CHEMICAL AND BIOMOLECULAR ENGINEERING

LAB /
BIOENGINEERING LAB

CH2802

Forced Convection Heat Transfer

Location: N1.2-B4-16
Name: Michelle Liau Ming Shan

Matric number: U2120422J

Group: LPM26

Date of experiment: 8/3/2023

1
1) What is forced convection, what is the difference between forced convection and
natural convection?

Convection is the mechanism of heat transfer through fluid in the presence of bulk fluid
motion. Convection is classified as natural (or free) and forced convection depending on
how fluid motions is initiated.

In forced convection, the fluid is forced to flow over a surface or in a tube by external
means such as by a fan, a pump, or atmospheric winds.

Whereas natural convection is induced by buoyancy forces, which are due to density
differenced caused by temperature variations in the fluid, i.e. the rise of warmer fluid and
fall the cooler fluid. Hence, natural convection is driven by buoyancy force in the absence
of forced velocity.

2) Write down equations for Nusselt number, Reynolds number and Prandtl number?
Do they have units?

Nusselt number, Nu

ℎ𝐿
𝑁𝑢 =
𝑘
where k is the thermal conductivity of the fluid [W/𝒎 ∙ 𝑲]

L is the characteristic length [m]

h is the convection heat transfer coefficient [W/𝒎𝟐 ∙ 𝑲]

Reynolds number, Re

𝑈𝐿𝜌
𝑅𝑒 =
𝜇

where U is the fluid velocity [m/s]

𝜌 is the mass density of fluid [kg/𝒎𝟑 ]

L is the characteristic length [m]

𝜇 is the dynamic viscosity of the fluid [kg/ 𝒎 ∙ 𝒔]

Prandtl number, Pr

𝐶# 𝜇
𝑃𝑟 =
𝑘

where 𝐶# is the specific heat at constant pressure [J/ 𝒌𝒈 ∙ 𝑲]

𝜇 is the dynamic viscosity [kg/ 𝒎 ∙ 𝒔]

2
 k is the thermal conductivity [W/𝒎 ∙ 𝑲]

Both Nusselt number, Reynolds number and Prandtl number are dimensionless number
and have no units. The units in these parameters are cancelled out.

3) What is the physical meaning of Nusselt number, Reynolds number and Prandtl
number?

Nusselt number is the ratio of heat transfer by convection to the heat transfer by conduction
within a fluid.

𝑄$%&'($)*%&
𝑁𝑢 =
𝑄$%&+,$)*%&

Reynolds number is the ration of inertial forces to viscous forces. The Reynolds number
used to categorize the fluid systems in which to determine whether the fluid is in a laminar
or turbulent state.

Prandtl number is the ratio of momentum diffusivity (kinematic viscosity) to thermal

diffusivity. The ratio is used to identify the intrinsic property of the fluid.

4) From Table 2 you can find the thermophysical properties of air at atmospheric
pressure,

(a)consider air at temperature of 300 K, calculate Prandtl number of air at this

condition.

For T = 300K,

• 𝐶# = 1.007kJ/kg ∙ K
• 𝜇 = 184.6 × 10-. 𝑁 ∙ 𝑠/𝑚/
• 𝑘 = 26.3× 10-0 𝑊/𝑚 ∙ 𝐾
1! 2 (5.77.×57" )(5:;.<×57#$ )
∴ Pr = 3
= (/<.0×57#" )
= 0.7068

(b) If the temperature is 400 K, what is the new Prandtl number of air?

For T = 400K,

• 𝐶# = 1.014kJ/kg ∙ K
• 𝜇 = 230.1 × 10-. 𝑁 ∙ 𝑠/𝑚/
• 𝑘 = 33.8 × 10-0 𝑊/𝑚 ∙ 𝐾
1! 2 (5.75;×57" )(/07.5×57#$ )
∴ Pr = 3
= (00.:×57#" )
= 0.6903

3
 (c) If there is an air flow at temperature of 300 K, velocity at 5 m/s. It crosses a heated
cylinder at temperature of 400 K with diameter of 20 mm, calculate Reynolds
number for air flow around the heated cylinder at 300 K.

For 𝑇=*> = 300K,

• U = 5 m/s
• D = 20mm
• 𝜌 = 1.1614 kg/𝑚0
?
• 𝜇 = 184.6 × 10-. 𝑁 ∙ @%

ABC (5.5<5;)(E)(/7×57#" )
∴ 𝑅𝑒 = = = 6291.44
D (5:;.<×57#$ )

(d) Choose correct constants from Table 1, using Equation 14 to calculate OOOO
𝑵𝒖𝑫 , and
then use Equation 13 to calculate the convection heat transfer coefficient, 𝒉 Q.

For 1 × 100 ≤ 𝑅𝑒G ≤ 2 × 10E

• C = 0.26
• m = 0.6

For Pr =0.707 ≤ 10

• n = 0.37

𝑃𝑟 5/;
OOOOG = 𝑐 ∙ 𝑅𝑒G @ ∙ 𝑃𝑟 & ∙ (
∴ 𝑁𝑢 )
𝑃𝑟?
7..7<:
= 0.26∙ (6291.44)7.< ∙ (0.7068)7.0. ∙ (7.<I70)5/; = 43.755

For T = 400K,

• k = 33.8× 10-0 𝑊/𝑚 ∙ 𝐾

• D = 20mm
KKKK
J, L ;0..EE(00.:×57 #" )
∴ ℎO = G& = /7×57#"
= 73.96W/𝑚/ ∙ 𝐾

4
5) From Equation 15, we can derive Equation 16. If you substitute constants into equation 16
and let ∆𝒑𝑯𝟐 𝑶 has units of mmH2O and pair has units of Pa, we can have a formula for
𝑻( ∆𝑷𝑯𝟐 𝑶
velocity of air flow as: U = 74.294Z 𝑷𝒂𝒊𝒓
. Derive this formula start from Equation15
(Bernoulli’s equation).
By applying Bernoulli’s equation to the air flow in this experiment,
5
/
𝜌𝑈 / + 𝑝 + 𝜌𝑔𝑧 = C

Where 𝜌 is the density of fluid [ kg/𝒎𝟑 ]

U is the velocity of fluid [m/s]

p is the pressure in the fluid [Pa]

g is the gravitational acceleration constant, 9.81[m/𝑠 / ]

z is the distance between different positions in the fluid in gravity direction [m]

1
2

Figure 1: Illustration of manometer

Taking the manometer as system, we define point 1 as the end of manometer located at the side
wall of the tube, and point 2 as the end of the manometer located in the centre of the tube facing
the air flow.
5
/
𝜌𝑈 / + 𝑝 + 𝜌𝑔𝑧 = 0

Because z is the same level, hence no height difference, ∆𝑧 = 0. The tube in the centre (point 2)
measures both static pressure and velocity pressure, whereas the tube on the wall (point 1)
measures only static pressure (𝑈5 = 0) due to non-slip condition.
5
/
𝜌𝑈/ / + ∆𝑃=*> = 0

Rearranging the equation:

5
 2(−∆𝑃=*> )
𝑈=_
𝜌

Assuming the air behaves like an ideal gas, we can use the ideal gas law to calculate the density
of air.

𝑀=*> 𝑃=*>
𝜌=
𝑅𝑇
If we take into account the correction coefficient (𝐶+ ) for different manometer intakes and taking
−∆𝑃=*> = ∆𝑃R% S , the equation will be:

/∆T. / /UV∆T.% /
𝑈 = 𝐶+ _ 01234%123 = 𝐶+ Z W
( ) 123 T123
56

Given data:

• C, correction constant for bell mouth =0.98

• R, gas constant = 8.314J/K∙ mol
• 𝑀=*> , molecular weight of air = 0.0029kg/mol
• 1mm𝐻/ 𝑂 = 9.806Pa

/(:.05;)(V( )(∆T.% / ×I.:7<) V( ×∆T.% /

∴ 𝑈 = 0.98Z (7.77/I)T123
= 73.48Z T123

6
 LOG SHEET (Forced Convection)

Atmospheric pressure, 𝑃=*> = 1.01× 10E 𝑃𝑎

Heater Supply Voltage =25V

Fan Speed (Hz) 20 25 30 35 40
Heater Power, P (Watts) 8.929 8.929 8.929 8.929 8.929
Air Temperature, 𝑻X (℃) 22.3 22.3 22.3 22.5 22.3
Surface Temperature, 𝑻𝒔 (℃) 72.1 67 64.1 60.5 58.0
Manometer, ∆𝑷𝑯𝟐 𝑶 (𝒎𝒎𝑯𝟐 𝑶) 15 25 35 48 64
Duct Air Velocity, U(m/s) 16.059 17.958 23.764 28.118 31.115
Heat transfer coefficient by 138.90 155.74 175.49 187.37 200.98
experiments, 𝒉Q( 𝑾 )
𝒎𝟐 𝑲
Mass density of air at 𝑻X , 𝝆X (kg/𝒎𝟑 ) 1.185 1.184 1.184 1.184 1.184
Viscosity of air at 𝑻X , 𝝁X (N∙ 𝒔/𝒎𝟐 ) 1.821E-5 1.821E-5 1.822E-5 1.822E-5 1.822E-5
Viscosity of air at 𝑻𝒔 , 𝝁𝒔 (N∙ 𝒔/𝒎𝟐 ) 1.94E-5 1.93E-5 1.92E-2 1.91E-5 19.0E-5
Reynolds Number, 𝑹𝒆𝑫 16513.49 18453.44 24387.24 28855.38 31930.40
Air thermal conductivity in flow, 0.0259 0.0259 0.0259 0.0259 0.0259
𝒌X (W/m∙K)
Air thermal conductivity at surface, 0.0278 0.0276 0.0275 0.0274 0.0273
𝒌𝒔 (W/m∙K)
Specific heat transfer in flow, 𝑪𝒑X 1.0069 1.0069 1.0069 1.0069 1.0069
(J/kg∙K)
Specific heat transfer at surface, 𝑪𝒑𝒔 1.0078 1.0077 1.0076 1.0076 1.0075
(J/kg∙K)
Prandtl number in fluid, Pr 0.7080 0.7079 0.7079 0.7079 0.7079
Prandtl number on surface, 𝑷𝒓𝒔 0.7038 0.7042 0.7045 0.7047 0.7049
n 0.370 0.370 0.370 0.370 0.370
C 0.260 0.260 0.260 0.260 0.260
m 0.600 0.600 0.600 0.600 0.600
Empirical Nusselt number, 𝑵𝒖 OOOO𝑫 77.770 83.117 98.237 108.664 115.463
Experimental Nusselt number, OOOO 𝑵𝒖𝑫 78.821 89.014 100.952 108.167 116.432
Table 1: Data Tabulation for 25V

7
 Heater Supply Voltage =35V
Fan Speed (Hz) 20 25 30 35 40
Heater Power, P (Watts) 17.5 17.5 17.5 17.5 17.5
Air Temperature, 𝑻X (℃) 22.3 22.3 22.3 22.5 22.3
Surface Temperature, 𝑻𝒔 (℃) 72.1 67 64.1 60.5 58.0
Manometer, ∆𝑷𝑯𝟐 𝑶 (𝒎𝒎𝑯𝟐 𝑶) 15 25 35 48 64
Duct Air Velocity, U(m/s) 15.563 20.091 23.772 27.849 32.146
Heat transfer coefficient by experiments,
Q( 𝑾 )
𝒉 𝒎𝟐 𝑲 141.58 157.74 168.68 185.55 197.50
𝟑
Mass density of air at 𝑻X , 𝝆X (kg/𝒎 ) 1.1826 1.1826 1.1826 1.1817 1.1826
Viscosity of air at 𝑻X , 𝝁X (N∙ 𝒔/𝒎𝟐 ) 1.823E-5 1.823E-5 1.823E-5 1.823E-5 1.823E-5
Viscosity of air at 𝑻𝒔 , 𝝁𝒔 (N∙ 𝒔/𝒎𝟐 ) 2.060E- 2.036E-
05 05 2.022E-05 2.005E-05 1.993E-05
Reynolds Number, 𝑹𝒆𝑫 15949.26 20590.41 24362.90 28502.41 32944.65
Air thermal conductivity in flow,
𝒌X (W/m∙K) 0.0259 0.0259 0.0259 0.0260 0.0259
Air thermal conductivity at surface,
𝒌𝒔 (W/m∙K) 0.0296 0.0293 0.0291 0.0288 0.0286
Specific heat transfer in flow, 𝑪𝒑X (J/kg∙K) 1.00691 1.00691 1.00691 1.00691 1.00691
Specific heat transfer at surface, 𝑪𝒑𝒔
(J/kg∙K) 1.00881 1.00861 1.00849 1.00835 1.00825
Prandtl number in fluid, Pr 0.70784 0.70784 0.70784 0.707780 0.70784
Prandtl number on surface, 𝑷𝒓𝒔 0.7008 0.7014 0.7017 0.7022 0.7025
n 0.37 0.37 0.37 0.37 0.37
C 0.26 0.26 0.26 0.26 0.26
m 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6
Empirical Nusselt number, 𝑵𝒖 OOOO𝑫 76.240 88.847 98.271 107.953 117.745
Experimental Nusselt number, OOOO𝑵𝒖𝑫 75.450 85.143 91.722 101.828 109.089
Table 2: Data Tabulation for 35V

8
Calculation
Experimental Data:
• Heater Voltage = 25V
• Fan Speed = 20Hz
• 𝑇X = 21.8℃
• 𝑇? = 47.7℃
• ∆𝑃R% S = 16mm𝐻/ 𝑂 = (16× 9.806)𝑃𝑎 = 156.896Pa
Parameters Formula Sample Calculation
%
P ^
P = U • V = 25V
• R = 70Ω
^%
P = U
/E%
= .7
=8.929W
U V( ∆𝑷𝑯𝟐 𝑶 • 𝑇X = (21.8+273.15)K
U = 74.294Z T123 = 294.95K
• ∆𝑃R% S = 16mm𝐻/ 𝑂
• 𝑃=*> = 1.01× 10E 𝑃𝑎
/I;.IE×∆𝑷𝑯𝟐 𝑶
U = 74.294Z T123

/I;.IE×5<
= 74.294Z 5.75×577
= 16.06 m/s

ℎO 𝑃 • P =8.929W
ℎO =
𝐴? (𝑇? − 𝑇X ) • 𝐴? = 2.482 × 10-0 𝑚/
• 𝑇? = 320.85K
• 𝑇X = 294.95K
𝑃
ℎO =
𝐴? (𝑇? − 𝑇X )
:.I/I
= /.;:/×57#" (0/7.:E-/I;.IE)
= 138.90 W/𝑚/ ∙K
𝜌X Interpolation From Table 2,
C -C
𝜌X = V% -V8 (𝑇X -𝑇5 ) +𝜌5 When 𝑇5 = 250𝐾
% 8
• 𝜌5 = 1.3947 kg/𝑚0
When 𝑇/ = 300𝐾
• 𝜌/ = 1.1614 kg/𝑚0
Experimental Data:
• 𝑇X = 294.95K
Interpolation:
5.0I;.-5.5<5;
𝜌X = /E7-077 (294.95-250) +1.3947
= 1.185 kg/𝑚0
𝜇X Interpolation From Table 2,

9
 D -D
𝜇X = D% -D8 (𝑇X -𝑇5 ) +𝜇5 When 𝑇5 = 250𝐾
% 8
• 𝜇5 = 159.6× 10-. N∙ 𝑠/𝑚/
When 𝑇/ = 300𝐾
• 𝜇/ = 184.6× 10-. N∙ 𝑠/𝑚/
Experimental Data:
• 𝑇X = 294.95K
Interpolation:
5:;.<×57#$ -5EI.<×57#$
𝜇X = 077-/E7
(294.95-250)
-.
+159.6× 10
= 1.821× 10-E kg/𝑚0
𝜇? Interpolation From Table 2,
D -D
𝜇? = D% -D8 (𝑇X -𝑇5 ) +𝜇5 When 𝑇5 = 300𝐾
% 8
• 𝜇5 = 184.6× 10-. N∙ 𝑠/𝑚/
When 𝑇/ = 350𝐾
• 𝜇/ = 208.2× 10-. N∙ 𝑠/𝑚/
Experimental Data:
• 𝑇? = 320.85K
Interpolation:
/7:./×57#$ -5:;.<×57#$
𝜇? = 0E7-077
(320.85 − 300)
-.
+184.6× 10
= 1.944× 10-E kg/𝑚0
AGC
𝑅𝑒G 𝑅𝑒G = • U = 16.06 m/s
D
• D = 15.8mm
• 𝜌X = 1.185 kg/𝑚0
• 𝜇X = 1.821× 10-E kg/𝑚0
AGC
𝑅𝑒G = D
(5<.7<)(5E.:×57#" )(5.5:E)
= 5.:/5×57#7
= 16512.43
𝑘X Interpolation From Table 2,
L -L When 𝑇5 = 250𝐾
𝑘X = V% -V8 (𝑇X -𝑇5 ) +𝑘5
% 8
• 𝑘5 = 22.3× 10-0 W/m∙ 𝑘
When 𝑇/ = 300𝐾
• 𝑘/ = 26.3× 10-0 W/m∙ 𝑘
Experimental Data:
• 𝑇X = 294.95K
Interpolation:
/<.0×57#" -//.0×57#"
𝑘X = 077-/E7
(294.95-250) +22.3×
10-0
= 0.0259 W/m∙ 𝑘
𝑘? Interpolation From Table 2,
L -L When 𝑇5 = 300𝐾
𝑘? = V% -V8 (𝑇? -𝑇5 ) +𝑘5
% 8
• 𝑘5 = 26.3× 10-0 W/m∙ 𝑘

10
 When 𝑇/ = 350𝐾
• 𝑘/ = 30.0× 10-0 W/m∙ 𝑘
Experimental Data:
• 𝑇? = 320.85K
Interpolation:
07.7×57#" -/<.0×57#"
𝑘? = 0E7-077
(320.85-300) +26.3×
10-0
= 0.0278 W/m∙ 𝑘
𝐶#X Interpolation From Table 2,
_9% -_98 When 𝑇5 = 250𝐾
𝐶#X = V% -V8
(𝑇X -𝑇5 )
• 𝐶#5 = 1.006kJ/kg∙ K
+𝐶#5
When 𝑇/ = 300𝐾
• 𝐶#/ = 1.007kJ/kg∙ K
Experimental Data:
• 𝑇X = 294.95K
Interpolation:
5.77.-5.77<
𝐶#X = 077-/E7 (294.95-250) +1.006
= 1.0069 kJ/kg∙ K
𝐶#? Interpolation From Table 2,
_9% -_98 When 𝑇5 = 300𝐾
𝐶#? = V% -V8
(𝑇? -𝑇5 ) +𝐶#5
• 𝐶#5 = 1.006kJ/kg∙ K
When 𝑇/ = 350𝐾
• 𝐶#/ = 1.009kJ/kg∙ K
Experimental Data:
• 𝑇? = 320.85K
Interpolation:
5.77I-5.77.
𝐶#? = 0E7-077 (320.85-300) +1.007
= 1.0078 kJ/kg∙ K
𝑃𝑟X 𝐶#X 𝜇X • 𝐶#X = 1.007kJ/ kg∙ K
𝑃𝑟X =
𝑘X • 𝜇X = 1.815× 10-E kg/𝑚0
• 𝑘X = 0.0259 W/m∙ 𝑘
(1.007 × 100 )(1.82 × 10-E )
𝑃𝑟X =
0.0259
= 0.7080
𝑃𝑟? 𝐶#? 𝜇? • 𝐶#? = 1.0078kJ/ kg∙ K
𝑃𝑟? =
𝑘? • 𝜇? = 1.944× 10-E kg/𝑚0
• 𝑘? = 0.0278 W/m∙ 𝑘
(1.0078 × 100 )(1.944 × 10-E )
𝑃𝑟? =
0.0278
= 0.7038
OOOOOO
𝑁𝑢G Calculated OOOOOO
𝑁𝑢G • 𝑅𝑒G = 16512.43 (100 < 𝑅𝑒G < 2 × 10E )
𝑃𝑟 5/; ∴ 𝐶 = 0.26, M = 0.6
OOOOOO
𝑁𝑢G = 𝐶𝑅𝑒G @ 𝑃𝑟 & ( )
𝑃𝑟? • 𝑃𝑟X = 0.706 (𝑃𝑟X <10)

11
 ∴ 𝑛 = 0.37

𝑃𝑟 5/;
OOOOOO
𝑁𝑢G = 𝐶𝑅𝑒G @ 𝑃𝑟 & ( )
𝑃𝑟?
8
7.< (0.708)7.0. 7..7: :
= (0.26)(16513.5 ) u7..7;v
= 77.77
OOOOOO
𝑁𝑢G OOOOOO
Experimental 𝑁𝑢 G • ℎO = 138.90 W/𝑚/ ∙K
ℎO𝐷 • D = 15.8mm
OOOOOO
𝑁𝑢 G =
𝑘 • k = 0.0278 W/m∙ 𝑘
ℎO𝐷
OOOOOO
𝑁𝑢G =
𝑘
(50:.I7)(7.75E:)
= (7.7/.:)
= 78.82

12
 Discussion

For experimental results, plot the average Nusselt number calculated from experimental
measurement as a function of Reynolds number. Show theoretical values (calculated from
Equation 14) on the same graph. How well do the theoretical and experimental values
compare? What conclusions can you get from these values?

Empirical Experimental Reynolds

Nusselt Nusselt Number, OOOOG,(g# )
OOOOG,$=f$ ) 𝐿𝑜𝑔(𝑁𝑢
𝐿𝑜𝑔(𝑁𝑢 𝐿𝑜𝑔(𝑅𝑒G )
number, number, 𝑹𝒆𝑫
OOOO𝑫,𝒄𝒂𝒍𝒄
𝑵𝒖 OOOO𝑫,𝒆𝒙𝒑
𝑵𝒖
Heater 77.770 78.821 16513.49 1.891 1.897 4.218
Voltage 83.117 89.014 18453.44 1.920 1.949 4.266
(25V) 98.237 100.952 24387.24 1.992 2.004 4.387
108.664 108.167 28855.38 2.036 2.034 4.460
115.463 116.432 31390.40 2.062 2.066 4.497
Heater 76.240 75.450 15949.26 1.882 1.878 4.203
Voltage 88.847 85.143 20590.41 1.949 1.930 4.314
(35V) 98.271 91.722 24362.90 1.992 1.962 4.387
107.953 101.828 28502.41 2.033 2.008 4.455
117.745 109.089 32944.65 2.071 2.038 4.518
Table 3: Tabulated logarithmic data for heater voltage of 25V and 35V

As observed in Equation (14), the Zhukauskas Equation can be expressed in a logarithmic form:
𝑃𝑟
OOOOOO
𝑁𝑢G = 𝐶𝑅𝑒G @ 𝑃𝑟 & ( )5/;
𝑃𝑟?
OOOOG ) = 𝐿𝑜𝑔(𝐶) + 𝑚𝐿𝑜𝑔(𝑅𝑒G )+ 𝑛𝐿𝑜𝑔(Pr) + 0.25Log( T> )
𝐿𝑜𝑔(𝑁𝑢 T> ;

The transformation of the logarithmic equation into a linear equation has improved the
association between the Nusselt number and the Reynolds number. As a result, a log-log plot
will be used to demonstrate their connection visually.

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 OOOOOG ) versus Log(𝑅𝑒G ) at 25V
Graph 1: Log(𝑁𝑢

OOOOOG ) versus Log(𝑅𝑒G ) at 35V

Graph 2: Log(𝑁𝑢

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 OOOOOG ) versus Log(𝑅𝑒G )
Graph 3: Log(𝑁𝑢

Best fit curves are applied for the three graphs of logarithmic Nusselt number plotted against
logarithmic Reynolds number above and the coefficient of determination (𝑅/ ) obtained for all
curves are close to 1. This indicates a strong linear correlation between the two variables. It is
also obviously show that the overall trend of increasing Nusselt numbers as the Reynolds number
increases is consistent for graph 1 and graph 2 at different voltage.

Based on Graph 1 and 2, we can observe that the experimental log Nu calculated is lower than
the theoretical values. This is because as the fan speed increase, the air velocities also increases,
resulting in thinner boundary layer and thus enhance convective heat transfer. As we know that,
higher Reynolds number indicates larger fluid speed while higher Nusselt number indicates
larger convective heat transfer (Nu = Q hijklhmnij /Q hijophmnij ). Therefore, the increase in the
amount of Reynolds therefore triggered the rise in the general heat transfer coefficient. Hence,
it can be concluded that higher velocity means higher Reynolds number which leads to higher
convection heat transfer and thus higher Nusselt number.

For Graph 3, it is obvious that the theoretical curves for both 25V and 35V are identical. Hence,
it can be deduced that the Nusselt number is a weak function of heating power and does not
change significantly with variations in heating power. The Nusselt number represents the ratio
of convective to conduction heat transfer, and as the heating power increases, the surface
temperature increases, leading to a grater temperature gradient. However, both conduction and
convection heat transfer will be favored by increasing temperature gradient. As we know that
Nu = Q hijklhmnij /Q hijophmnij , since both numerator and denominator of the Nusselt number
increase with the increasing heating power, there is no significant change in the overall Nusselt
number with the change in heating power.

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Additionally, there are several reasons which caused the differences between the theoretical and
experimental values:

(1) The system may be not reach steady state when the data is collected. The temperature was
constantly fluctuating when it is being recorded, indicating that the system had not reached
steady state. Furthermore, ideal gas law was employed to derive the airflow speed, which is
inapplicable in real life.

(2) It is not realistic to assume the pump efficiency to be 100% as energy losses may exist. As
a result, there will be a discrepancy between the input and output energy. This inefficiency
will lead to variations between the experimental and theoretical values of 𝑇? , causing
inaccuracies in the calculation of the Nusselt number and producing a percentage
difference.

(3) Heat transfer via radiation and radiation are negligible in this experiment. Nevertheless, as
there is no perfect insulator, conduction could have occurred. In this experiment,
conduction could have taken place at the curved area of the tube, and radiation could take
place without a medium. These heat losses could explain why the experimental values are
lower than the calculated values.

(4) Parallax errors may occur while reading the manometer scale, particularly when there are
fluctuations in the values. The water level in the manometer was constantly fluctuating
during the experiment, which will increase the likelihood if imprecise readings. The
inaccurate readings will affect the subsequent calculations and hence resulting in deviation
between experimental and theoretical values. To ensure more accurate results, we can
improve this issue by replacing manual meter reading with a digital meter.

Conclusion
In conclusion, the plotted graph has well established the relationship between the Nusselt
number and the Reynolds number which the Nusselt number increases linearly with Reynolds
number. This means that the heat transfer by forced convection can be improved by increasing
the fluid velocity. This is because higher fluid velocities can create stronger fluid turbulence
and enhance the convective heat transfer between the fluid and the surface.

Empirical results have shown that the Nusselt number is a weak function of heating power.
Increasing the surface temperature does not significantly increase the heat transfer by forced
convection. This is because the convective heat transfer is mainly affected by the fluid velocity
and the properties of the fluid, rather than the surface temperature. Finally, due to some sources
of errors, there are some slight deviation between theoretical and experimental Nusselt number.

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Appendix

Table 1. Constant of Equation 14 for the circular cylinder in cross flow

Table 2. Thermophysical properties of air at atmospheric pressure

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