❤❡①❛❞❡❝✐♠❛❧

47632 16
0 2977 16
1 186 16
10 11 16
11 0
✹✵ ❈❛♣ít✉❧♦ ✸✳ ❈ó❞✐❣♦s ② ❙✐st❡♠❛s ❞❡ ◆✉♠❡r❛❝✐ó♥

0←−−−−
1−−−−
10 11
−−−−−
−

P♦r t❛♥t♦ (47632)10 = (BA10)16 . ❘❡❝✉❡r❞❡ q✉❡ A = 10, B = 11, ..., F = 15 ❡♥ ❤❡①❛❞❡❝✐♠❛❧✳

❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✸✳✶✺✳ ❈♦♥✈❡rt✐r (124, 136)10 ❛ ❤❡①❛❞❡❝✐♠❛❧✳

124 16
12 7 16
7 0

P❛r❛ ❧❛ ♣❛rt❡ ❢r❛❝❝✐♦♥❛r✐❛ s❡ t✐❡♥❡

0,136 ∗ 16 = 2,176 a−1 = 2

0,176 ∗ 16 = 2,816 a−2 = 2
0,816 ∗ 16 = 13,056 a−3 = D
0,056 ∗ 16 = 0,896 a−4 = 0
0,896 ∗ 16 = 14,336 a−5 = E

▲✉❡❣♦ (124, 136)10 = (7C, 22D0E)16 .

✸✳✺✳✹✳ ❈♦♥✈❡rs✐ó♥ ❡♥tr❡ ❧♦s ❙✐st❡♠❛s ❇✐♥❛r✐♦ ② ❖❝t❛❧

❈♦♠♦ ❡st✉❞✐❛r❡♠♦s ♣♦st❡r✐♦r♠❡♥t❡✱ ❧♦s ❝✐r❝✉✐t♦s ❞✐❣✐t❛❧❡s ♠❛♥✐♣✉❧❛♥ ❞❛t♦s ✉s❛♥❞♦ ❡❧ s✐st❡♠❛ ❞❡
♥✉♠❡r❛❝✐ó♥ ❜✐♥❛r✐♦❀ s✐♥ ❡♠❜❛r❣♦✱ ❡st♦ tr❛❡ ❡❧ ✐♥❝♦♥✈❡♥✐❡♥t❡ ❞❡ q✉❡ ❛ ♠❡❞✐❞❛ q✉❡ ❛✉♠❡♥t❛ ❡❧ t❛♠❛ñ♦
❞❡❧ ♥ú♠❡r♦✱ ❛✉♠❡♥t❛ t❛♠❜✐é♥ ❧❛ ❝❛♥t✐❞❛❞ ❞❡ ❜✐ts✱ ② ❝♦♥s❡❝✉❡♥t❡♠❡♥t❡ s❡ ❝♦♠♣❧✐❝❛ ❡❧ ♠❛♥❡❥♦ ❞❡
❞❛t♦s✳ P❛r❛ s✐♠♣❧✐✜❝❛r ❡st♦ s❡ ✐♥tr♦❞✉❥❡r♦♥ ❧♦s s✐st❡♠❛s ♦❝t❛❧ ② ❤❡①❛❞❡❝✐♠❛❧ q✉❡ t✐❡♥❡♥ ✉♥❛ ❣r❛♥
✈❡♥t❛❥❛ ♣♦r ❧❛ ❝❛r❛❝t❡ríst✐❝❛ ❞❡ q✉❡ s✉s ❜❛s❡s s♦♥ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛s ❞❡ ❞♦s✳

❊♥ ❡❧ ❝❛s♦ ❞❡❧ s✐st❡♠❛ ♦❝t❛❧ s❡ t✐❡♥❡

X
N= ai 8i .
i

❨ ❡♥ ❜✐♥❛r✐♦ ❡s❝r✐❜✐♠♦s X
N= A i 2i
i

❉♦♥❞❡ ai ∈ {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7} ② Ai ∈ {0, 1}.

❆❤♦r❛ ❜✐❡♥✱ ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r❛ ❞❡ ❧♦s ai ♣✉❡❞❡ s❡r ❡①♣r❡s❛❞♦ ❝♦♠♦ ❝♦♠❜✐♥❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ tr❡s ❞í❣✐t♦s ❜✐♥❛r✐♦s
♦ ❜✐ts✳ ❉❡ t❛❧ ♠❛♥❡r❛ q✉❡ s✐ t♦♠❛♠♦s ❡❧ ♥ú♠❡r♦ ❜✐♥❛r✐♦ ② ❧♦ s❡♣❛r❛♠♦s ❞❡ tr❡s ❡♥ tr❡s✱ ♣❛rt✐❡♥❞♦ ❞❡❧
✸✳✺✳ ❈♦♥✈❡rs✐ó♥ ❡♥tr❡ ❙✐st❡♠❛s ❞❡ ◆✉♠❡r❛❝✐ó♥ ✹✶

♣✉♥t♦ ❞❡❝✐♠❛❧ ❛ ❧❛ ✐③q✉✐❡r❞❛ ♣❛r❛ ❧❛ ♣❛rt❡ ❡♥t❡r❛✱ ② ❛❧ ❞❡r❡❝❤❛ ♣❛r❛ ❧❛ ♣❛rt❡ ❢r❛❝❝✐♦♥❛r✐❛✱ ♣♦❞❡♠♦s
s✉st✐t✉✐r ❝❛❞❛ ✉♥♦ ❞❡ ❧♦s ❣r✉♣♦s ♣♦r s✉ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐❡♥t❡ ✈❛❧♦r ♦❝t❛❧✱ r❡✢❡❥❛❞♦ ❡♥ ❧❛ t❛❜❧❛ s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡ ②
✈✐❝❡✈❡rs❛✳
❖❝t❛❧ ❇✐♥❛r✐♦

0 ⇔ 000
1 ⇔ 001
2 ⇔ 010
3 ⇔ 011
4 ⇔ 100
5 ⇔ 101
6 ⇔ 110
7 ⇔ 111

❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✸✳✶✻✳ ❈♦♥✈❡rt✐r (10010101, 1011)2 ❛ ♦❝t❛❧✳

❙❡♣❛r❛♠♦s ❡♥ ❣r✉♣♦s ❞❡ tr❡s
010 010 101, 101 100

▲♦s ❝❡r♦s ❛❧ ♣r✐♥❝✐♣✐♦ ▼❙❇ ② ❛❧ ✜♥❛❧ ▲❙❇ s❡ ❛❣r❡❣❛♥ ♣❛r❛ ❝♦♠♣❧❡t❛r ❣r✉♣♦s ❞❡ tr❡s✱ ❝♦♥s✉❧t❛♥❞♦ ❧❛
t❛❜❧❛ ❛rr✐❜❛ s❡ t✐❡♥❡ q✉❡
(225,54)8 .

P❛r❛ ✐r ❞❡ ♦❝t❛❧ ❛ ❜✐♥❛r✐♦✱ s✐♠♣❧❡♠❡♥t❡ s❡ s✉st✐t✉②❡ ❝❛❞❛ ❞í❣✐t♦ ♦❝t❛❧ ♣♦r s✉ ❡q✉✐✈❛❧❡♥t❡ ❜✐♥❛r✐♦
❞❡ ❛❝✉❡r❞♦ ❛ ❧❛ t❛❜❧❛ ❛♥t❡r✐♦r✳

❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✸✳✶✼✳ ❈♦♥✈❡rt✐r (1752,714)8 ❛ ❜✐♥❛r✐♦

(1752,714)8 = (001 111 101 010. 111 001)2

❊❧✐♠✐♥❛♥❞♦ ❧♦s ❝❡r♦s ❝♦♠♦ ❜✐ts ♠ás s✐❣♥✐✜❝❛t✐✈♦s ▼❙❇ ♦ ♠❡♥♦s s✐❣♥✐✜❝❛t✐✈♦s ▲❙❇✱ s❡ t✐❡♥❡

(1752,714)8 = (111101010,111001)2

❊s ✐♠♣♦rt❛♥t❡ ❤❛❝❡r ♥♦t❛r q✉❡ s✐ s❡ q✉✐❡r❡ ♣❛s❛r ❞❡ ❞❡❝✐♠❛❧ ❛ ❜✐♥❛r✐♦ s❡ ♣✉❡❞❡ ♣❛s❛r ♣r✐♠❡r♦ ❛
♦❝t❛❧ ② ❞❡s♣✉és ✉t✐❧✐③❛r ❡st❡ ♠ét♦❞♦✱ ❝♦♥ ❧♦ ❝✉❛❧ s❡ ❛❤♦rr❛ ❡♥ ❧❛s ❞✐✈✐s✐♦♥❡s✳

✸✳✺✳✺✳ ❈♦♥✈❡rs✐ó♥ ❡♥tr❡ ❧♦s ❙✐st❡♠❛s ❍❡①❛❞❡❝✐♠❛❧❡s ② ❇✐♥❛r✐♦

❈♦♠♦ ❧♦ ♠❡♥❝✐♦♥❛♠♦s ❡♥ ❧❛ s❡❝❝✐ó♥ ❛♥t❡r✐♦r s❡ ♣✉❡❞❡ ❛♣❧✐❝❛r ❧❛ ♣r♦♣✐❡❞❛❞ ❞❡ q✉❡ ❧❛ ❜❛s❡ 16

❡s ✉♥❛ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❜❛s❡ ❜✐♥❛r✐❛ ② t♦❞♦ sí♠❜♦❧♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❜❛s❡ ❤❡①❛❞❡❝✐♠❛❧ ♣✉❡❞❡ s❡r ❡①♣r❡s❛❞♦ ♣♦r
❝✉❛tr♦ ❞í❣✐t♦s ❜✐♥❛r✐♦ ♦ ❜✐ts✱ ❞❡ ❛❝✉❡r❞♦ ❛ ❧❛ t❛❜❧❛ s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡ ❧❛ ❝✉❛❧ ♣✉❡❞❡ ✉s❛rs❡ ♣❛r❛ ❝♦♥✈❡rt✐r ❞❡
✹✷ ❈❛♣ít✉❧♦ ✸✳ ❈ó❞✐❣♦s ② ❙✐st❡♠❛s ❞❡ ◆✉♠❡r❛❝✐ó♥

✉♥❛ ❛ ♦tr♦ s✐st❡♠❛ s❡♣❛r❛♥❞♦ ❡♥ ❣r✉♣♦s ❞❡ ❝✉❛tr♦ ❜✐ts ❡❧ ♥✡♠❡r♦ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❞♦ ❡♥ ❜✐♥❛r✐♦ ♦ ✈✐❝❡r✈❡rs❛✳

❍❡①❛❞❡❝✐♠❛❧ ❇✐♥❛r✐♦

0 0000
1 0001
2 0010
3 0011
4 0100
5 0101
6 0110
7 0111
8 1000
9 1001
A 1010
B 1011
C 1100
D 1101
E 1110
F 1111

❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✸✳✶✽✳ ❈♦♥✈❡rt✐r (10101101101, 0101101101)2 ❛ ❤❡①❛❞❡❝✐♠❛❧✳ ❊♥ ❡st❡ ❝❛s♦ s❡♣❛r❛♠♦s ❛sí

0101 0110 1101,0101 1011 0100

❆❧ ❝♦♥s✉❧t❛r ❧❛ t❛❜❧❛ ❞❛❞❛ ❛rr✐❜❛ s❡ t✐❡♥❡ q✉❡

(10101101101, 0101101101)2 = (56D, 5B4)16 .

❖❜s❡r✈❡ q✉❡ ❞❡ ♥✉❡✈♦ s❡ ❛❣r❡❣❛r♦♥ ❝❡r♦s ❛❧ ▼❙❇ ② ❛❧ ▲❙❇✳

P❛r❛❝♦♥✈❡rt✐r ❞❡ ❤❡①❛❞❡❝✐♠❛❧ ❛ ❜✐♥❛r✐♦✱ s❡ ❡♠♣❧❡❛ ❡❧ ♠✐s♠♦ ♠ét♦❞♦✱ s✉st✐t✉②❡♥❞♦ ❝❛❞❛ ❞í❣✐t♦

❤❡①❛❞❡❝✐♠❛❧ ♣♦r s✉ ❡q✉✐✈❛❧❡♥t❡ ❜✐♥❛r✐♦ ❞❡ 4 ❜✐ts ❛♣❛r❡❝❡ ❡♥ ❧❛ t❛❜❧❛ ❛♥t❡r✐♦r✳

❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✸✳✶✾✳ ❈♦♥✈❡rt✐r (8F, 41)16 ❛ ❜✐♥❛r✐♦✳ ❊♥ ❡st❡ ❝❛s♦ s❡♣❛r❛♠♦s ❛sí

1000 1111,0100 0001

▲✉❡❣♦ (8F, 41)16 = (1000111, 01000001)2

✸✳✻✳ ❖♣❡r❛❝✐♦♥❡s ❆r✐t♠ét✐❝❛s ❡♥ ❡❧ ❙✐st❡♠❛ ❇✐♥❛r✐♦

❊s ❡✈✐❞❡♥t❡ q✉❡ ❡❧ ❧❡❝t♦r ❝♦♥♦❝❡ ❧❛s ❝✉❛tr♦ ♦♣❡r❛❝✐♦♥❡s ❢✉♥❞❛♠❡♥t❛❧❡s ❞❡ ❧❛ ❛r✐♠ét✐❝❛ ✭s✉♠❛✱ r❡st❛✱

♠✉❧t✐❧♣❧✐❝❛❝✐ó♥ ② ❞✐✈✐s✐ó♥✮ ❡♥ ❡❧ s✐st❡♠❛ ❞❡ ♥✉♠❡r❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡❝✐♠❛❧✱ ♣❡r♦ ❞❛❞♦ q✉❡ ❡♥ s✐st❡♠❛s ❞✐❣✐t❛❧❡s

✉t✐❧✐③❛♠♦s ❡❧ s✐st❡♠❛ ❜✐♥❛r✐♦ ❡s ✐♠♣♦rt❛♥t❡ ❢❛♠✐❧✐❛r✐③❛rs❡ ❝♦♥ ❞✐❝❤❛s ♦♣❡r❛❝✐♦♥❡s ❡♥ ❡st❡ s✐st❡♠❛✱

t❡♥✐❡♥❞♦ s✐❡♠♣r❡ ❡♥ ♠❡♥t❡ ❧❛ ❛r✐t♠ét✐❝❛ ❞❡❝✐♠❛❧ ❝♦♠♦ ❣✉í❛✳

✸✳✻✳ ❖♣❡r❛❝✐♦♥❡s ❆r✐t♠ét✐❝❛s ❡♥ ❡❧ ❙✐st❡♠❛ ❇✐♥❛r✐♦ ✹✸

✸✳✻✳✶✳ ❙✉♠❛ ❇✐♥❛r✐❛

P❛r❛ s✉♠❛r ❡♥ ❜✐♥❛r✐♦✱ ❞❡❜❡♠♦s ♣r✐♠❡r♦ ❝♦♥str✉✐r ✉♥❛ t❛❜❧❛ ❞❡ s✉♠❛r ❝♦♠♦ s❡ ♦❜s❡r✈❛ ❛ ❝♦♥t✐✲

♥✉❛❝✐ó♥✳

❙✉♠❛♥❞♦s ❘❡s✉❧t❛❞♦ ❆❝❛rr❡♦

A B S C
0 0 0 0
0 1 1 0
1 0 1 0
1 1 0 1

❖❜s❡r✈❡ q✉❡ s❡ t✐❡♥❡ ❧♦ s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡ 1 + 1 = 10, 1 + 1 + 1 = 11, 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 = 100 ② ❛sí s✉❝❡s✐✈❛♠❡♥t❡✳

❍❛❣❛♠♦s ✉♥ ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦

❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✸✳✷✵✳ ❙✉♠❛r ❡♥ ❜✐♥❛r✐♦ 1101 + 1101.

❆❝❛rr❡♦ 11
❙✉♠❛♥❞♦ ❆ 1101
❙✉♠❛♥❞♦ ❇ 1101
❘❡s✉❧t❛❞♦ 11010

❖❜s❡r✈❡ q✉❡ ❡❧ ❛❝❛rr❡♦ s❡ s✉♠❛ ❛ ❧♦s ❜✐ts q✉❡ ❡sté♥ ❡♥ ❧❛ ♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ✐♥♠❡❞✐❛t❛ ❛ ❧❛ ✐③q✉✐❡r❞❛✱ s✐♠✐❧❛r

❛ ❧♦ q✉❡ s❡ ❤❛❝❡ ❡♥ ❡❧ s✐st❡♠❛ ❞❡❝✐♠❛❧✳

✸✳✻✳✷✳ ❘❡st❛ ❇✐♥❛r✐❛

❊♥ ❡st❡ ❝❛s♦ ❤❛❝❡♠♦s ✉s♦ ❞❡ ❧❛ t❛❜❧❛ s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡✳

▼✐♥✉❡♥❞♦ ❙✉str❛❡♥❞♦ ❘❡st❛ Pr❡st❛❞♦

M S R P
0 0 0 0
0 1 1 1
1 1 0 0
1 0 1 0

❊♥ ❢♦r♠❛ s✐♠✐❧❛r ❛ ❧❛ r❡st❛ ❞❡❝✐♠❛❧✱ ❝✉❛♥❞♦ ❡❧ ♠✐♥✉❡♥❞♦ ❡s ♠❡♥♦r q✉❡ ❡❧ s✉str❛❡♥❞♦✱ s❡ t♦♠❛ ♣r❡st❛❞♦

✉♥ ❜✐t ❞❡ ❧❛ ❝♦❧✉♠♥❛ ❛❞②❛❝❡♥t❡ ❞❡ ❧❛ ✐③q✉✐❡r❞❛✱ ❝♦♠♦ ♣✉❡❞❡ ✈❡rs❡ ❡♥ ❡❧ ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦ ❛ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❛❝✐ó♥✳

❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✸✳✷✶✳ ❘❡st❡ 11011 − 1101 ❡♥ ❜✐♥❛r✐♦

◗✉❡❞❛ 00
▼✐♥✉❡♥❞♦ 11011
❙✉str❛❡♥❞♦ 1101
❘❡st❛ 01110
✹✹ ❈❛♣ít✉❧♦ ✸✳ ❈ó❞✐❣♦s ② ❙✐st❡♠❛s ❞❡ ◆✉♠❡r❛❝✐ó♥

✸✳✻✳✸✳ ▼✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝❛❝✐ó♥ ❇✐♥❛r✐❛

▲❛ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝❛❝✐ó♥ ❤❛❝❡ ✉s♦ ❞❡ ❧♦s ♠✐s♠♦s ♣r✐♥❝✐♣✐♦s ❞❡❧ s✐st❡♠❛ ❞❡❝✐♠❛❧✱ ✉t✐❧✐③❛♥❞♦ ❧❛s r❡❣❧❛s ❞❡
❧❛ t❛❜❧❛ s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡✳
❋❛❝t♦r❡s Pr♦❞✉❝t♦

A B P
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1
❆ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❛❝✐ó♥ s❡ ♣r❡s❡♥t❛ ✉♥ ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦ ❞❡ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝❛❝✐ó♥ ❜✐♥❛r✐❛✳

❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✸✳✷✷✳ ▼✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝❛r 101101 × 101. ❊♥ ❡st❡ ❝❛s♦

101101
×101
101101
+ 000000
101101
11100001

✸✳✻✳✹✳ ❉✐✈✐s✐ó♥ ❇✐♥❛r✐❛

▲❛ ❞✐✈✐s✐ó♥ ❜✐♥❛r✐❛ s❡ ❤❛❝❡ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♠✐s♠❛ ❢♦r♠❛ q✉❡ ❡♥ ❧♦s ❞❡❝✐♠❛❧❡s ❝♦♥ ❧❛ ❣r❛♥ ✈❡♥t❛❥❛ q✉❡ s♦❧♦
t❡♥❡♠♦s ❞♦s ♦♣❝✐♦♥❡s ♣❛r❛ ❜✉s❝❛r ❞✐✈✐s♦r❡s 0 ② 1. ■❧✉str❛r❡♠♦s ❡❧ ♣r♦❝❡s♦ ♠❡❞✐❛♥t❡ ✉♥ ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦✳

❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✸✳✷✸✳ ❉✐✈✐❞✐r 111011 ❡♥tr❡ 101. ❊♥ ❡st❡ ❝❛s♦ s✐❣✉✐❡♥❞♦ ❧❛s ♠✐s♠❛s ✐❞❡❛s q✉❡ ❝♦♥♦❝❡♠♦s
❞❡ ♥✉❡str♦s ❝✉rs♦s ❞❡ ♣r✐♠❛r✐❛✱ s❡ t✐❡♥❡

✶ ✶ ✶ ✵ ✶ ✶ ✶ ✵ ✶
✲✶ ✵ ✶ ✶ ✵ ✶ ✶
✵ ✶ ✵ ✵ ✶
✲ ✶ ✵ ✶ ✭✸✳✷✮
✶ ✵ ✵ ✶
✲ ✶ ✵ ✶
✭✶ ✵ ✵✮

✸✳✼✳ ❊❥❡r❝✐❝✐♦s

✶✳ ❈♦♥✈❡rt✐r ❧♦s s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡ ♥ú♠❡r♦s ❛ ❞❡❝✐♠❛❧

❛✮ (10112, 00122)3
❜✮ (1110101, 0101)2
❝✮ (4102, 0122)5
✸✳✼✳ ❊❥❡r❝✐❝✐♦s ✹✺

❞ ✮ (706501, 1452)8
❡ ✮ (201312, 1301)4
❢ ✮ (A35F F )16

✷✳ ❈♦♥✈❡rt✐r ❛ ❧❛ ❜❛s❡ ✐♥❞✐❝❛❞❛ ❧♦s s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡ ♥ú♠❡r♦s ❞❡❝✐♠❛❧❡s

❛ ✮ 458, 35 ❛ ❜❛s❡ 3
❜ ✮ 1250, 55 ❛ ❜❛s❡ 2
❝ ✮ 2012, 142578125 ❛ ❜❛s❡ 8
❞ ✮ 10976, 36 ❛ ❜❛s❡ 16
❡ ✮ 4450, 24832 ❛ ❜❛s❡ 5

✸✳ ❊♥ ❝❛❞❛ ✉♥♦ ❞❡ ❧♦s s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡s ❝❛s♦s ❤❛❧❧❛r ❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r ❞❡ ❧❛ ❜❛s❡ b≥2 q✉❡ s❛t✐s❢❛❝❡ ❧❛ ✐❣✉❛❧❞❛❞

❛ ✮ (144)b = (1100100)2
❜ ✮ (122)b = (11112)3
❝ ✮ (1001)b = (11120)4

✹✳ ❘❡❛❧✐❝❡ ❧❛s s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡s ♦♣❡r❛❝✐♦♥❡s

❛ ✮ 11001 + 11100 + 110011

❜ ✮ 1110011 + 1111101 + 11111101
❝ ✮ 111, 0011 + 11, 100111
❞ ✮ 1110001 − 111011
❡ ✮ 10101010 − 110011
❢ ✮ 1110, 110 − 111, 011
❣ ✮ 111011 × 1011
❤ ✮ 11011 × 1101
✐ ✮ 101, 011 × 11, 001
❥ ✮ 111001 ÷ 1001
❦ ✮ 1011011 ÷ 111
❧ ✮ 10111, 1011 ÷ 1, 01
❈❛♣ít✉❧♦ ✹

➪❧❣❡❜r❛ ❞❡ ❇♦♦❧❡
❊❧ ➪❧❣❡❜r❛ ❞❡ ❇♦♦❧❡ ❢✉❡ ❞❡✜♥✐❞❛ ♣♦r ♣r✐♠❡r❛ ✈❡③ ♣♦r ●❡♦r❣❡ ❇♦♦❧❡✱ ❛✉t♦❞✐❞❛❝t❛ ✐♥❣❧és✱ ❝♦♠♦
✉♥❛ ❢♦r♠❛ ❞❡ ✉t✐❧✐③❛r ❧❛s té❝♥✐❝❛s ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✐❝❛s ♣❛r❛ tr❛t❛r ❡①♣r❡s✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ❧❛ ❧ó❣✐❝❛ ♣r♦♣♦s✐❝✐♦♥❛❧✳ ❊♥
❧❛ ❛❝t✉❛❧✐❞❛❞ s❡ ✉s❛ ♣❛r❛ ❡❧ ❛♥á❧✐s✐s ② ❞✐s❡ñ♦ ❞❡ ❝✐r❝✉✐t♦s ❡❧❡❝tró♥✐❝♦s✱ s✐❡♥❞♦ ❈❧❛✉❞❡ ❙❤❛♥♥♦♥ ❡♥
✶✾✹✽ ❡❧ ♣r✐♠❡r♦ ❡♥ ❛♣❧✐❝❛r ❡st❛ t❡♦r✐❛ ♠❡r❛♠❡♥t❡ ♠❛t❡♠át✐❝❛ ❛❧ ❞✐s❡ñ♦ ❞❡ ❝✐r❝✉✐t♦s ❞❡ ❝♦♥♠✉t❛❝✐ó♥
❡❧é❝tr✐❝❛ ❜✐❡st❛❜❧❡s✳ ❯s❛♥❞♦ ❧❛s ✐❞❡❛s ❞❡ ❇♦♦❧❡✱ ❙❤❛♥♥♦♥ ♣✉❞♦ ❢♦r♠✉❧❛r s✉ t❡♦rí❛ ❞❡ ❈♦❞✐✜❝❛❝✐ó♥ ②
❏♦❤♥ ❱♦♥ ◆❡✉♠❛♥♥ ♣✉❞♦ ❝r❡❛r ❡❧ ♠ó❞❡❧♦ ❞❡ ❛rq✉✐t❡❝t✉r❛ q✉❡ ❞❡✜♥❡ ❧❛ ❡str✉❝t✉r❛ ✐♥t❡r♥❛ ❞❡ ❧♦s
♦r❞❡♥❛❞♦r❡s ❞❡s❞❡ ❧❛ ♣r✐♠❡r❛ ❣❡♥❡r❛❝✐ó♥✳

✹✳✶✳ ❉❡✜♥✐❝✐ó♥ ② Pr♦♣✐❡❞❛❞❡s ❇ás✐❝❛s

❉❡✜♥✐❝✐ó♥ ✹✳✶✳ ❯♥ ➪❧❣❡❜r❛ ❞❡ ❇♦♦❧❡ ❡s ✉♥ s✐st❡♠❛ ❢♦r♠❛❞♦ ♣♦r ✉♥ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ B, ❝♦♥ ♣♦r ❧♦ ♠❡♥♦s
❞♦s ❡❧❡♠❡♥t♦s✱ ❞♦s ♦♣❡r❛❝✐♦♥❡s ❜✐♥❛r✐❛s❀ ❧❛ s✉♠❛ ✏ +✑ ② ❡❧ ♣r♦❞✉❝t♦ ✏ ·✑✱ ② ✉♥❛ ♦♣❡r❛❝✐ó♥ ✉♥✐t❛r✐❛✱
′
❧❛ ❝♦♠♣❧❡♠❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ ✏ ✑ ❞❡✜♥✐❞❛s ❡♥ B, t❛❧❡s q✉❡ s❡ ❝✉♠♣❧❡♥ ❧❛s s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡s ♣r♦♣✐❡❞❛❞❡s

✶✳ ✭❈♦♥♠✉t❛t✐✈❛✮ P❛r❛ t♦❞♦ a, b ∈ B, s❡ t✐❡♥❡ q✉❡ a+b=b+a ② a · b = b · a.

✷✳ ✭❉✐str✐❜✉t✐✈❛s✮ P❛r❛ t♦❞♦ a, b, c ∈ B, s❡ t✐❡♥❡ q✉❡ a·(b+c) = a·b+a·c ② a+(b·c) = (a+b)·(a+c).

✸✳ ✭❊①✐st❡♥❝✐❛ ❞❡ ♥❡✉tr♦s✮

❛✮ ❊①✐st❡ ✉♥ ❡❧❡♠❡♥t♦ ♣❡rt❡♥❡❝✐❡♥t❡ ❛ B, q✉❡ ❞❡♥♦t❛r❡♠♦s 0, t❛❧ q✉❡ ♣❛r❛ t♦❞♦ a∈B s❡
s❛t✐s❢❛❝❡ a + 0 = a.
❜✮ ❊①✐st❡ ✉♥ ❡❧❡♠❡♥t♦ ♣❡rt❡♥❡❝✐❡♥t❡ ❛ B, q✉❡ ❞❡♥♦t❛r❡♠♦s 1, t❛❧ q✉❡ ♣❛r❛ t♦❞♦ a∈B s❡
s❛t✐s❢❛❝❡ a · 1 = a.

✹✳ ✭❊①✐st❡♥❝✐❛ ❞❡ ❝♦♠♣❧❡♠❡♥t♦✮ P❛r❛ ❝❛❞❛ a ∈ B, ❡①✐st❡ ✉♥ ❡❧❡♠❡♥t♦ ❡♥ a′ ∈ B, t❛❧ q✉❡ a+a′ = 1

② a·a =0
′

✹✻
✹✳✶✳ ❉❡✜♥✐❝✐ó♥ ② Pr♦♣✐❡❞❛❞❡s ❇ás✐❝❛s ✹✼

❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✹✳✷✳ ▲❛ ❧ó❣✐❝❛ ♠❛t❡♠át✐❝❛ ❞❡ ♣r♦♣♦s✐❝✐♦♥❡s ❡s ✉♥ ➪❧❣❡❜r❛ ❞❡ ❇♦♦❧❡✱ ❞♦♥❞❡ 0 =❝♦♥tr❛❞✐❝❝✐ó♥✱

1 =❚❛✉t♦❧♦❣í❛ ② ❡❧ ❝♦♠♣❧❡♠❡♥t♦ ❡s ❧❛ ♥❡❣❛❝✐ó♥✳ ❚❛♠❜✐é♥ ❧❛ t❡♦rí❛ ❞❡ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦s ❡s ✉♥ ➪❧❣❡❜r❛ ❞❡
❇♦♦❧❡✱ ❞♦♥❞❡ 0 = ∅, 1 = U ② ′ ❡s ❡❧ ❝♦♠♣❧❡♠❡♥t♦ ✉s✉❛❧ ❞❡ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦s✳

❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✹✳✸✳ ❙❡❛ B ❡❧ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ ❞❡ ❞♦s ❡❧❡♠❡♥t♦s {0, 1}, ❝♦♥ ♦♣❡r❛❝✐♦♥❡s + ② · ❞❡✜♥✐❞❛s ❛ ❝♦♥t✐✲
♥✉❛❝✐ó♥

+ 0 1 · 0 1
0 0 1 0 0 0
1 1 1 1 0 1

❆❞❡♠ás ❞❡✜♥❛ ❡❧ ❝♦♠♣❧❡♠❡♥t♦ ❝♦♠♦ 0′ = 1 ② 1′ = 0. ❊s ❢á❝✐❧ ♠♦str❛r q✉❡ B ❝♦♥ ❧❛s ♦♣❡r❛❝✐♦♥❡s
❛♥t❡s ♠❡♥❝✐♦♥❛❞❛s ❡s ✉♥ á❧❣❡❜r❛ ❞❡ ❇♦♦❧❡✳

◆♦t❛❝✐ó♥✿ ❉❡ ❛q✉í ❡♥ ❛❞❡❧❛♥t❡ B ❞❡♥♦t❛rá ✉♥ á❧❣❡❜r❛ ❞❡ ❇♦♦❧❡✱ t❛❧ ❝♦♠♦ s❡ ❞❡✜♥✐ó ❡♥❝✐♠❛✳
❆❧❣✉♥❛s ✈❡❝❡s ❡s❝r✐❜✐r❡♠♦s ab ❡♥ ✈❡③ ❞❡ ❡s❝r✐❜✐r a · b✳

Pr♦♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ✹✳✹✳ ✶✳ ✭■❞❡♠♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛✮✳ P❛r❛ t♦❞♦ x ∈ B

x+x=x ② x · x = x.

✷✳ ✭❆❝♦t❛❝✐ó♥✮✳ P❛r❛ t♦❞♦ x ∈ B

x+1=1 ② x · 0 = 0.

✸✳ ✭❆❜s♦r❝✐ó♥✮✳ P❛r❛ t♦❞♦ x, y ∈ B s❡ t✐❡♥❡

x+x·y =x ② x · (x + y) = x.

✹✳ ✭■♥✈♦❧✉❝✐ó♥✮✳ P❛r❛ t♦❞♦ x ∈ B s❡ t✐❡♥❡ (x′ )′ = x.

✺✳ ✭❯♥✐❝✐❞❛❞ ❞❡❧ ❝♦♠♣❧❡♠❡♥t♦✮✳ P❛r❛ ❝❛❞❛ x ∈ B ❡①✐st❡ ✉♥ ú♥✐❝♦ x′ ∈ B t❛❧ q✉❡

x + x′ = 1 ② x · x′ = 0.

Pr✉❡❜❛✿

✶✳ ❯s❛♥❞♦ ❧❛s ♣r♦♣✐❡❞❛❞❡s ❞❡ ❧♦s ♥❡✉tr♦s✱ ❡❧ ❝♦♠♣❧❡♠❡♥t♦ ② ❞✐str✐❜✉t✐✈❛✱ s❡ t✐❡♥❡ q✉❡

x = x + 0 = x + x · x′ = (x + x) · (x + x′ ) = (x + x) · 1 = x + x.

P♦r t❛♥t♦ x + x = x. ▲❛ ♣r♦♣✐❡❞❛❞ r❡❧❛❝✐♦♥❛❞❛ ❝♦♥ ❡❧ ♣r♦❞✉❝t♦ ❡s ❞❡❥❛❞❛ ❝♦♠♦ ❡❥❡r❝✐❝✐♦ ❛❧

❧❡❝t♦r✳
✹✽ ❈❛♣ít✉❧♦ ✹✳ ➪❧❣❡❜r❛ ❞❡ ❇♦♦❧❡

✷✳ ❯s❛♥❞♦ ❧❛s ♣r♦♣✐❡❞❛❞❡s ❞❡❧ ♥❡✉tr♦ ♣❛r❛ ❡❧ ♣r♦❞✉❝t♦✱ ❧❛s ♣r♦♣✐❡❞❛❞❡s ❞❡❧ ❝♦♠♣❧❡♠❡♥t ② ❞✐str✐✲

❜✉t✐✈❛✱ t❡♥❡♠♦s q✉❡

x + 1 = 1 · (x + 1) = (x + x′ ) · (x + 1) = x + x′ · 1 = x + x′ = 1.

P♦r t❛♥t♦ x + 1 = 1. ❙✐♠✐❧❛r♠❡♥t❡✱

x · 0 = x · 0 + 0 = x · 0 + x · x′ = x · (x′ + 0) = x · x′ = 0.

❆sí q✉❡ x · 0 = 0.

✸✳ ❯s❛♥❞♦ ❛❝♦t❛❝✐ó♥ s❡ t✐❡♥❡ ❧♦ s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡

x + x · y = x · 1 + x · y = x · (1 + y) = x · 1 = x.

▲✉❡❣♦ x + x · y = x. ❉❡ ❢♦r♠❛ s✐♠✐❧❛r✱

x · (x + y) = (x + 0) · (x + y) = x + y · 0 = x + 0 = x.

P♦r t❛♥t♦ x · (x + y) = x.

✹✳ ❈♦♠♦ x′ ∈ B, ❡①✐st❡ (x′ )′ ∈ B t❛❧ q✉❡ x′ + (x′ )′ = 1 ② x′ · (x′ )′ = 0. ▲✉❡❣♦

(x′ )′ = 1 · (x′ )′ = (x + x′ ) · (x′ )′ = x · (x′ )′ + x′ · (x′ )′ = x · (x′ )′ + 0

= x · (x′ )′ + x · x′ = x · [x′ + (x′ )′ ] = x · 1 = x.

P♦r t❛♥t♦ (x′ )′ = x.

✺✳ ❙✉♣♦♥❣❛♠♦s q✉❡ ❡①✐st❡♥ x 1 , x2 ∈ B t❛❧❡s q✉❡

x1 + x = 1, x2 + x = 1, x1 · x = 0 ② x2 · x = 0.

❯s❛♥❞♦ ❧❛s ✐❣✉❛❧❞❛❞❡s ❛♥t❡r✐♦r❡s ♦❜t❡♠♦s✱

x1 = x1 · 1 = x1 · (x2 + x) = x1 · x2 + x1 · x = x1 · x2 + 0
= x1 · x2 + x2 · x = x2 · (x1 + x) = x2 · 1 = x2 .

P♦r t❛♥t♦ x1 = x2 , ❧♦ q✉❡ t❡r♠✐♥❛ ❧❛ ♣r✉❡❜❛✳

❆❤♦r❛ ♣r♦❜❛r❡♠♦s ❧❛ ♣r♦♣✐❡❞❛❞ ❛s♦❝✐❛t✐✈❛ ♣❛r❛ ❧❛ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝❛❝✐ó♥✱ ♣❛r❛ ❧♦ ❝✉❛❧ ♥❡❝❡s✐t❛♠♦s ❡❧

s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡ ❧❡♠❛

▲❡♠❛ ✹✳✺✳ ❙❡❛♥ a, b, c ∈ B. ❙✐ a + c = b + c ② a + c′ = b + c′ , ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s a = b.

Pr✉❡❜❛✿ ❯s❛♥❞♦ ❧❛s ♣r♦♣✐❡❞❛❞❡s ❞❡❧ ♥❡✉tr♦ ♣❛r❛ ❧❛ s✉♠❛✱ ❧❛s ♣r♦♣✐❡❞❛❞❡s ❞❡❧ ❝♦♠♣❧❡♠❡♥t♦✱ ❞✐str✐✲

❜✉t✐✈❛ ② ❧❛s ❤✐♣ót❡s✐s✱ s❡ t✐❡♥❡ q✉❡

a = a + 0 = a + cc′ = (a + c)(a + c′ ) = (b + c)(b + c′ ) = b + cc′ = b + 0 = b.

▲♦ q✉❡ t❡r♠✐♥❛ ❧❛ ♣r✉❡❜❛✳ 

✹✳✶✳ ❉❡✜♥✐❝✐ó♥ ② Pr♦♣✐❡❞❛❞❡s ❇ás✐❝❛s ✹✾

Pr♦♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ✹✳✻ ✭▲❡② ❛s♦❝✐❛t✐✈❛ ♣❛r❛ ❧❛ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝❛❝✐ó♥✮✳ ❙❡❛♥ x, y, z ∈ B. ❊♥t♦♥❝❡s

x · (y · z) = (x · y) · z.

Pr✉❡❜❛✿ ❯s❛♥❞♦ ❞✐str✐❜✉t✐✈❛ ② ❛❜s♦r❝✐ó♥ t❡♥❡♠♦s q✉❡

x + [(xy)z] = [x + (xy)](x + z) = x(x + z) = x.

❆❞❡♠ás✱
x + [x(yz)] = (x + x)[x + (yz)] = x[x + (yz)] = x.
❆sí q✉❡
x + [(xy)z] = x + [x(yz)]. ✭✹✳✶✮
P♦r ♦tr♦ ❧❛❞♦

x′ + [(xy)z] = [x′ + (xy)](x′ + z) = [(x′ + x)(x′ + y)](x′ + z) = [1 · (x′ + y)](x′ + z)

= (x′ + y)(x′ + z) = x′ + (yz) = 1 · [x′ + (yz)] = (x′ + x)[x′ + (yz)]
= x′ + [x(yz)]

▲♦ q✉❡ ♠✉❡str❛ q✉❡

x′ + [(xy)z] = x′ + [x(yz).] ✭✹✳✷✮
❯s❛♥❞♦ ❡❧ ❧❡♠❛ ❛♥t❡r✐♦r✱ ✭✹✳✶✮ ② ✭✹✳✷✮✱ s❡ t✐❡♥❡ q✉❡

x(yz) = (xy)z.

❉❡ ❢♦r♠❛ s✐♠✐❧❛r ❛❧ ❧❡♠❛ ② ♣r♦♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ❛♥t❡r✐♦r❡s t❛♠❜✐é♥ ♦❜t❡♥❡♠♦s ❧♦s s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡s r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦s✱
❧❛s ♣r✉❡❜❛s s♦♥ ❞❡❥❛❞❛s ❛❧ ❧❡❝t♦r✳
▲❡♠❛ ✹✳✼✳ ❙❡❛♥ a, b, c ∈ B. ❙✐ ac = bc ② ac′ = bc′ , ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s a = b.

Pr♦♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ✹✳✽ ✭▲❡② ❛s♦❝✐❛t✐✈❛ ♣❛r❛ ❧❛ s✉♠❛✮✳ ❙❡❛♥ x, y, z ∈ B. ❊♥t♦♥❝❡s

x + (y + z) = (x + y) + z.

Pr♦♣♦s✐❝✐ó♥ ✹✳✾ ✭▲❡②❡s ❞❡ ▼♦r❣❛♥✮✳ ❙❡❛♥ x, y ∈ B. ❊♥t♦♥❝❡s

✶✳ (x + y)′ = x′ · y ′ .

✷✳ (x · y)′ = x′ + y ′ .

Pr✉❡❜❛✿ ❙♦❧♦ ♣r♦❜❛r❡♠♦s ❧❛ ♣r✐♠❡r❛ ♣r♦♣✐❡❞❛❞✱ ❧❛ ❞❡♠♦str❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧❛ s❡❣✉♥❞❛ ❡s ❞❡❥❛❞❛ ❝♦♠♦

❡❥❡r❝✐❝✐♦ ❛❧ ❧❡❝t♦r✳ ❊♥ ❡❢❡❝t♦✱ ✉s❛♥❞♦ ❝♦♥♠✉t❛t✐✈❛ ② ❛s♦❝✐❛t✐✈❛ ♦❜t❡♥❡♠♦s

(x + y)(x′ y ′ ) = x(x′ y ′ ) + y(x′ y ′ ) = (xx′ )y ′ + x′ (yy ′ ) = 0y ′ + x′ 0 = 0.

✺✵ ❈❛♣ít✉❧♦ ✹✳ ➪❧❣❡❜r❛ ❞❡ ❇♦♦❧❡

P♦r t❛♥t♦
(x + y) · (x′ y ′ ) = 0 ✭✹✳✸✮

P♦r ♦tr♦ ❧❛❞♦✱

(x + y) + (x′ y ′ ) = [(x + y) + x′ ][(x + y) + y ′ ] = [(x + x′ ) + y][x + (y + y ′ )]

= (1 + y)(x + 1) = 1 · 1 = 1.

❆sí q✉❡
(x + y) + (x′ y ′ ) = 1. ✭✹✳✹✮

❉❡ ✭✹✳✸✮ ② ✭✹✳✹✮ ✈❡♠♦s q✉❡ x′ y ′ ❤❛❝❡ ❡❧ ♠✐s♠♦ tr❛❜❛❥♦ q✉❡ (x + y)′ ② ❝♦♠♦ ❡❧ ❝♦♠♣❧❡♠❡♥t♦ ❡s ú♥✐❝♦✱
s❡ ❝♦♥❝❧✉②❡ q✉❡ (x + y)′ = x′ y ′ . 

❉✉❛❧✐❞❛❞
❊❧ ❞✉❛❧ ❞❡ ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r ❡♥✉♥❝✐❛❞♦ ❡♥ ✉♥ á❧❣❡❜r❛ ❞❡ ❇♦♦❧❡ ❡s ❡❧ ❡♥✉♥❝✐❛❞♦ ♦❜t❡♥✐❞♦ ❛❧ ✐♥t❡r❝❛♠❜✐❛r
❧❛s ♦♣❡r❛❝✐♦♥❡s + ② ·✱ ❡ ✐♥t❡r❝❛♠❜✐❛r ❧♦s ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐❡♥t❡s ❡❧❡♠❡♥t♦s ♥❡✉tr♦s 0 ② 1, ❡♥ ❡❧ ❡♥✉♥❝✐❛❞♦
♦r✐❣✐♥❛❧✳ P♦r ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦ ❡❧ ❞✉❛❧ ❞❡ (1 + x) · (y + 0) = y ❡s (0 · x) + (y · 1) = y. ❖❜s❡r✈❡ q✉❡ ❡♥ t♦❞❛s
❧❛s ♣r♦♣✐❡❞❛❞❡s ❛♥t❡r✐♦r❡s s❡ ♣r❡s❡♥t❛ ❡st❛ ❞✉❛❧✐❞❛❞ ② ♣♦r t❛♥t♦ ❡❧ ❞✉❛❧ ❞❡ ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r t❡♦r❡♠❛ ❡♥ ✉♥
á❧❣❡❜r❛ ❞❡ ❇♦♦❧❡ ❡s t❛♠❜✐é♥ ✉♥ t❡♦r❡♠❛✳

❘❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧❛s ♦♣❡r❛❝✐♦♥❡s

❊❧ ♣r♦❞✉❝t♦ x·y s❡ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡ ❢♦r♠❛

❘❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛r❡♠♦s ❧❛ s✉♠❛ x+y ❝♦♠♦

② ❡❧ ❝♦♠♣❧❡♠❡♥t♦ x′ ❝♦♠♦
✹✳✷✳ ❊①♣r❡s✐♦♥❡s ♦ ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❜♦♦❧❡❛♥❛s ✺✶

✹✳✷✳ ❊①♣r❡s✐♦♥❡s ♦ ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❜♦♦❧❡❛♥❛s

❯♥❛ ❡①♣r❡s✐ó♥ ❜♦♦❧❡❛♥❛ ✭❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❜♦♦❧❡❛♥❛ ♦ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❧ó❣✐❝❛✮ ❡s ✉♥ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦ ✜♥✐t♦ ❞❡ sí♠❜♦❧♦s

❝♦♠❜✐♥❛❞♦s ♠❡❞✐❛♥t❡ ❧❛s ♦♣❡r❛❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ s✉♠❛✱ ♣r♦❞✉❝t♦ ♦ ❝♦♠♣❧❡♠❡♥t❛❝✐ó♥✳ P♦r ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦ ❧❛ ❡①✲

♣r❡s✐ó♥ f (x, y, z) = x′ y + xyz ❡s ✉♥❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❜♦♦❧❡♥❛✳ ▲❛s ❡①♣r❡s✐♦♥❡s ❜♦♦❧❡❛♥❛s ♣✉❡❞❡♥ ❛❞♦♣t❛r

❞♦s ❢♦r♠❛s út✐❧❡s ♣❛r❛ ❧❛s ❛♣❧✐❝❛❝✐♦♥❡s t❡❝♥♦❧ó❣✐❝❛s ❧❛s ❢♦r♠❛s ♥♦r♠❛❧❡s ❞✐s②✉♥t✐✈❛ ② ❝♦♥❥✉♥t✐✈❛✱ ❧❛s

❝✉❛❧❡s ❞❡✜♥✐♠♦s ❛ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❛❝✐ó♥✳

✹✳✷✳✶✳ ❋♦r♠❛ ♥♦r♠❛❧ ❞✐s②✉♥t✐✈❛

❉❡✜♥✐❝✐ó♥ ✹✳✶✵✳ ❯♥❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❜♦♦❧❡❛♥❛ ❛❞♦♣t❛ ✉♥❛ ❢♦r♠❛ ♥♦r♠❛❧ ❞✐s②✉♥t✐✈❛ s✐ ❡stá ❡s❝r✐t❛ ❝♦♠♦

s✉♠❛ ❞❡ tér♠✐♥♦s❀ ❡♥ ❧❛ ❝✉❛❧ ❝❛❞❛ tér♠✐♥♦ ❡s ✉♥ ♣r♦❞✉❝t♦ q✉❡ ✐♥✈♦❧✉❝r❛ t♦❞❛s ❧❛s ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s✱ ❝♦♥

♥❡❣❛❝✐ó♥ ♦ s✐♥ ❡❧❧❛✳ ❈❛❞❛ tér♠✐♥♦ s❡ ❧❧❛♠❛ tér♠✐♥♦ ♠✐♥✐♠❛❧ ♦ ♠✐♥t❡r✳

❊❧ ♣r♦❝❡s♦ ♣❛r❛ ❧❧❡❣❛r ❛ ❧❛ ❢♦r♠❛ ♥♦r♠❛❧ ❞✐s②✉♥t✐✈❛ ❞❡ ✉♥ ❢✉❝✐ó♥ ❜♦♦❧❡♥❛ ❝♦♥s✐st❡ ❡♥ ❛♣❧✐❝❛r ❧❛s

❧❡②❡s ❞❡ ▼♦r❣❛♥✱ ❤❛st❛ q✉❡ ❧♦s ❝♦♠♣❧❡♠❡♥t♦s ❛♣❛r❡③❝❛♥ ❛♣❧✐❝❛❞♦s s♦❧❛♠❡♥t❡ ❛ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s ✐♥❞✐✈✐❞✉❛❧❡s✳

❉❡s♣✉és✱ ♣♦r ❧❛ ❛♣❧✐❝❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣r♦♣✐❡❞❛❞ ❞✐str✐❜✉t✐✈❛ ❞❡ ♣r♦❞✉❝t♦ ❝♦♥ r❡s♣❡❝t♦ ❛ ❧❛ s✉♠❛✱ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥

♣✉❡❞❡ s❡r r❡❞✉❝✐❞❛ ❛ ✉♥ ♣♦❧✐♥♦♠✐♦✳ ❙✐ ❡♥ ❛❧❣ú♥ tér♠✐♥♦ ❢❛❧t❛ ✉♥❛ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡✱ ♣♦r ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦ z✱ ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s

❡s❡ tér♠✐♥♦ s❡ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝❛ ♣♦r z+ z′ = 1✱ s✐♥ ❝❛♠❜✐❛r ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ✜♥❛❧♠❡♥t❡ s✐♠♣❧✐✜❝❛♠♦s ✉s❛♥❞♦ ❧❛

♣r♦♣✐❡❞❛❞ ❞❡ ✐❞❡♠♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛✳

❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✹✳✶✶✳ ❊s❝r✐❜✐r ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ f (x, y, z) = (xy + z)′ + x′ y′ ❡♥ ❧❛ ❢♦r♠❛ ♥♦r♠❛❧ ❞✐s②✉♥t✐✈❛✳

❙♦❧✉❝✐ó♥✿ ❊♥ ❡st❡ ❝❛s♦

f (x, y, z) = (xy + z)′ + x′ y ′ = (xy)′ z ′ + x′ y ′ = (x′ + y ′ )z ′ + x′ y ′ = x′ z ′ + y ′ z ′ + x′ y ′
= x′ (y + y ′ )z ′ + (x + x′ )y ′ z ′ + x′ y ′ (z + z ′ ) = x′ yz ′ + x′ y ′ z ′ + xy ′ z ′ + x′ y ′ z ′
+ x′ y ′ z + x′ y ′ z ′ = x′ yz ′ + x′ y ′ z ′ + xy ′ z ′ + x′ y ′ z.
❆sí q✉❡ f ❡♥ ❧❛ ❢♦r♠❛ ♥♦r♠❛❧ ❞✐s②✉♥t✐✈❛ q✉❡❞❛ ❝♦♠♦

f (x, y, z) = x′ yz ′ + x′ y ′ z ′ + xy ′ z ′ + x′ y ′ z.

▲❛ ❢♦r♠❛ ♥♦r♠❛❧ ❞✐s②✉♥t✐✈❛ ❡♥ n ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s q✉❡ t✐❡♥❡ 2n tér♠✐♥♦s s❡ ❧❧❛♠❛ ✏❢♦r♠❛ ♥♦r♠❛❧ ❞✐s✲

②✉♥t✐✈❛ ❝♦♠♣❧❡t❛ ❡♥ n ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s✑ ② ❡s ✐❞❡♥t✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ ✐❣✉❛❧ ❛ ❧❛ ✉♥✐❞❛❞✳ P♦r ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦✱ ♣❛r❛ ❡❧ ❝❛s♦ ❞❡

n=3 ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s ❡♥ ❢♦r♠❛ ♥♦r♠❛❧ ❞✐s②✉♥t✐✈❛ ❝♦♠♣❧❡t❛ s❡ ♣✉❡❞❡ ♦❜t❡♥❡r ❞❡ ❧❛ s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡ t❛❜❧❛

x y z f (x, y, z)
✵ ✵ ✵ x′ y ′ z ′
✵ ✵ ✶ x′ y ′ z
✵ ✶ ✵ x′ yz ′
✵ ✶ ✶ x′ yz
✶ ✵ ✵ xy ′ z ′
✶ ✵ ✶ xy ′ z
✶ ✶ ✵ xyz ′
✶ ✶ ✶ xyz
✺✷ ❈❛♣ít✉❧♦ ✹✳ ➪❧❣❡❜r❛ ❞❡ ❇♦♦❧❡

◆♦t❡ q✉❡ ❧♦s ❝❡r♦s ✐♥❞✐❝❛♥ q✉❡ ❧❛ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡ ❛s♦❝✐❛❞❛ ❡s ❝♦♥ ❝♦♠♣❧❡♠❡♥t♦✳ ▲❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❝♦♠♣❧❡t❛ ❡s ❧❛

s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡

f (x, y, z) = x′ y ′ z ′ + x′ y ′ z + x′ yz ′ + x′ yz + xy ′ z ′ + xy ′ z + xyz ′ + xyz = 1.

✹✳✷✳✷✳ ❋♦r♠❛ ♥♦r♠❛❧ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t✐✈❛

❉❡✜♥✐❝✐ó♥ ✹✳✶✷✳ ❯♥❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❜♦♦❧❡❛♥❛ ❛❞♦♣t❛ ✉♥❛ ❢♦r♠❛ ♥♦r♠❛❧ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t✐✈❛ s✐ ❡stá ❡s❝r✐t❛ ❝♦♠♦

✉♥ ♣r♦❞✉❝t♦ ❞❡ tér♠✐♥♦s❀ ❡♥ ❧❛ ❝✉❛❧ ❝❛❞❛ tér♠✐♥♦ ❡s ✉♥❛ s✉♠❛ q✉❡ ✐♥✈♦❧✉❝r❛ t♦❞❛s ❧❛s ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s✱ ❝♦♥

♥❡❣❛❝✐ó♥ ♦ s✐♥ ❡❧❧❛✳ ❈❛❞❛ tér♠✐♥♦ s❡ ❧❧❛♠❛ tér♠✐♥♦ ♠❛①✐♠❛❧ ♦ ♠❛①t❡r✳

❊❧ ♣r♦❝❡s♦ ♣❛r❛ ❧❧❡❣❛r ❛ ❧❛ ❢♦r♠❛ ♥♦r♠❛❧ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t✐✈❛ ❞❡ ✉♥ ❢✉❝✐ó♥ ❜♦♦❧❡♥❛ ❝♦♥s✐st❡ ❡♥ ❛♣❧✐❝❛r ❧❛s

❧❡②❡s ❞❡ ▼♦r❣❛♥✱ ❤❛st❛ q✉❡ ❧♦s ❝♦♠♣❧❡♠❡♥t♦s ❛♣❛r❡③❝❛♥ ❛♣❧✐❝❛❞♦s s♦❧❛♠❡♥t❡ ❛ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s ✐♥❞✐✈✐❞✉❛❧❡s✳

❉❡s♣✉és✱ ♣♦r ❧❛ ❛♣❧✐❝❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧❛ ♣r♦♣✐❡❞❛❞ ❞✐str✐❜✉t✐✈❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ s✉♠❛ ❝♦♥ r❡s♣❡❝t♦ ❛❧ ♣r♦❞✉❝t♦ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥

♣✉❡❞❡ s❡r ❢❛❝t♦r✐③❛❞❛ ② s✐ ❡♥ ❛❧❣ú♥ t❡r♠✐♥♦ ❢❛❧t❛ ✉♥❛ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡✱ ♣♦r ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦ z ✱ ❡♥t♦♥❝❡s ❛ ❡s❡ tér♠✐♥♦
s❡ ❧❡ s✉♠❛ zz ′ = 0✱ ❧♦ q✉❡ ♥♦ ❝❛♠❜✐❛ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥✱ ✜♥❛❧♠❡♥t❡ s✐♠♣❧✐✜❝❛♠♦s ✉s❛♥❞♦ ❧❛ ♣r♦♣✐❡❞❛❞ ❞❡

✐❞❡♠♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛✳

❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✹✳✶✸✳ ❊s❝r✐❜✐r ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ f (x, y, z) = (xy + z)′ + x′ y′ ❡♥ ❧❛ ❢♦r♠❛ ♥♦r♠❛❧ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t✐✈❛✳

❙♦❧✉❝✐ó♥✿ ❊♥ ❡st❡ ❝❛s♦

f (x, y, z) = (xy + z)′ + x′ y ′ = (xy)′ z ′ + x′ y ′ = (x′ + y ′ )z ′ + x′ y ′
= [(x′ + y ′ )z ′ + x′ ][(x′ + y ′ )z ′ + y ′ ] = (x′ + y ′ + x′ )(z ′ + x′ )(x′ + y ′ + y ′ )(z ′ + y ′ )
= (x′ + y ′ )(x′ + z ′ )(y ′ + z ′ ) = (x′ + y ′ + zz ′ )(x′ + z ′ + yy ′ )(y ′ + z ′ + xx′ )
= (x′ + y ′ + z)(x′ + y ′ + z ′ )(x′ + z ′ + y)(x′ + z ′ + y ′ )(y ′ + z ′ + x)(y ′ + z ′ + x′ )
= (x′ + y ′ + z)(x′ + y ′ + z ′ )(x′ + y + z ′ )(x + y ′ + z ′ )

❆sí q✉❡ f ❡♥ ❧❛ ❢♦r♠❛ ♥♦r♠❛❧ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t✐✈❛ q✉❡❞❛ ❝♦♠♦

f (x, y, z) = (x′ + y ′ + z)(x′ + y ′ + z ′ )(x′ + y + z ′ )(x + y ′ + z ′ ).

▲❛ ❢♦r♠❛ ♥♦r♠❛❧ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t✐✈❛ ❡♥ n ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s q✉❡ t✐❡♥❡ 2n tér♠✐♥♦s s❡ ❧❧❛♠❛ ✏❢♦r♠❛ ♥♦r♠❛❧ ❝♦♥✲

❥✉♥t✐✈❛ ❝♦♠♣❧❡t❛ ❡♥ n ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s✑ ② ❡s ✐❞❡♥t✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ ✐❣✉❛❧ ❛ ❝❡r♦✳ P♦r ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦✱ ♣❛r❛ ❡❧ ❝❛s♦ ❞❡ n=3
✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s ❡♥ ❢♦r♠❛ ♥♦r♠❛❧ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t✐✈❛ ❝♦♠♣❧❡t❛ s❡ ♣✉❡❞❡ ♦❜t❡♥❡r ❞❡ ❧❛ s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡ t❛❜❧❛

x y z f (x, y, z)
✵ ✵ ✵ x+y+z
✵ ✵ ✶ x + y + z′
✵ ✶ ✵ x + y′ + z
✵ ✶ ✶ x + y′ + z′
✶ ✵ ✵ x′ + y + z
✶ ✵ ✶ x′ + y + z ′
✶ ✶ ✵ x′ + y ′ + z
✶ ✶ ✶ x′ + y ′ + z ′
✹✳✷✳ ❊①♣r❡s✐♦♥❡s ♦ ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❜♦♦❧❡❛♥❛s ✺✸

▲❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❝♦♠♣❧❡t❛ ❡s ❧❛ s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡

f (x, y, z) = (x′ +y ′ +z ′ )(x′ +y ′ +z)(x′ +y +z ′ )(x′ +y +z)(x+y ′ +z ′ )(x+y ′ +z)(x+y +z ′ )(x+y +z),

② ❡s ✐❣✉❛❧ ❛ ❝❡r♦✳

❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✹✳✶✹✳ ❊♥❝♦♥tr❛r ② s✐♠♣❧✐✜❝❛r ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❜♦♦❧❡❛♥❛ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❞❛ ❡♥ ❧❛ s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡ t❛❜❧❛

x y z f (x, y, z)
0 0 0 1
0 0 1 0
0 1 0 1
0 1 1 1
1 0 0 1
1 0 1 0
1 1 0 1
1 1 1 1

❙♦❧✉❝✐ó♥✿ ❚❡♥❡♠♦s ❞♦s ♦♣❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ❡s❝r✐❜✐r ❛ f (x, y, z), ❡♥ ❧❛ ❢♦r♠❛ ♥♦r♠❛❧ ❞✐s②✉♥t✐✈❛ ♦ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t✐✈❛✳
❙✐ ❞❡❝✐❞✐♠♦s ❡s❝r✐❜✐r ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❡♥ ❧❛ ❢♦r♠❛ ♥♦r♠❛❧ ❞✐s②✉♥t✐✈❛ t❡♥❡♠♦s q✉❡ r❡❝♦r❞❛r q✉❡ ❧♦s tér♠✐♥♦s
q✉❡ ❞❡❜❡♥ ❛♣❛r❡❝❡r s♦♥ ❧♦s q✉❡ ❡♥ ❧❛ ú❧t✐♠❛ ✜❧❛ t✐❡♥❡ ✉♥ ✉♥♦ ✭✶✮✱ ② q✉❡ ❧♦s ❝❡r♦s ② ✉♥♦s ❞❡ ❧❛s ✜❧❛s
❞♦s ❛ tr❡s ✭✶✲✸✮ ✐♥❞✐❝❛♥ q✉❡ ❧❛ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡ ❛♣❛r❡❝❡ ❝♦♥ ♦ s✐♥ ❝♦♠♣❧❡♠❡♥t♦✱ r❡s♣❡❝t✐✈❛♠❡♥t❡✳ ❊♥ t❛❧ ❝❛s♦✱
s❡ t✐❡♥❡ q✉❡
f (x, y, z) = x′ y ′ z ′ + x′ yz ′ + x′ yz + xy ′ z ′ + xyz ′ + xyz.

❙✐♠♣❧✐✜❝❛r❡♠♦s ❡st❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❜♦♦❧❡❛♥❛✱ ❝♦♠♦ s✐❣✉❡

f (x, y, z) = (y ′ + y)x′ z ′ + (x′ + x)yz + (y ′ + y)xz ′ = x′ z ′ + yz + xz ′

= (x′ + x)z ′ + yz = z ′ + yz = (z ′ + y)(z ′ + z) = y + z ′ .

P♦r ♦tr♦ ❧❛❞♦✱ s✐ ❞❡❝✐❞✐♠♦s ❡s❝r✐❜✐r ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❡♥ ❧❛ ❢♦r♠❛ ♥♦r♠❛❧ ❞✐s②✉♥t✐✈❛ t❡♥❡♠♦s q✉❡ r❡❝♦r✲
❞❛r q✉❡ ❧♦s tér♠✐♥♦s q✉❡ ❞❡❜❡♥ ❛♣❛r❡❝❡r s♦♥ ❧♦s q✉❡ ❡♥ ❧❛ ú❧t✐♠❛ ✜❧❛ t✐❡♥❡ ✉♥ ❝❡r♦ ✭✵✮✱ ② q✉❡ ❧♦s
❝❡r♦s ② ✉♥♦s ❞❡ ❧❛s ✜❧❛s ❞♦s ❛ tr❡s ✭✶✲✸✮ ✐♥❞✐❝❛♥ q✉❡ ❧❛ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡ s✐♥ ❛♣❛r❡❝❡ ♦ ❝♦♥ ❝♦♠♣❧❡♠❡♥t♦✱
r❡s♣❡❝t✐✈❛♠❡♥t❡✳ ❊♥ t❛❧ ❝❛s♦✱ s❡ t✐❡♥❡ q✉❡

f (x, y, z) = (x + y + z ′ )(x′ + y + z ′ ).

❙✐♠♣❧✐✜❝❛♥❞♦ ❡st❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ♦❜t❡♥❡♠♦s

f (x, y, z) = (x + y + z ′ )(x′ + y + z ′ ) = (xx′ )(y + z ′ ) = y + z ′ .

◆♦t❡ q✉❡ ❡♥ ❡st❡ ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦ ❡s ♠✉❝❤♦ ♠❛s ❢á❝✐❧ tr❛❜❛❥❛r ❝♦♥ ❧❛ ❢♦r♠❛ ♥♦r♠❛❧ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t✐✈❛ ② ❞❡s❞❡ ❡❧
♣r✐♥❝✐♣✐♦ s❛❜❡♠♦s q✉❡ ✈❛ ❛ s❡r ❛sí s✐♠♣❧❡♠❡♥t❡ ♣♦rq✉❡ ❤❛② ♠❡♥♦s ❝❡r♦s q✉❡ ✉♥♦s ❡♥ ❧❛ ú❧t✐♠❛ ✜❧❛
❞❡ ❧❛ t❛❜❧❛ q✉❡ ❞❡✜♥❡ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝ó♥✳ ❖❜s❡r✈❡ t❛♠❜✐é♥ q✉❡ ♥♦ ✐♠♣♦rt❛ ❝♦♠♦ s❡ ❡s❝r✐❜❛ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝ó♥✱ ②❛ s❡❛
❡♥ ❧❛ ❢♦r♠❛ ♥♦r♠❛❧ ❞✐s②✉♥t✐✈❛ ♦ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t✐✈❛✱ ❧❛ ❡①♣r❡s✐ó♥ ❞❡s♣✉és ❞❡ s✐♠♣❧✐✜❝❛r❧❛ ❡s ❧❛ ♠✐s♠❛✳
✺✹ ❈❛♣ít✉❧♦ ✹✳ ➪❧❣❡❜r❛ ❞❡ ❇♦♦❧❡

✹✳✷✳✸✳ ❈♦♠♦ ♣❛s❛r ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ❢♦r♠❛ ❛ ♦tr❛ ✭❈♦♥❥✉♥t✐✈❛ ↔ ❉✐s②✉♥t✐✈❛✮

P❛r❛ ♣❛s❛r ❞❡ ✉♥❛ ❢♦r♠❛ ❛ ♦tr❛✱ ❡s ❞❡❝✐r ❞❡ ❧❛ ❢♦r♠❛ ♥♦r♠❛❧ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t✐✈❛ ❛ ❧❛ ❞✐s②✉♥t✐✈❛✱ ♦ ❞❡
❧❛ ❞✐s②✉♥t✐✈❛ ❛ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t✐✈❛✱ ❤❛❝❡♠♦s ❞♦s ❝♦♠♣❧❡♠❡♥t♦s✱ ❡❧ ♣r✐♠❡r ❝♦♠♣❧❡♠❡♥t♦ ❡s ❡❧ ❝♦♠♣❧❡♠❡♥t♦
✉s✉❛❧ ❞❡❧ á❧❣❡❜r❛ ❞❡ ❇♦♦❧❡ ② ❡❧ s❡❣✉♥❞♦ ❡s ✉♥ ❝♦♠♣❧❡♠❡♥t♦ ❞❡ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t♦s✱ ❞♦♥❞❡ ❡❧ ✉♥✐✈❡rs♦ s❡r✐❛ ❧❛
❢♦r♠❛ ♥♦r♠❛ ❝♦♠♣❧❡t❛✳ ❊s ❞❡❝✐r ❧♦ q✉❡ ❧❡ ❢❛❧t❛ ❛ ❧❛ ❡①♣r❡s✐ó♥ ❡♥❝♦♥tr❛❞❛ ♣❛r❛ ❧❧❡❣❛r ❛ s❡r ❧❛ ❢♦r♠❛
♥♦r♠❛❧ ❝♦♠♣❧❡t❛✱ s❡❛ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t✐✈❛ ♦ ❞✐s②✉♥t✐✈❛✳ ❱❡❛♠♦s ✉♥ ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦

❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✹✳✶✺✳ ❊♥❝✉❡♥tr❡ ❧❛ ❢♦r♠❛ ♥♦r♠❛❧ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t✐✈❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❜♦♦❧❡❛♥❛

f (x, y, z) = x′ y ′ z ′ + x′ yz + xyz.

❙♦❧✉❝✐ó♥✿ Pr✐♠❡r♦ ❝♦♠♣❧❡♠❡♥t❛♠♦s ✉s❛♥❞♦ ❧❛s ❧❡②❡s ❞❡ ▼♦r❣❛♥

f ′ = (x′ y ′ z ′ + x′ yz + xyz)′ = (x′ y ′ z ′ )′ (x′ yz)′ (xyz)′ = (x + y + z)(x + y ′ + z ′ )(x′ + y ′ + z ′ ).

▲✉❡❣♦ ❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❛♠♦s q✉❡ ❡❧❡♠❡♥t♦s ❧❡ ❢❛❧t❛♥ ❛ ❧❛ ❡①♣r❡s✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❛rr✐❜❛ ♣❛r❛ ❧❧❡❣❛r ❛ s❡r ❧❛ ❢♦r♠❛

♥♦r♠❛❧ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t✐✈❛ ❝♦♠♣❧❡t❛✱ ❧♦ ❝✉❛❧ ♥♦s ❞❛ q✉❡

f = (f ′ )′ = (x + y ′ + z)(x + y + z ′ )(x′ + y + z)(x′ + y ′ + z)(x′ + y + z ′ ).

❍❛❣❛♠♦s ♦tr♦ ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦

❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✹✳✶✻✳ ❊♥❝✉❡♥tr❡ ❧❛ ❢♦r♠❛ ♥♦r♠❛❧ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t✐✈❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❜♦♦❧❡❛♥❛

f (x, y, z) = (x + y + z ′ )(x′ + y + z)(x′ + y ′ + z ′ ).

❙♦❧✉❝✐ó♥✿ Pr✐♠❡r♦ ❝♦♠♣❧❡♠❡♥t❛♠♦s ✉s❛♥❞♦ ❧❛s ❧❡②❡s ❞❡ ▼♦r❣❛♥

f ′ = [(x + y + z ′ )(x′ + y + z)(x′ + y ′ + z ′ )]′ = (x + y + z ′ )′ + (x′ + y + z)′ + (x′ + y ′ + z ′ )′

= xy ′ z + xy ′ z ′ + xyz

▲✉❡❣♦ ❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❛♠♦s q✉❡ ❡❧❡♠❡♥t♦s ❧❡ ❢❛❧t❛♥ ❛ ❧❛ ❡①♣r❡s✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❛rr✐❜❛ ♣❛r❛ ❧❧❡❣❛r ❛ s❡r ❧❛ ❢♦r♠❛

♥♦r♠❛❧ ❞✐s②✉♥t✐✈❛ ❝♦♠♣❧❡t❛✱ ❧♦ ❝✉❛❧ ♥♦s ❞❛ q✉❡

f = (f ′ )′ = xyz ′ + x′ yz + x′ yz ′ + x′ y ′ z + x′ y ′ z ′ .

✹✳✸✳ ▼❛♣❛s ❞❡ ❑❛r♥❛✉❣❤

▼✉❝❤❛s ✈❡❝❡s s❡ ❞✐✜❝✉❧t❛ s✐♠♣❧✐✜❝❛r ❡①♣r❡s✐♦♥❡s ❜♦♦❧❡❛♥❛s ✉s❛♥❞♦ s♦❧❛♠❡♥t❡ ❧❛s ♣r♦♣✐❡❞❛❞❡s
❜ás✐❝❛s ❞❡❧ ➪❧❣❡❜r❛ ❞❡ ❇♦♦❧❡✱ ♣♦r t❛❧ ♠♦t✐✈♦ ❡♥ ❡st❛ s❡❝❝✐ó♥ s❡ ❡st✉❞✐❛♥ ❧♦s ♠❛♣❛s ❞❡ ❑❛r♥❛✉❣❤
♦ ♠❛♣❛s ❑✱ ❧♦s ❝✉❛❧❡s s♦♥ ✉♥❛ ❤❡rr❛♠✐❡♥t❛ ♠✉② ❡❢❡❝t✐✈❛ ♣❛r❛ ❤❛❝❡r s✐♠♣❧✐✜❝❛❝✐♦♥❡s ❞❡ ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s
❜♦♦❧❡❛♥❛s✳
✹✳✸✳ ▼❛♣❛s ❞❡ ❑❛r♥❛✉❣❤ ✺✺

❉❡✜♥✐❝✐ó♥ ✹✳✶✼ ✭▼❛♣❛s ❞❡ ❑❛r♥❛✉❣❤✮✳ ❙♦♥ ❞✐❛❣r❛♠❛s r❡❝t❛♥❣✉❧❛r❡s q✉❡ t✐❡♥❡♥ 2n ❝❛s✐❧❧❛s✱ ❞♦♥❞❡
n ❡s ❡❧ ♥ú♠❡r♦ ❞❡ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s ❧ó❣✐❝❛s ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r❛❞❛s✳ ▲♦s ❞✐❛❣r❛♠❛s ❛s♦❝✐❛♥ ❛ ❝❛❞❛ ❝❛s✐❧❧❛ ✉♥❛ ✜❧❛ ❞❡
❧❛ t❛❜❧❛ ❞❡ ✈❡r❞❛❞ ❞❡ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❜♦♦❧❡❛♥❛✳ ❊❧ ♥ú♠❡r♦ ❜✐♥❛r✐♦ q✉❡ ✐❞❡♥t✐✜❝❛ ❝❛❞❛ ✜❧❛ ❞❡ ❧❛ t❛❜❧❛ ❞❡
✈❡r❞❛❞ s❡ ❤❛❝❡ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞❡r ❝♦♥ ❧❛s ❝♦♦r❞❡♥❛❞❛s ❜✐♥❛r✐❛s q✉❡ ✐❞❡♥t✐✜❝❛♥ ❝❛❞❛ ❝❛s✐❧❧❛ ❞❡❧ ♠❛♣❛ ❑✳
❚r❛❜❛❥❛r❡♠♦s s✐❡♠♣r❡ ❝♦♥ ❧♦s tér♠✐♥♦s ♠✐♥✐♠❛❧❡s ♦ ♠✐♥t❡r♥s✱ ❧❧❡♥❛♥❞♦ ❧♦s ❝♦♠♣❛rt✐♠❡♥t♦s ❝♦rr❡s✲
♣♦♥❞✐❡♥t❡ ❛ ❧♦s ✉♥♦s ✭✶✮ q✉❡ ❛♣❛r❡❝❡♥ ❡♥ ❧❛ t❛❜❧❛ ❞❡ ✈❡r❞❛❞✱ ♣✉❡s s✐❡♠♣r❡ ✈❛♠♦s ❛ ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r❛r ❧❛
❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❜♦♦❧❡❛♥❛ ❡①♣r❡s❛❞❛ ❡♥ ❧❛ ❢♦r♠❛ ♥♦r♠❛❧ ❞✐s②✉♥t✐✈❛✳

❆ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❛❝✐ó♥ ♠♦str❛♠♦s ❧❛ ❢♦r♠❛ q✉❡ t♦♠❛♥ ❧♦s ♠❛♣❛s ❞❡ ❑❛r♥❛✉❣❤ ❞❡ ❞♦s✱ tr❡s ② ❝✉❛tr♦
✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s✳

✹✳✸✳✶✳ ▼❛♣❛s ❞❡ ❑❛r♥❛✉❣❤ ❞❡ ❞♦s ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s

❯♥❛ ❡①♣r❡s✐ó♥ ❜♦♦❧❡❛♥❛ ❝♦♥ ❞♦s ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s f (x, y) t✐❡♥❡ ✉♥❛ t❛❜❧❛ ❞❡ ✈❡r❞❛❞ ❞❡ ❝✉❛tr♦ ✜❧❛s✱
❝♦♥t❡♥✐❡♥❞♦ ❝❛❞❛ ✉♥❛ ❡❧ ✈❛❧♦r ❞❡ ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ♣❛r❛ ❝❛❞❛ ❝♦♠❜✐♥❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ✈❛❧♦r❡s ❞❡ ✈❡r❞❛❞ ❞❡ ❧❛s
❝❛r✐❛❜❧❡s x, y. ❊❧ ♠❛♣❛ ❞❡ ❑ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐❡♥t❡ ❡s ❡❧ s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡

x′ = 0 x=1

y′ = 0
y=1

❙✐♥ ❞♦s ❝❛s✐❧❧❛s ❝♦♥t✐❣✉❛s ✭❤♦r✐③♦♥t❛❧ ♦ ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧♠❡♥t❡✱ ♣❡r♦ ♥♦ ❡♥ ❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧✮ t✐❡♥❡♥ ✉♥♦s ✭✶✮✱ s❡ ❞✐❝❡
q✉❡ ❢♦r♠❛♥ ✉♥ ✐♠♣❧✐❝❛♥t❡✳

✹✳✸✳✷✳ ▼❛♣❛s ❞❡ ❑❛r♥❛✉❣❤ ❞❡ tr❡s ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s

❊❧ ♠❛♣❛ ❑ ♣❛r❛ tr❡s ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s ❡s ✉♥❛ t❛❜❧❛ ❞❡ 2 × 4 t❛❧ ❝♦♠♦ s❡ ✐❧✉str❛ ❛ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❛❝✐ó♥

x′ y ′ x′ y xy xy ′
00 01 11 10

z′ = 0
z=1

❊♥ ❡st❡ ❝❛s♦ ♣✉❡❞❡♥ ♦❝✉rr✐r ❛❞②❛❝❡♥❝✐❛s ❞❡ ❞♦s✱ ❝✉❛tr♦ ✉ ♦❝❤♦ ✉♥♦s✳ ❚❛♠❜✐é♥ s❡ ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r❛♥ ❧❛s
❛❞②❛❝❡♥❝✐❛s ❡♥tr❡ ❧❛ ♣r✐♠❡r❛ ② ❧❛ ❝✉❛rt❛ ❝♦❧✉♠♥❛✱ t❛❧ ❝♦♠♦ s✐ ❡❧ ♠❛♣❛ ❑ ❢✉❡r❛ ❞✐❜✉❥❛❞♦ s♦❜r❡ ✉♥
❝✐❧✐♥❞r♦✳ ❆❞❡♠ás✱ ❧❛s ❛❞②❛❝❡♥❝✐❛s ♣✉❡❞❡♥ ❡st❛r ❡♥ ✉♥❛ s♦❧❛ ✜❧❛ ♦ ✉♥ ❝✉❛❞r❛❞♦✳
✺✻ ❈❛♣ít✉❧♦ ✹✳ ➪❧❣❡❜r❛ ❞❡ ❇♦♦❧❡

✹✳✸✳✸✳ ▼❛♣❛s ❞❡ ❑❛r♥❛✉❣❤ ❞❡ ❝✉❛tr♦ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s

❊❧ ♠❛♣❛ ❑ ♣❛r❛ ❝✉❛tr♦ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s ❡s ✉♥❛ t❛❜❧❛ ❞❡ 4 × 4 t❛❧ ❝♦♠♦ s❡ ✐❧✉str❛ ❛ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❛❝✐ó♥

x′ y ′ x′ y xy xy ′
00 01 11 10

z ′ w′ 00
z′w 01
zw 11
zw′ 10

❊♥ ❡st❡ ❝❛s♦ ♣✉❡❞❡♥ ♦❝✉rr✐r ❛❞②❛❝❡♥❝✐❛s ❞❡ ❞♦s✱ ❝✉❛tr♦✱ ♦❝❤♦ ② ❞✐❡❝✐sé✐s ✉♥♦s q✉❡ ❡❧✐♠✐♥❛♥ ✉♥❛✱ ❞♦s✱
tr❡s ♦ ❝✉❛tr♦ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s✱ r❡s♣❡❝t✐✈❛♠❡♥t❡✳ ❚❛♠❜✐é♥ s❡ ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r❛♥ ❧❛s ❛❞②❛❝❡♥❝✐❛s ❡♥tr❡ ❧❛ ♣r✐♠❡r❛ ②
❧❛ ❝✉❛rt❛ ❝♦❧✉♠♥❛✱ ② ❧❛ ♣r✐♠❡r❛ ② ❝✉❛rt❛ ✜❧❛✳

✹✳✸✳✹✳ ❆❧❣♦r✐t♠♦ ❞❡ ▼✐♥✐♠✐③❛❝✐ó♥ ♠❡❞✐❛♥t❡ ▼❛♣❛s ❞❡ ❑❛r♥❛✉❣❤

❆ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡✜♥✐♠♦s ✈❛r✐♦s tér♠✐♥♦s ❝♦♠✉♥♠❡♥t❡ ✉s❛❞♦s ❡♥ ❧♦s ♣r♦❝❡s♦s ❞❡ s✐♠♣❧✐✜❝❛❝✐ó♥

❞❡ ❢✉♥❝✐♦♥❡s ❧ó❣✐❝❛s

❉❡✜♥✐❝✐ó♥ ✹✳✶✽ ✭❆❞②❛❝❡♥❝✐❛ ♣r✐♠❛✮✳ ❆❞②❛❝❡♥❝✐❛ q✉❡ ♥♦ ❡stá ✐♥❝❧✉✐❞❛ ❝♦♠♣❧❡t❛♠❡♥t❡ ❞❡♥tr♦ ❞❡
♦tr❛ ❛❞②❛♥❝❡♥❝✐❛✳ ◆♦ ♣✉❡❞❡ ❝♦♠❜✐♥❛rs❡ ❝♦♥ ♦tr❛ ❛❞②❛❝❡♥❝✐❛ ♣❛r❛ ❡❧✐♠✐♥❛r ✉♥❛ ♦ ✈❛r✐❛s ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s✳
❉❡✜♥✐❝✐ó♥ ✹✳✶✾ ✭❆❞②❛❝❡♥❝✐❛ ♣r✐♠❛ ❡s❡♥❝✐❛❧✮✳ ❆❞②❛❝❡♥❝✐❛ ♣r✐♠❛ q✉❡ ❝♦♥t✐❡♥❡ ✉♥♦ ♠ás ♠✐♥tér♠✐♥♦s
q✉❡ ♥♦ ❡stá♥ ✐♥❝❧✉✐❞♦s ❡♥ ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r ♦tr❛ ❛❞②❛❝❡♥❝✐❛ ♣r✐♠❛✳

❊❧ ❛❧❣♦r✐t♠♦ ❞❡ s✐♠♣❧✐✜❝❛❝✐ó♥ ❡s ❡❧ s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡

✶✳ ■❞❡♥✜❝❛r ❧❛s ❛❞②❛❝❡♥❝✐❛s ♣r✐♠❛s✳ P❛r❛ ❡st♦ s❡ ❜✉s❝❛ ♦❜t❡♥❡r ❧♦s ❣r✉♣♦s ❝♦♥ ♠❛②♦r ❝❛♥t✐❞❛❞
❞❡ ✉♥♦s ❛❞②❛❝❡♥t❡s✳ ▲♦s ❣r✉♣♦s ❞❡❜❡♥ ❝♦♥t❡♥❡r ✉♥ ♥ú♠❡r♦ ❞❡ ✉♥♦s q✉❡ s♦♥ ♣♦t❡♥❝✐❛s ❞❡ ❞♦s✱
❡st♦s ❡s✱ ✷✱ ✹✱ ✽ ♦ ✶✻✳

✷✳ ■❞❡♥t✐✜❝❛r t♦❞❛s ❧❛s ❛❞②❛❝❡♥❝✐❛s ♣r✐♠❛s ❡s❡♥❝✐❛❧❡s

✸✳ ▲❛ ❡①♣r❡s✐ó♥ ♠í♥✐♠❛ s❡ ♦❜t✐❡♥❡ s❡❧❡❝❝✐♦♥❛♥❞♦ t♦❞❛s ❧❛s ❛❞②❛❝❡♥❝✐❛s ♣r✐♠❛s ❡s❡♥❝✐❛❧❡s ② ❡❧ ♠❡✲
♥♦r ♥ú♠❡r♦ ❞❡ ❛❞②❛❝❡♥❝✐❛s ♣r✐♠❛s ♣❛r❛ ❝✉❜r✐r ❧♦s ♠✐♥tér♠✐♥♦s ♥♦ ✐♥❝❧✉✐❞♦s ❡♥ ❧❛s ❛❞②❛❝❡♥❝✐❛s
♣r✐♠❛s ❡s❡♥❝✐❛❧❡s✳

❍❛❣❛♠♦s ✈❛r✐♦s ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦s ♣❛r❛ ✐❧✉str❛r ❧❛ ✐❞❡❛ ❞❡❧ ♠ét♦❞♦✳

❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✹✳✷✵✳ ❙✐♠♣❧✐✜❝❛r ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❜♦♦❧❡❛♥❛ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❞❛ ❡♥ ❧❛ s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡ t❛❜❧❛

✹✳✸✳ ▼❛♣❛s ❞❡ ❑❛r♥❛✉❣❤ ✺✼

x y f (x, y)
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1

❊❧ ♠❛♣❛ ❑ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐❡♥t❡ ❛ ❧❛ t❛❜❧❛ ❞❡ ❡♥❝✐♠❛ ❡s

x′ x

y′ 1
y 1 1

❊st❡ ♠❛♣❛ ❑ t✐❡♥❡ ❞♦s ❛❞②❛❝❡♥❝✐❛s✱ ✉♥❛ ❡♥ ❧❛ s❡❣✉♥❞❛ ✜❧❛ ② ♦tr❛ ❡♥ ❧❛ s❡❣✉♥❞❛ ❝♦❧✉♠♥❛✳ ▲❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥
q✉❡ q✉❡r❡♠♦s s✐♠♣❧✐✜❝❛r ❡s
f (x, y) = x′ y + xy ′ + xy.
❯s❛♥❞♦ ❧❛s ❛❞②❛❝❡♥❝✐❛s ❛♥t❡s ♠❡♥❝✐♦♥❛❞❛s ♦❜t❡♥❡♠♦s ❧❛ s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡ s✐♠♣❧✐✜❝❛❝✐ó♥

f (x, y) = x + y

❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✹✳✷✶✳ ❙✐♠♣❧✐✜❝❛r ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❜♦♦❧❡❛♥❛ r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❛❞❛ ❡♥ ❧❛ s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡ t❛❜❧❛

x y z f (x, y)
0 0 0 1
0 0 1 0
0 1 0 1
0 1 1 1
1 0 0 1
1 0 1 1
1 1 0 1
1 1 1 1

❊❧ ♠❛♣❛ ❑ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐❡♥t❡ ❛ ❧❛ t❛❜❧❛ ❞❡ ❡♥❝✐♠❛ ❡s

x′ y ′ x′ y xy xy ′

z′ 1 1 1 1
z 1 1 1

❊st❡ ♠❛♣❛ ❑ t✐❡♥❡ tr❡s ❛❞②❛❝❡♥❝✐❛s ♣r✐♠❛s ❡s❡♥❝✐❛❧❡s ✐❧✉str❛❞❛s ❛rr✐❜❛✳ ▲❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ q✉❡ q✉❡r❡♠♦s
s✐♠♣❧✐✜❝❛r ❡s
f (x, y) = xyz + x′ yz + x′ yz ′ + xy ′ z + xy ′ z ′ + xyz ′ + xy ′ z ′ .
✺✽ ❈❛♣ít✉❧♦ ✹✳ ➪❧❣❡❜r❛ ❞❡ ❇♦♦❧❡

❯s❛♥❞♦ ❧❛s ❛❞②❛❝❡♥❝✐❛s ❛♥t❡s ♠❡♥❝✐♦♥❛❞❛s ♦❜t❡♥❡♠♦s ❧❛ s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡ s✐♠♣❧✐✜❝❛❝✐ó♥

f (x, y) = x + y + z ′
❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✹✳✷✷✳ ❙✐♠♣❧✐✜❝❛r ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❜♦♦❧❡❛♥❛ ❝✉②♦ ♠❛♣❛ ❞❡ ❑❛r♥❛✉❣❤ ❡s ❡❧ s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡

x′ y ′ x′ y xy xy ′

z ′ w′ 1 1

z′w
zw 1 1 1

zw′ 1 1 1

❊st❡ ♠❛♣❛ ❑ t✐❡♥❡ tr❡s ❛❞②❛❝❡♥❝✐❛s ♣r✐♠❛s ❡s❡♥❝✐❛❧❡s✳ ▲❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ q✉❡ q✉❡r❡♠♦s s✐♠♣❧✐✜❝❛r ❡s
f (x, y) = x′ y ′ z ′ w′ + x′ y ′ zw + x′ y ′ zw′ + xyzw + xyzw′ + xy ′ z ′ w′ + xy ′ zw + xy ′ zw′ .
❯s❛♥❞♦ ❧❛s ❛❞②❛❝❡♥❝✐❛s ❛♥t❡s ♠❡♥❝✐♦♥❛❞❛s ♦❜t❡♥❡♠♦s ❧❛ s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡ s✐♠♣❧✐✜❝❛❝✐ó♥
f (x, y) = xz + y ′ w′ + y ′ z

✹✳✹✳ ❈♦♠♣✉❡rt❛s ❧ó❣✐❝❛s

❆ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❛♣❧✐❝❛r❡♠♦s ❡❧ á❧❣❡❜r❛ ❜♦♦❧❡❛♥❛ ❡st✉❞✐❛❞❛ ❡♥ ❧❛ s❡❝❝✐ó♥ ❛♥t❡r✐♦r ❛❧ ❞✐s❡ñ♦ ❞❡ ❝✐r✲

❝✉✐t♦s ❧ó❣✐❝♦s✳ ❇❛s✐❝❛♠❡♥t❡ ❡st✉❞✐❛r❡♠♦s ❞♦s ♣r♦❜❧❡♠❛s✳ Pr✐♠❡r♦ s✐♠♣❧✐✜❝❛r❡♠♦s ✉♥ ❝✐r❝✉✐t♦ ❞❛❞♦
q✉❡ t❡♥❣❛ ❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❛❞❛s ♣r♦♣✐❡❞❛❞❡s ② s❡❣✉♥❞♦✱ ❞❛❞❛s ❝✐❡rt❛s ♣r♦♣✐❡❞❛❞❡s ❞✐s❡ñ❛r❡♠♦s ✉♥ ❝✐r❝✉✐t♦
❧ó❣✐❝♦ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐❡♥t❡✳ ❊st❡ ú❧t✐♠♦ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠❛ ❡s ❡q✉✐✈❛❧❡♥t❡ ❛ ❡♥❝♦♥tr❛r ✉♥❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❜♦♦❧❡❛♥❛ ❛s♦✲
❝✐❛❞❛ ❛ ✉♥❛ t❛❜❧❛ ❞❡ ✈❡r❞❛❞ ❞❛❞❛✳ P❛r❛ t❛❧ ✜♥ ❞❡❜❡♠♦s ✐♥tr♦❞✉❝✐r ❡❧ ❝♦♥❝❡♣t♦ ❞❡ ❝♦♠♣✉❡rt❛ ❧ó❣✐❝❛✱
❡❧ ❝✉❛❧ ❡s ✉♥ ❞✐s♣♦s✐t✐✈♦ q✉❡ ♥♦s ♣❡r♠✐t❡ ♦❜t❡♥❡r r❡s✉❧t❛❞♦s✱ ❞❡♣❡♥❞✐❡♥❞♦ ❞❡ ❧♦s ✈❛❧♦r❡s ❞❡ ❧❛s s❡ñ❛❧❡s
♦ ❡st❛❞♦s ❧ó❣✐❝♦s q✉❡ ❧❡ ✐♥❣r❡s❡♠♦s✳ ▲❛s tr❡s ❝♦♠♣✉❡rt❛s ❢✉♥❞❛♠❡♥t❛❧❡s ②❛ ♠❡♥❝✐♦♥❛❞❛s ✭❆◆❉✱ ❖❘
② ◆❖❚✮ s♦♥ s✉✜❝✐❡♥t❡s ♣❛r❛ ❡s❝r✐❜✐r ❝✉❛❧q✉✐❡r ❡❝✉❛❝✐ó♥ ❜♦♦❧❡❛♥❛✱ s✐♥ ❡♠❜❛r❣♦ ♣♦r ❝✉❡st✐♦♥❡s ❞❡
❢❛❜r✐❝❛❝✐ó♥ ❧❛s ♠ás ✉s❛❞❛s s♦♥ ❧❛s ◆❆◆❉ ② ◆❖❘✱ ❧❛s ❝✉❛❧❡s ✐♥tr♦❞✉❝✐♠♦s ❛ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❛❝✐ó♥✳

✹✳✹✳✶✳ ❈♦♠♣✉❡rt❛ ◆❆◆❉

▲❛ ❝♦♠♣✉❡rt❛ ◆❆◆❉ ✭♥♦t ❛♥❞✮✱ ❞❡♥♦♠✐♥❛❞❛ t❛♠❜✐é♥ ❝♦♠♣✉❡rt❛ ❙❤❡✛❡r✱ ❡s ❧❛ ♥❡❣❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ✉♥❛
❝♦♠♣✉❡rt❛ ❆◆❉ ② s❡ ❞❡✜♥❡ ❝♦♠♦
x NAND y = (x · y)′ .
❊❧ sí♠❜♦❧♦ ♣❛r❛ ❧❛ ❝♦♠♣✉❡rt❛ ◆❆◆❉ s❡ ♠✉❡str❛ ❛ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❛❝✐ó♥
✹✳✹✳ ❈♦♠♣✉❡rt❛s ❧ó❣✐❝❛s ✺✾

✹✳✹✳✷✳ ❈♦♠♣✉❡rt❛ ◆❖❘

▲❛ ❝♦♠♣✉❡rt❛ ◆❖❘ ✭♥♦t ♦r✮✱ ❞❡♥♦♠✐♥❛❞❛ t❛♠❜✐é♥ ♦♣❡r❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ P✐❡r❝❡✱ ❡s ❧❛ ♥❡❣❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ✉♥❛
❝♦♠♣✉❡rt❛ ❖❘ ② s❡ ❞❡✜♥❡ ❝♦♠♦
x NOR y = (x + y)′ .
❊❧ sí♠❜♦❧♦ ♣❛r❛ ❧❛ ❝♦♠♣✉❡rt❛ ◆❖❘ s❡ ♠✉❡str❛ ❛ ❝♦♥t✐♥✉❛❝✐ó♥

❊①✐st❡♥ ♦tr♦s t✐♣♦s ❞❡ ❝♦♠♣✉❡rt❛s✱ t❛❧❡s ❝♦♠♦ ❧❛ ❳❖❘ ② ❧❛ ❳◆❖❘✱ ♣❡r♦ ❧❛ ❢♦r♠❛ ♠ás ✉s✉❛❧ ❞❡
❞✐s❡ñ❛r ❝✐r❝✉✐t♦s ❧ó❣✐❝♦s ❡s só❧♦ ✉s❛r ✉♥ t✐♣♦ ❞❡ ❝♦♠♣✉❡rt❛s✱ ②❛ s❡❛♥ ◆❆◆❉ ♦ ◆❖❘✱ ❧♦ ❝✉❛❧ ❤❛ s✐❞♦
✐♠♣✉❡st♦ ♣♦r ❝♦♥s✐❞❡r❛❝✐♦♥❡s ❝♦♥str✉❝t✐✈❛s✱ ♣✉❡s ❡s ♠✉❝❤♦ ♠ás ❡✜❝✐❡♥t❡ ❧❛ ❢❛❜r✐❝❛❝✐ó♥ ❡♥ s❡r✐❡ ②
❛✉t♦♠❛t✐③❛❞❛ ❞❡ ❝✐r❝✉✐t♦s ✐♥t❡❣r❛❞♦s ② ❝❤✐♣s q✉❡ s♦❧♦ ✉t✐❧❧✐③❛♥ ✉♥❛ s♦❧❛ ❝❧❛s❡ ❞❡ ❝♦♠♣✉❡rt❛s✳ P♦r
❡st❡ ♠♦t✐✈♦✱ ❡♥ ❡st❡ ❧✐❜r♦ só❧♦ ❞✐s❡ñ❛r❡♠♦s ❝✐r❝✉✐t♦s ✉s❛♥❞♦ ❧❛s ❞♦s ❝♦♠♣✉❡rt❛s ❛rr✐❜❛ ❞❡✜♥✐❞❛s✳

❱❛❧❡ ❧❛ ♣❡♥❛ ♥♦t❛r q✉❡ ✉s❛♥❞♦ ❧❛ ❝♦♠♣✉❡rt❛ ◆❆◆❉ ♦ ◆❖❘ s❡ ♣✉❡❞❡♥ ♦❜t❡♥❡r ❡❧ ❝♦♠♣❧❡♠❡♥t♦✱ s✐
❡s q✉❡ ❧♦ ♥❡❝❡s✐t❛♠♦s✱ ♣❛r❛ ❡s♦ ✉s❛♠♦s ❧❛s ❞♦s ♣r♦♣✐❡❞❛❞❡s x′ = (x · x)′ ② x′ = (x + x)′ , ❣r❛✜❝❛♠❡♥t❡
s❡rí❛ ❧♦ s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡

x x′

x x′

❊❥❡♠♣❧♦ ✹✳✷✸✳ ❊s❝r✐❜✐r ❧❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ f (x, y, z) = (xy ′ +xz)′ ❡♥ ❢♦r♠❛ ♥♦r♠❛❧ ❞✐s②✉♥t✐✈❛✱ s✐♠♣❧✐✜❝❛r❧❛
✉s❛♥❞♦ ♠❛♣❛s ❞❡ ❑❛r♥❛✉❣❤ ② ❞✐❜✉❥❛r ❡❧ ❝✐r❝✉✐t♦ ❧ó❣✐❝♦ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐❡♥t❡✳
❙♦❧✉❝✐ó♥✿

f (x, y, z) = (xy ′ )′ (xz)′ = (x′ + y)(x′ + z ′ ) = x′ + x′ z ′ + yx′ + yz ′

= x′ (z + z ′ ) + x′ z ′ (y + y ′ ) + yx′ (z + z ′ ) + yz ′ (x + x′ )
= x′ z + x′ z ′ + x′ yz ′ + x′ y ′ z ′ + x′ yz + x′ yz ′ + xyz ′ + x′ yz ′
= x′ z(y + y ′ ) + x′ z ′ (y + y ′ ) + x′ yz ′ + x′ y ′ z ′ + x′ yz + xyz ′
= x′ yz + x′ y ′ z + x′ yz ′ + x′ y ′ z ′ + x′ yz ′ + x′ y ′ z ′ + x′ yz + xyz ′
= x′ yz + x′ y ′ z + x′ yz ′ + x′ y ′ z ′ + xyz ′

❊❧ ♠❛♣❛ ❞❡ ❑❛r♥❛✉❣❤ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐❡♥t❡ ❡s ❡❧ s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡

✻✵ ❈❛♣ít✉❧♦ ✹✳ ➪❧❣❡❜r❛ ❞❡ ❇♦♦❧❡

x′ y ′ x′ y xy xy ′

z′ 1 1 1
z 1 1

▲❛ ❢✉♥❝✐ó♥ ❜♦♦❧❡❛♥❛ s✐♠♣❧✐✜❝❛❞❛ ❡s

f (x, y, z) = yz ′ + x′ .

P❛r❛ ❞✐s❡ñ❛r ❡❧ ❝✐r❝✉✐t♦ ❧ó❣✐❝♦ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐❡♥t❡✱ ♥♦ só❧♦ ♣❛r❛ ❡st❡ ❡❥❡♠♣❧♦ s✐♥♦ ♣❛r❛ t♦❞♦s ❧♦s ❝✐r❝✉✐t♦s✱
✉s❛r❡♠♦s ✉♥ ✏❜✉s✧❞❡ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s ❞❡ ❡♥tr❛❞❛ ② s✉s ♥❡❣❛❝✐♦♥❡s ✭❧❛ ❧✐♥❡❛ q✉❡ s❛❧❡ ❞❡❧ ♣❡q✉❡ñ♦ ❝ír❝✉❧♦ ❡s
❧❛ ♥❡❣❛❝✐ó♥ ❞❡ ❧❛ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐❡♥t❡✮✱ ❞❡ ❧❛ s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡ ❢♦r♠❛✿

w w′

P♦❞rí❛♠♦s só❧♦ ✉s❛r ❝♦♠♣✉❡rt❛s ◆❆◆❉ ❡♥ ❡❧ ❞✐s❡ñ♦ ❞❡❧ ❝✐r❝✉✐t♦ ♣❛r❛ ❧♦ ❝✉❛❧ ♥❡❝❡s✐t❛♠♦s ❡s❝r✐❜✐r ❛
f ❝♦♠♦ ♣r♦❞✉❝t♦s ❝♦♠♣❧❡♠❡♥t❛❞♦s✱ ❞♦♥❞❡ ♣♦s✐❜❧❡♠❡♥t❡ s♦❜r❡♥ ❝♦♠♣❧❡♠❡♥t♦s✱ ♠ás ❡①❛❝t❛♠❡♥t❡

f (x, y, z) = yz ′ + x′ = [(yz ′ + x′ )′ ]′ = [(yz ′ )′ (x′ )]′ .

▲✉❡❣♦ s❡ ♦❜t✐❡♥❡ q✉❡ ❡❧ ❝✐r❝✉✐t♦ ✉s❛♥❞♦ s♦❧❛♠❡♥t❡ ❝♦♠♣✉❡rt❛s ◆❆◆❉ ❡s ❡❧ s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡✱

x y z

•
•

f
•

P♦❞rí❛♠♦s t❛♠❜✐é♥ só❧♦ ✉s❛r ❝♦♠♣✉❡rt❛s ◆❖❘ ❡♥ ❡❧ ❞✐s❡ñ♦ ❞❡❧ ❝✐r❝✉✐t♦ ♣❛r❛ ❧♦ ❝✉❛❧ ♥❡❝❡s✐t❛♠♦s
❡s❝r✐❜✐r ❛ f ❝♦♠♦ s✉♠❛s ❝♦♠♣❧❡♠❡♥t❛❞♦❛s✱ ❞♦♥❞❡ ♣♦s✐❜❧❡♠❡♥t❡ s♦❜r❡♥ ❝♦♠♣❧❡♠❡♥t♦s✱ ♠ás ❡①❛❝t❛✲
♠❡♥t❡
f (x, y, z) = yz ′ + x′ = [(yz ′ )′ ]′ + x′ = (y ′ + z)′ + x′ = [((y ′ + z)′ + x′ )′ ]′ .
✹✳✺✳ ❊❥❡r❝✐❝✐♦s ✻✶

◆♦t❡ q✉❡ ❡♥ ❡st❡ ❝❛s♦ ♥♦s s♦❜r❛ ✉♥ ❝♦♠♣❧❡♠❡♥t♦✳ ▲✉❡❣♦ s❡ ♦❜t✐❡♥❡ q✉❡ ❡❧ ❝✐r❝✉✐t♦ ✉s❛♥❞♦ s♦❧❛♠❡♥t❡

❝♦♠♣✉❡rt❛s ◆❖❘ ❡s ❡❧ s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡✱

x y z

•
•

f
•

✹✳✺✳ ❊❥❡r❝✐❝✐♦s

✶✳ ▼✉❡str❡ q✉❡ ❡♥ á❧❣❡❜r❛ ❞❡ ❇♦♦❧❡ ❧♦s ♥❡✉tr♦s ♣❛r❛ ❧❛ s✉♠❛ ② ❡❧ ♣r♦❞✉❝t♦ s♦♥ ú♥✐❝♦s✳

✷✳ ❊s❝r✐❜✐r ❝❛❞❛ ✉♥❛ ❞❡ ❧❛s s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡s ❡①♣r❡s✐♦♥❡s ❜♦♦❧❡❛♥❛s ❡♥ ❧❛ ❢♦r♠❛ ♥♦r♠❛❧ ❞✐s②✉♥t✐✈❛ ❝♦♥
❡❧ ♠❡♥♦r ♥ú♠❡r♦ ❞❡ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s ♣♦s✐❜❧❡

❛✮ (x + y + z ′ )′ + (xy)′
❜✮ x + y + z(xy + y ′ )
❝✮ (x′ + y)(x + y + z ′ ) + xy(z + x + y)′
❞✮ (xy + z ′ )′ (xw′ + y) + xwz ′
❡✮ xyz + xyz ′ + xy(xy + z ′ + x)′
❢ ✮ (xy + w′ )′ (x + yw + z)

✸✳ ❊s❝r✐❜✐r ❝❛❞❛ ✉♥❛ ❞❡ ❧❛s s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡s ❡①♣r❡s✐♦♥❡s ❜♦♦❧❡❛♥❛s ❡♥ ❧❛ ❢♦r♠❛ ♥♦r♠❛❧ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t✐✈❛ ❝♦♥
❡❧ ♠❡♥♦r ♥ú♠❡r♦ ❞❡ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s ♣♦s✐❜❧❡

❛✮ (x′ + y ′ + z)′ + x′ y
❜✮ x′ + y ′ + z(xy + y ′ )′
❝✮ (x′ + y)′ (x + y + z ′ ) + (xy)′ (z + x + y)
❞✮ (xy + z ′ )(xw + y)′ + (xw′ z)′
❡✮ x′ yz ′ + xyz ′ + (xy)′ (xy + z ′ + x)′
❢ ✮ (xy + w′ )′ (x + yw + z)”

✹✳ ❊s❝r✐❜✐r ❝❛❞❛ ✉♥❛ ❞❡ ❧❛s s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡s ❡①♣r❡s✐♦♥❡s ❜♦♦❧❡❛♥❛s ❡♥ ❧❛ ❢♦r♠❛ ♥♦r♠❛❧ ❞✐s②✉♥t✐✈❛

❛✮ f (x, y, z) = (x + y + z)(x′ y ′ z ′ )(x + y ′ + z)

✻✷ ❈❛♣ít✉❧♦ ✹✳ ➪❧❣❡❜r❛ ❞❡ ❇♦♦❧❡

❜ ✮ g(x, y) = (x + y)(x + y ′ )
❝ ✮ h(x, y, z, w) = (x + y + z + w)(x′ + y ′ + z ′ + w′ )(x + y + z ′ + w′ )

✺✳ ❊s❝r✐❜✐r ❝❛❞❛ ✉♥❛ ❞❡ ❧❛s s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡s ❡①♣r❡s✐♦♥❡s ❜♦♦❧❡❛♥❛s ❡♥ ❧❛ ❢♦r♠❛ ♥♦r♠❛❧ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t✐✈❛
❛ ✮ f (x, y, z) = xyz + xy ′ z ′ + x′ y ′ z ′
❜ ✮ g(x, y) = xy + x′ y
❝ ✮ h(x, y, z, w) = xyzw + x′ y ′ zw + xyzw′

✻✳ P❛r❛ ❝❛❞❛ ✉♥❛ ❞❡ ❧❛s s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡s ❡①♣r❡s✐♦♥❡s✱ ❡♥❝✉❡♥tr❡ ❧❛ ❢♦r♠❛ ♥♦r♠❛❧ ❞✐s②✉♥t✐✈❛✱ s✐♠♣❧✐✜q✉❡
✉s❛♥❞♦ ♠❛♣❛s ❑ ② ❞✐s❡ñ❡ ❡❧ ❝✐r❝✉✐t♦ ❧ó❣✐❝♦ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐❡♥t❡ ✉s❛♥❞♦ s♦❧❛♠❡♥t❡ ❝♦♠♣✉❡rt❛s
◆❆◆❉✳
❛ ✮ f (x, y, z) = xy(x′ y + z)′ + x′ z ′
❜ ✮ g(x, y) = xy(x′ + y)′
❝ ✮ h(x, y, z, w) = (xy)′ + (x′ y ′ zw + xyzw)′
❞ ✮ k(x, y, z) = xy + xy ′ (x + y + z ′ )

✼✳ P❛r❛ ❝❛❞❛ ✉♥❛ ❞❡ ❧❛s s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡s ❡①♣r❡s✐♦♥❡s✱ ❡♥❝✉❡♥tr❡ ❧❛ ❢♦r♠❛ ♥♦r♠❛❧ ❝♦♥❥✉♥t✐✈❛✱ s✐♠♣❧✐✜q✉❡
✉s❛♥❞♦ ♠❛♣❛s ❑ ② ❞✐s❡ñ❡ ❡❧ ❝✐r❝✉✐t♦ ❧ó❣✐❝♦ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐❡♥t❡ ✉s❛♥❞♦ s♦❧❛♠❡♥t❡ ❝♦♠♣✉❡rt❛s
◆❖❘✳
❛ ✮ f (x, y, z) = (x′ y + z)′ + x′ z ′
❜ ✮ g(x, y) = x′ y ′ + (x′ + y)′
❝ ✮ h(x, y, z, w) = (x + y)′ (x′ y ′ zw + xyzw)′
❞ ✮ k(x, y, z) = x + y + xy ′ (x + y + z ′ )′

✽✳ ❉✐s❡ñ❛r ❡❧ ❝✐r❝✉✐t♦ ❧ó❣✐❝♦ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐❡♥t❡ ❛ ❧❛ s✐❣✉✐❡♥t❡ t❛❜❧❛ ✉s❛♥❞♦ s♦❧❛♠❡♥t❡ ❝♦♠♣✉❡rt❛s

◆❆◆❉ ② ❧✉❡❣♦ ❤á❣❛❧♦ ✉s❛♥❞♦ só❧♦ ❝♦♠♣✉❡rt❛s ◆❖❘

x y z f (x, y)
0 0 0 1
0 0 1 0
0 1 0 1
0 1 1 1
1 0 0 0
1 0 1 1
1 1 0 0
1 1 1 1

✾✳ ❉❡t❡r♠✐♥❛r ❧❛s ❡①♣r❡s✐♦♥❡s s✐♠♣❧✐✜❝❛❞❛s ♣❛r❛ ❝❛❞❛ ✉♥♦ ❞❡ ❧♦s s✐q✉✐❡♥t❡s ♠❛♣❛s ❞❡ ❑❛r♥❛✉❣❤✳
❇✐❜❧✐♦❣r❛❢í❛
❬✶❪ ❇❛r❝♦✱ ❈❛r❧♦s✱ ❇❛r❝♦✱ ●❡r♠á♥ ② ❆r✐t✐③á❜❛❧✱ ❲✐❧❧✐❛♠✱ ▼❛t❡♠át✐❝❛ ❉✐❣✐t❛❧✱ ▼❝●r❛✇✲❍✐❧❧ ■♥t❡r✲

❛♠❡r✐❝❛♥❛✱ ❙✳❆✳✱ ❈♦❧♦♠❜✐❛✱ ✶✾✾✽✳

❬✷❪ ❇❧♦❝❤✱ ❊t❤❛♥✱ Pr♦♦❢ ❛♥❞ ❋✉♥❞❛♠❡♥t❛❧s✱ ❇✐r❦❤ä✉s❡r✱ ❇♦st♦♥✱ ✷✵✵✵✳

❬✸❪ P✐♥t❡r✱ ❈❤❛r❧❡s✱ ❙❡t ❚❤❡♦r②✱ ❆❞❞✐s♦♥✲❲❡s❧❡② P✉❜❧✐s❤✐♥❣ ❈♦♠♣❛♥②✱ ✶✾✼✶✳

❬✹❪ ❚❛②❧♦r✱ ❍♦✇❛r❞ ② ❲❛❞❡✱ ❚❤♦♠❛s✱ ▼❛t❡♠át✐❝❛s ❜ás✐❝❛s ❝♦♥ ✈❡❝t♦r❡s ② ♠❛tr✐❝❡s✱ ▲✐♠✉s❛✱ ▼❡①✐❝♦✱

✶✾✽✾✳

✻✸