British Joournaf of Psychology (1994),85, 55-78 Printed in Great Britain 55

0 1994 The British Psychological Society

Experimental inductions of emotional states

and their effectiveness: A review

Astrid Gerrards-Hesse, Kordelia Spies* and Friedrich W. Hesse

Department of Pycbology, Georg-August-Universit_v,Gosderstrasse 14, 0-37073 Gottingen

Several procedures for the experimental induction of mood states have been
developed. This paper reviews nearly 250 studies from the last 10 years which
concern mood induction procedures. A classification system is introduced.
According to the stimuli used to influence subjects, five groups of mood induction
procedures (MIPs) are differentiated. The effectiveness of MIPs is analysed and
compared. The Film/Story MIP and the Gift MIP proved to be highly effective in
inducing elation. For the induction of depression, the Imagination MIP, the Velten
MIP, the Film/Story MIP and the Success/Failure MIP can be recommended.

There has been a growing interest in the last 10 years in the psychology of emotion
and its influence on other psychological processes. When the impact of emotions on
other processes is studied, the mood state’ of a person functions methodologically as
an independent variable. To vary subjects’ emotional states, the following procedures
are known to have been used:
Pre-experimental classification : Subjects can be classified according to their initial
emotional state, assessed at the very beginning of the experimental session (e.g.
Hettena & Ballif, 1981).
Comparison of non-clinical sthyects with clinical patients : I f one works with clinical
patients who are known to be in a certain mood state (e.g. depressed patients), one
can compare their behaviour with that of ‘normal’ subjects (e.g. Weingartner,
Cohen, Murphy, Martello & Gerdt, 1981).
Using nattraliy occtrring emotions: Specific naturally occurring environmental events
have been shown to induce certain emotions, e.g. by administering measures on rainy
vs. sunny days (Parrott & Sabini, 1990; Schwarz & Clore, 1983), or after subjects had
either succeeded or failed in their mid-term examination (Russell & McAuley, 1986;
Parrott & Sabini, 1990), or before vs. after watching a T V transmission of an exciting
or an unexciting soccer game (Schwarz, Strack, Kommer & Wagner, 1987), or after
having seen a happy, sad or aggressive movie in the cinema (Forgas & Moylan,
1987).
Experimental mood indmtion :Mood states are experimentally induced using special
mood induction procedures. The first two procedures are quasi-experimental since
they do not manipulate mood state as an independent variable. For the third
* Requests for reprints.
‘Here as well as in the following emotion, emotional state, mood and mood state are used as synonyms
56 Astrid Gerrards-Hesse and others
procedure it is impossible to standardize the observations. Therefore the most
rigorous method of varying mood states is the experimental mood induction applied
either in the laboratory or in the field.
This paper refers to the latter procedure and reviews experimental mood induction
procedures from 1979 onward. It is limited to the induction of elation and depression
and omits publications dealing with other emotional qualities such as anger and
anxiety or with aspects of stress. Nor are experimental studies dealing with clinical
groups or with children included.
First, a procedure is proposed to categorize the different mood induction
procedures (MIPs). Second, the measures and the criteria used to verify the
effectiveness of the MIPs are described. Third, the results of the manipulation checks
for each MIP are reviewed in order to compare the different MIPs with regard to
their effectiveness.

Categorization and description of the mood induction procedures

To distinguish different kinds of MIPs, we propose to classify them into five groups
according to the stimuli used to influence subjects’ moods and according to whether
the purpose of emotion induction is announced to subjects or not.

Group 1 :MIPs based on the free mental generation of emotional states

The main characteristic of this group of MIPs is that stimuli leading to the intended
emotion are not presented by the experimenter, but are activated mentally by the
subjects themselves. MIPs belonging to this group are the Hypnosis MIP and the
Imagination MIP. In the case of the Hypnosis MIP, subjects enter a deep trance and
then are instructed to remember and imagine a certain situation of their own choice
in which they felt happy or sad. In studies working with the Imagination MIP,
subjects are instructed to imagine and re-experience situations or events in order to
evoke the intended mood. Table 1 lists the studies reviewed using one of the two
MIPs in question. Here as well as later our review is assumed to include most of the
relevant studies, though it is not considered to be completely comprehensive.

Group 2 :MIPs based on the guided mental generation of emotional states

In this group of MIPs, emotion-inducing material is presented to the subjects with
the additional instruction to get into the suggested mood state. The Velten MIP, the
Film/Story+MIP and the Music+MIP are included in this category. (The ‘+’
stands for the explicit instruction to get into the suggested emotional state.) The
Velten MIP (Velten, 1968; see also reviews by Clark, 1983 and Kenealy, 1986) uses
self-referent statements describing positive or negative self-evaluations and bodily
sensations. In most studies subjects are instructed to use the statements as auto-
suggestions, i.e. to try to feel the mood described by the statement. Authors working
with the Film/Story+MIP usually present a film, story or a short description of a
situation to their subjects and instruct them to imagine the situation and ‘get
involved’ in the feelings suggested. In the case of the Music+MIP, subjects listen
to a mood-suggestive piece of classical or modern music (see Table 3) and are
 Experimental induction of emotional states 57

Table 1. Studies using one of the MIPs based on the free mental generation of
emotional states

Hypnosis MIP
Bower (1981)
Bower et a/. (1981)
Forgas e t a/. (1984)
Gilligan & Bower (1983, 1984)
Weiss et a/. (1987)
Imagination MIP
Abele (1990)
Bless e t a/. (1988)
Brown & Taylor (1986)
Fiedler & Fladung (1986, 1987)
Knoblauch e t al. (1989)
O’Malley & Andrews (1983)
Schwartz et a/. (1981)
Srull (1983, 1984)
Sullivan & Conway (1989)
Wright & Mischel (1982)
Bower & Mayer (1985)
Clore et a/. (1983)
Gerrig & Bower (1982)
Kavanagh & Bower (1985)
Berkowitz (1987)
Brewer et a/. (1980)
Delp & Sackeim (1987)
Fiedler & Strohm (1986)
Levine e t a/. (1987)
Salovey & Birnbaum (1989)
Schwarz & Clore (1983)
Strack e t a/. (1985)
Wood et al. (1990)

instructed to try to get into the mood expressed by the music using whatever means
they find most effective. Table 2 lists studies using the MIPs belonging to the second
category.

Group 3 :MIPs based on the presentation of emotion-inducing material

These MIPs present emotional stimuli without explicitly instructing subjects to get
into the mood state suggested. It is assumed that the emotion-inducing material will
influence a person’s mood automatically, i.e. without subjects actively trying to get
into the prescribed emotional state. MIPS belonging to this category are the
Film/Story MIP, the Music MIP and the Gift MIP. The Film/Story MIP makes use
of the phenomenon that one’s mood can change according to the emotional quality
+
of a film one sees or a story one reads. In contrast to the Film/Story MIP, subjects
are not instructed to imagine the events in question or to feel involved in the
situation described. The Music MIP presents a piece of music (see Table 3) without
emphasizing its emotional character. (For a review of the Music MIPs, see Clark,
1983.)
Researchers using the Gift MIP assume that most people are elated when they are
offered an unexpected gift, for example, 10 cents or a candy bar (for a review of the
Gift MIP see Isen, Daubman & Gorgoglione, 1987). Table 4 lists the studies reviewed
using the Film/Story MIP, the Music MIP or the Gift MIP.

Group 4 :MIPs based on the presentation of need-related emotional situations

Emotions often arise from the satisfaction or frustration of needs. Therefore the
following procedures expose subjects to situations activating certain needs, such as
58 Astrid Gerrurds-Hesseand others

Table 2. Studies using one of the MIPS based on the guided mental generation of
emotional states

Velten MIP
Albersnagel (1988) Alexander & Guenther (1986)
Alloy e t al. (1981) Andrews & Borkovec (1988)
Berkowitz (1987) Bollenbach & Madigan (1982)
Brewer et d.(1980) Brown (1984)
Brown & Taylor (1986) Buchwald et al. (1981)
Cairns & Norton (1988) Carlson et al. (1983)
Carson & Adams (1980) Cash e t al. (1986)
Challis & Krane (1988) Cohen et al. (1988)
Cunningham (1988) Cunningham e t a/. (1990)
Danzer et ul. (1990) Deldin & Levin (1986)
Ellis et a/. (1984, 1985, 1990) Elmes e t ul. (1984)
Fiedler et al. (1984, 1986) Finman & Berkowitz (1989)
Frost & Green (1982) Frost e t d (1979, 1982)
Gotlib & McCann (1984) Hawkins et al. (1988)
Henderson & Lohr (1982) Isen & Gorgoglione (1983)
Kaltenhauser (1987) Kidd & Marshall (1982)
Kuykendall et al. (1988) Leight & Ellis (1981)
Lewis & Harder (1988) Madigan & Bollenbach (1982, 1986)
Marshall-Garcia & Beck (1985) Mecklenbrauker & Hager (1984, 1986)
Miranda & Persons (1988) Mitchell & Madigan (1984)
Mukherji e t al. (1982) Murray et al. (1990)
Natale & Bolan (1980) Onon e t a/. (1983)
Polivy (1981) Polivy & Doyle (1980)
Ranieri & Zeiss (1984) Rholes e t al. (1987)
Riskind et al. (1982) Rodrigue e t a/. (1987)
Rogers et a/. (1982) Schare & Lisman (1984)
Schare et al. (1984) Schumacher & Schwarz (1984)
Schwartz e t al. (1986) Shaffer & Smith (1985)
Sherwood et al. (1981) Sirota & Schwartz (1982)
Sirota e t al. (1987) Skrypzinski (1985)
Small (1985) Small & Robins (1988)
Snyder & White (1982) Spies, (1988, 1990)
Stiles & Gotestam (1989) Sutherland e t a/. (1982)
Teasdale & Fogarty (1979) Teasdale & Russell (1983)
Teasdale & Taylor (1981) Teasdale et al. (1980)
Wetzler (1985)
+
Film/Stor_y MIP
Abele-Brehm (1986) Baumgardner & Arkin (1988)
Gage & Safer (1985) Marston e t al. (1984)
Popp (1988~) Robins (1988)
Rosenhan e t al. (1981) Russell & McAuley (1986)
Thompson e t al. (1980) Weiner (1980a, b)
Weiner et al. (1979) Williams (1980)
+
Masic MIP
Albersnagel (1988) Brewin & Harris (1985)*
Clark & Teasdale (1985) D. M. Clark et a/. (1983)*
Eich & Metcalfe (1989) Kenealy (1988)*
 Experimental induction of emotional states 59
Table 2. (Cont.)
Mecklenbrauker & Hager (1986) Parrott (1991)
Parrott & Sabini (1990)* Skrypzinski (1985)
Sutherland et al. (1982)* Sutton e t al. (1988)
Teasdale & Spencer (1984)*
* N o indication of the kind of music applied.

the need for achievement or affiliation (see Murray, 1938). In the Success/Failure
MIP, dealing with the need for achievement, subjects are given false-positive or false-
negative feedback concerning their performance in a test alleged mainly to assess
cognitive abilities. Referring to subjects’ need for affiliation, the Social Interaction
MIP exposes subjects to certain social interactions arranged by the experimenter in
order to induce emotional states. Studies using the Success/Failure MIP and the
Social Interaction MIP are listed in Table 5.

Group 5: MIPs aiming at the generation of emotionalEy relevant pbysiological states

Many authors (e.g. Mandler, 1975; Schachter & Singer, 1962) claim that emotions
in general presuppose an unspecific physiological arousal, while the cognitive
evaluation of situational aspects determines the specific quality of the emotion. Thus,
the systematic variation of physiological states-mostly in combination with a
variation of situational stimuli-is used as a procedure to influence mood states. T o
induce physiological arousal, studies applying the Drug MIP used a drug, for
example epinephrine, or a placebo introduced to subjects as a mood-inducing drug.
In accord with the facial feedback hypothesis (Leventhal, 1980), facial expression
influences the mood state. Accordingly, experimenters using the Facial Expression
MIP instruct subjects to contract and relax different muscles to produce a frown or
a smile, thereby inducing a negative or positive emotional state. Table 6 lists the
studies reviewed using the Drug MIP or the Facial Expression MIP.

Combination of mood induction procedures

To increase their effectiveness some authors combine different types of MIPs. Thus,
the Velten MIP has been combined with the Hypnosis MIP (Natale & Hantas, 1982),
the Imagination MIP (Richardson & Taylor, 1982) or the Music MIP (Hesse &
Gerrards, 1989; Hesse & Ueffing, 1991; Kaltenhauser, 1987; Mathews & Bradley,
1983; Mayer, Gayle, Mechan & Haarman, 1990; Spies, Hesse, Gerrards-Hesse &
Uefing, 1991). There are other combinations, such as using the Music MIP either
with the Imagination MIP (Bower, 1987) or the Film/Story MIP (Bower, 1987;
Gustafson, 1987;no indication of the kind of music applied) or the Film/Story MIP +
(Morrow & Nolen-Hoeksema, 1990). Parrott (1982, no indication of the kind of
music applied) combined the Music MIP with looking at paintings of modern art.
Other studies used the Success/Failure MIP together with the Film/Story MIP by
presenting a film clip after subjects had received positive or negative feedback
(Mueller & Donnerstein, 1981).
Since these combinations are only rarely used and since the combinations vary
from study to study they will not be further considered in this review.
Table 3. Pieces of music used for mood induction (Music
Emotional
quality Piece of music
Depression Albinoni : ‘Adagio G-Minor ’
Barber : ‘Adagio pour cordes ’
Beethoven ‘Mondscheinsonate’
Michel Colombier : ‘Emmanuel’
Gtieg: Peer Gynt Suite (selected
passages)
Holst: ‘Mars-Bringer of war’ (out of
The Planets)
Keith Jarrett : ‘Spheres ’
Prokofiev : ‘Russia under the Mongolian Clark & Teasdale (1985, Music+MIP)
Yoke’ (half speed)
Prokofiev : ‘Russia under Mongolian
Yoke’
Sibelius: ‘Swan of Tuonela’
Stivell: ‘Renaissance of the Celtic harp ’ Mecklenbraucker & Hager (1986, Music +MIP)
Elation Bach: Brandenburg Concerto No. 2
Beatles: ‘Yellow Submarine’ ‘Obladi
Oblada ’
+ MIP, Music MIP, Combination MIP) s
Study
Hesse & Ueffmg (1991, Combination MIP)
Mecklenbraucker & Hager (1986, Music MIP)
+
Spies et al. (1991, Combination MIP)
Eich & Metcalfe (1989, Music+MIP)
Eich & Metcalfe (1989, Music+MIP)
Morrow & Nolen-Hoeksema (1990, Combination MIP)
Kaltenhauser (1987, Combination MIP) b
Mayer e t a/. (1990, Combination MIP) B
s
Parrott (1982, Combination MIP)
Hesse & Gerrards (1989, Combination MIP)
McFarland (1984, Music MIP)
Skrypzinski (1985, Music MIP)
+
Spies e t al. (1991, Combination MIP)
Wenzlaff et al. (1991, Music MIP) a
B
Mathews & Bradley (1983, Combination MIP)
Sutton e t al. (1988, Music MIP)
+
Parrott (1991, Music+MIP))
Mayer ef al. (1990, Combination MIP)
Wenzlaff ef al. (1991, Music MIP)
Wood ef al. (1990, Music MIP)
Albersnagel (1988, Music MIP)
+
Mayer ef al. (1990, Combination MIP)
Mecklenbraucker & Hager (1986, Music MIP)
+
 David Byrne : ‘Beleze Tropical, Brazil
Classics 1’
Delibes : ‘Coppelia’
Doldinger’s Passport ‘Bale the Jack’
Holst: ‘Venus-Bringer of peace’ (out
of The Planets)
Hubert Laws : Brandenburg Concerto
No. 3, jazzy version
Mozart: ‘Eine kleine Nachtmusik’
Mozart : ‘Divertimento ’
Mozart: Toy Symphony
Tschaikowsky : Nutcracker Suite
(selected passages)
Waldteufel: ‘Estudianta’
Tim Weisberg: ‘The Good Life’
Neutral John Adams: ‘Common Tones in
Simple Time’
Chopin: Waltzes no. 11 and 12
Delibes : ‘Coppelia ’ (half speed)
Dvorak: The New World (Largo)
Michael Hedges : ‘Aerial Boundaries ’
Holst: ‘Neptune-the Mystic’ (out of
The Planets)
Faure: Ballad for piano and orchestra
Kraftwerk : ‘Pocket calculator’
Lefevre : ‘Canon de Pachelbel ’
Wenzlaff e t al. (1991, Music MIP)
Clark & Teasdale (1985, Music MIP)
+
Albersnagel (1988, Music MIP)
+
Mayer e t al. (1990, Combination MIP)
Parrott (1991, Music+MIP)
Mecklenbraucker & Hager (1986, Music MIP)
+
McFarland (1984, Music MIP)
Wenzlaff e t al. (1991, Music MIP)
Wood et al. (1990, Music MIP) c
Eich & Metcalfe (1989, Music+MIP)
k$.
Eich & Metcalfe (1989, Music+MIP) 9
Mayer et al. (1990, Combination MIP)
Parrott (1982, Combination MIP)
$
Kaltenhauser (1987, Combination MIP)
Mayer et al. (1990, Combination MIP)
Wenzlaff et al. (1991, Music MIP)
Wood e t al. (1990, Music MIP)
Parrott (1991, Music MIP)
+
Mecklenbraucker & Hager (1986, Music MIP)
+
Wood et al. (1990, Music MIP) sP
Hesse & Gerrards (1989, Combination MIP)
Hesse & Ueffmg (1991, Combination MIP)
Kaltenhauser (1987, Combination MIP)
McFarland (1984, Combination MIP)
Spies et al. (1991, Combination MIP)
Albersnagel (1988, Music+ MIP)
Sutton e t al. (1988, Music MIP)
+
Mecklenbrauker & Hager (1986, Music +MIP)
62 Astrid Gerrards-Hesse and others
Table 4. Studies using one of the MIPs based on the presentation of emotion
inducing material
FilmlStoty MIP
Erdmann e t al. (1984)
Forgas et al. (1990)
Isen & Gorgoglione (1983)
Johnson & Tversky (1983)
Murray et al. (1990)
Radenhausen (1989)
ShafTer & Graziano (1983)
Van Rooijen & Vlaander (1984)
Zachary (1982)
Music MIP
Eifert et al. (1988)
McFarland (1984)
Pignatiello et al. (1986)*
Wood e t al. (1990)
Ggt MIP
Bohner (1988)
Isen & Daubman (1984)
Isen & Patrick (1983)
Isen e t al. (1985, 1987)
Worth & Mackie (1987)
*No indication of the kind of music applied.
Table 5. Studies using one of the MIPs based on the presentation of need-related
emotional situations
Success/ Failure MIP
Baucom & Aiken (1981)
Bohner tt al. (1988)
Clark & Waddell (1983)
Fiedler et al. (1984)
Forgas e t al. (1990)
Ingram (1984)
Isen & Means (1983)
Johnson & Klinger (1988)
Parrott & Sabini (1990)
Ritchie (1986)
Weary (1980)
Social Interaction MIP
Marks & Hammen (1982)
Forgas (1990)
Isen & Daubman (1984)
Isen et al. (1985, 1987)
Knapp (1986)
Popp (1988a)
Rosenhan e t al. (1981)
Thompson e t al. (1980)
Yinon & Landau (1987)
Kenealy (1988)*
Parrott & Sabini (1990)*
WenzlafT et al. (1991)
Cunningham et a/. (1980)
Isen & Geva (1987)
Isen & Shalker (1982)
Schwarz (1983)
Yinon & Landau (1987)
Beckmann (1989)
Casanova et al. (1988)
Clark, M. S. et a/. (1983)
Forgas & Bower (1987)
Gerlsma & Albersnagel (1987)
Ingram e t al. (1983)
Isen 8c Shalker (1982)
McFarland & Ross (1982)
Pittman & Pittman (1980)
Staudel & Paetzold (1984)
Willy et a/. (1988)
Yinon & Landau (1987)
 Experimental induction of emotional states 63

Table 6 . Studies using one of the MIPS aiming at the generation of emotionally
relevant physiological states

Drug MIP
Erdmann (1983)
Forest e t al. (1979)
Manucia e t al. (1984)
Facial Expression MIP
Duncan & Laird (1980)
Laird e t al. (1982)
McAnhur et al. (1980)
Riskind (1983)
Riskind & Gotay (1982)

Manipulation check procedures

T o test the effectiveness of a MIP, manipulation checks are used. In most studies,
the manipulation check immediately follows the MIP, whereas in some it is
postponed until the end of the experiment. As experimentally-induced emotional
states are assumed to be relatively short-lived, it is better to carry out the
manipulation check immediately after the induction procedure, as is done in about
81 per cent of the studies reviewed here.

Description of manipulation check procedures

In most cases, one of the following three procedures is used as a manipulation check :
assessment of subjective emotional experience, assessment of physiological state, or
observation of overt behaviour. Subjective emotional experiences are assessed either
informally by asking subjects to describe their feelings, by using self-constructed
rating scales, or by referring to standardized mood checklists (e.g. the Multiple Affect
Adjective Check List (MAACL) by Zuckerman & Lubin, 1965). Some studies use
physiological variables, such as heart rate and blood pressure. Variations in
physiological variables, however, can only be considered as indicators of emotions
in general (Mandler, 1975; Schachter & Singer, 1962), since, as far as we know, no
valid pattern of physiological responses has yet been found to differentiate between
emotional states. Subjects’ overt behaviour is mostly assessed using special tasks,
since it is known, for example, that depressed persons need more time for
psychomotor speed tasks than non-depressed subjects (Goodwin & Williams, 1982)
and differ from control subjects with respect to their ratings of pleasantness (Bower,
1981). In other studies, gestures, facial expressions and other spontaneous modes of
overt behaviour are observed.
The most common of the described procedures has been the assessment of
emotions with self-constructed rating scales or standardized mood questionnaires.
The next most used procedure has been the observation of behaviour, especially in
psychomotor speed tasks or pleasantness ratings. Only a few studies used
physiological measures. In many studies there was more than one manipulation check
measure. To make the contribution of each study more comparable for our
64 Astrid Gerrards-Hesse and others
evaluation of effectiveness, we considered only one measure for each type of
manipulation check.
To assess subjective emotional experience, we preferred standardized to self-
constructed rating scales. In the case of the MAACL, which is most often used, we
only referred to results for the depression scale. For self-constructed rating scales we
only considered scales that directly addressed positive or negative mood states. If
both mood qualities were assessed separately we gave an effectiveness value of 1 if
the method proved equally effective on both scales, a value of 0.5 if the expected
effect could be shown on only one scale, and a value of 0 if no effect was found on
either scale. In the case of physiological variables we referred to systolic blood
pressure or heart rate. If both measures were used we proceeded in the same way as
described for the rating scales. In a similar manner, for behaviour observation we
used the most frequently applied measures of psychomotor speed, such as writing
time, counting time, or graphic expansion.

Evaluation of manipulation check data

To evaluate the effectiveness of a given MIP in most of the studies reviewed, the
mean score of the manipulation check measure for an ‘emotion’ group is compared
with that of a control group assumed to be in a neutral emotional state. Many
studies did not include such a control group and only compared elation and
depression groups. However, if in this case mean scores differ significantly, one
cannot judge whether the depression induction or the elation induction, or both,
were effective.
A significant difference between post-induction scores of the emotion and neutral
groups does not exclude a significant difference befre the induction. Therefore, some
experiments calculated and compared the pre- and post-induction scores for each
group or combined between- and within-group tests by comparing the change in
scores for emotion and for neutral groups.
Only a few studies looked at each subject individually, calculating the percentage
of subjects showing the intended MIP effect. This kind of assessment was made
mostly by measuring the subject’s mood after the induction against a previously
defined criterion or by measuring the pre-post difference against a change criterion.

The effectiveness of the mood induction procedures

In the following the results of the manipulation check procedures are summarized
and evaluated for each group of MIPS, followed by an overall comparison of MIP
effectiveness. The detailed results of the manipulation checks are reported in the form
of five separate tables (see Tables 7-11).
The top of each table contains general information: the number of studies
reviewed using the MIP in question, the number of studies with a manipulation
check, the number of studies reporting statistical comparisons between and within
groups, and the total number of statistical comparisons evaluated. The latter is
limited to the manipulation check measures we considered. In most studies several
statistical comparisons were carried out, as there were comparisons between different
groups, such as between elation and neutral groups or depression and neutral groups,
and because most of all there was more than one type of manipulation check measure.
 Experimental indtction of emotional states 65

Table 7. Results of the manipulation checks for group 1: MIPs based on the free
mental generation of emotional states
~~

Hypnosis MIP Imagination MIP

Based on the number of:

Studies reviewed 14 31
Studies with manipulation check 9 26
Studies with statistical comparisons 1 23
Statistical comparisons evaluated 1 43
Comparisons between groups ;*
E-N E-D
Subjective emotional experience 7/11 15/16
Physiological measures 1/1 0/1
Behavioural observation - -

Comparisons within groups :*

N=
-
Subjective emotional experience
Physiological measures
Behavioural observation
~ ~~ ~~ ~

Notes. E = elation; D = depression; N = neutral. The symbol = indicates the expected constant mood
in the neutral group; += indicates the expected mood change of the emotion groups.
* Data indicate the ratio of significant to total number of comparisons.

Such measures may have included assessment of subjective emotional experience as

well as behaviour observation.
In the main part of the tables the statistical comparisons are classified according to
two aspects : (1) the kind of manipulation check procedure (subjective emotional
experience, physiological measures, and behavioural observation), and (2) the kind
of group comparisons (between or within groups). The comparisons between groups
refer to differences between elation and neutral (E-N), depression and neutral
(D-N), and elation and depression groups (E-D) with respect to post-induction
scores and change scores. The comparisons within groups contain pre-post changes
within elation (E+), depression (D+) and neutral groups (N =). The symbol ‘=I=’
indicates the expected mood change of the emotion groups whereas ‘ = ’ indicates the
expected constant mood in the neutral group.
In each category the number of significant comparisons is indicated relative to the
total number of evaluated statistical comparisons.
In order to compare the effectiveness of all MIPs we referred to the comparisons
of subjective emotional experience between groups, as this effectiveness score was
used in most of the studies reviewed. Table 12 lists these effectiveness scores for the
elation (E-N) as well as for the depression induction (D-N). Additionally, in the
third column effectiveness scores are given on the basis of studies directly comparing
elated with depressed groups. These are the studies that did not include a neutral
control group. The last column contains a total score. As pointed out earlier, a
significant difference between elation and depression leaves it unclear whether the
3 PSY 85
66 Astrid Gerrards-HeJse and others

Table 8. Results of the manipulation checks for group 2 : MIPS based on the guided
mental generation of emotional states

Velten MIP Film/Story+ MIP Music+ MIP

Based on the nnmber of:

Studies reviewed 93 13 16
Studies with manipulation 88 13 16
check
Studies with statistical 80 9 16
comparisons
Statistical comparisons 194 16 37
evaluated
Comparisons between gt-onps:*
E-N D-N E-D E-N D-N E-D E-N D-N E-D
Subjective emotional 24/36 40150 42/44 414 515 414 0.512 3.514 12/12
experience
Physiological measures - 0.511 - - - - - - -
Behavioural observation 318 3.5111 6/11 - 011 - 012 012 517
Comparisons within groups:*
E+ D+ N= E+ D=!= N = E+ D+ N=
Subjective emotional 7/10 12/15 717 - 212 - 113 414 111
experience
Physiological measures - 111 - - - - - - -
Behavioural observation - - - - - - - - -

Notes. E = elation; D = depression; N = neutral. The symbol = indicates the expected constant mood
in the neutral group; =!= indicates the expected mood change of the emotion groups.
*Data indicate the ratio of significant to total number of comparisons.

elation induction, the depression induction, or both, were effective. Nevertheless, a

large number of studies proceeded in this way. Therefore we list these scores as well
as the total score as additional information for the reader. Judging MIP effectiveness,
however, will be based on the elation and depression scores in the first two columns
only.
In evaluating all MIPS for their effectiveness scores for elation and depression, only
MIPS showing more than 75 per cent effectiveness will be considered as highly
effective. As a second criterion, this percentage score should be based on at least half
a dozen statistical comparisons.
For elation induction, the Film/Story+ (100 per cent), Drug (100 per cent),
Film/Story (92 per cent), Success/Failure (88 per cent) and Gift MIPS (83 per cent)
proved highly effective. However, six or more statistical comparisons were only
carried out for the Film/Story and Gift MIPS. For depression induction, nine out of
11 MIPS are highly effective. However, for only four, the Imagination MIP (100 per
cent), the Film/Story MIP (94per cent), the Success/Failure MIP (92 per cent) and
the Velten MIP (80 per cent), were at least six comparisons carried out. Thus, taking
both the effectiveness score and the number of statistical comparisons as criteria, we
 Experimental induction of emotional states 67

Table 9. Results of the manipulation checks for group 3: MIPs based on the
presentation of emotion-inducing material

Film/Story MIP Music MIP Gift MIP

Based on the number of:
Studies reviewed 27 10 14
Studies with manipulation 25 10 6
check
Studies with statistical 24 10 6
comparisons
Statistical comparisons 41 34 6
evaluated
Comparisons between groups :*
E-N D-N E-D E-N D-N E-D E-N D-N E-D
Subjective emotional 11/12 16/17 10/10 3.5/6 3.5/6 9.5/10 5/6 - -
experience
Physiological measures
Behavioural observation
Comparisons within groups :*

Subjective emotional
experience
Physiological measures
Behavioural observation
Notes. E = elation; D = depression; N = neutral. The symbol = indicates the expected constant mood
in the neutral group;+ indicates the expected mood change of the emotion groups.
*Data indicate the ratio of significant to total number of comparisons.

judge the Film/Story and Gift MIPs to be most effective in inducing an elated mood
state, and the Imagination, Film/Story, Success/Failure and Velten MIPs to be most
effective in inducing a depressed mood state in the laboratory. Only the Film/Story
MIP proved equally suited for both elation and depression induction.
Additional information concerning the MIPS’ effectiveness-not listed in the
tables--comes from studies carrying out ‘individual tests ’. Such tests involve
evaluating each subject individually to calculate the percentage of subjects showing
the intended MIP effect. Individual tests were carried out for the Velten MIP, the
Music+MIP and the Facial Expression MIP. Eight out of the 17 studies with
individual tests for the Velten MIP listed overall effectiveness for elation, depression
and neutral induction taken together. The average effectiveness score is 58 per cent
(with a range from 32 per cent to 92 per cent). One further study carrying out
individual tests reported no results. In the remaining eight studies, scores were
reported for each induction separately : on average the elation induction (four
studies) proved to be effective for 62 per cent of the subjects (with a range from 40
per cent to 100 per cent), the depression induction (eight studies) for 70 per cent
(with a range from 30 per cent to 93 per cent), and the neutral induction (five studies)
for 54 per cent of the subjects (with a range from 26 per cent to 79 per cent).
3-2
68 Astrid Gerrards-Hesse and otbers

Table 10. Results of the manipulation checks for group 4: MIPs based on the
presentation of need related emotional situations

Success/Failure MIP Social Interaction MIP

Based on the number of:
Studies reviewed 21
Studies with manipulation check 17
Studies with statistical comparisons 17
Statistical comparisons evaluated 25
Comparisons between groups :*
E-N D-N E-D E-N D-N E-D
Subjective emotional experience 3.514 5.5/6 9.5/11 112 111 111
Physiological measures -
Behavioural observation
Comparisons within groups :*

Subjective emotional experience

Physiological measures
Behavioural observation
Notes. E = elation; D = depression; N = neutral. The symbol = indicates the expected constant mood
in the neutral group; =Iindicates
= the expected mood change of the emotion groups.
*Data indicate the ratio of significant to total number of comparisons.

Table 11. Results of the manipulation checks for group 5: MIPs aiming at the
generation of emotionally relevant physiological states

Drug MIP Facial Expression MIP

Based on the number of:

Studies reviewed
Studies with manipulation check
Studies with statistical comparisons
Statistical comparisons evaluated
Comparisons between groups :*
E-N E-D
Subjective emotional experience 012 315
Physiological measures -
Behavioural observation
Comparisons within groups :*

Subjective emotional experience

Physiological measures
Behavioural observation
Notes. E = elation; D = depression; N = neutral. The symbol = indicates the expected constant mood
in the neutral group; =Iindicates
= the expected mood change of the emotion groups.
* Data indicate the ratio of significant to total number of comparisons.
 Experimental induction of emotional states 69

Table 12. Effectiveness scores for elation and depression induction (percentages in
parentheses)

Elation vs.
Elation Depression depression
(E-N) (D-N) (E-D) Total score

Group I :
Hypnosis MIP - - 1/1 (100) 1/1 (100)
Imagination MIP 7/11 (64) 10/10 (100) 15/16 (94) 32/37 (86)
Group 2:
Velten MIP 24/36 (67) 40/50 (80) 42/44 (95) 106/130 (82)
Film/Story + MIP 4/4 (100) 5/5 (100) 4/4 (100) 13/13 (100)
Music+ MIP 0.5/2 (25) 3.5/4 (88) 12/12 (100) 16/18 (89)
Group 3 :
Film/Story MIP 11/12 (92) 16/17 (94) l o p 0 (100) 37/39 (95)
Music MIP 3.5/6 (58) 3.5/6 (58) 9.5/10 (95) 16.5/22 (75)
- -
Gift MIP 5/6 (83) 5/6 (83)
Group 4 :
Success/Failure MIP 3.5/4 (88) 5.5/6 (92) 9.5/11 (86) 18.5/21 (88)
Social Interaction MIP 1/2 (50) 1/1 (100) 1/1 (100) 3/4 (75)
Group 5 :
Drug MIP 1/1 (100) 1/1 (100) 2/2 (100) 4/4 (100)
Facial Expression MIP 0/2 (0) 2/2 (100) 3/5 (60) 5/9 (56)

+
For the Music MIP, three of the five studies carrying out individual tests found
an overall average effectiveness of 83 per cent (ranging from 77 per cent to 88 per
cent). The two remaining studies reported results for elation and depression
separately: Mecklenbrauker & Hager (1986) found an effectiveness of 50 per cent in
the elation groups, 43 per cent in the depression groups, and 71 per cent in the neutral
groups. An even better percentage for the depression induction (83 per cent) was
reported by Skrypzinski (1985).
For the Facial Expression MIP, two studies by Laird e t al. (1982) reported an
average effectiveness of 57 per cent for expression manipulation and 43 per cent for
situational cues. Results for the elation and depression induction were not
differentiated.
The results of the individual tests were similar to the effectiveness scores listed in
Table 12 for the Velten MIP and clearly better for the Music+MIP. However, one
has to consider that the single scores differed widely from study to study, possibly
due to different criteria. Additionally, the number of studies carrying out individual
tests was rather low.
Interestingly, as it becomes obvious from Table 12, a MIP's effectiveness does
not covary with the classification into a certain group. Apparently other
characteristics of a MIP beyond the kind of stimuli used to influence subjects or the
announcement of the purpose of emotion induction are responsible for the degree of
effectiveness. Thus, the classification helps to structure the different MIPS with
70 Astrid Gerrards-Hesse and others
regard to their underlying functional principles. However, it does not allow
conclusions to be drawn about the differential effectiveness of MIP groups.
The effectiveness of MIPs differed between elation and depression induction.
Whereas for the elation induction, comparisons of subjective emotional experience
between groups were non-significant in 30 per cent of the cases, for depression
induction this percentage only amounted to 14 per cent. Thus, it appears to be easier
to put a subject into a depressed mood than to make her/him feel elated. This might
be due to the fact that the base mood normally is already biased in a positive
direction.
The poor effectiveness especially for the elation induction has important
implications. In about 30 per cent of the studies, reported effects of elation on the
interesting dependent variables cannot with absolute certainty be attributed to mood,
since the experiments could not be sure their subjects really were in an elated mood
state. Therefore perhaps some effects of elation reported in the literature have to be
questioned, at least those based on experimentally-induced mood without reliable
control (see also Kenealy, 1986). As the effectiveness of the depression induction is
generally higher, this question is less relevant to the observed effects of depressed
mood.
In conclusion, the classification of MIPs into five groups reflects the resemblance
of their underlying functional principles and will help the reader to structure the
variety of different procedures currently used to induce elation and/or depression.
For the elation induction, the Film/Story MIP as well as the Gift MIP proved to be
effective in a sufficient number of studies. For the depression induction, the
Imagination MIP, the Film/Story MIP, the Success/Failure MIP as well as the
Velten MIP satisfied this criterion. If the same procedure is to be used for both
elation and depression induction, the Film/Story MIP should be first choice.

Acknowledgements
This research was supported by a grant from the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (Lu 176/2-3) to
Gerd Liier and Friedrich W. Hesse.

References
Abele, A. (1990). Die Erinnerung an positive und negative Lebensereignisse. Untersuchungen zur
stimmungsinduzierenden Wirkung und zur Gestaltung der Texte. Zeitscbrijit f i r Experimentelle und
Angewandte Pycbologie, 37, 181-207.
Abele-Brehm, A. (1986). Macht Nachdenken schlechte Laune? Zur Emotionskontrollfunktion sozialer
Kognitionen. Unpublished manuscript. Universit'dt Erlangen-Niirnberg, Institut fur Psychologie.
Albersnagel, F. A. (1988). Velten and musical mood induction procedures: A comparison with
accessibility of thought associations. Bebaviour Research and Tberupy, 26, 79-96.
Alexander, L. & Guenther, R. K. (1986). The effect of mood and demand on memory. Britisb Journal
of Pycbology, 77, 343-350.
Alloy, L. B., Abramson, L. Y. & Viscusi, D. (1981). Induced mood and the illusion of control. Journal
of Personality and Social Pycbology, 41, 1129-1 140.
Andrews, U. & Borkovec, T. D. (1988). The differential effects of worry, somatic anxiety, and
depression inductions on emotional experience. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental
Pycbiatty, 19, 21-26.
Baucom, D. H. & Aiken, P. A. (1981). Effect of depressed mood on eating among obese and nonobese
dieting and non-dieting persons. Journal of Personalit3, and Social PycboloD, 41, 577-585.
 Experimental induction of emotional states 71
Baumgardner, A. H. & Arkin, R. M. (1988). Affective state mediates causal attributions for success and
failure. Motivation and Emotion, 12, 99-1 11.
Beckmann, J. (1989). Leistungseffekte funktionaler Kongruenz und Inkongruenz von Stimmung und
Bewuheinslage. Paper presented at the ‘31. Tagung experimentell arbeitender Psychologen’ in
Bamberg.
Berkowitz, L. (1987). Mood, self-awareness, and willingness to help. Journal of Persona& and Social
psycho lo^, 52, 721-729.
Bless, H., Bohner, G., Schwarz, N. & Strack, F. (1988). Happy and mindless? Moods and the processing
of persuasive communications. Unpublished manuscript, ZUMA, Mannheim.
Bohner, G. (1988). ‘Wiirden Sie mich bitte vorlassen? ’ Stimmungsvermittelte Informationsverarbeitung
in einer Alltagssituation. Paper presented at the ‘ 30. Tagung experimentell arbeitender Psychologen ’
in Marburg.
Bohner, G., Bless, H., Schwarz, N. & Strack, F. (1988). When do events trigger attributions? The
impact of valence and subjective probability. European Journal of Social Psychology, 18, 335-345.
Bollenbach, A. K. & Madigan, R. J. (1982). Effects of induced mood on social cognitions. Psychological
Reports, 51, 763-769.
Bower, G. H. (1981). Mood and memory. American Psychologist, 36, 129-148.
Bower, G. H. (1987). Commentary on mood and memory. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 25, 443455.
Bower, G. H., Gilligan, S. G. & Monteiro, K. P. (1981). Selectivity of learning caused by affective
states. Journal of Experimental Psychology :General, 110, 451473.
Bower, G. H. & Mayer, J. D. (1985). Failure to replicate mood-dependent retrieval. Bulletin of the
Psychonomic Society, 23, 39-42.
Brewer, D., Doughtie, E. B. & Lubin, B. (1980). Induction of mood and mood shift. Journalof Clinical
Psychology, 36, 215-226.
Brewin, C. R. & Harris, J. (1985). Induced mood and causal attributions: Further evidence. Cognitive
Therapy and Research, 9, 225-229.
Brown, J. (1984). Effects of induced mood on causal attributions for success and failure. Motivation and
Emotion, 8, 343-353.
Brown, J. D. & Taylor, S. E. (1986). Affect and the processing of personal information: Evidence for
mood-activated self-schemata. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 22, 436452.
Buchwald, A. M., Strack, S. & Coyne, J. C. (1981). Demand characteristics and the Velten mood
induction procedure. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 49, 478-479.
Cairns, S. L. & Norton, G. R. (1988). Induction and reversal of depression, anxiety, and hostility.
Journal of Clinical Psychology, 44, 416424.
Carlson, C. R., Gantz, F. P. & Masters, J. C. (1983). Adults’ emotional states and recognition of
emotion in young children. Motivation and Emotion, 7, 81-101.
Carson, T. P. & Adams, H. E. (1980). Activity valence as a function of mood change. Journal of
Abnormal Psychology, 89, 368-377.
Casanova, G. M., Katkowsky, W. & Hershberger, W. A. (1988). Effects of impaired hearing and
favorable vs. unfavorable personal feedback on negative emotional reactions. Journal of Clinical
P&dogy, 44, 982-987.
Cash, T. F., Rimm, D. C. & MacKinnon, R. (1986). Rational-irrational belief and the effects of the
Velten mood induction procedure. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 10, 461467.
Challis, B. H. & Krane, R. V. (1988). Mood induction and the priming of semantic memory in a lexical
decision task: Asymmetric effects of elation and depression. Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society, 26,
309-312.
Clark, D. M. (1983). On the induction of depressed mood in the laboratory: Evaluation and comparison
of the Velten and musical procedures. Advances in Behaviour Research and Therapy, 5, 2 7 4 9 .
Clark, D. M. & Teasdale, J. D. (1985). Constraints on the effects of mood on memory. Journal of
Personality and Social Psychology, 48, 1595-1 608.
Clark, D. M., Teasdale, J. D., Broadbent, D. E. & Martin, M. (1983). Effect of mood on lexical
decisions. Bulletin of the Psychonomic Socieo, 21, 175-178.
Clark, M. S. & Waddell, B. A. (1983). Effects of mood on thoughts about helping, attraction and
information acquisition. Social Psychology Quarterb, 46, 31-35.
Clark, M. S., Milberg, S. & Ross, J. (1983). Arousal cues arousal-related material in memory:
72 Astrid Gerrards-Hesse and others
Implications for understanding effects of mood on memory. J o m l of Verbal Learning and Verbal
Behavior, 22, 633-649.
Clore, G. L., Schwarz, N. & Kirsch, J. (1983). Generalized mood effects on evaluative judgments. Paper
read at the Meeting of the Midwestern Psychological Association, Chicago.
Cohen, L. H., Towbes, L. C. & Flocco, R. (1988). Effects of induced mood on self-reported life events
and perceived social support. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 55, 669-674.
Cunningham, M. R. (1988). What do you do when you're happy or blue? Mood, expectancies, and
behavioral interest. Motivation and Emotion, 12, 30%331.
Cunningham, M. R., Shaf€er, D. R., Barbee, A. P., WoH, P. L. & Kelley, D. J. (1990). Separate
processes in the relation of elation and depression to helping: Social versus personal concerns. Journal
of Experimental Social Psychology, 26, 13-33.
Cunningham, M. R., Steinberg, J. & Grev, R. (1980). Wanting to and having to help: Separate
motivations for positive mood and guilt-induced helping. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,
38, 181-192.
Danzer, A., Dale, A. & Klions, H. L. (1990). Effects of exposure to humorous stimuli on induced
depression. Psychological Reports, 66, 1027-1036.
Deldin, P. J, & Levin, J. P. (1986). The effect of mood induction in a risky decision-making task.
Bulletin of the Psycbonomic Society, 24, 4-6.
Delp, M. J. & Sackeim, H. A. (1987). Effects of mood on lacrimal flow: Sex differences and asymmetry.
Psychopbysiology, 24, 55&556.
Duncan, J. W. & Laird, J. D. (1980). Positive and reverse placebo effects as a function of differences
in cues used in self-perception. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 39, 1024-1036.
Eich, E. & Metcalfe, J. (1989). Mood dependent memory for internal versus external events. Journal of
Experimental Psychology :Learning, Memory and Cognition, 15, 443-455.
Eifert, G. H., Craill, L., Carey, E. & O'Conner, C. (1988). Affect modification through evaluative
conditioning with music. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 26, 321-330.
Ellis, H. C., Seibert, P. S. & Herbert, B. J. (1990). Mood state effects on thought listing. Bulletin of the
Psychonomic Socieg, 28, 147-150.
Ellis, H. C., Thomas, R. L., McFarland, A. D. & Lane, J. W. (1985). Emotional mood states and
retrieval in episodic memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory and Cognition, 11,
363-370.
Ellis, H. C., Thomas, R. L. & Rodriguez, I. A. (1984). Emotional mood states and memory:
Elaborative encoding, semantic processing and cognitive effort. Journal of Experimental Psychology :
Learning, Memoy and Cognition, 10, 47W82.
Elmes, D. G., Chapman, P. F. & Selig, L. W. (1984). Role of mood and connotation in the spacing
effect. Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society, 22, 186-188.
Erdmann, G. (1983). Zur BeeinJuJbarhit emotionaler Proxesse durch vegetative Variationen. Weinheim : Beltz.
Erdmann, G., Janke, W. & Bisping, R. (1984). Wirkungen und Vergleich der Wirkungen von vier
experimentellen Belastungssituationen. Zeitschr$t f2r Experimentelle und Angewandte Psychologie, 31,
521-543.
Fiedler, K. & Fladung, U. (1986). Mood congruence in productive and reproductive memory.
Unpublished manuscript, Universitat GieRen.
Fiedler, K. & Fladung, U. (1987). Emotionale Stimmung, Selbstbeteiligung und Empfanglichkeit fur
persuasive Kommunikation. Zeitschriftj3r Soxialpsychologie, 18, 169-179.
Fiedler, K., Pampe, H. & Scherf, U. (1986). Mood and memory for tightly organized social information.
European Journal of Social Psychology, 16, 143-1 64.
Fiedler, K. & Strohm, W. (1986). What kind of mood influences what kind of memory: The role of
arousal and information structure. Memory and Cognition, 14, 181-188.
Fiedler, K., Strohm, W., Fladung, U. & Jensen, C. (1984). Converging evidence for mood effects on
memory for pictorial and verbal material. Unpublished manuscript, Universitat GieRen.
Finman, R. & Berkowitz, L. (1989). Some factors influencing the effect of depressed mood on anger
and overt hostility toward another. Journal of Research in Personality, 23, 70-84.
Forest, D., Clark, M. S., Mills, J. & Isen, A. M. (1979). Helping as a function of feeling state and nature
of the helping behavior. Motivation and Emotion, 3, 161-169.
Forgas, J. P. (1990). Affectiveinfluences on individual and group judgments. European Journal of Social
Psychology, 20, 441-453.
 Experimental induction of emotional states 73
Forgas, J. P. & Bower, G. H. (1987). Mood effects on person-perception judgments. Journal of
Personality and Social Psychology, 53, 53-60.
Forgas, J. P., Bower, G. H. & Krantz, S. E. (1984). The influence of mood on perceptions of social
interactions. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 20,497-513.
Forgas, J. P., Bower, G. H. & Moyland, S. J. (1990). Praise or blame? Affective influences on
attributions for achievement. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 59, 809-81 9.
Forgas, J. P. & Moylan, S. (1987). After the movies: The effects of mood on social judgments.
Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 13,467-477.
Frost, R. O., Goolkasian, G. A., Ely, R. J. & Blanchard, F. A. (1982). Depression, restraint, and eating
behavior. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 20, 113-123.
Frost, R. O., Graf, M. & Becker, J. (1979). Self-devaluation and depressed mood. Journal of Consulting
and Clinical Psychology, 47,958-962.
Frost, R. 0. & Green, M. L. (1982). Velten mood induction procedure effects: Duration and
postexperimental removal. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 8, 341-347.
Gage, D. F. & Safer, M. A. (1985). Hemisphere differences in the mood state-dependent effect for
recognition of emotional faces. Journal of Experimental Psycholo@: Learning, Memory and Cognition, 11,
752-763.
Gerlsma, C. & Albersnagel, T. A. (1987). Effects of (non)contingency in a learned helplessness
experiment: A re-analysis based on mood changes. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 25,329-340.
Gerrig, R. J. & Bower, G. H. (1982). Emotional influences on word recognition. Bulletin of the
Psychonomic Society, 19, 197-200.
Gilligan, S. G. & Bower, G. H. (1983). Reminding and mood-congruent memory. Bulletin of the
Psychonomic Society, 21, 431-434.
Gilligan, S. G. & Bower, G. H. (1984). Cognitive consequences of emotional arousal. In C. E. Izard,
J. Kagan & R. B. Zajonc (Eds), Emotions, Cognition and Behavior, pp. 547-588. Cambridge : Cambridge
University Press.
Goodwin, A. M. & Williams, J. M. G. (1982). Mood-induction research-its implications for clinical
depression. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 20,373-382.
Gotlib, J. H. & McCann, D. C. (1984). Construct accessibility and depression: An examination of
cognitive and affective factors. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 47,427439.
Gustafson, R. (1987). Effect of alcohol and setting on three mood dimensions. Psychological Reports, 60,
503-507.
Hawkins, W. L., French, L. C., Crawford, B. D. & Enzle, M. E. (1988). Depressed affect and time
perception. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 97,275-280.
Henderson, J. R. & Lohr, J. M. (1982). The effect of statement valence and referent content upon mood
and anagram performance. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 6 , 461464.
Hesse, F. W. & Gerrards, A. (1989). Zur Wirkung emotionaler Belastung auf das Verstandnis und die
Losung von Problemen. In E. Roth (Ed.), Denken und Fiihlen. Aspekte kognitiv-emotionaler
Wechselwirkungen. Berlin : Springer.
Hesse, F. W. & Ueffing, E. (1991). Speicherung und Nutzung von sachbezogenen Informationen unter
emotionaler Belastung. In W. Krause, E. Sommerfeld & M. ZieRler (Eds), Infereny- und Interpretations-
proresse. Jena: Universitatsverlag.
Hettena, C. M. & Ballif, B. L. (1981). Effects of mood on learning. Journal of Educational Psychology, 73,
505-508.
Ingram, R. E.(1984). Information processing and feedback : Effects of mood information favorability
on the cognitive processing of personally relevant information. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 8,
371-386.
Ingram, R. E., Smith, T. W. & Brehm, S. S. (1983). Depression and information processing: Self
schemata and the encoding of self-referent information. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 45,
412420.
Isen, A. M. & Daubman, K. A. (1984). The influence of affect on categorization. Journal of Personality
and Social Psychology, 47, 12061217.
Isen, A.M., Daubman, K. A. & Gorgoglione, J. M. (1987). The influence of positive affect on
cognition organization: Implications for education. In R. E. Snow & M. J. Farr (Eds), Conotative and
Afective Process Anahsis. Hillsdale, NJ : Erlbaum.
74 Astrid Gerrards-Hesse and others
Isen, A. M., Daubman, K. A. & Nowicki, G. P. (1987). Positive affect facilitates creative problem
solving. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52, 1122-1131.
Isen, A. M. & Geva, N. (1987). The influence of positive affect on acceptable level of risk: The person
with a large canoe has a large worry. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Procejses, 39, 145-1 54.
Isen, A. M. & Gorgoglione, J. M. (1983). Some specific effects of four mood-induction procedures.
Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 9, 136-143.
Isen, A. M., Johnson, M. M. S., Mertz, E. & Robinson, G. F. (1985). The influence of positive affect
on the unusualness of word associations. Jownal of Personality and Social Psychology, 48, 1413-1426.
Isen, A. M. & Means, B. (1983). The influence of positive affect on decision-making strategy. Social
Cognition, 2, 18-31.
Isen, A. M. & Patrick, R. (1983). The effects of positive feelings on risk taking: When the chips are
down. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 31, 194-202.
Isen, A. M. & Shalker, T. E. (1982). The effect of feeling state on evaluation of positive, neutral and
negative stimuli: When you ‘accentuate the positive’ and do you ‘eliminate the negative’? Social
Psychology &uarterb, 45, 5 W 3 .
Johnson, E. J. & Tversky, A. (1983). Affect, generalization, and the perception of risk. Journal of
Personality and Social Psychology, 45, 20-31.
Johnson, T. L. & Klinger, E. (1988). A nonhypnotic failure to replicate mood-dependent recall. Bdletin
of the Psychonomic Society, 26, 191-194.
Kaltenhauser, P.(1987). Zur experimentellen Induktion von Stimmungen. Ein Vergleich der Velten-
Technik n i t einer Kombination aus Velten-Technik und Musikmethode. Unpublished master’s
thesis, Universitat Gottingen.
Kavanagh, D. L. & Bower, G. H. (1985). Mood and self-efficacy: Impact of joy and sadness on
perceived capabilities. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 9, 507-525.
Kenealy, P.A. (1986). The Velten mood induction procedure: A methodological review. Motivation and
Emotion, 10, 315-335.
Kenealy, P. (1988). Validation of a music mood induction procedure: Some preliminary findings.
Cognition and Emotion, 2, 4148.
Kidd, R. F. & Marshall, L. (1982). Self-reflection, mood and helpful behavior. Journal of Research in
Personality, 16, 319-334.
Knapp, A. (1986). Die Auswirkungen emotionaler Zustande auf das Losen eines sozialen Dilemmas.
Zeitschr$it fur Soxialpsychologie, 17, 160-172.
Knoblauch, J., Sperling, C. & Bohner, G. (1989). ‘Analyse contra Intuition?’ Einfliisse von
Stimmungen auf die Bearbeitung verschiedener Aufgabentypen. Paper presented at the ‘31. Tagung
experimentell arbeitender Psychologen’ in Bamberg.
Kuykendall, D., Keating, J. P. & Wagaman, J. (1988). Assessing affective states: A new methodology
for some old problems. Cognitive Therapj and Research, 12, 279-294.
Laird, J. D., Wagener, J. J., Halal, M. & Szegda, M. (1982). Remembering what you feel: Effects of
emotion on memory. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 42, 646-657.
Leight, K.A. & Ellis, H. C. (1981). Emotional mood states, strategies, and state-dependency in
memory. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 20, 251-266.
Leventhal, H. (1980). Toward a comprehensive theory of emotion. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in
Social Psychology, vol. 13. New York: Academic Press.
Levine, S., Wyer, R. S. & Schwarz, N. (1987). Are you what you feel? The affective and cognitive
determinants of self-esteem. Unpublished manuscript.
Lewis, S. J. & Harder, D. W. (1988). Velten’s mood induction technique: ‘Real’ change and the effects
of personality and sex on affect state. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 44, 44-444.
Madigan, R. J. & Bollenbach, A. K. (1982). The effects of induced mood on the retrieval of personal
episodic and semantic memories. Psychological Reports, 50, 147-1 57.
Madigan, R. J. & Bollenbach, A. K. (1986). The effects of induced mood on irrational thoughts and
views of the world. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 10, 547-562.
Mandler, G. (1975). Mind and Emotion. New York: Wiley.
Manucia, G. K., Baumann, D. J. & Cialdini, R. B. (1984). Mood influences on helping: Direct effects
or side effects? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 46, 357-364.
 Experimental induction of emotional states 75
Marks, T. & Hammen, C. L. (1982). Interpersonal mood induction: Situational and individual
determinants. Motivation and Emotion, 6, 381-399.
Marshall-Garcia, K. A. & Beck, R. C. (1985). Mood and recognition memory: A comparison of two
procedures. Bulletin of the Pychonomic Society, 23, 450452.
Marston, A., Hart, J., Hileman, C. & Faunce, W. (1984). Toward the laboratory study of sadness and
crying. American Journal of Pychology, 97, 121-131.
Mathews, A. & Bradley, B. (1983). Mood and the self-reference bias in recall. Behaviour Research and
Therapy, 21, 233-239.
Mayer, J. D., Gayle, M., Mechan, M. E. & Haarman, A. K. (1990). Toward better specification of the
mood-congruency effect in recall. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 26, 465-480.
McArthur, L. Z., Solomon, M. R. & Jaffe, R. H. (1980). Weight differences in emotional responsiveness
to proprioceptive and pictorial stimuli. Journal of Personality and Social Pychology, 39, 308-31 9.
McFarland, C. & Ross, M. (1982). Impact of causal attributions on affective reactions to success and
failure. Journal of Personality and Social Pychology, 43, 931-946.
McFarland, R. A. (1984). Effects of music upon emotional content of TAT stories. The Journal of
Pychology, 116, 221-234.
Mecklenbrauker, S. & Hager, W. (1984). Effects of mood on memory: Experimental tests of a mood-
state-dependent retrieval hypothesis and of a mood-congruity hypothesis. Pychological Research, 46,
355-316.
Mecklenbrauker, S. & Hager, W. (1986). Zur experimentellen Variation von Stimmungen: Ein
Vergleich einer deutschen Adaptation der selbstbezogenen Velten-Aussagen mit einem Musikver-
fahren. Zeitschr$t fur Experimentelle und Angewandte Pychologie, 33, 11-94.
Miranda, J. & Persons, J. B. (1 988). Dysfunctional attitudes are mood-state dependent. Journal of
Abnormal Pychology, 97, 16-79.
Mitchell, J. E. & Madigan, R. J. (1984). The effects of induced elation and depression on interpersonal
problem solving. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 8, 271-285.
Morrow, J. & Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (1990). Effects of responses to depression on the remediation of
depressive affect. Jo~rnalof Personality and Social Psychology, 58, 519-521.
Mueller, C. W. & Donnerstein, E. (1981). Film-facilitated arousal and prosocial behavior. Journal of
Experimental Social Pychology, 17, 31-41.
Mukherji, B. R., Abramson, L. Y. & Martin, D. J. (1982). Induced depressive mood and attributional
patterns. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 6, 15-21.
Murray, A. (1938). Explorations in Personality. New York : Oxford University Press.
Murray, N., Sujan, H., Hirt, E. R. & Sujan, M. (1990). The influence of mood on categorization: A
cognitive flexibility interpretation. Journal of Personality and Social Pychology, 59, 41 1-425.
Natale, M. & Boylan, R. (1980). The effect of Velten’s mood-induction procedure for depression on
hand movement and head-down posture. Motivation and Emotion, 4, 323-333.
Natale, M. & Hantas, M. (1982). Effect of temporary mood states on selective memory about the self.
Journal of Personality and Social Pychology, 42, 921-934.
O’Malley, M. N. & Andrews, L. (1983). The effect of mood and incentives on helping: Are there some
things money can’t buy? Motivation and Emotion,7, 119-189.
Orton, I. K., Beiman, I., La Pointe, K. & Lankford, A. (1983). Induced states of anxiety and
depression : Effects on self-reported affect and tonic psychophysiological response. Cognitive Therapy
and Research, 7, 233-244.
Parrott, A. C. (1982). Effects of paintings and music, both alone and in combination, on emotional
judgments. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 54, 635-641.
Parrott, W. G. (1991). Mood induction and instructions to sustain mood: A test of the subject
compliance hypothesis of mood congruent memory. Cognition and Emotion, 5, 41-52.
Parrott, W. G. & Sabini, J. (1990). Mood and memory under natural conditions: Evidence for mood
incongruent recall. Journal of Personality and Social Pychology, 59, 321-336.
Pignatiello, M. F., Camp, C. J. & Rasar, L. A. (1986). Musical mood induction: An alternative to the
Velten technique. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 95, 295-291.
Pittman, T. S. & Pittman, N. L. (1980). Deprivation of control and the attribution process. Journal of
Personality and Social Pychology, 39, 311-389.
76 Astrid Gerrards-Hesse and others
Polivy, J. (1981).On the induction of emotion in the laboratory: Discrete moods or multiple affect
states? Journal of Personality and Social Psycbology, 41, 803-817.
Polivy, J. & Doyle, C. (1980).Laboratory induction of mood states through the reading of self-referent
mood statements : Affective changes or demand characteristics? Journal of Abnormal Psycbology, 89,
28G290.
Popp, M. (1988~).When do moods affect performance in resource dilemmas? Paper presented at the
Third Conference on Social Dilemmas, Groningen.
Popp, M. (1988b). Wirkung von Informationsbedingung, emotionalem Zustand und externer
Speichermoglichkeit auf das Losen sozialer Fallen. Arcbiv fur Psycbologie, 140, 33-51.
Radenhausen, R. A. (1989). Effects of mood induction on ratings of self and experimenter. Journal of
Clinical Psychology, 45, 134-138.
Ranieri, D. J. & Zeiss, A. M. (1984).Induction of depressed mood: A test of opponent-process theory.
Journal of Personality and Social Psycbology, 47, 141S1422.
Rholes, W. S., Riskind, J. H. & Lane, J. W. (1987). Emotional states and memory biases: Effects of
cognitive priming and mood. Journal of Personality and Social Psycbology, 52, 91-99.
Richardson, A. & Taylor, C. C. (1982). Vividness of memory imagery and self-induced mood change.
Britisb Journal of Clinical Psycbology, 21, 111-117.
Riskind, J. H. (1983). Nonverbal expressions and the accessibility of life experience memories: A
congruency hypothesis. Social Cognition, 2, 62-86.
Riskind, J. H. & Gotay, C. C. (1982). Physical posture: Could it have regulatory or feedback effects on
motivation and emotion? Motivation and Emotion, 6, 273-298.
Riskind, J. H., Rholes, W. S. & Egger, J. (1982). The Velten mood induction procedure: Effects on
mood and memory. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 50, 146-147.
Ritchie, R. G. (1986). Momentary affect and attention allocation. Motivation and Emotion, 10, 387-395.
Robins, C. J. (1988). Development of experimental mood induction procedures for testing
personality-event interaction models of depression. Journal of Clinical Psycbology, 44,958-963.
Rodrigue, J. R., Olson, K. R. & Markley, R. P. (1987). Induced mood and curiosity. Cognitive Tberapy
and Research, 11, 101-106.
Rogers, M., Miller, N., Mayer, F. S. & Duval, S. (1982). Personal responsibility and salience of the
request for help: Determinants of the relation between negative affect and helping behavior. Journal
of Personality and Social Psycbology, 43,956-970.
Rosenhan, D. L., Salovey, P. & Hargis, K. (1981). The joys of helping: Focus of attention mediates the
impact of positive affect on altruism. Journal of Personality and Social P&ology, 40, 899-905.
Russell, D. & McAuley, E. (1986). Causal attributions, causal dimensions and affective reactions to
success and failure. J o m l of Personality and Social Psychology, 50, 1174-1 185.
Salovey, P. & Birnbaum, D. (1989). Influence of mood on health-relevant cognitions. Journal of
Personality and Social Psychology, 57, 539-551.
Schachter, S. & Singer, J. E. (1962). Cognitive, social, and physiological determinants of emotional
state. Pycbological Review, 69, 379-399.
Schare, M. L. & Lisman, S. A. (1984). Self-statementinduction of mood: Some variations and cautions
on the Velten procedure. Journal of Clinical Psycbology, 40, 97-99.
Schare, M. L., Lisman, S. A. & Spear, N. E. (1984). The effects of mood variation on state dependent
retention. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 8, 387-408.
Schumacher, A. & Schwarz, N. (1984).Selbstbezogene Aussagen zur Induktion von Stimmungen-eine
deutsche Adaptation der selbstbezogenen Velten-Statements. Paper presented at the '26. Tagung
experimentell arbeitender Psychologen ' in Numberg.
Schwartz, G. E., Weinberger, D. A. & Singer, J. A. (1981).Cardiovascular differentiation of happiness,
sadness, anger and fear following imagery and exercise. Psycbosomatic Medicine, 43, 343-364.
Schwartz, H., Openoorth, E., Gabriel, E., Presslich, E. & Schuster, P. (1986). Mood dependent
learning: 11. Healthy subjects: Influence of positive and negative feedback on expectancy shift.
Psycbopbysiology, 19, 111-115.
Schwarz, N. (1983).Stimmung als Information: Zum Einfld von Stimmungen auf die Beurteilung des
eigenen Lebens. In G. Luer (Ed.), Bericht iiber den 33. KongreJ der Deutscben Gesellscbaft fur Psycbologie
in Main?, 1982. Gottingen: Hogrefe.
 Experimental induction of emotional states 77
Schwarz, N. & Clore, G. L. (1983). Mood, misattribution, and judgements of well-being: Informative
and directive functions of affective states. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 45, 513-523.
Schwarz, N., Strack, F., Kommer, D. & Wagner, D. (1987). Soccer, rooms and the quality of your life:
Mood effectson judgment of satisfaction with life in general and with specific life-domains. Ewopean
Journal of Social Psychology, 17, 69-79.
Shaffer,D. R. & Graziano, W. G. (1983). Effects of positive and negative mood on helping tasks with
pleasant and unpleasant consequences. Motivation and Emotion, 7, 269-278.
Shaffer, D. R. & Smith, J. E. (1985). Effectsof preexisting moods on observers’ reactions to helpful and
nonhelpful models. Motivation and Emotion, 9, 101-122.
Sherwood, G. G., Schroeder, K. G., Abrami, D. L. & Alden, L. E. (1981). Self-referent versus non self-
referent statements on the induction of mood states. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 5, 105-108.
Sirota, A. D. & Schwartz, G. E. (1982). Facial muscle patterning and lateralization during elation and
depression imagery. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 91, 25-34.
Sirota, A. D., Schwartz, G. E. & Kristeller, J. L. (1987). Facial muscle activity during induced mood
states : Differential growth and carryover of elated versus depressed patterns. Psychop&ology, 24,
691-699.
Skrypzinski, R. (1985). Empirische Untersuchung zum Einfld negativer Emotionen auf die
Bearbeitung des Turm von Hanoi-Problems. Unpublished master’s thesis, Universitat Gottingen.
Small, S. A. (1985). The effect of mood on word recognition. Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society, 23,
453-455.
Small, S . A. & Robins, C. J. (1988). The influence of induced depressed mood on visual recognition
thresholds : Predictive ambiguity of associative network models of mood and cognition. Cognitive
Therapy and Research, 12, 295-304.
Snyder, M. & White, P. (1982). Moods and memories: Elation, depression and the remembering of the
events of one’s life. Journal of Personality, 50, 149-167.
Spies, K. (1988). Einflun von Emotionen auf den Musteriibereinstimmungsvergleich. Zeitschrqt f i r
Experimentelle und Angewandte Pgchologie, 35, 317-344.
Spies, K. (1990). EinfluR von Emotionen auf das aktuelle handlungsleitende Ziel. Zeitschrift f i r
Experimentelle und Angewandte Psychologie, 37, 124-1 52.
Spies, K., Hesse, F. W., Gerrards-Hesse, A. & Ueffing, E. (1991). Experimentelle Induktion
emotionaler Zustande-Verbessert die zusatzliche Darbietung von Musik die Wirksamkeit selbst-
bezogener Aussagen? Zeitschrift f i r Experimentelle und Angewandte Psychologie, 38, 321-342.
Srull, T. K. (1983). Affect and memory: The impact of affective reactions in advertising on the
representation of product information in memory. In R. Bagozzi & A. Tybout (Eds), Advances in
Consumer Research, vol. 10. Ann Arbor, MI : Association for Consumer Research.
Srull, T. K. (1984). The effects of subjective affective states on memory and judgment. In T. Kinnear
(Ed.), Advances in Consumer Research, vol. 11, pp. 530-533. Provo, UT: Association for Consumer
Research.
Staudel, T. & Paetzold, U. (1984). Emotionsausdruck beim Problemlosen. Unpublished manuscript,
Universitat Bamberg.
Stiles, T. C. & Gotestam, K. G. (1989). The role of automatic negative thoughts in the development
of dysphoric mood: An analogue experiment. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 13, 161-170.
Strack, F., Schwarz, N. & Gschneidinger, E. (1985). Happiness and reminiscing: The role of time
perspective, affect, and mode of thinking. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 49, 146Ck1469.
Sullivan, M. J. L. & Conway, M. (1989). Negative affect leads to low-effort cognition: Attributional
processing for observed social behavior. Social Cognition, 7, 315-337.
Sutherland, G., Newman, B. & Rachman, S. (1982). Experimental investigations of the relations
between mood and intrusive, unwanted cognitions. British Journal of Medical Psychology, 55, 127-138.
Sutton, L. J., Teasdale, D. & Broadbent, D. E. (1988). Negative self-schema: The effects of induced
depressed mood. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 27, 188-190.
Teasdale, J. D. & Fogarty, S. J. (1979). Differential effects of induced mood on retrieval of pleasant and
unpleasant events from episodic memory. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 88, 248-257.
Teasdale, J. D. & Russell, M. L. (1983). Differential effects of induced mood on the recall of positive,
negative and neutral words. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 22, 163-172.
78 Astrid Gerrards-Hesse and others
Teasdale, J. D. & Spencer, P. (1984). Induced mood and estimates of past success. British J o m a l of
Clinical Psychology, 23, 149-150.
Teasdale, J. D. & Taylor, R. (1981). Induced mood and accessibility of memories: An effect of mood
state or of inductive procedure? British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 20, 39-48.
Teasdale, J. D., Taylor, R. & Fogarty, S. J. (1980). Effects of induced elation-depression on the
accessibility of memories of happy and unhappy experiences. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 18,
339-346.
Thompson, W. C., Cowan, C. L. & Rosenhan, D. L. (1980). Focus of attention mediates the impact of
negative affect on altruism. Jowrial of Personalio and Social Pychlogy, 38, 291-300.
Van Rooijen, L. & Vlaander, G. P. J. (1984). Dramatic induction of depressive mood. Journal of Clinical
Psychology, 40, 1318-1322.
Velten, E. (1968). A laboratory task for induction of mood states. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 6,
473-482.
Weary, G. (1980). Examination of affect and egotism as mediators of bias in causal attributions. Journal
of Personality and Social Psychology, 38, 348-357.
Weiner, B. (1980~).May I borrow your class notes? An attributional analysis of judgements of help
giving in an achievement-related context. J o m a l of Educational Psychology, 72, 676-681.
Weiner, B. (1980b). A cognitive attribution-emotion-actionmodel of motivated behavior: An analysis
of judgments of help giving. Journal of Personalio and Social Psychology, 39, 186200.
Weiner, B., Russell, D. & Lerman, D. (1979). The cognition-emotion process in achievement-related
contexts. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 37, 121 1-1220.
Weingartner, H., Cohen, R. M., Murphy, D. L., Martello, J. & Gerdt, C. (1981). Cognitive processes
in depression. Archives of Genera/ Psychiatty, 38, 4 2 4 7 .
Weiss, F., Blum, G. S. & Gleberman, L. (1987). Anatomically based measurement of facial expressions
in simulated versus hypnotically induced affect. Motivation and Emotion, 11, 67-81.
Wenzlaff, R. M., Wegner, D. M. & Klein, S. B. (1991). The role of thought suppression in the bonding
of thought and mood. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 60,5W508.
Wetzler, S. (1985). Mood-state dependent retrieval : A failure to replicate. Psychological Reports, 56,
759-765.
Williams, J. M. G. (1980). Generalization in the effects of a mood induction procedure. Behaviow
Research and Therapy, 18, 565-572.
Willy, G., Dickenberger, W. G. & Strack, F. (1988). Die Auswirkungen von Stimmungen auf das
Sympathieurteil in Abhiingigkeit vom Informationstrager. Poster at the ‘30. Tagung experimentell
arbeitender Psychologen’ in Marburg.
Wood, J. V., Saltzberg, J. A. & Goldsamt, L. A. (1990). Does affect induce self-focused attention?
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 58, 899-908.
Worth, L. T. & Mackie, D. M. (1987). Cognitive mediation of positive affect in persuasion. Social
Cognition, 5, 7 6 9 4 .
Wright, J. & Mischel, W. (1982). Influence of affect on cognitive social learning person variables. Journal
of Personality and Social Psychology, 43, 901-914.
Yinon, Y.& Landau, M. 0. (1987). On the reinforcing value of helping behavior in a positive mood.
Motivation and Emotion, 11, 83-93.
Zachary, R. A. (1982). Imagery, ambiguity, emotional arousal, and ongoing thought. Journal of Mental
Imagety, 6, 9S108.
Zuckerman, M. & Lubin, B. (1965). Manualfor the Multiple Affect Adjective Check List. San Diego, CA:
Educational and Industrial Testing Service.

Received 5 November 1991; revised version received 7 April 1993