TAI SOLARIN UNIVERSITY OF EDUCATION

P.M.B. 2118, IJAGUN, IJEBU ODE.

NAME: ALLIBALOGUN MORENIKEJI IDIAT

MATRIC NO: 20210103095

LEVEL: 200

COURSE CODE: POL 111

COURSE TITTLE: INTRODUCTION TO POLITICS

DEPARTMENT: EDUCATIONAL MANAGEMENT

COURSE COMB: EDM/POL
COLLEGE: COSPED

QUESTION
Section 4: Public Administration
 Public administration, basic, principles, techniques and
process.
 What is public policy
 Decentralization and government: models and principles
and purpose

LECTURER IN CHARGE
DR. A. O. MOLIKI

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 PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION

Public administration is a field in which leaders serve communities to advance the

common good and effect positive change. Public administration professionals are equipped
with skills to manage at all levels of government (local, state, and federal) as well as
nonprofit organizations. Skills employed across the field of public administration such as
project management and program management are often transferrable to the private sector.

Public administration is a professional and academic discipline that studies the

application of government policy and public services to advance the interests of society. It is
central to the process of implementing and managing public programs. Using the framework
of public administration, government leaders and other public servants create policies that
define broad objectives for their institutions. These policies often suggest programs and
services that can be implemented to solve societal issues.

In addition to formulating policy, public administrators also dictate how to invest

resources in implementing those policies. This is where the management aspect of public
administration comes into play. An administration must effectively coordinate the actors
responsible for carrying out policy directives. This requires administering complex budgets,
navigating and coordinating human resources on a grand scale, and constantly making
improvements to maximize the performance of the public policy.

BASIC PRINCIPLES OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION

Public administration is a field that encompasses the implementation of government policies

and the management of public resources and services. While the principles of public
administration can vary depending on the context and country, here are some basic principles
that are widely recognized:

 Accountability: Public administrators are accountable for their actions and decisions.
They are responsible for ensuring transparency, integrity, and adherence to legal and
ethical standards. Accountability helps build public trust and ensures the efficient use
of public resources.

 Efficiency: Public administration aims to achieve objectives and deliver services

efficiently. This involves using resources effectively, minimizing waste, and

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 optimizing processes. Efficiency helps maximize the impact of government programs
and services while minimizing costs.

 Effectiveness: Public administration strives for effectiveness in achieving desired

outcomes. Policies, programs, and services should be designed and implemented in a
way that addresses societal needs, solves problems, and produces the intended results.
Regular evaluation and feedback mechanisms are essential to assess effectiveness.

 Equity and Fairness: Public administrators must uphold principles of equity and
fairness in the delivery of public services. They should ensure equal access to services
and resources, without discrimination or favoritism. Fairness in decision-making
processes and resource allocation is vital for building trust and social cohesion.

 Rule of Law: Public administrators operate within the framework of the rule of law.
They must respect and enforce laws, regulations, and policies, promoting a stable and
predictable legal environment. Adherence to the rule of law helps ensure consistency,
predictability, and protection of citizens' rights.

 Transparency: Public administration should be transparent, providing access to

information and decision-making processes. Transparency fosters public trust, enables
accountability, and allows citizens to participate in governance. Public administrators
should disclose information, engage in public consultations, and facilitate open
communication.

 Responsiveness: Public administrators should be responsive to the needs and

concerns of the public. They should actively listen, engage with stakeholders, and
incorporate feedback into decision-making processes. Responsiveness enables public
administrators to address emerging challenges, adapt policies, and improve service
delivery.

 Professionalism: Public administrators should uphold high professional standards.

They should possess the necessary knowledge, skills, and expertise to carry out their
roles effectively. Professionalism involves ethical conduct, continuous learning, and
commitment to public service.

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 TECHNIQUES AND PROCESS OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION

Public administration employs various techniques and processes to manage public resources,
implement policies, and deliver public services. Here are some commonly used techniques
and processes in public administration:

 Planning: Public administration involves the systematic process of planning, which

includes defining objectives, identifying priorities, and formulating strategies to achieve
desired outcomes. Planning helps allocate resources effectively, set targets, and establish
a roadmap for implementation.

 Policy Formulation: Public administrators play a crucial role in the formulation of

policies. This process involves conducting research, analyzing data, and consulting with
stakeholders to develop policy proposals. Administrators assess the potential impacts,
costs, and benefits of different policy options before presenting recommendations to
policymakers.

 Budgeting: Budgeting is a key process in public administration that involves allocating

financial resources to different government programs and services. Public administrators
develop budgets based on policy priorities, resource availability, and projected costs.
They also monitor expenditures, ensure financial accountability, and make adjustments as
needed.

 Organizational Design: Public administrators design and structure organizations to

facilitate effective and efficient operations. This process involves defining roles and
responsibilities, establishing reporting lines, and determining decision-making
frameworks. Organizational design aims to optimize coordination, communication, and
accountability within public agencies.

 Human Resource Management: Public administrators manage human resources to

ensure a competent and motivated workforce. This includes processes such as
recruitment, selection, training, performance evaluation, and career development. Human
resource management ensures that the right people with the right skills are in place to
deliver public services effectively.

 Implementation and Program Management: Public administration involves

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 implementing policies and managing programs and projects. Administrators oversee the
execution of plans, coordinate activities, allocate resources, monitor progress, and
evaluate outcomes. Effective implementation requires clear goals, efficient coordination,
and monitoring mechanisms.

 Decision-making and Problem Solving: Public administrators engage in decision-

making processes to address complex problems and make informed choices. This
involves analyzing information, considering alternative solutions, evaluating risks and
benefits, and selecting the most appropriate course of action. Decision-making processes
may involve consultation with experts, stakeholders, and the public.

 Performance Evaluation and Monitoring: Public administration utilizes performance

evaluation and monitoring processes to assess the effectiveness and efficiency of policies
and programs. Evaluations measure progress towards objectives, identify areas for
improvement, and inform decision-making. Monitoring involves collecting data, tracking
performance indicators, and analyzing results to ensure accountability and continuous
improvement.

 Public Engagement and Participation: Public administrators promote public

engagement and participation to enhance transparency, legitimacy, and responsiveness.
This may involve conducting public consultations, seeking feedback, and involving
citizens in decision-making processes. Public engagement processes help administrators
gain insights, build trust, and incorporate diverse perspectives into policymaking and
service delivery.

MEANING OF PUBLIC POLICY

Public policy refers to the decisions, actions, and principles adopted by governments and
other public institutions to address societal problems, meet public needs, and achieve specific
objectives. It encompasses a range of government activities, including the formulation,
implementation, and evaluation of policies that guide the functioning of society.

Public policy can cover a wide range of issues, such as social welfare, healthcare, education,
economic development, environmental protection, transportation, and public safety. These
policies are developed based on societal values, political ideologies, expert advice, public
opinion, and a consideration of the available resources and constraints.

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Components of Public Policy:

 Problem Identification: Public policy begins with the recognition and identification
of a problem or an issue that requires attention from the government. This can be done
through research, data analysis, public input, or the identification of emerging
challenges.
 Policy Formulation: Once a problem is identified, policymakers engage in the
process of policy formulation. This involves defining the objectives of the policy,
analyzing alternative approaches, and developing strategies and action plans to
address the problem. Policy formulation may involve collaboration with experts,
stakeholders, and affected communities.
 Policy Implementation: After a policy is formulated, it needs to be put into practice.
Policy implementation involves translating the policy into concrete actions, allocating
resources, and assigning responsibilities to government agencies or other relevant
actors. Implementation requires coordination, monitoring, and evaluation to ensure
effective delivery of intended outcomes.
 Policy Evaluation: Policy evaluation assesses the impact and effectiveness of
implemented policies. It involves gathering data, analyzing outcomes, and measuring
the extent to which the policy has achieved its intended goals. Evaluation helps
policymakers understand the strengths and weaknesses of the policy and make
informed decisions about its continuation, modification, or termination.
 Policy Revision: Public policies are not static and may require periodic revision and
adjustment. As societal needs, priorities, and circumstances change, policymakers
may need to modify or update existing policies to address new challenges or improve
outcomes. Policy revision can be informed by evaluation findings, new research,
stakeholder feedback, or changes in the political landscape.

Importance of Public Policy

Public policy plays a crucial role in forming the guidelines and principles of a society, so
they’re a necessary part of governing and politics. Since public policy is formed as a
collective effort between governments, institutions, and even regular citizens, it’s an
important and effective way to have your voice heard. Since politicians and parties change
every few years, so do the positions and views held by the majority or by those in office. Of

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course, politicians can be voted out and removed from power, but the public policies they
uphold are more difficult to remove.

This can be for better or for worse, but public policies can outlast governments and
politicians long after they’re out of power, so it’s important to use your vote carefully so that
you support people who want to influence the policies that matter to you most.

Examples of Public Policy

There are many different types of public policy, so a good way to get a better understanding
of this topic as a whole is to look at a few different examples of them.

Here are just a few examples of public policy that affect many people’s day-to-day lives:

 Abortion

When state or national governments set restrictions on abortion or acceptance of it, this is
based on public policy. For laws that govern abortion, the public policy could dictate that life
begins at conception, or on the other hand, that women should be autonomous over their
bodies. The governing policy will influence the outcome of abortion laws.

 Gun Rights

Gun rights are also influenced by public policy. When there are strict gun laws in effect, it’s
based on public policy that indicates that keeping guns away from criminals, children, or
mentally ill citizens is more important than the right to bear arms. By contrast, those states
with more relaxed gun laws have public policies that place the right to bear arms as more
important than other laws and that owning guns doesn’t effectively stop or prevent violence.

 Taxes

Progressive tax systems are also based on public policy. For example, when it’s mandated
that those who earn more should pay a higher rate of taxes compared to those who earn less,
this is based on public policies.

 Labor

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Laws such as the one that protects workers as well as things like the minimum wage rate or
the number of hours an employee can work is all based on public policy. Public policies are
crafted in order to ensure that workers aren’t exploited by their employers and to protect their
rights.

Features of Public Policy

1] Goal-Oriented

All public policies have the ultimate aim to fulfil certain goals the government has in mind.
The reason for the formation and implementation of these policies is the welfare of the
citizens of the nation.

So the government can use public policies to implement government programs to achieve
their goals. For example, the current government has a financial inclusion policy. They wish
to enlist the majority of our rural population in banks through the Jan Dhan Yojna.

2] Result of Government Action

Public policy is the result of the collective of all government actions. So the actions and
activities of all government officials collectively integrate to form public policy. The entire
legal structure of our country stands on the collective actions of its representatives. From the
actions of the highest judge in the land to that of lawyers and clerks forms the basis of
our judiciary.

3] Can Take Various Forms

Public policy forms by the decision of the government to do something, or even to not do
something. The decision of the government can represent itself in many forms like law,
notices, ordinances, judicial decisions, executive orders, and judgments etc. In India most
public policies will be in a written format, however, this is not a necessity,

4] Depicts Concern of the Government

Public policy is the solution to a problem the society is facing. This means the solution for the
betterment of society has the sanction of the government.

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So it is of great importance to entrepreneurs and businessmen in a country. They need
assurance that the government is looking after their concerns and economic interests as well.

And if the government refuses to take any action it reflects their ignorance or disconcert. This
will warn its citizens of the government’s lack of empathy and concern.

Factors Influencing Public Policy:

 Political Environment: Political factors, such as the ideology of the ruling party,
public opinion, interest group pressures, and electoral considerations, can significantly
influence the development and implementation of public policies.
 Socioeconomic Conditions: Economic factors, social trends, demographic changes,
and cultural norms play a role in shaping public policy. Policymakers consider the
impact of policies on various socioeconomic groups and aim to address inequality and
promote social welfare.
 Legal and Institutional Framework: Public policies operate within a legal and
institutional framework. Laws, regulations, and the organizational structure of
government agencies shape the formulation, implementation, and enforcement of
policies.
 Expert Advice and Research: Policymakers often rely on expert advice, research,
and analysis to inform policy decisions. Experts from academia, think tanks, and
specialized government agencies provide insights and evidence-based
recommendations.
 International Influences: Globalization and international agreements can influence
public policies. Governments may adopt policies in response to international
obligations, peer pressure, or to align with global best practices and standards.

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 DECENTRALIZATION AND GOVERNMENT

Decentralization is the process of transferring power from central government to local or

regional governments. It is a way of restructuring authority so that there is a system of checks
and balances between different levels of government. Decentralization can take many forms,
including administrative, political, formal or informal. In a decentralized model of
government, subnational governments are governed by political bodies and have their own
assets and administrative staff. They can raise own-source revenues, such as taxes, fees and
user charges and they manage their own budget. Decentralisation is increasingly recognised
internationally as essential for good governance. Done well, it leads to greater participation,
greater efficiency and greater diversity. Local empowerment is thus a fundamental building
block of a successful representative political system. the principles behind decentralisation
and describes some of the different models. The gains that decentralisation brings – and
some of the potential pitfalls – are also outlined.

The main characteristic of a decentralized government is the existence of several smaller

governing bodies, which are elected through voting and have the power to exercise political
decision-making at a local level.

Decentralization refers to the transfer of authority, responsibility, and decision-making power

from central government entities to lower levels of government or other non-governmental
entities. It is a concept that aims to distribute power, resources, and decision-making closer to
the people and communities affected by them. Decentralization can take various forms and
degrees, ranging from administrative decentralization to fiscal, political, or devolutionary
decentralization.

Decentralization can have significant impacts on government structures and processes. Here
are some key aspects of decentralization and its relationship with government:

 Local Governance: Decentralization empowers local governments, giving them

greater autonomy and decision-making power over local affairs. Local governments
can better understand the specific needs and priorities of their communities, and tailor
policies and services accordingly. It allows for local participation, promotes
democratic values, and strengthens accountability.

 Service Delivery: Decentralization can enhance the efficiency and effectiveness of

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 service delivery. When decision-making authority is delegated to local levels, it
enables more responsive and targeted delivery of public services. Local governments
can design and implement programs that address local needs, thereby improving
service quality and citizen satisfaction.

 Participation and Accountability: Decentralization provides opportunities for

citizens to participate in decision-making processes and hold their local governments
accountable. With decision-making power closer to the people, citizens can engage
directly in local policy formulation, budgeting, and oversight. This fosters citizen
participation, transparency, and responsiveness in governance.

 Fiscal Decentralization: Fiscal decentralization involves the transfer of financial

resources and revenue-raising powers to lower levels of government. It enables local
governments to generate and manage their own revenue, reducing their dependency
on central government funding. Fiscal decentralization can enhance financial
accountability, incentivize local governments to be more efficient, and promote local
economic development.

 Policy Innovation and Experimentation: Decentralization allows different regions

or localities to have greater flexibility in designing and implementing policies. This
promotes policy innovation and experimentation, as local governments can tailor
approaches to local conditions and test new ideas. Successful local initiatives can then
be scaled up or replicated in other areas.

Meaning of Decentralisation

The term "decentralization" embraces a variety of concepts which must be carefully analyzed
in any particular country before determining if projects or programs should support
reorganization of financial, administrative, or service delivery systems. Decentralization—the
transfer of authority and responsibility for public functions from the central government to
subordinate or quasi-independent government organizations and/or the private sector—is a
complex multifaceted concept. Different types of decentralization should be distinguished
because they have different characteristics, policy implications, and conditions for success.
Two types of change in governmental organisation are sometimes wrongly described as
decentralisation. The first simply involves moving government offices away from the capital
city or other prosperous areas to the less wealthy parts of the country. That helps spread
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prosperity and may be highly desirable – certainly in the many countries of the world where
too much wealth is concentrated in the capital city. But it is not decentralisation.

The second is a transfer of responsibility for delivery of services from central government to
local government but without central government relinquishing effective control over the way
local government delivers those services. This may be desirable in improving efficiency of
service delivery. Again it is not true decentralisation.

True decentralisation requires a shift in power. It means central government giving up power,
and the decentralised authorities gaining power. These decentralised authorities then have
real responsibility, and real local accountability, for the services that they control. It is a
fundamental change in the way a nation State is governed.

Advantages of Decentralisation

Fundamental change is only justifiable if the advantages substantially outweigh the

disadvantages. The advantages of decentralisation include responsiveness, efficiency,
representative empowerment and the re-invigoration of the nation. In countries like Tunisia,
Ecuador and Bolivia, where there have been recent decentralisation agendas, the goal of the
process has been strikingly ambitious: political and institutional transformation, the
empowerment of local actors and a reduction in structural territorial inequalities. The process
has been found to bring many other gains.

 Local leaders better understand local needs, and the gap between policy development
and citizens’ needs is narrowed

 Resources are better matched to local needs when there is local understanding of local
circumstances and local decision-making. This is more efficient, and less costly, than
central determination

 Local delivery is speedier – centralised bureaucracies are slimmed down or even

eliminated

 Revenues are raised in ways that suit local circumstances and encourage local
prosperity

 Economic development is fostered when infrastructure and other support

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 mechanisms are planned in a way that meets local circumstances

 Local control of policy is more popular than remote central control. It re- invigorates
citizens’ support for the political system

 Local leaders are more accountable than national leaders, and transparency is greater.
This enhances representative governance

 Engagement is improved, with local leaders better able to consult and collaborate with
citizens, and improved access for those citizens to decision- takers

 New people are brought into the government process, whether as elected or appointed
officials. They bring new thinking and innovation.

 The development of local leaders provides a resource for national leadership

 Minorities and diversity are more easily recognised. This helps diffuse autonomist or
secessionist tendencies

 Burden-sharing helps the nation’s governance – there is less work for central
Governments and Parliaments, who are better able to concentrate on their national
duties.

 increased costs

 The loss of central control may result in a fall in cross-national standards and
problems for national policy coordination

 Resistance to the redistributive function of the State may be increased, with richer
regions being unwilling to subsidise poorer regions

 Central institutions may be undermined, and respect for them may diminish

 Bickering and blame sharing between different levels of government may grow

 Pressure for secession from some regions may grow

 Decentralised structures may be ―captured‖ by local elites with the potential for
corruption, patronage and nepotism that this brings

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  Decentralisation can lead to the enhancement of prejudice and tribal, ethnic or
religious divisions, and possibly to conflict.

Some of the ways in which these disadvantages can be avoided will be explored further in
this paper. But it must be emphasised above all that if a decentralisation policy is
implemented without sufficient preparation, or without ensuring that adequate financial and
human resources are provided for it to be a success, then it is highly likely to fail (see paper 3
in this series for more detail about the effective implementation of decentralisation).

Cooperation between tiers of government

Decentralisation must not lead to less connectivity between the different tiers of government
if it is to be a success. Opportunities for shared service provision need to be sought, and
different levels of government within a nation State need to work together cooperatively.
―Co- responsibility‖ between the different levels of government should be the fundamental
principle. However, cooperation often does not happen, with central government
sometimes contemptuous of local government. But citizens want efficient service delivery,
with different government levels working harmoniously together in citizens’ interests. There
is no value for them in squabbling between different tiers of government.

Disputes between different tiers of government need to be minimised. Of course there will be
tensions and rivalries between national and local leaders. There should be efficient
mechanisms for dispute resolution. This should involve methods of informal resolution and
formal arbitration. It may involve resolution through constitutional courts, though the formal
legal methods are best avoided.

But the best way of avoiding disputes altogether is if relations between the national and
decentralised authorities are founded firmly upon principles of mutual respect and desire to
do what is best for the citizen. This, after all, should be the common aim of all in government
at every level.

Politicians can set an example here. Elected leaders in national Parliaments need to work
cooperatively with elected leaders at decentralised levels. Some of this is pragmatic:
excellent information flows between central Parliaments and regional Assemblies; elected
Members having easy access to one another’s buildings; formal shared proceedings becoming
the norm rather than the exception; and so on. Equally important is that elected

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representatives at one level do not stray into the areas of responsibility of elected
representatives at another: for example, if housing is a regional responsibility, then a national
legislator should not be tempted to promise his or her constituents that s/he will help them
with their housing needs.

When it works best, decentralised systems of government are enriched systems, with national
and regional governments learning from one another and almost competing against one
another for citizen support and so enhancing service delivery. For example, it was at a local
level in Brazil that participatory budget-making first developed.

Legal structures and cultural change

At worst, decentralisation is a nominal activity the creation of new forms of government

without any real empowerment at the local level. It can even be charcaterised as a job
creation scheme for local politicians or bureaucrats without any gain for citizens. To work
well, decentralisation needs cultural change as well as legal change.

That cultural change requires commitment at the central level, with a vision, clear strategic
objectives and careful planning. Commitment needs to be shared at the local level. There
must be a focus on doing what the citizens in local areas want and what will truly benefit
them. People have a limited appetite for constitutional arguments: they want to see good
delivery of the services that are important to them. They will embrace decentralisation if they
see it as transformational, and only if they see leaders who are imaginative, passionate,
committed, in tune with the spirit of the community and enthusiastically seeking solutions. In
other words, citizens need to see cultural change, not merely a shifting around of legal
structures.

Nor is the process achieved when the decentralisation legislation is passed and the new
decentralised authorities are up and running. The first steps may not succeed and they may
need to be changed. Lessons should be learned from mistakes and the system should always
be regarded as something that can be improved. Decentralisation is best seen as a process, not
a single event.

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Conclusion

Badly done, decentralisation may result in inefficiencies and disillusionment with the
process of government. Properly done, decentralisation leads to improved governance. It
has clear administrative virtues in terms of service delivery. It also has what might be called
―civic virtues‖ – greater citizen ownership of the process of government, and a development
of healthy competition between different layers of that government, all of which lead to the
strengthening of representative politics.

Reference

Anderson, J. E. (2019). Public Policymaking: An Introduction (8th ed.). Cengage Learning.

Bardach, E., & Patashnik, E. M. (2021). A Practical Guide for Policy Analysis: The Eightfold
Path to More Effective Problem Solving (6th ed.). CQ Press.

Cairney, P., & Heikkila, T. (Eds.). (2014). Handbook of Public Policy. Edward Elgar
Publishing.

Dunn, W. N. (2019). Public Policy Analysis: An Integrated Approach (6th ed.). Routledge.

Howlett, M., Ramesh, M., & Perl, A. (2017). Studying Public Policy: Policy Cycles and
Policy Subsystems (4th ed.). Oxford University Press.

Jones, M. D., & McBeth, M. K. (2010). A Narrative Policy Framework: Clear Enough to Be
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Kingdon, J. W. (2014). Agendas, Alternatives, and Public Policies (2nd ed.). Pearson.

Peters, B. G. (2020). American Public Policy: Promise and Performance (11th ed.). CQ Press.

Stone, D. (2012). Policy Paradox: The Art of Political Decision Making (3rd ed.). W. W.
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Weimer, D. L., & Vining, A. R. (2017). Policy Analysis: Concepts and Practice (6th ed.).
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