Senior High School

Aquaculture NC II
12
Quarter 3 - Module 1: Week 1-5

Perform feeding operations and

maintain good water quality

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 WHAT IS THIS MODULE
ABOUT?

This learning material deals with the knowledge, skills, and attitudes which leads to an
Aquaculture National Certificate (NC II). It covers competencies that a Grade 12 Aquaculture
student ought to possess:

1. Prepare grow-out facilities

2. Stocking of fingerlings
3. Stock sampling
4. Perform feeding operation
5. Maintain good water quality

For the learner:

Welcome to the Aquaculture NC II. This module was designed to provide you
with fun and meaningful opportunities for guided and independent learning at your
own pace and time. You will be enabled to process the contents of the learning
resource while being an active learner. This module has the following parts.

What I Need to Know

This will give you an idea of the skills or competencies you are expected to learn in the
module.

What I Know
This part includes an activity that aims to check what you already know about the lesson
to take. If you get all the answers correct (100%), you may decide to skip this module.

What’s In
This is a brief drill or review to help you link the current lesson with the previous one.

What’s New
In this portion, the new lesson will be introduced to you in various ways such as a story,
a song, a poem, a problem opener, an activity or a situation.

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 What is it
This section provides a brief discussion of the lesson. This aims to help you discover
and understand new concepts and skills.

What’s More

This comprises activities for independent practice to solidify your understanding and
skills of the topic. You may check the answers to the exercises using the Answer Key at the
end of the module.

What I have Learned

This includes questions or blank sentence/paragraph to be filled in to process what you
learned from the lesson.

What I Can Do
This section provides an activity which will help you transfer your new knowledge or skill
into real life situations or concerns.

Assessment
This is a task which aims to evaluate your level of mastery in achieving the learning
competency.

Additional Activities
In this portion, another activity will be given to you to enrich your knowledge or skill of the
lesson learned.

Answer Key
This contains answers to all activities in the module. At the end of this module you will
also find:

References
This is a list of all sources used in developing this module.

The following are some reminders in using this module:

1. Use the module with care. Do not put unnecessary mark/s on any part of the
module. Use a separate sheet of paper in answering the exercises.
2. Don’t forget to answer What I Know before moving on to the other activities
included in the module.
3. Read the instruction carefully before doing each task.
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4. Observe honesty and integrity in doing the tasks and checking your answers.
5. Finish the task at hand before proceeding to the next.
6. Return this module to your teacher/facilitator once you are through with it.

If you encounter any difficulty in answering the tasks in this module, do not hesitate to
consult your teacher or facilitator. Always bear in mind that you are not alone.
We hope that through this material, you will experience meaningful learning and gain
deep understanding of the relevant competencies. You can do it!

What I need to know

After finishing this module, YOU MUST be able to:

1. Select feeds based on quality
2. Sample and analyze feed periodically
3. Compute Average Body Weight (ABW), Biomass, Daily Feed Ration (DFR) and Feed
Conversion Ratio (FCR)
4. Formulate feeds using locally available materials
5. Record feed consumption

What I know

Before you go through the lesson, try to answer this pre-test. This will enable you to find
out what you already know and what you still need to know about “performing feeding
operations”.

Self-Assessment:
Multiple Choice: Choose the letter of the correct answer.

1. The following are examples of feed types except ______.

A. pellet B. flakes C. powdered D. gel

2. These are organic compounds necessary in the diet to support normal fish growth.
A. lipids B. proteins C. vitamins D. minerals

3. These are inorganic elements found in the diet for normal body functions.
A. lipids B. proteins C. vitamins D. minerals

4. It is the most expensive fish feed component.

A. lipids B. proteins C. vitamins D. minerals

5. These are feeds that are formulated from locally available materials.
A. commercial feeds C. formulated feeds
B. supplemental feeds D. AOTA
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6. This is the amount of feeds given to the fish cultured in a day.
A. FCR B. DFR C. ABW D. FCE

7. It is a feeding method where fish were given more than enough feed that they can
consume.
A. feeding to satiation B. feeding to excess
C. restricted feeding D. All of the above (AOTA)

8. It is a feeding method where fish can always access food readily available in the pond.
A. feeding to satiation B. feeding to excess
C. restricted feeding D. All of the above (AOTA)

9. It is the major animal by-product used in feed formulation.

A. fish meal B. shrimp meal C. forage material D. AOTA

10. It is a method in calculating crude protein in formulation of feeds.

A. Pearson square B. Peirson square C. Pareson square D. NOTA

LEARNING OUTCOME 1

Perform feeding operation

LO 1.1. Select feeds based on quality

LO 1.2. Sample and analyze feeds periodically

LO 1.3. Compute Average Body Weight (ABW), Biomass, Daily Feed Ration
(DFR), and Feed Conversion Ratio (FCR)

LO 1.4. Formulate feeds using locally available materials

LO 1.5. Record daily feed consumption

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 What’s in?

There are many different types of fish food on the market today. They come in many
different shapes and sizes. However, not all fish food may be suitable for your fish. It is
important to recognize the right type of food for your fish.

What’s new?

Types of Fish Food

There are many different types of fish food on the market today. They can be
categorized into processed feed, dried food, fresh food, frozen food, and live fish food. In
order to fully understand what type of fish food is available today, it is important to recognize
two concepts. First, there is a huge selection of fish food on the market, especially when it
comes to processed food. Second, there are multiple different markets for fish food. The
main markets are aquarium fish food, aquaculture fish feed, and aquaponics fish feed. It is
exciting to see that there are advancements in fish food across all markets.

By understanding the nutritional requirements of fish and what type of fish food is
available, both aquarium hobbyists and aquaculture farmers can make educated decisions.

Processed Fish Feed

Processed fish feed, or manufactured fish feed, represents the largest category of fish
food for both ornamental and farmed fish. The popularity of commercial processed feed can
be attributed to their convenience and also the fact that they have advanced in quality over
the years.

Processed feed has a long shelf life. If stored properly in a cool dry place, they can be
kept for months. Certain types of processed feed are known to last longer than others.
Generally, pellet feed will have a longer shelf life than flake food. Processed feed can be
delivered in many different shapes and sizes as well. The main types of processed fish feed
are pellet food, flake food, and powdered food.

Pellet Food
Pellet food is a popular type of fish food, especially for feeding larger aquarium fish and
farmed fish. The manufacturer will grind up the feed components, extrude it with heat and
pressure, then produce pellets in various sizes. Some are designed to float on water, while
others are designed to sink.

Pellet food decomposes slower in water compared to other fish food. Therefore, the fish
has a better chance of eating the pellet before it decomposes and pollutes the water. In
general, pellet food has a longer shelf life than other types of feed. The smaller surface area
reduces the oxidation rate.

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Flake Food
Flake food is another popular type of fish food, especially for aquarium fish. Flake food
will float for a certain amount of time, then slowly sink to the bottom. This gives a chance for
all types of fish at all levels of the aquarium to feed. Flake food is great for community fish
tanks where different species of fish are co-existing.

Powdered Food
Powdered food, or fry food, is often used in fish hatcheries to feed juvenile fish. The dry
powder can be directly fed to the fish, or mixed in water before feeding it to the fish.
Powdered food can pollute the tank water very quickly. Overfeeding should be avoided, and
any excess should be removed immediately.

Other categories of processed fish feed include specialized feed such as color
enhancing, medicated, vacation, and species-specific fish food.

Color Enhancing Fish Food

Color is very important to ornamental fish. Color enhancers are popular for tropical fish
and koi fish food. In order to allow the fish to exhibit the most vibrant color, carotenoids are
added as an enhancer. In nature, fish would be able to able to eat plants and invertebrates
that are high in carotenoids.

According to fishermen, rainbow trout that are caught in the rivers with high population of
Gammarus (an amphipod crustacean) exhibit the most vibrant color. In aquaculture, salmon
feed is often supplemented with carotenoids such as astaxanthin and canthaxanthin. This
gives salmon its distinctive pink pigmentation.

Medicated Fish Food

Medicated fish food is used to treat bacterial infections. The advantage of medicated fish
food is that it can be a direct application, as opposed to treating the entire water.

What kind of food do fish eat?

There are many different types of fish, and their diets and vary widely. They can be
carnivorous, herbivorous, or omnivorous. A carnivorous fish has a high protein diet. Some
examples of fish that are often considered as carnivores are piranha, arowana, cichlids, and
betta fish. For aquarium fish, there are high protein fish food available for these fish. There
are even fish food made specifically for individual species, especially for popular fish species
such as betta fish. In the wild, carnivorous fish may eat invertebrates such as insects, worms
and snails. Some fish will eat other fish as well. These predatory fish that primarily feed on
other fish are known as piscivores.

An herbivorous fish has a primarily plant-based diet. Some examples of freshwater fish
that are often considered as herbivorous are plecos, bristlenosed catfishes, and otocinclus
catfish. Some examples of saltwater fish that are often considered as herbivorous are
parrotfish, damselfish, and rabbitfish. Algae wafers are popular food choices for herbivorous
bottom feeders. In their natural environment, these herbivorous fish will often feed on algae
and other plants.

An omnivorous fish will consume both protein and plant matters. Most fish are
considered omnivores. In fact, many fish that are often considered as either carnivores or
herbivores may be omnivores by definition. Some examples of omnivores are zebra danio,
guppy, and oscar fish. While all omnivorous fish eat both protein and plant matter, their exact
diet can vary widely. In an aquarium, flake food and pellet food are accepted by most
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species. In their natural environment, their diet can be a combination of plants, invertebrates,
and other fish.

Source: Administrative Order No. 84, Series of 1990, Bureau of Animal Industry, Department of Agriculture,
Quezon City, Philippines

Creation of standards for pellet stability, feed digestibility, grinding level of raw
materials, level of fines (volume per sack)

a. Pellet stability
Ideal pellets lure fish by their size, shape, and organoleptic properties and are available
in water without loss of components. This last factor, called "pellet quality" is important for
good feed conversion. A measure of pellet quality as applied to dry feeding conditions is the
amount of small broken pieces of fines created during handling. This may be related to the
abrasive pressure required to break them down. However, dry pellet quality expressed as
hardness or in the percentage of fines does not necessarily correlate with water stability.

The average high-quality feed pellet made for poultry, swine, and beef, high in cereal
grains, becomes mushy within minutes after immersion in water. There is evidence that
coarse-textured feeds, water soluble, and hygroscopic ingredients weaken pellet structure in
water, allowing components to separate and making the feed only partially accepted.

b. Feed digestibility
Although fish meal is still the most ideal source of crude protein (CP) for aquaculture,
particularly for carnivorous fish, the increasing cost, availability and its impact to fisheries
drove many manufacturers to shift to plant-based protein. However, plant protein has
generally lower CP value and lower protein efficiency ratio. Moreover, it contains heat-labile
and heat-stable secondary compounds which negatively affects the diet utilization. However,
these can be addressed in many ways. Heat-labile secondary compounds can be destroyed
through heat systems such as, extrusion and expander processing (Drew et al. 2007).

Extrusion is the process of exposing the feeds into high temperature (125-150°C) and
pressure. On the other hand, heat-stable secondary compounds can be removed through
crop fractionation. Other means that can be considered are addition of enzymes, appropriate
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choice of raw materials, appropriate feed particle size vis a vis fish size. Grinding level of raw
materials is also a good consideration. The ingredients of well-grounded feeds are
well-mixed and easier for the fishes, especially the small ones to ingest.

What is it?

Fish in various stages of their growth will also require different ingredients in different
ratios as well. In general, carnivorous fish, juvenile fish, and fry will require a higher protein
content.

What’s more?

Read the additional readings on Fish Feed Management.

What I have learned?

LET US REMEMBER:

1. What are the factors that you must consider when choosing the right fish feed?

What I can do?

Try to complete the form in the Appendix I in the readings about Fish Farm
Management.

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 Sample and analyze feeds periodically

What’s in?

Manufactured feeds are an important part of modern commercial aquaculture, providing

the balanced nutrition needed by farmed fish. The feeds, in the form of granules or pellets,
provide the nutrition in a stable and concentrated form, enabling the fish to feed efficiently
and grow to their full potential.

Many of the fish farmed more intensively around the world today are carnivorous, for
example Atlantic salmon, trout, sea bass, and turbot. In the development of modern
aquaculture, starting in the 1970s, fishmeal and fish oil were key components of the feeds
for these species. They are combined with other ingredients such as vegetable proteins,
cereal grains, vitamins and minerals and formed into feed pellets. Wheat, for example, is
widely used as it helps to bind the ingredients in the pellets.

What’s new?

Good nutrition in animal production systems is essential to economical production of a

healthy, high-quality product. In fish farming (aquaculture), nutrition is critical because feed
typically represents approximately 50 percent of the variable production cost. Fish nutrition
has advanced dramatically in recent years with the development of new, balanced
commercial diets that promote optimal fish growth and health. The development of new
species-specific diet formulations supports the aquaculture industry as it expands to satisfy
increasing demand for affordable, safe, high-quality fish and seafood products.

Nutrient requirements of fishes

1. Protein and amino acids

2. Lipids and fatty acids
3. Carbohydrates
4. Vitamins
5. Minerals

Protein
Because protein is the most expensive component of fish feed, it is important to
accurately determine the protein requirements for each species and life stage cultured.
Proteins are formed by linkages of individual amino acids. Although more than 200 amino
acids occur in nature, only about 20 amino acids are common. Of these, 10 are essential
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(indispensable) amino acids that cannot be synthesized by fish. The 10 essential amino
acids that must be supplied by the diet are methionine, arginine, threonine, tryptophan,
histidine, isoleucine, lysine, leucine, valine, and phenylalanine. Of these, lysine and
methionine are often the first limiting amino acids.

Fish feeds prepared with plant protein (e.g., soybean meal) are typically low in
methionine. Meanwhile, fish feeds manufactured with bacterial or yeast proteins are often
deficient in both methionine and lysine. Therefore, these amino acids must be supplemented
to diets when these sources of proteins are used to replace fishmeal. It is important to know
and provide the dietary protein and specific amino acid requirements of each fish species to
promote optimal growth and health.

Protein levels in aquaculture feeds generally average 30 to 35 percent for shrimp, 28-32
percent for catfish, 35-40 percent for tilapia, 38-42 percent for hybrid striped bass, and 40-45
percent for trout and other marine finfish. In general, protein requirements are typically lower
for herbivorous fish (plant-eating) and omnivorous fish (plant and animal eaters) than they
are for carnivorous (flesh-eating) fish. Protein requirements are higher for fish reared in
high-density systems (e.g., recirculating aquaculture) compared to low-density culture (e.g.,
ponds).

Protein requirements are generally higher for smaller as well as early life stage fish. As
fish grow larger, their protein requirements usually decrease. Protein requirements also vary
with rearing environment, water temperature, and water quality, as well as the genetic
composition and feeding rates of the fish. Protein is used for fish growth if adequate levels of
fats and carbohydrates (energy) are present in the diet. If not, the more expensive protein
can be used for energy and life support rather than growth.

Proteins are composed of carbon (50 percent), nitrogen (16 percent), oxygen (21.5
percent), and hydrogen (6.5 percent), and other elements (6.0 percent). Fish are capable of
using a high-protein diet, but as much as 65 percent of the protein can be lost to the
environment. Most nitrogen is excreted as ammonia (NH3) from the gills of fish, and only 10
percent is excreted as solid wastes. Eutrophication (nutrient enrichment) of surface waters
due to excess nitrogen from fish farm effluents can be a significant water quality concern for
fish farmers. Appropriate feeds, feeding strategies, and waste management practices are
essential to protect downstream water quality.

Lipids
Lipids (fats) are high-energy nutrients that can be utilized to partially spare (substitute for)
protein in aquaculture feeds. Lipids have about twice the energy density of proteins and
carbohydrates. Lipids typically make up about 7-15 percent of fish diets, supply essential
fatty acids, and serve as transporters for fat soluble vitamins. A recent trend in fish feeds is
to use higher levels of lipids in the diet. While increasing dietary lipids can help reduce the
high costs of feed by partially sparing protein in the feed, problems such as excessive fat
deposition in the liver can decrease fish health, quality, and shelf life of the final product.

Simple lipids include fatty acids and triacylglycerols. Fish typically require fatty acids of
the omega-3 and -6 (n-3 and n-6) families. Fatty acids can be (a) saturated fatty acids (no
double bonds), (b) polyunsaturated fatty acids (>2 double bonds), or (c) highly unsaturated
fatty acids (>4 double bonds). Marine fish and algal oils are naturally high in omega-3 highly
unsaturated fatty acids (>30 percent) and are excellent sources of lipids for the manufacture
of fish diets. Lipids from these sources can be deposited into fish muscle. People who then

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consume these fillets could enjoy the health benefits of consuming foods rich in omega-3
fatty acids, such as reduced symptoms of depression and improved cardiovascular health.

Marine fish typically require omega-3 fatty acids for optimal growth and health, usually in
quantities ranging from 0.5-2.0 percent of the dry diet. The two major essential fatty acids of
this group are eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA: 20:5n-3) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA:
22:6n-3). Freshwater fish do not require the long-chain highly unsaturated fatty acids but
often require an 18-carbon n-3 fatty acid, linolenic acid (18:3-n-3), in quantities ranging from
0.5 to 1.5 percent of dry diet. This fatty acid cannot be produced by freshwater fish and must
be supplied in the diet. Many freshwater fish can elongate and desaturate linolenic acid
using enzyme systems resulting in longer-chain omega-3 fatty acids EPA and DHA, which
are necessary for other metabolic functions and as cellular membrane components. Marine
fish typically do not possess these elongation and desaturation enzyme systems and require
long chain omega-3 fatty acids in their diets. Other fish species, such as tilapia, require fatty
acids of the n-6 family, while others, such as catfish, require a combination of n-3 and n-6
fatty acids.

Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates (starches and sugars) are the least expensive sources of energy for fish
diets. Although not essential, carbohydrates are included in aquaculture diets to reduce feed
costs and for their binding activity during feed manufacturing. Dietary starches are useful in
the extrusion manufacture of floating feeds. Cooking starch during the extrusion process
makes it more biologically available to fish.

In fish, carbohydrates are stored as glycogen that can be mobilized to satisfy energy
demands. They are a major energy source for mammals but are not used efficiently by fish.
For example, mammals can extract about 4 calories of energy from 1 gram of carbohydrate,
whereas fish can only extract about 1.6 calories from the same amount of carbohydrate.
Fish can use up to about 20 percent of dietary carbohydrates.

Vitamins
Vitamins are organic compounds necessary in the diet to support normal fish growth and
health. They are often not synthesized by fish and must be provided in the diet. The two
groups of vitamins are water-soluble and fat-soluble. Key vitamins for fish include A, B1, B2,
B3, B5, B6, B12, Biotin, C, Choline, D3, E, Folacin, Inositol, and K. Unfortunately, many
vitamins do not remain stable for very long in processed feed. Oxidation can degrade
vitamins very quickly. For example, the vitamin C content in an open container of flake food
can start degrading within a month.

Water-soluble vitamins include B vitamins (thiamine, riboflavin, niacin, pantothenic acid,

pyridoxine, biotin, folic acid, and cobalamins), inositol, choline, and vitamin C (ascorbic acid).
Of these, vitamin C probably is the most important because it is a powerful antioxidant and it
enhances the immune system of fish and shrimp.

Fat-soluble vitamins include vitamins A (retinol, betacarotene), D (cholecalciferol), E

(tocopherols), and K (phylloquinone). Of these, vitamin E receives the most attention for its
important role as an antioxidant. As a feed ingredient, vitamins E and C also inhibit dietary
lipid oxidation, thus helping to improve shelf life.
Deficiency of each vitamin has specific symptoms, but reduced growth is the most
common symptom of any vitamin deficiency. Scoliosis (bent backbone symptom) and dark
coloration may result from deficiencies of ascorbic acid and folic acid, respectively.

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Minerals
Minerals are inorganic elements necessary in the diet for normal body functions. They
can be divided into two groups — macrominerals and microminerals — based on the
quantity required in the diet and the amount present in fish. Fish can absorb many minerals
directly from the water through their gills and skin, allowing them to compensate to some
extent for mineral deficiencies in their diet.

Common dietary macrominerals are calcium, sodium, chloride, potassium, chlorine,

sulphur, phosphorous, and magnesium. These minerals regulate osmotic balance and aid in
bone formation and integrity. Common microminerals are iron, copper, chromium, iodine,
manganese, zinc, and selenium. These trace minerals are required in small amounts as
components in enzyme and hormone systems.

What is it?

Dietary nutrients are essential for the construction of living tissues. They also are a
source of stored energy for fish digestion, absorption, growth, reproduction, and other life
processes. The nutritional value of a dietary ingredient is in part dependent on its ability to
supply energy. Physiological fuel values are used to calculate and balance available energy
values in prepared diets. They typically average 4, 4, and 9 calories per gram for protein,
carbohydrate and lipid, respectively.

To create an optimum diet, the ratio of protein to energy must be determined

independently for each fish species. Excess energy relative to protein content in the diet can
result in high lipid deposition. Because fish feed in order to meet their energy requirements,
diets with excessive energy levels may result in decreased feed intake and reduced weight
gain. Similarly, a diet with inadequate energy content can result in reduced weight gain
because the fish cannot eat enough feed to satisfy their energy requirements for growth.
Properly formulated prepared feeds have a well-balanced energy-to-protein ratio.

Commercial fish diets are manufactured as either extruded (floating or buoyant) or

pressure-pelleted (sinking) feeds. Both floating and sinking feed can produce satisfactory
growth, but some fish species prefer floating, others sinking. Shrimp, for example, will not
accept a floating feed, but most fish species can be trained to accept a floating pellet.

Extruded feeds are more expensive due to the higher manufacturing costs. Usually, it is
advantageous to feed a floating (extruded) feed because the farmer can directly observe the
feeding intensity of his fish and adjust feeding rates accordingly. Determining whether
feeding rates are too low or too high is important in maximizing fish growth and feed use
efficiency.

Feed is available in a variety of sizes ranging from fine crumbles for small fish to large
(1/2-inch or larger) pellets. The pellet size should be approximately 20-30 percent of the size
of the fish’s mouth gape. Feeding too small a pellet results in inefficient feeding because
more energy is used in finding and eating more pellets. Conversely, pellets that are too large
will depress feeding and can, in the extreme, cause choking. Select the largest sized feed
the fish will actively eat. Feed manufacturers will often provide a feed pellet size guide for
different species and life stages.
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 What’s more?

Answer the question below

1. Why do you think that feed composition or feed ingredients are essential?
2. What are the fat soluble vitamins?
3. What are the water soluble vitamins?

What I have learned?

LET US REMEMBER:

1. _________ are also called “sparer’s of protein”.

2. The most expensive feed component is __________.

3. ________ are organic substances that are essential for normal fish growth.

4. ________ are inorganic substances supporting body functions.

What I can do?

Complete the table:

Vitamin Name of vitamin
Vitamin A
Vitamin B1
Vitamin B2
Vitamin B3
Vitamin B6
Vitamin B7
Vitamin B9
Vitamin B12
Vitamin C
Vitamin D1
Vitamin D3
Vitamin E
Vitamin K

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 Compute average body weight (ABW), biomass, daily feed ration (DFR), and feed
conversion ratio (FCR)

What’s in?

Calculation of the amount of feed to present daily must be based on an assessment of

the biomass (total weight of fish or shrimp) in each pond or enclosure.

Regular, accurate, data for average animal size must be obtained through weekly,
bi-weekly or, at the worst, monthly sampling of the rearing unit. In tanks or cages it is easier
to take representative samples but in ponds it is common to get a biased picture, particularly
when a species with uneven growth rate is stocked, such as freshwater prawns. Care must
be exercised to take samples in several parts of the pond, not only at feeding points where
the larger or more active individuals may congregate. Samples may be taken by seine, cast
net or lift net.

What’s new?

If accurate length/weight relationships for the species have been pre-determined under
the environmental conditions being used, length measurements are a more accurate means
of monitoring growth rate. This is particularly true of crustacea which hold uneven quantities
of water under their carapace. Measuring length can be a rapid process with a skilled
operator and is less stressful to the animals than trying to determine weight by a
standardized technique. Fish length can either be total or, to avoid inaccuracies due to
damage to the tail fin, is more accurately measured to the anterior end of the caudal fork.
Care must be taken that the method of measurement corresponds with that used when the
length/weight ratio was determined.

Average Body Weight (ABW)

Average body weight of the fish is the sum of the weight of all fish being sampled divide
by the number of fish samples during sampling.

Daily Feed Ration (DFR)

Daily feed ration is the amount of feeds given to fish being culture in a day. This is
calculated using a formula for daily feed ration and with the consideration of some factors
like average body weight, feeding rate and survival rate.

Biomass
Biomass is the total mass or weight of fish stocks in the pond or in a given area.
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Feed Conversion Ratio (FCR)
The FCR is simply the amount of feed it takes to grow a kilogram of fish. For example, if
it requires two kilograms of feed to grow one kilogram of fish, the FCR would be two. This
means that when a feed has a low FCR, it takes less feed to produce one kilogram of fish
then it would if the FCR were higher. A low FCR is a good indication of a high-quality feed.

Why is FCR important?

FCR is a valuable and powerful tool for the fish farmer. It allows for an estimate of the
feed that will be required in the growing cycle. Knowing how much feed will be needed then
allows a farmer to determine the profitability of an aquaculture enterprise. This means that
FCR allows the farmer to make wise choices in selecting and using feed to maximize
profitability.

How are protein and FCR related?

As the amount of protein in the diet increases, the FCR gets smaller. This means that it
takes less feed to produce a kilogram of fish. This can be important, because while feed with
higher levels of protein might be more expensive per kilogram, because it is possible to use
less feed, it may actually be the cheapest way to feed fish.

How can FCR be used to budget?

Let us assume that a feed mill produces a 36 percent protein fish diet for Pangasius
catfish that has an FCR of 1.3. This means that for every one kilogram of fish at harvest they
will need to 1.3 kg of feed. If the goal is to produce 1,000 kg of fish, then the enterprise will
require 1,300 kg of feed. If the feed costs KMR 2,000 per kilogram, the total cost of feed for
the growing cycle will be KMR 2,600,000.

The nice thing about FCR is that it provides a tool to compare two diets. Let us further
assume that a competitor to the first feed mill produces a 28 percent protein fish diet for the
same fish that is only KMR 1,800. However, the FCR for this diet is 3.2. This means that to
grow the same 1,000 kg of fish will require 3,200 kg of 28 percent feed. The total cost to feed
the lower priced fish food would be KMR 5,760,000. That means that it will cost KMR
3,160,000 more to feed a lower quality food.

Is FCR always the same for everyone?

Unfortunately, it is not because many things will influence the FCR. For example, FCR
can change as a fish gets older. FCR for small fish is generally lower than the same species
of fish that is larger. For example, growing a fish on formulated feed from 1 gram to 50
grams may result in an FCR of less than one, but the same species of fish and same feed is
likely to have FCR between one and two when producing a larger size of fish.

Every farm has many other unique things about it that change the way fish respond to
feed. FCR can be influenced by things like water quality, pond management, temperature,
how and when feed is presented to the fish, and the health of the fish, all of which can alter
the FCR of a feed. This is why it is important to keep good written records of your farm
activities. With good information collection you will eventually be able to calculate an
accurate FCR for your specific pond/feed/fish combination.

Can the FCR be less than one?

How can 1 kg of feed produce MORE than 1 kg of fish? It is possible, because the fish
contains water in its flesh while the feed does not contain much water. When the fish
converts dry food into moist flesh using a highly efficient diet, it can produce more moist

16
flesh then the weight of dry feed that was used. If we dried the fish to the same degree that
the feed is dried before weighing it, FCR less than one would not be possible.

It is also possible to get an FCR of less than one if there is a lot of natural food in the
pond. The fish will eat both the manufactured feed and the natural feed and grow better than
when they eat the manufactured feed alone.

Are there any other advantages to a low FCR?

In general, very good feeds that have a low FCR allow for more fish to be grown in a
pond because there is less waste polluting the water. With better water quality the carrying
capacity of the pond is increased.

Feeding Management
1. Feeding to Satiation
This is a feeding method where fish are fed with more than the computed amount of feed
to be given in a day until the fish stops eating.

2. Restricted Feeding
A feeding method where fish are fed with the exact computed amount of feeds to be
given in a day.

3. Ad Libitum Feeding
An exercise of feeding wherein fish can easily access food which is always available if
they want to eat.

DETERMINATION OF AVERAGE BODY WEIGHT (ABW), DAILY FEED RATION (DFR),

TOTAL FEED REQUIREMENT (TFR) AND FEED CONVERSION RATIO (FCR)

a. ABW (g) = total wt. of fish randomly sampled

No. of fish sampled

b. DFR = ABW x stocking density x feeding rate or;

c. DFR= Biomass x Feeding rate

d. FCR = Amount of feeds consumed (kgs.)

Wet weight gain of fish (kgs.)

e. Biomass = No. of stocks x Survival Rate x ABW

The closer the FCR to 1.0 kg. the better is the feed. Good feeds have FCR’s of between 1.5
to 2.0 kg.

For a pond of 5 000 m2, stocked at 10/m2, at least five samples should be obtained at
each sampling time and 50 animals from each sample measured. Average weight can either
be calculated directly from the total weight of the sample obtained by weighing or by
referring the average of the measured lengths to a length/weight ratio.

An assessment of survival is also necessary to calculate feeding rate effectively. This

can be illustrated as follows. If a pond is stocked with 50 000 animals and, at a sampling
date the average weight is 10 g and the feeding rate to be applied is 3% of the biomass/day,
the amount of feed would be:

17
If it is assumed that all the animals originally stocked are still present. If however, there has
been a 20% mortality up to the 10 g size, the correct amount of feed should be:

Besides saving 20% of daily feed costs in this case, an accurate assessment of survival,
as well as growth rate, would prevent possible water quality deterioration caused by
over-feeding.

Although a good estimate of survival aids an effective feeding programme it is often

extremely difficult to achieve. In small cages and tanks, it is often possible to make accurate
visual observations or to count all the animals during their transfer to another tank or cage.
This is normally impossible or impractical in pond culture, except when stock transfer from
one pond to another takes place for other reasons. In this case the numbers present can be
calculated by taking the total weight of stock and dividing by the average animal weight
obtained from samples. Visual observation is also impossible in ponds.

What is it?

Pointers in Fish Feeding:

1. Always feed the fish at the same time and in the same part of the pond. Fish will learn
where to go to get their food.
2. Do not overfed. Too much food will not be eaten but will decay and will use up oxygen
during decaying process.
3. Monitoring the dissolved oxygen of the pond regularly. Ponds with low DO
concentrations, fish will eat less and they will not convert food to flesh efficiency.
4. Do not feed the fish for about 24 hrs. before harvesting or transporting. When the fish
eat, they void the waste into the water. Combination of food and wastes makes the
water turbid and increases the stress that is already placed on fish by the breeding
and harvesting process.
5. Always have routinary pond cleaning and stock inventory. Aquatic macrophytes
remove inorganic nutrients and limit phytoplankton growth.
6. Keep a daily record of feeds given and of fish mortality. It would determine the
efficiency of a feeding program and would help one to interpret if the business was
successful or not.
7. Avoid overstocking the pond. It deteriorates water quality, increase metabolic waste
build up and lead to poor utilization of supplemental feeds.

18
 What’s more?

Answer the question briefly:

What is the importance of daily feed ration in aquaculture?

Rubrics to be used in grading your answer:
10  Explanation or answer demonstrates strong understanding of the concept
 Student completely explain the concept using appropriate vocabulary
7  Explanation demonstrates good understanding of the concept
 Explanation is nearly complete but some gaps exist; vocabulary is appropriate
5  Explanation demonstrates some understanding of concept
 Explanation is vague or inconsistent with missing or inappropriate vocabulary
3  Explanation demonstrates limited understanding of concept
 Minimal explanation is provided and explanation is unclear with missing and
inappropriate vocabulary
0  Student was unable to offer any explanation

What I Have Learned?

LET US REMEMBER:

1. A feeding method where fish are given the exact amount of feeds in a day is _______.

2. _________ is the amount of feed given to fish in a day.

3. ________ is a feeding method where fish were given more than enough feed that they
can consume.

4. _________ is a feeding method where fish can always access food readily available in the
pond.

What I can do?

Calculate for the daily feed ration.

1. Mrs. Ventura stocked 30,500 pieces of fingerlings with an average body weight of 30
grams. How much feed in a day will Mrs. Ventura be used in feeding the fingerlings if the
survival rate is 90%, and the feeding rate is 6%?

19
2. Mr. Aguinoas stocked 9,582 pieces of tilapia in his pond with an average body weight of
25 grams. How much feed in a day will Mr. Aguinoas used in feeding if the feeding rate is 5%
and have a 100 % survival rate?

Formulate feeds using locally available materials

What’s in?

Aquaculture practices especially intensive and semi-intensive require external feed.

Such feeds are one of the major recurring cost of fish farming.

Proper nutrition is one of the most important factors influencing the ability of cultured
organism in sexual maturity, growth and longevity. The nutrients requirements vary with
species, within species also varies with different life stages. The main objective of feed
formulation is to utilize the knowledge of nutrient requirements, locally available feed
ingredients and digestive capacity of fish for the development of a nutritionally balanced
mixture of feed stuff.

What’s new?

Forms of diets
Diets supplied to aquatic organisms could vary in form. Possible feeds include:

1. Live foods
Generally required for the culture of most aquatic organisms in their larval stage.

20
2. Forage materials
These are grasses, or macrophytes, which may be introduced into the culture system or
made to grow in the culture system.

3. Prepared foods
Includes a wide array of feeds, ranging from simple, on farm-based mixtures of a few
ingredients to microencapsulated diets.

Feed ingredients
Animal and fish feed ingredients are for most part by-products from the human food
processing industry. Feed ingredients are produced following the extraction of high value
food from raw materials which are considered unsuitable for human consumption. A wide
variety of ingredients are available for use in fish and crustacean feeds.

1. Grasses
Grasses are normally utilized either fresh or in the form of hay or silage. Grasses are
added very limited in fish foods. Dried grass used in shrimp feeds as a source if carotenoids.
Grasses are of limited value in fish feeds except for herbivorous fish

2. Legumes
The leaves and stems of legumes are not much use in aquaculture, except the plants
like alfalfa, ipil-ipil, etc. legumes are rich in protein (20-50%) and minerals. Legumes seeds
are rich in lysine but poor in methionine.

21
Examples: acacia, ground nut (peanut), beans, soya beans, etc.

3. Miscellaneous fodder plants

The leaves and other part of many plants, other than those specifically grown for fodder
are classified as miscellaneous fodder. These plants are washed and dried and used as leaf
meal. These feeds have an advantage that it can not deteriorate the water quality.

4. Root crops
Root crops, with some exceptions, are very deficient in protein, calcium, phosphorous
and vitamins. Waste from root crops can be utilized in small quantities in compound feeds,
but generally many required heat treatments to destroy the toxins they contain. Some root
crops have an extra important in aquaculture that is, they give stability to feed in water, so
they are used as binders.
Examples: potato, cassava, carrots

5. Cereals
22
 Cereals and cereal by-products, despite their high carbohydrate content form an
important component in fish feeds. They act as a good binder. Cereals also rich in protein
and lipid content of diet. Though deficient in some amino (e.g. lysine). They can be used to
balance high animal and vegetable protein content.

6. Oil bearing seed

Many plants are farmed specifically for oil extraction, and a vast quantity of by-products
are coming from the vegetable industry. These are used widely in animal production like
aquaculture. They are high and low in protein, so potential content for aquaculture feed
formulation. Example: sunflower, palm, coconut, sesame, soya bean, cotton

7. Animal by-products
23
 Animal by-products are either terrestrial or marine animal origin. They constitute the
most important and most expensive ingredients of aquaculture feeds. These feed stuffs are
necessary to balance the amino acids and vitamin deficiency in cereals and other plant part
products in complete diet.

Fish meal is the major animal by-product used in aquaculture, also blood meal, feather
meal, poultry meal, meat, raw fish, fish oils, fish silage, shrimp meal and meat by-products.
By far the most suitable animal by-products for incorporation with fish diet are fish meal. It is
mainly marine fishes such as by-catches or a product of specific fishery such as anchovy
fishes.

8. Miscellaneous feed stuffs

Many ingredients have potential use in aquaculture feeds, however their value has not
yet been fully assessed. Some of these ingredients are conventional or non-conventional.
The conventional includes the sugarcane molasses, leaf protein concentrate, minerals,
seaweeds, etc.

Diet Formulation
Diet formulation is a process in which appropriate feed ingredients are selected and
blended to produce a diet with required quantities of essential nutrients. No single
ingredients can be expected to meet all the nutrient requirement of a cultured organism.
Various ingredients which is nutritionally balance, pelletable, palatable and easy to store are
used in formulating feeds.

The basic information required for feed formulation are:

1. nutrient requirement of the species cultured
2. the feeding habit of the species
3. local availability, cost and nutrient composition of ingredients
4. ability of the cultured organism to utilize nutrients from various ingredients
5. expected feed consumption
6. feed additives needed
24
7. type of feed processing desired

Pearson square
Formulation of diets with a few ingredients, and in which amino and fatty acid balances
are not taken into consideration. It is one of the best and simply achieved method in feed
formulation. It can be balanced only one nutrient (make your choice for crude protein or
crude fat).

Sample calculation
1. please calculate to prepare a fish feed that includes 45% crude protein using fish meal
and corn gluten meal. Fish meal includes 65% crude protein and corn gluten meal includes
40% crude protein.

Fish meal 65% 5

45% +

Corn gluten meal 40% 20

25

% of fish meal is calculated as: (5 x 100) / 25 = 20

% of corn gluten meal is calculated as: (20 x 100) / 25 = 80

Note: 100 is constant

Fish meal: 65 x 0.20 = 13%

Corn meal: 40 x 0.80 = 32%
45% Crude protein

If we have more than two ingredients take them as groups and calculate the average
value of each group.

Factors to consider in feed formulation

1. Nutrient requirement

It is of vital importance that a formulated feed meets the nutritional requirement of

cultured organism. It mainly depends on the intensity of culture. The feed may be expected
to provide all of the nutritional required or only some of it. In order to do this, it has been
suggested that the species, strain, stage of development and health, as well as temperature
and environmental conditions of the culture system be taken into account. All these factors
have been shown to affect the nutritional requirement of the fish.

2. Composition of ingredients

A knowledge of the nutrient composition and available energy of dietary ingredients is

essential for their selection for used in diet formulation. The composition of feed stuffs is
known to vary regionally, seasonally, and also with soil fertility and type of processing and
storage. Therefore, it is desirable that each batch of feed ingredients is analyzed for actual
contents.
3. Digestibility and nutrient availability
25
 If feed formulation is performed correctly, a knowledge of digestibility of the individual
nutrients of all the ingredients is essential. The process of estimating these is tedious and
time consuming. However, general digestibility values for most of the major ingredients for
the widely cultured species are presently available and are often used in feed formulation.

What is it?

Feeding is the major factor which determines the economic gain from aquaculture. It is also
the major cost in aquaculture practices. So, feed formulation is a significant one. The feed
we give to the fish must contain energy sources, minerals, vitamins, and other major and
minor elements.

What’s more?

Answer the question briefly:

Do you think feed formulation is important? Why or why not?

Rubrics to be used in grading your answer:

10  Explanation or answer demonstrates strong understanding of the concept
 Student completely explain the concept using appropriate vocabulary
7  Explanation demonstrates good understanding of the concept
 Explanation is nearly complete but some gaps exist; vocabulary is appropriate
5  Explanation demonstrates some understanding of concept
 Explanation is vague or inconsistent with missing or inappropriate vocabulary
3  Explanation demonstrates limited understanding of concept
 Minimal explanation is provided and explanation is unclear with missing and
inappropriate vocabulary
0  Student was unable to offer any explanation

What I Have Learned?

LET US REMEMBER:

1. __________ is the major animal by-product used in feed formulation.

2. __________ are used as binder for feed formulation.

3. _________ generally required in the diet during larval stage of fish.

26
4. _________ is a method in calculating crude protein in formulation of feeds.

What I can do?

Compute:
Prepare a feed that contain 40% crude protein using fish meal with 60% crude protein
and duckweed containing 30% crude protein.

Record feed consumption

What’s in?

Proper management consists of monitoring your fish ponds regularly, keeping good
records and planning ahead for the operation of your farm. On this basis, you can for
example decide when to fertilize your ponds and how much to feed your fish. You can also
judge how well supplementary feeds are being utilized and how fast your fish are growing,
and you can plan the stocking, transfer and harvesting of your fish. Above all, you can be
well informed on how much you spend for or gain from fish farming.

What’s new?

Different needs for monitoring and record keeping

The extent of monitoring and record keeping required depends on several factors such as:
 the level of education and skill of the fish farmer;
 the interest of the farmer in good management and profit;
 the size and organization of the fish farm;
 the external assistance available to the farmer.

It is important to define the best approach for your circumstances. Generally, the larger
and more commercial the farm and the more technically qualified the staff, the more detailed
the management system will be. However, it is most important that the management system
27
is appropriate for your farm and is properly carried out. There is no point in setting up an
elaborate system if it is not completely or properly used.

Good records will, for example;

 Be useful in projection of expected production
 Be useful in determining the amount of inputs requirements for specific ponds at
various stages of production
 Be useful determine the expected harvesting time
 Determine the financial health of the enterprise

Important record parameters in aquaculture include:

 Total area under culture
 Individual pond identity
 Individual pond treatments
 Stocking densities and time of stocking
 Species stocked
 Kinds, quantities and cost of inputs used
 Pond productions in amounts and values
 Other productions and values
 Daily occurrences

Aquaculture records can be classified into:

 Daily records kept for input usage like feeds, fertilizers, labor and daily occurrence
 Occasional record which are kept for events that do not happen on daily basis. Such
records would include:
 Specific pond production (Quantity and values) by species
 Costs of acquisition of inputs
 Cost incurred in new constructions or repairs
 Salaries (both in cash and in kind)

How much and how comprehensive kept records are, is dependent on:
 Level of investment; Complex investments require complex records
 Motivation of investor; Serious investors will have more comprehensive records
 Level of aquaculture management: Intensive operations will have more complex
records as compared to semi-intensive operations
 Skills of the investor (or manager); Well-trained managers will keep better records

As the management levels rises, culture systems become more complex and so is the
record keeping. This is the reason the farmer must think very carefully of what he needs to
record.

Examples of aquaculture records

 Fish farming biological management records
 Financial management records
 Purchase of inputs
 Salary records
 Inventory of equipment
 Records on payment of rents and hire of equipment, machinery,
services etc
 Occurrence book

28
 It is very important for individual farmers to clearly know what they need record and the
intended use of this. This will assist them in preparing the most effective way of capturing the
needed information.

What is it?

Feed is one of the major costs in farm animal production. In aquaculture, improving feed
efficiency, a ratio of wet mass gain to feed intake, would have the effect of reducing feed
costs and minimizing environmental loading. Selective breeding is a potential tool for
improving feed efficiency. Feed efficiency can be improved by simultaneous selection for
rapid growth and against feed intake, or, when growth rate and feed efficiency are favorably
genetically correlated, by sole selection for increased growth rate. Since feed intake is a
fundamental component of feed efficiency, reliable means of recording feed intake are
required.

What’s more?
Give as many as you can on benefits or advantages or record keeping in aquaculture.

What I Have Learned?

LET US REMEMBER:

1. _____________ one of the major costs in aquaculture production.

What I can do?

Complete the table in Fish Feed Management (page 30) specifically the feed quantities
and see if the feed intake is being measured and/or recorded.

29
 Assessment

Self-Check:

Multiple Choice: Choose the letter of the correct answer.

1. The following are examples of feed types except ______.

A. pellet B. flakes C. powdered D. gel

2. These are organic compounds necessary in the diet to support normal fish growth.
A. lipids B. proteins C. vitamins D. minerals

3. These are inorganic elements found in the diet for normal body functions.
A. lipids B. proteins C. vitamins D. minerals

4. It is the most expensive fish feed component.

A. lipids B. proteins C. vitamins D. minerals

5. These are feeds that are formulated from locally available materials.
A. commercial feeds C. formulated feeds
B. supplemental feeds D. AOTA

6. This is the amount of feeds given to the fish cultured in a day.

A. FCR B. DFR C. ABW D. FCE

7. It is a feeding method where fish were given more than enough feed that they can
consume.
A. feeding to satiation B. feeding to excess
C. restricted feeding D. All of the above (AOTA)

8. It is a feeding method where fish can always access food readily available in the pond.
A. feeding to satiation B. feeding to excess
C. restricted feeding D. All of the above (AOTA)

9. It is the major animal by-product used in feed formulation.

A. fish meal B. shrimp meal C. forage material D. AOTA

10. It is a method in calculating crude protein in formulation of feeds.

A. Pearson square B. Peirson square C. Pareson square D. NOTA

30
 Additional activity

I. Direction: Compute for the following.

1. Mr. Mandar wanted to culture tilapia in his 3 fishponds with a length of 35 meters and a
width of 17 meters each. He wants to stock each pond with 15pcs/sq.m. How many tilapia
fingerlings will Mr. Mandar stock in each pond?

2. What is the biomass of the tilapia fingerlings in a single pond by Mr. Mandar if the
fingerlings will have a mortality rate of 12% and an average body weight of 25g.

3. How many kilos of feeds will Mr. Mandar use in feeding the tilapia fingerlings in one pond
if the feeding rate will be 8%?

4. How many kilos of feeds will Mr. Mandar use in feeding the tilapia fingerlings in the three
fishponds if the culture period will be four months?

5. What is the FCR of the cultured species of Mr. Mandar if the biomass of the harvested fish
is 1, 570.8 kg?

Answer key

Self-Assessment:
1. D
2. C
3. D
4. B
5. C
6. B
7. B
8. A
9. A
10. A

Information Sheet 1.1

What I Have Learned
1. Feed digestibility, feed stability, nutrients or feed ingredients

Information 1.2
What’s More What I Have Learned
Learner’s answer may vary 1. Lipids 2. Protein
31
 3. vitamins 4. Minerals
What I Can Do
Vitamin Name of vitamin
Vitamin A Retinol
Vitamin B1 Thiamine
Vitamin B2 Riboflavin
Vitamin B3 Niacin
Vitamin B6 Pyridoxine
Vitamin B7 Biotin
Vitamin B9 Folic acid
Vitamin B12 Cobalamin
Vitamin C Ascorbic acid
Vitamin D1 Calciferol
Vitamin D3 Cholecalciferol
Vitamin E Tocopherol
Vitamin K Phyloquinone

Information Sheet 1.3

What’s More What I Have Learned
Learners answer varies 1. Restricted feeding 2. Daily feed ration
3. feeding top excess 4. feeding to satiation
What I Can Do
1. 49,410g (show your solution using the formula for daily feed ration)
2. 11,977.5g (show your solution by using the formula for daily feed ration)

Information Sheet 1.4

What’s More What I Have Learned
Learners answer varies 1. Fish meal 2. Cereals
3. live foods 4. Pearson square
What I can Do
Fish meal 60% 10

40% +

Duckweed 30% 20

30

%Fish Meal = (10 x 100)/ 30 = 33.333

%Duckweed = (20 x 100) / 30 = 66.667

Fish meal: 60 x 0.33333 = 20

Duckweed: 30 x 0.66667 = 20
40 crude protein

Information Sheet 1.5

What’s More: What I Have Learned What I can Do
Leraners answer varies 1. Feed cost Learners answer varies

32
 References
https://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/PA00K8MQ.pdf

https://www.fishlaboratory.com/fish/types-of-fish-feed

http://www.aquaculture.asia/files/online_03/PMNQ%20feed%20quality.pdf

https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/aquaculture-feeds

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/321836110_TRAINING_MANUAL_ON_FISH_FE
ED_STORAGE_AND_HANDLING

White, P. 2013. Environmental consequences of poor feed quality and feed management. In
M.R. Hasan and M.B. New, eds. On-farm feeding and feed management in aquaculture.
FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Technical Paper No. 583. Rome, FAO. pp. 553–564.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commercial_fish_feed

https://fisheries.tamu.edu/files/2019/01/FST-269.pdf

https://www.bfar.da.gov.ph/bfar/download/nfftc/FeedingofTilapia.pdf

http://www.fao.org/tempref/FI/CDrom/FAO_Training/FAO_Training/General/x6709e/x6709e
16.htm

https://infonet-biovision.org/AnimalHealth/Record-keeping

Kause, A., D. Tobin, A. Doble, D. Houlihan, S. Martin, E.A. Mantisaari, O. Ritola, K.

Ruohonen. 2006. Recording Strategies and Selection Potential of Feed Intake Measured
Using the X-ray Method in Rainbow Trout. Genet. Sel. Evol. 38 (2006), 389-409

33