DIGESTIVE SYSTEM  Saliva – which is secreted by the salivary glands,
contains an important enzyme known as salivary
Intracellular digestion – digestion in simple animals
which occurs within food vacuoles in simple animals (i.e.,
in hydrae, captured food is enclosed in a food vacuole
and lysosomes containing digestive enzymes then fuse
with the vacuole break down the food).
Extracellular digestion – digestion in more complex
animals which occurs within a digestive tract (i.e., in
grasshoppers, food passes through specialized regions
of the gut, the mouth, esophagus, crop, stomach, rectum,
and anus).
THE HUMAN DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
Consists of the mouth, esophagus, stomach, small
intestine, large intestine, and accessory organs (liver,
pancreas, gall bladder, and salivary glands).
Four groups of molecules broken down by the digestive
tract:
 Sugars
 Proteins
 Fats
 Nucleic acids
Mouth – also known as the oral cavity where digestion
begins.
 Mechanical digestion – chewing, softening, and
breaking up of food.
amylase that facilitates breakdown of starch into
maltose.
 Bolus – chewed food shaped into a ball that
moves through the pharynx and into the
esophagus.
 Peristalsis – waves of contraction that push the
food through the esophagus toward the stomach.
Stomach – thick muscular sac that temporarily stores the
ingested food, partially digests protein, and kills bacteria.
 Gastric juices – contain digestive enzymes and
hydrochloric acid (HCI).
o Pepsin – breaks down proteins into smaller
peptides.
o HCI – kills most bacteria.
 Mucus – protects the stomach lining from the
acidic juices.
 Chyme – partially digested food by the churning
action of the stomach.
Small intestine – where all foodstuffs are completely
digested by peptidases for protein and maltase, lactase,
and sucrase for carbohydrates.
 Has three regions: the duodenum, the jejunum,
and the ileum.
o Chyme moves into the first region, the
duodenum, through the pyloric sphincter.
  Villi and microvilli – these are folds that increase
the surface area of the small intestine for food
absorption.
o Lacteals are lymph vessels that absorb fatty
acids within each villus.
Pancreas – secretes a number of enzymes into the small
intestine through the pancreatic duct.
 Trypsin and Chymotrypsin – break down proteins
to dipeptides
 Pancreatic lipase – breaks down lipids into fatty
acids and glycerol
 Pancreatic amylase – breaks down starch into
disaccharides
 Ribonuclease and Deoxyribonuclease – break
down nucleic acids into nucleotides
 Bile – acts as an emulsifier which mechanically
breaks up fats into smaller fat droplets; made in
the liver and stored in the gall bladder
Large intestine – reabsorbs water and salts
 Harbors harmless bacteria that break down
undigested food and, in the process, provide
certain essential vitamins such as Vitamin K.
 Feces – leftover undigested food that moves out of
the large intestine through the rectum.
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
THE HUMAN RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
How air gets into the body:
1. Air enters through the nose or mouth.
2. The nose leans, warms, and moistens the
incoming air and passes it through the pharynx
(throat) and larynx (voice box).
3. Air enters the trachea which has a special flap
called epiglottis that covers the trachea when
swallowing thus preventing food from going down
the wrong pipe.
4. Trachea then branches into two bronchi, the left
and right. The said passageways break down into
smaller tubes known as bronchioles, which ends in
a tiny sac called alveolus that enables the lung to
have an enormous surface area.
Transport of Oxygen
 Hemoglobin – iron-containing protein in red blood
cells which transports 97% of the oxygen
throughout the body (3% is dissolved in the
plasma).
 The %O2 saturation of hemoglobin is highest
where the concentration of oxygen is greatest.
 Oxygen binds to hemoglobin in oxygen-rich blood
leaving the lungs and dissociates from hemoglobin
in oxygen-poor tissues.
Transport of Carbon Dioxide
  Most of the carbon dioxide enters red blood cells
and combines with water to eventually form
bicarbonate ions (HCO3).
Mechanics of Breathing
 Inspiration – process of taking in oxygen which
involves the increase in volume of the lungs thus
allowing air to rush in.
 Expiration – process of breathing out carbon
dioxide out of the lungs.
 Chemoreceptors – controls respiratory rate (i.e.,
as blood pH decreases, chemoreceptors send
nerve impulses to the diaphragm and intercostal
muscles to increase respirator rate)
CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
Functions:
a. Supply body with nutrients and oxygen
b. Get rid of wastes
Types of circulatory systems:
Open circulatory system – blood is carried by open-end
blood vessels that spill blood into the cavity (e.g. in
arthropods, blood vessels from heart open into internal
cavities known as sinuses).
Closed circulatory system – blood flows continuously
through network of blood vessels.
THE HEART
SYSTEMIC CIRCULATION
 Blood leaves heart’s left ventricle through aortic
semilunar valve and enters aorta (largest artery).
 Aorta branches out into different arteries to
arterioles and eventually to capillaries.
 Gas and nutrient/waste exchange occurs between
blood and the tissue through capillary walls (blood
become deoxygenated).
 Deoxygenated blood travels back to the heart from
capillaries to venules and then through larger
vessels called veins.
 Blood comes back to the heart through the
superior vena cava and inferior vena cava into the
right atrium.
 Blood travels from right atrium to the right ventricle
through the right atrioventricular valve (tricuspid).
 From right ventricle, blood will go out the heart
towards the lungs (pulmonary circulation) to
harvest oxygen and dump carbon dioxide.
 Once the blood is oxygenated, it will travel back to
the heart’s left atrium and enters the left ventricle,
ready for sending oxygenated blood again into
body tissues.
PULMONARY CIRCULATION
 Deoxygenated blood leaves right ventricle via
pulmonary artery.
  The pulmonary artery branches into right and left
pulmonary veins that carries blood to the lungs.
 Gas exchange occurs between capillaries and
alveoli of the lungs.
 Once the blood is oxygenated, it returns to the
heart’s left atrium through pulmonary veins.
Thermoregulation – homeostasis; maintenance of
stable body temperature regardless of external
conditions.
 Endotherms – warm-blooded animals;
regulates internal temperature; conserves heat
through countercurrent exchange (arrangement
of arteries where arteries carrying warm blood
are right next to veins carrying cold blood in the
opposite direction)
 Ectotherms – cold-blooded animals; gain and
lose heat by the way of the environment.
Heart cycle – contraction of the heart
Systole – part of the cycle where contraction
occurs
Diastole part of the cycle where relaxation occurs
a. Beat begins in tissues in the right atrium called
sinoartrial (SA) node.
b. Impulse spread through both atria and conducts
directly to atrioventricular (AV) node.
c. The action potential spreads from AV node to the
bundle of His and then to the Purkinje fibers in the
walls of both ventricles.
BLOOD
The Contents of the Blood – all blood cells are made in
the bone marrow
1. Plasma
2. Cells and cells fragments suspended in the fluid
a. Red blood cells (erythrocytes) – contains
hemoglobin (specific protein that actually
carries oxygen and carbon dioxide); mature
RBC lacks nucleus.
b. White blood cells (leukocytes) – fight and
protect the body against foreign organisms
c. Platelets – responsible for blood clotting.
Blood types – a specific blood type contains specific
antibodies that will destroy blood of different blood type
transfusion.
Type O – universal donor
Type AB – universal recipient
THE LYMPHATIC AND IMMUNE SYSTEM
Lymphatic system
- Made up of network of vessels that conduct lymph
(fluid from intestinal fluid).
 - Lymph vessels are found throughout the body
along the routes of blood vessels.
- Plays and important role in fluid homeostasis.
Functions of lymphatic system:
- Collects, filters, and returns fluid to the body by the
contraction of adjacent muscles.
- Fights infection using lymphocytes (cells found in
lymph nodes; lymph nodes form and swell during
infection.
- Removes excess fluid from body tissue.
IMMUNE SYSTEM
Immune system
- Defense system of the body
- Foreign molecules such as virus, bacteria, and
chemicals are called antigens and stimulates a
defense mechanism upon appearance in the body,
producing antibodies.
- First line of defense of the body includes the skin
and mucous lining of respiratory and digestive
tracts.
- Other nonspecific defense mechanisms include:
a. Phagocytes – engulf antigens,
b. Complement proteins – lyse cell wall of
antigens,
c. Interferons – inhibits viral replication and
activates surrounding cells that have antiviral
actions
d. Inflammatory response – a series in response
to antigen invasion or physical injury
Types of immune cells:
T-cells
- Made in the bone marrow and matures in thymus
- Activated upon encounter of T-lymphocytes with
cells infected with pathogens and recognize major
histocompatibility (MHC) markers on the plasma
membrane of the infected cells.
- After being activated (referred as cell-mediated
response), T-cells multiply and give rise to clones
(some become memory T-cells, helper T-cells, and
cytotoxic T-cells).
o Memory T-cells recognize bacteria or
viruses that they have encountered before.
o Helper T-cells activate B-lymphocytes and
other in response to the infected cells.
o Cytotoxic T-cells recognize and kill infected
cells.
B-cells
- Activated when B-lymphocytes encounter antigen-
presenting cells (like macrophages) with foreign
MHC markers, leading to production of clones
(some become memory B-cells that rapidly divide
and can produce plasma cell after an infection has
been overcome)
 - Plasma cells produce antibodies that bind to
antigens that originally activated them.
- Helper T-cells are also involved and produce
interleukins.
Note: both memory T-cells and memory B-cells are
responsible for long term immunity.
AIDS
- Acquired immuno-deficiency syndrome
- Attacks helper T-cells, preventing the body from
defending itself
- Individuals afflicted with AIDS do not die of AIDS
but rather of infections due to their compromised
immune system.
EXCRETORY SYSTEM
Nitrogenous wastes – waste products containing nitrogen
When cells breakdown, one of the by-products is
ammonia (NH3), which is toxic to the body. Organisms
thus have to develop ways to convert this to a less
poisonous substance:
Ammonia Uric Acid Urea
Fish Bird reptiles Most mammals
Examples of excretory organs among invertebrates:
nephridia (earthworms) and Malpighian tubules (found in
arthropods).
THE HUMAN EXCRETORY SYSTEM
Kidney – major organ that regulates excretion in humans;
each kidney is made of million nephrons.
Nephrons – functional units of the kidney; consists of;
a. Bowman’s capsule – found in the renal cortex
(outermost section)
b. Proximal convoluted tubule – found in the renal
cortex
c. Loop of Henle – found in the renal medulla (inner
section)
d. Distal convoluted tubule – found in the renal
medulla
e. Collecting duct
How a nephron works:
- Blood enters nephron at Bowman’s capsule
- Renal artery leads to kidney and branches into
arterioles, then tiny capillaries
Glomerulus – a ball of capillaries that “sits”
within a Bowman’s capsule
- Blood is filtered as it passes through glomerulus
- Plasma is forced out of capillaries. Plasma is now
called a filtrate.
- From Bowman’s capsule, filtrate passes through
the proximal convoluted tubule, then loop of Henle,
then the distal convoluted tubule, and finally the
collecting duct. As it travels along the tube, filtrate
is modified to form urine.
 - Concentrated urine moves from collecting ducts to  Aldosterone – regulate sodium reabsorption at the
ureters, then into bladder, and finally out through distal convoluted tubule
urethra.
SKIN
How urine is made:
Skin – gets rid of excess water and salts from the body;
Urine is produced in the nephron by three processes: primary function is to regulate body temperature.
 Filtration – blood is filtered as it passes through The skin has three layers:
glomerulus to Bowman’s capsule.
 Epidermis – covered by a layer of dead cells
 Reabsorption – as filtrate moves through the
(stratum corneum) that form a barrier against
proximal convoluted tubule, some materials are
invading microorganisms.
reabsorbed; small solutes leave proximal
 Dermis contains sweat glands, blood vessels,
convoluted tubule and are reabsorbed; small
nerves, sebaceous glands.
solutes leave proximal convoluted tubule and are
 Subcutaneous tissue (or hyperdermis) – bottom
reabsorbed by peritubular capillaries; remaining
later of skin; mostly fat.
material tubule is urine.
 Secretion – as filtrate moves through convoluted NERVOUS SYSTEM
tubules, some substances are secreted from
Nerve net – the simplest nervous system; made up of a
surrounding capillaries into the tubule.
net work of nerve cells, the impulses of which travels in
Hormones of the kidney both directions; found in the hydra.
Two hormones regulate the concentration of water and Ganglia – clumps of nerve cells; like primitive brains
salt in the kidneys:
Neurons – specialized cells in brain
 Vasopressin – or antidiuretic hormone; allows
Schwann cells – supporting cells that wrap around
water to be reabsorbed from collecting duct;
the axon of a neuron.
controls volume of urine
o Low fluid intake: ADH concentrates urine Myelin sheath – produced by Schwann cells;
o High fluid intake: ADH levels will be low; insulates the axon
dilute urine
 NEURONS smission of an impulses depends on the ionic
gradients that exist across the axonal membrane.
Neurons are the functional unit in the nervous system.
They receive and send the neutral impulses that trigger The resting potential arises from two activities:
organisms; responses to their environment.
 The Na+K+ATPase – this pump pushes ions (K+)
Parts of neuron: into the cell for ever three sodium ions (NA+) it
pumps out of the cell which leads to a net loss of
 Cell body
positive charges within the cell.
 Dendrites
 Leaky protein channels – some potassium
 Axon
channels in the plasma membrane are “leaky”
Types of neurons: allowing a slow diffusion of K+ out of the cell.

 Sensory – receives impulses from the environment
and bring them to the body
 Motor (effector) – transmits impulses to muscles or
glands to produce a response; muscle responds
by contracting or gland will secrete a substance
 Interneurons – links between sensory neurons and
motor neurons; found in the brains or spinal cord
Note: Both Na+K+ATPase and leaky channels cause a
potential difference between the inside of the neuron
and the surrounding interstitial fluid. The membrane
potential is inside of the neuron and the surrounding
interstitial fluid. The membrane potential is always
negative inside the cell, and the neuronal membrane
is said to be polarized.

How neurons communicate Action potential – all-or-none response

- Dendrites of one cell pick up the impulse sent from If a stimulus has enough intensity to excite a
the axon of another cell neuron, the cell reaches its threshold (the
minimum amount of stimulus a neuron to
Resting potential respond), creating an action potential (change in
- T membrane potential that produces a nerve
r impulse).
a In an action potential,
n
  Cell’s tiny “gates” open the cell in the period after an action potential called the
 Sodium ions rush in refractory period.
 Polarity of cell changes – axon is now positive
inside, negative outside
Depolarization
At the point where the axon connects to the cell body, tiny
gated sodium ion channels open up and allow sodium Summary:
ions rush into the cell. The interior of the cell changes its “resting” neuron is polarizes (more negative inside than
polarity from negative to positive charge (depolarization). outside)
Note: action potential makes the cell depolarize.
Repolarization When action potential comes along, neuron transmits an
Once sodium ions have flooded the neuron, sodium impulse down its axon
channels close then potassium channels open. As
potassium ions inside axon rush out, electrical change
reverse again. Inside of cell becomes more negative than Voltage-gated sodium channels open, allowing sodium
outside, or the change has returned to its original ions to rush in (depolarization) – (neurons become more
polarization (repolarization). positive inside, more negative outside)

The Refractory Period

Although change has returned to its original state, at the Sodium channels close and potassium
end of action potential, ions are now on wrong side of
axonal membrane (sodium ions inside; potassium ions
outside). The neuron re-establishes order of ions through Channels open, which restores its negative charge
sodium-potassium pump. The pump kicks three sodium (repolarization)
ions out of the cell for every potassium ions it brings into

Neuron enters refractory period


Neuron re-establishes ion distribution with sodium-
potassium pump
When impulse wants to reach end of neuron (axon bulb),
axon releases a neurotransmitter into the space between
the two neurons (synapse). The neurotransmitter diffuses
across the synaptic cleft and binds to receptors on the
dendrites of the next neuron.
This triggers an action potential in the second if the
synaptic membrane is excited. The impulse then moves
along the second neuron from dendrites to axon.
Acetylcholine is an example of a neurotransmitter.
Acetylcholine:
 Is released from the end of an axon, when Ca 2+
moves into the terminal end of the axon
 Is picked up almost instantly by the dendrites of
the next neuron
 Can stimulate muscles to contract or inhibit
postsynaptic potential
 Is released between neurons in the
parasympathetic system
Acetylcholinesterase – enzyme that breaks down extra
acetylcholine in the synaptic cleft
Norepinephrine – peptide neurotransmitter that is
released between neurons within the central nervous
system
GABA – neurotransmitter that is secreted in the central
nervous system and acts as an inhibitor
PARTS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
1. Central nervous system – all neurons in the brain
and spinal cord
2. Peripheral nervous system – neurons outside
brain and spinal cord
a. Somatic nervous system – controls activities
e.g. movement of eyes across a page
b. Autonomic system – controls involuntary
activities e.g. heartbeat, digestive system
i. sympathetic nervous system – controls
the “fight-or-flight response
ii. parasympathetic nervous system – brings
body back to homeostasis after a threat has
passed
Parts of the Brain
Cerebrum Controls all voluntary activities;
receives and interprets sensory
information; largest part of human
brain.
Consists of outer gray matter (cerebral
cortex) and inner white matter.

Corpus callosum – thick band of nerve
fibers of white matter that enables the
right and left side of the cerebral
hemisphere to communicate
Cerebellum Coordinates muscle activity,
refinement of movement
Hypothalamus Regulates homeostasis; refinement of
movement
Medulla Controls involuntary actions (e.g.
breathing, swallowing, heartbeat,
respiration)
Pons Connects parts of the brain with one
another and contains respiratory
center
Midbrain Centre for visual and auditory reflexes
Thalamus Main sensory relay center for
conducting information between the
spinal cord and cerebrum
MUSCULOSKELETAL SYSTEM
Exoskeleton – support worn outside; a hard covering or
shell e.g. insects have ans exoskeleton made of chitin
Endoskeleton – entire skeleton is inside; possessed be
vertebrates
THE HUMAN SKELETON AND MUSKULAR SYSTEM
Cartilage – found in embryonic stages of all vertebrates;
lacks nerves and blood vessels
Bone – connective tissue that contains nerves blood
vessels; dynamic tissue that changes shape when
osteoblast (bone-building cells) and osteoclast (bone-
breaking cells) remodel it.
Bones are made up of:
 Collagen
 Calcium salts
Joints – holds bones together
Ligaments – tough connective tissue that hold joints
together
Tendons – connective tissue that attach muscles to bone
Muscles
Sarcomere – functional unit n a muscle cell’
consists of two proteins;
 Actin – thin filaments
 Myosin – thick filaments
TYPES OF MUSCLE TISSUES
Skeletal Smooth Cardiac
Location Attached Wall of Wall of
to digestive heart
skeleton tract, inside
the blood
 vessels
Type of Voluntary Involuntary Involuntary
control
Striations Yes No Yes
Multinucleate Yes No No
d
Speed of Rapid Slowest Intermediate
contraction

What happens when muscles contract?

1. Acetylcholine is released by a mo