A2 Physics UNIT 6 Applications of Physics

Recommended Prior Knowledge. The study of ‘direct sensing’ requires a knowledge of basic current electricity and circuitry (AS, Unit 3). The section
entitled ‘remote sensing’ is involved with the production and use of X-rays and ultrasound and also the use of MRI. This will involve an understanding of
concepts of waves (AS, Unit 5) and magnetic fields (A2, Unit 3). Students should also be familiar with wave properties (AS, Unit 5) for the study of the
section based on ‘communicating information’.

Context. The Unit draws together concepts from different areas of the Syllabus and applies them to some aspects of the gathering and communicating of
information. The Unit provides some insight into ways and means by which physics is applied in everyday life.

Outline. The first part of the Unit is concerned with the gathering and communicating of information. Sensing devices, processing units based on simple
electronic circuits and output devices are studied. The second part of the Unit is concerned with basic aspects of remote sensing in medicine. As such, X-
rays, ultrasound and magnetic resonance are considered. Finally, the communicating of information is studied, leading to an appreciation of satellite
communication and the use of the mobile phone.

Online Resources. In this Unit, some suggestions are made for online resources. This list is by no means comprehensive but is intended as a starting point.
Students should be encouraged to research appropriate material for themselves and to share this information with their fellow students.

Learning Outcomes Suggested Teaching Activities Online Resources Other resources

Candidates should be able to:
An Applications Support
Booklet is available from the
CIE Teacher Support website
and from CIE Publications.
This provides a guide to the
level of detail required.
Reference should be made
to the list of textbooks printed
in the Syllabus document.
Note that some texts are
more suitable as library
reference texts whilst others
are more suitable as
students texts and, in
particular, the ‘endorsed’
textbook.
All examples of examination
questions are taken from
9702 papers.
 Learning Outcomes
Candidates should be able to:
28(b) show an understanding of the change in
resistance with light intensity of a light-
dependent resistor (LDR).
28(c) sketch the temperature characteristic of a
negative temperature coefficient
thermistor.
28(a) show an understanding that an electronic
sensor consists of a sensing device and a
circuit that provides an output voltage.
28(d) show an understanding of the action of a
piezo-electric transducer and its
application in a simple microphone.
28(e) Describe the structure of a metal-wire
strain gauge.
28(f) relate extension of a strain gauge to
change in resistance of the gauge.
28(g) show an understanding that the output
from sensing devices can be registered as
a voltage.
28(h) recall the main properties of the ideal
operational amplifier (op-amp).
Suggested Teaching Activities Online Resources Other resources
Experiment: Variation of resistance of an
LDR with distance of the LDR from a lamp.
Experiment: variation of resistance of a
thermistor with temperature.
Demonstration of potential divider circuit http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pi Oct 2009, Paper 41, q.10
incorporating either an LDR or a thermistor to ezoelectric#sensors May 2008, Paper 4, q.9(a)
investigate how output p.d. across either the Oct 2007, Paper 4, q.8(c)
fixed resistor or the LDR/thermistor depends http://www.recipeland.com/e
on environmental conditions. ncyclopaedia/index.php/Piez
oelectricity May 2010, Paper 42, q.10(a)
Explanation/discussion:
 the structure of a quartz crystal
 distortion of the crystal and generation of a http://natmus.dk/cons/tp/strm
voltage across the crystal sr/strainm2.htm
Note: this effect will be studied further when
studying the generation and detection of
ultrasound (29(h)).
Discussion as to basic structure.
Revision of R = L/A (AS Unit 3)
Effect of strain May 2010, Paper 42, q.10(a)
Students should be aware of the simplifying Oct 2009, Paper 41, q.9(a)(b)
assumption that area of cross-section is
constant.
Discussion: uses of strain gauges.
This relates directly to the output from a
piezo-electric transducer or to the output from
a potential divider circuit (see 28(a)).
May be introduced by discussion of need to
process the voltage considered in 28(g).
Voltage may be small or there may be a need
to have an on/off situation.
Electronics as a series of integrated circuits.
The op-amp. No need to understand circuits
within the package but its
characteristics/properties must be known.
 Learning Outcomes
Candidates should be able to:
28(i) deduce, from the properties of an ideal
operational amplifier, the use of an
operational amplifier as a comparator.
28(j) show an understanding of the effects of
negative feedback on the gain of an
operational amplifier.
28(k) recall the circuit diagrams for both the
inverting and the non-inverting amplifier
for single signal input.
28(l) show an understanding of the virtual earth
approximation and derive an expression
for the gain of inverting amplifiers.
28(m) recall and use expressions for the voltage
gain of inverting and the non-inverting
amplifiers.
28(n) show an understanding of the use of
relays in electronic circuits.
28(o) show an understanding of the use of light-
emitting diodes (LEDs) as devices to
indicate the state of the output of
electronic circuits.
Suggested Teaching Activities Online Resources Other resources
Experiment: op-amp in open loop mode as a Oct 2009, Paper 41, q.10
comparator. Use with thermistor to monitor Oct 2007, Paper 4, q.8(a)(b)
temperatures. The output may be monitored
with a voltmeter or use of LEDs may be
introduced.
Slew rate may be introduced.
May 2010, Paper 42, q.9(a)
Discussion/ Experiment: May 2009, Paper 4, q.10(a)
Saturation Oct 2009, Paper 4, q.9(a)
Use of feedback to reduce gain
Negative feedback.
Effects of negative feedback, other than on
gain, should also be discussed.
Experiments: Gain of inverting and non-
inverting amplifiers.
Input and output potentials.
An understanding of saturation.
Discussion: the virtual earth. May 2010, Paper 41, q.9(a)
Derivation of gain of inverting amplifier.
May 2010, Paper 42,
Discussion; gain of non-inverting amplifier. q.9(b)(c)
The derivation of this expression is not May 2010, Paper 41, q.9(b)
required. May 2009, Paper 4,
q.10(b)(c)
Oct 2009, Paper 4, q.9(b)(c)
Discussion: typical output of processing unit May 2010, Paper 42, q.10(b)
(28(a)). Relay can be used to
Switch large currents/voltages
Switch remotely
Examples of relays.
Oct 2009, Paper 41, q.10
Demonstration: the action of an LED. May 2008, Paper 4, q.9(b)
The need of a protective resistor should be
discussed but will not be examined.
Use of two diodes on the output to indicate
high/low.
 Learning Outcomes
Candidates should be able to:
28(p) show an understanding of the need for
calibration where digital or analogue
meters are used as output devices.
29(a) explain in simple terms the need for
remote sensing (non-invasive techniques
of diagnosis) in medicine.
29(b) explain the principles of the production of
X-rays by electron bombardment of a
metal target.
29(c) describe the main features of a modern X-
ray tube, including control of the intensity
and hardness of the X-ray beam.
29(d) show an understanding of the use of X-
rays in imaging internal body structures,
including a simple analysis of the causes
of sharpness and contrast in X-ray
imaging.
29(k) recall and solve problems by using the
equation I = I 0 e-μx for the attenuation of
X-rays (and of ultrasound) in matter.
Suggested Teaching Activities Online Resources Other resources
Experiment. Thermistor circuit with output as http://www.nibib.nih.gov/eAd
a voltmeter. Calibration curve plotted. vances/071305.htm
(revision of AS, Unit 1).
Discussion of advantages/disadvantages of
non-linear scales e.g. fuel gauge.
A brief discussion based on the history of http://www.plus2physics.com
medical diagnosis may be helpful. What is
meant by non-invasive techniques and how www.med.harvard.edu/JPNM
these have changed the face of medical /physics/refs/refs.html
diagnosis.
www.colorado.edu/physics/2 Oct 2009, paper 42, q.10(a)
Students should be able to sketch a typical 000/xray
X-ray spectrum and appreciate that there are
two components in the spectrum. They http://dutch.phys.strath.ac.uk/
should be able to explain the origins of these CommPhys2004Exam/Shelle
components and recall and understand the ywaugh/physics-xray.htm
expressions
kinetic energy of electron = eV and eV = hc/λ
The roles of the tube current and the tube
voltage should be understood. The use of an
aluminium filter should be discussed. The
need to cool the target could lead to a
discussion as regards the efficiency of
production of x-ray photons.
Students may be aware of the use of CCD’s
for the detection of X-rays, rather than
photographic film.
The difference between sharpness and
contrast should be emphasised.
The use of a variable sized aperture and a
lead grid should be discussed.
Oct 2009, Paper 42, q.10(b)
The meaning of attenuation should be
discussed. Factors affecting attenuation, http://www.compadre.org/info
leading to the use of a contrast medium for rmal/items/detail.cfm?ID=547
the use of X-rays with soft tissues (barium
sulphate for the stomach/intestines; radio-
opaque die for blood vessels).
 Learning Outcomes
Candidates should be able to:
29(e) show an understanding of the purpose of
computed tomography or CT scanning.
29(f) show an understanding of the principles of
CT scanning.
29(g) show an understanding of how the image
of an 8-voxel cube can be developed
using CT scanning.
29(h) explain the principles of the generation
and detection of ultrasound waves using
piezo-electric transducers.
29(i) explain the main principles behind the use
of ultrasound to obtain diagnostic
information about internal structures.
29(j) show an understanding of the meaning of
specific acoustic impedance and its
importance to the intensity reflection
coefficient at a boundary.
29(k) recall and solve problems by using the
equation I = I 0 e-μx for the attenuation
(of X-rays and ) of ultrasound in matter.
Suggested Teaching Activities
X-ray image as a ‘shadow’ or ‘flat’ image.
CT scan enables a 3D image to be formed
that can be rotated.
Students should appreciate that a series of
X-ray images from different angles are
obtained for one thin ‘slice’. These are
processed by a computer to form an image of
the slice. Images of successive slices are
combined to form a 3D image.
After an initial discussion, practice can best
be obtained by students working in small
groups.
This can be an extension of the work already
covered in 28(d). The role of resonance
should be discussed.
When defining impedance, reference should
be made to the speed of the wave in the
medium.
Reflection at an air-tissue boundary and the
use of a gel should be discussed.
Similarity of expression with attenuation of X-
rays should be appreciated..
Received intensity at detector dependent on
reflection at boundaries and attenuation in
media.
Online Resources Other resources
http://www.physicscentral.co
m/action/action-02-3.html
http://www.colorado.edu/phy May 2010, Paper 41, q.10(a)
sics/2000/tomography/
www.moh.gov.ae/mohsite/xr
ay/
http://www.sheffcol.ac.uk/link May 2010, Paper 41, q.10(b)
s/Science/Physics/Medical/Ul
trasound/
www.ob-ultrasound.net/ May 2010, Paper 42, q.11
May 2009, Paper 4, q.11(a)
Oct 2007, Paper 4, q.9(c)
May 2009, Paper 4, q.11(b)
Oct 2007, Paper 4, q.9(a)(b)
www.physics.union.edu/new
manj/2000/mri.htmdutch.phy May 2009, Paper 4, q.11(b)
s.strath.ac.uk/.../MRI.htm
http://science.uniserve.edu.a
u/school/curric/stage6/phys/
medphys.html
 Learning Outcomes
Candidates should be able to:
29(l) explain the main principles behind the use
of magnetic resonance to obtain
diagnostic information about internal
structures.
29(m) show an understanding of the function of
the non-uniform magnetic field,
superimposed on the large constant
magnetic field, in diagnosis using
magnetic resonance.
30(a) understand the term modulation and be
able to distinguish between amplitude
modulation (AM) and frequency
modulation (FM).
30(b) recall that a carrier wave, amplitude
modulated by a single audio frequency, is
equivalent to the carrier wave frequency
together with two sideband frequencies.
30(c) understand the term bandwidth.
30(d) demonstrate an awareness of the relative
advantages of AM and FM transmissions.
30(e) recall the advantages of the transmission
of data in digital form, compared to the
transmission of data in analogue form.
Suggested Teaching Activities
It should be emphasised that magnetic
resonance is a nuclear process.
It may be advantageous to commence this
Section with some revision of AS Unit 5.
The frequency spectrum should be
introduced. Also, the spectrum produced
where the modulating signal is composed of
audio frequencies (speech).
Examples for speech (telephone), music of
different qualities etc. should be discussed
This could be introduced via digital
communication systems known to students
and why change-over from analogue to
digital.
Online Resources Other resources
http://hsc.csu.edu.au/physics Oct 2009, Paper 41, q.11
/options/medical/3019/PHY9 May 2008, Paper 4, q.10
64netdraft.html
http://faculty.washington.edu/
chudler/nobel03.html
http://physics.about.com/od/i
maging/
www.gcse.com/waves/radio.
htm
http://scienveworld.wolfram.c
om/physics/RadioWave.html
http://hyperphysics.phy-
astr.gsu.edu/hbase/class/p22
129.html May 2010, Paper 41, q.11(a)
Oct 2009, Paper 42,
q.11(a)(b)
May 2008, Paper 4, q.11(a)
Oct 2007, Paper 4, q.10(a)
Oct 2009, Paper 42, q.11(c)
Oct 2007, Paper 4, q.10(a)(c)
Oct 2007, Paper 4, q.10(b)
May 2010, Paper 41, q.11(b)
May 2008, Paper 4, q.11(b)
Oct 2009, Paper 41,
q.12(a)(b)
 Learning Outcomes
Candidates should be able to:
30(f) understand that the digital transmission of
speech or music involves analogue-to
digital conversion (ADC) on transmission
and digital-to-analogue conversion (DAC)
on reception.
30(g) show an understanding of the effect of the
sampling rate and the number of bits in
each sample on the reproduction of an
input signal.
30(h) appreciate that information may be carried
by a number of different channels,
including wire pairs, coaxial cables, radio
and microwave links and optic fibres.
30(i) discuss the relative advantages and
disadvantages of channels of
communication in terms of available
bandwidth, noise, cross-linking, security,
signal attenuation, repeaters and
regeneration, cost and convenience.
30(j) describe the use of satellites in
communication.
30(k) recall the relative merits of both
geostationary and polar orbiting satellites
for communicating information.
30(l) recall the frequencies and wavelengths
used in different channels of
communication.
Suggested Teaching Activities Online Resources Other resources
It may be advantageous to introduce block Oct 2009, Paper 41, q.12(c)
diagrams in preparation for 30(r). Any
transmission may also involve parallel-to-
serial and serial-to-parallel converters (again,
preparation for 30(r).
Students should be familiar with the terms Oct 2009, Paper 41, q.12(d)
step width and step height. They should be
able to sample an analogue signal, digitise it
and then plot the reconstituted analogue
signal.
This can be achieved by asking students to
name different forms of communication and
then identifying the channel of
communication.
The relevant terms should be either revised http://collections.ic.gc.ca/sate May 2010, Paper 42, q.12(a)
e.g. bandwidth or introduced e.g. noise. llites/english/index.html May 2008, Paper 4, q.12(a)
Students should appreciate that some
properties of optic fibres are dependent on
the radiation employed. http://physics.uwstout.edu/wx
/wxsat/types.htm
This should include the limits of world-wide http://www.smgaels.org/physi May 2010, Paper 41, q.12(b)
communication by alternative means e.g. cs/97/MGRAHLFS.HTM
surface, sky and space waves.
The work on satellites in A2 Unit 3 should be
revised to include the period and altitude of
satellites.
The uses of polar orbiting and of
geostationary satellites should be discussed
alongside their relative advantages and
disadvantages. Uses could include GPS,
television and telephone communication,
remote sensing.
 Learning Outcomes Suggested Teaching Activities Online Resources Other resources
Candidates should be able to:

30(m) understand and use signal attenuation

expressed in dB and dB per unit length.

30(n) recall and use the expression The significance of a change of 3 dB may be http://science.uniserve.edu.a May 2010, Paper 42, q.12(b)
number of dB = 10 lg(P 1 /P 2 ) for the ratio of use to students. u/school/curric/stage6/phys/ May 2010, Paper 41, q.12(a)
of two powers. world.html May 2009, Paper 4, q.12
May 2008, Paper 4, q.12(b)

30(o) understand that, in a mobile phone Oct 2009, Paper 42, q.12(a)
system, the public switched telephone
network (PSTN) is linked to base stations
via a cellular exchange.

30(p) understand the need for an area to be Oct 2007, Paper 4, q.11(a)
divided into a number of cells, each cell
served by a base station.

30(q) understand the role of the base station
and the cellular exchange during the
making of a call from a mobile phone
handset.
The making of a call includes the initial Oct 2009, Paper 42, q.12(b)
switching on of the mobile phone as well as Oct 2007, Paper 4, q.11(b)
the time during which the call is actively May 2009, Paper 4, q.13(b)
taking place.
The role of the computer at the cellular
exchange is of importance.

30(r) recall a simplified block diagram of a May 2009, Paper 4, q.13(a)

mobile phone handset and understand the
function of each block.