PERMAFROST AND PERIGLACIAL PROCESSES

Permafrost Periglac. Process. 12: 125–135 (2001)

DOI: 10.1002/ppp 373

Scaled Physical Modelling of Mass Movement Processes on Thawing

Slopes
Charles Harris,1 * Brice Rea1 and Michael Davies2
1
Department of Earth Sciences, University of Cardiff, Cardiff CF10 3YE, UK
2
Department of Civil Engineering, University of Dundee, Dundee DD1 4HN, UK

ABSTRACT

This paper presents initial results from scaled geotechnical centrifuge modelling of cryogenic slope
processes. Four experiments are described in which 1/10 scale planar slope models were constructed
from a silty soil at gradients of 12° , 18° and 24° . Models were frozen on the laboratory floor, and
thawed in the centrifuge at 10 gravities. Frost heave, thaw settlement, soil temperature and pore
water pressures were recorded. In each experiment, ten columns of 5 mm long plastic cylinders
inserted through the soil profile allowed surface soil displacements to be determined, and indicated
displacement profiles with depth at the end of each experiment. The 12° model was subjected
to four cycles of freezing and thawing, simulating four annual active-layer freeze–thaw cycles.
During each thaw phase, gelifluction occurred, and average model-scale surface displacements were
18.7 mm/cycle (equivalent to 187 mm/cycle at prototype scale). In the 18° model, gelifluction rates
were higher, with average surface displacements of 65.1 mm/cycle at model scale, 651 mm/cycle at
prototype scale. Two replicate 24° frozen slope models were tested in the centrifuge, and thawing
was associated with failure by mudflow. Maximum pore water pressures during thaw were similar in
all models. Slope stability analysis using an infinite planar model indicated that the factor of safety
against failure remained >1 in the 12° model, was close to or slightly less than 1 in the 18° model,
and was <1 in the 24° models. Copyright  2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

RÉSUMÉ

Cet article présente les premiers résultats obtenus par centrifugation pour établir des modèles
géotechniques de processus cryogéniques actifs sur des pentes. Quatre expériences sont décrites dans
lesquelles des modèles à l’échelle du 1/10 ont été construits avec un sol silteux et des pentes de 12° ,
18° et 24° . Ces modèles ont été gelés en laboratoire et dégelés dans la centrifugeuse sous 10 gravités.
Le soulèvement du sol, son affaissement, la température du sol et la pression de l’eau des pores ont
été enregistrés. Dans chaque expérience, 10 colonnes de cylindres de plastique de 5 mm de long ont
été insérés pour indiquer à la fin de chaque expérience les déplacements aux différents niveaux. Le
modèle avec une pente de 12° a été soumis à quatre cycles de gel et de dégel, simulant quatre cycles
affectant la couche active. Pendant chaque phase de dégel, un mouvement de gélifluxion a eu lieu et
les déplacements moyens de la surface ont été de 18.7 mm par cycle. Dans le modèle avec une pente
de 18° , la gélifluxion a été plus importante, avec des déplacements moyens de la surface de 65.1 mm
par cycle à l’échelle du modèle, soit 651 mm à l’échelle du prototype. Deux autres modèles avec des

*Correspondence to: Dr C. Harris, Department of Earth Sciences, University of Cardiff, Cardiff CF10 3YE, UK
Contract grant/sponsor: EU Environment and Climate Research Programme; Contract grant/number: ENV4-CT97-0492

Received 24 August 2000

Copyright  2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Accepted 12 November 2000
126 C. Harris, B. Rea and M. Davies
pentes de 24° ont été testés dans la centrifugeuse et le dégel a été accompagné de ruptures dues à des
écoulements de boue. Les pressions de pore maximales pendant le dégel ont été identiques dans tous
les modèles. L’analyse de la stabilité des pentes en utilisant un modèle infini indique que le facteur
de sécurité des glissement s est resté supérieur à 1 dans le modèle avec une pente de 12° , a été proche
ou un peu inférieur à 1 dans le modèle de 18° et a été inférieur à 1 dans les modèles de 24° . Copyright
 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
KEY WORDS: Centrifuge modelling; gelifluction; mass movement; mudflow; thawing slopes
INTRODUCTION
Seasonal thawing of the active layer on sloping
terrain may be associated with a range of mass
movement mechanisms, depending on gradients, soil
properties, ice contents and thermal regime (Harris,
1981; Lewkowicz, 1988). This paper presents results
of scaled physical modelling of thawing slopes
undertaken in a geotechnical centrifuge. The basis
for physical modelling is that geometric and dynamic
similarity between model and prototype (full-scale
equivalent) allows the response of the prototype to be
interpolated from the observed response of the model.
Since correct scaling of self-weight stresses within
a small-scale model is possible under an elevated
gravitational field, centrifuge modelling has become
a widely used technique in geotechnical research
(Scholfield, 1980). The PACE project, has, for the
first time, used centrifuge modelling to investigate
cryogenic slope processes. Detailed measurements
have been made of soil thermal regime, frost heaving,
thaw settlement, pore water pressures and associated
mass movement processes. In this paper we present an
analysis of these data for four experiments in which
the slope model was constructed of frost-susceptible
p D h
g 2
sandy silt collected from Vire in Normandy, France.
Later PACE experiments have investigated the
m D
Ng D h
g
influence of changing soil properties and results will
be published in another paper.
p D
m 3
p is prototype self-weight stress,
m is model
THAW CONSOLIDATION AND CENTRIFUGE
is soil
SCALING
Thaw consolidation of ice-rich soil leads to transfer
of self-weight stresses from soil particles to pore
water, thereby reducing the effective stress and
frictional strength of the soil. Pore pressures are
a function of the rate of thaw, which controls the
rate of release of excess pore water, and the rate of
seepage, which controls the rate at which this excess
pore water is expelled. The thaw consolidation ratio
(Morgenstern and Nixon, 1971) expresses the ratio
Copyright  2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
of these factors as:
˛
RD p 1
2 Cv
˛ is the thaw factor, defined as
X
˛D p
t
where X is depth of thaw in time t and Cv is the
coefficient of consolidation.
Similitude in soil properties between prototype
and model demands not only that the same soil is
used, but also that it should have the same stress
history and be subject to the same stress conditions
as those that apply at prototype scale. The former is
achieved through careful model preparation, the latter
by testing the small-scale model under an elevated
centrifugal acceleration, so that gravitational stresses
within the model are scaled to equate with those in
the prototype. This can be demonstrated as follows:
For prototype:
h
For 1/N scale model:
N
and
where
self-weight stress, h is thickness of soil,
density (same in model and prototype) and g is
acceleration due to gravity.
By rotation of the centrifuge at an appropriate
angular velocity, a centrifugal force equivalent to
Ng can be generated during model simulation
experiments. When tested at Ng, model linear
dimensions scale as 1/N, area 1/N2 , volume 1/N3 ,
stress 1/1, temperature 1/1, time for viscous force
similarity 1/1, time for seepage force similarity 1/N2
and time for conductive and advective heat transfer
1/N2 (Coce et al., 1985; Savidou, 1988; Ketcham
Permafrost and Periglac. Process., 12: 125–135 (2001)

Table 1 Test soil geotechnical properties.
% clay % silt % sand LL(%) PL(%)
15 72 13 31 18
and Black, 1995). Thus when tested in the centrifuge
at 10g (as is the case here), linear dimensions in the
model should be scaled by a factor of 10 to obtain
corresponding field (prototype) scale.
It is critically important that no scaling conflicts
arise in the thaw consolidation ratio during centrifuge
modelling. This may be readily demonstrated since:
Xm N Xm
˛p D
D p D ˛m 4
tm N2 tm
where subscript p indicates prototype scale and
subscript m model scale. Thus the thaw factor ˛
scales 1/1 between prototype and model. Similarly,
considering the coefficient of consolidation:
dm N2 dm 2
Cvp D Tv D Tv D Cvm 5
tm N2 tm
where subscript p indicates prototype scale and sub-
script m model scale. The coefficient of consolidation
Cv therefore scales 1/1 between prototype and model,
and the thaw consolidation ratio scales similarly. Cen-
trifuge modelling of the thaw consolidation process
therefore involves no scaling conflicts. It should be
noted that the time scaling factor for viscous force
similarity is 1/1, while that for thaw and consolidation
is 1/N2 , so potential temporal scaling conflicts may
arise where the dynamic response of the thawing
soil is a function of its viscosity. However, Har-
ris et al. (2000) have recently demonstrated that the
pre-failure strain of thawing soil during solifluction
is a plastic-type deformation rather than a viscous
flow, and temporal scaling conflicts do not therefore
arise. However, following slope failure, mudflow
and related processes are generally assumed to be
viscosity related (Locat and Demers, 1988; Locat,
1997; Angeli et al., 1996). We argue here, there-
fore, that time scaling conflicts do not arise in
modelling pre-failure thaw consolidation processes
leading to the triggering of rapid mass movements.
It is likely, however, that time scaling of post-failure
mudflow/debris-flow processes will be nearer to 1/1
than 1/N2 , and therefore temporal scaling remains a
problem in this case.
Copyright  2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Scaled Physical Modelling 127
Saturated bulk Cv m2 /a Ø0
density (Mg/m2 ) (degrees)
2.04 64 31
PACE Centrifuge Slope Modelling
The centrifuge modelling programme undertaken as
part of the Permafrost and Climate in Europe (PACE)
project was designed to investigate the significance
of site variables, particularly slope gradient and soil
characteristics, for mass movement processes on
thawing slopes. In total, ten test series have been
completed using three slope model gradients and
three test soils. In this paper we describe experiments
to investigate the transition from gelifluction to rapid
slope failure by mudflow in a natural fine sandy
silt soil (Table 1). In experiment 1, four cycles of
freezing and thawing replicated four annual thermal
cycles within the active layer on a slope of 12° .
In experiment 2, the slope gradient was increased
to 18° and observed soil displacements were much
greater than in experiment 1, though slope failure did
not take place. Two annual cycles of active-layer
freezing and thawing were replicated. Finally, rapid
slope failure was modelled on a slope gradient of 24°
in experiments 3 and 4. All modelling discussed in
this paper was undertaken at 1/10 scale (Figure 1),
and models were thawed in the centrifuge under
gravitational acceleration of 10g.
The later PACE slope modelling programme has
used (i) a normally consolidated silty clay soil,
and (ii) the same silty clay soil but heavily over-
consolidated. Susceptibility to gelifluction, and slope
failure by mudflow and mudslide, have been observed
in these later tests, and results will be presented
elsewhere.
EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN
Planar slope models were constructed within
a 750 mm long, 450 mm wide, 400 mm high
polypropylene test box by placing a 70 mm thick
layer of test soil (scaling to 0.7 m at 10g) on to
a sand base inclined at the required slope angle
(Figures 1 and 2). A constant-head water supply to
the basal sand layer allowed models to be saturated
from below and provided an open hydraulic system
during model freezing. Five type K thermocouples
and three Druck miniature pore pressure transduc-
ers (PDCR-81) formed vertical sensor strings in
Permafrost and Periglac. Process., 12: 125–135 (2001)
128 C. Harris, B. Rea and M. Davies

Figure 1 Frozen model slope (experiment 1) within the centrifuge strong box. The model is placed in an insulated gondola and thawed
under a gravitational field of 10g. The model is constructed on an inclined sand base through which water may be introduced during
freezing. The photograph shows a temporary protective paper covering placed on the frozen surface during installation of the strong
box in the centrifuge gondola. This is removed prior to testing. Wires lead from pore pressure transducers and thermocouples. Model
slope dimensions are approximately 750 mm long and 450 mm wide, and the test soil layer is some 70 mm thick.

two locations along a transect 150 mm from one
side of the model. The pore pressure transducers
comprised 11.4 mm long and 6.4 mm diameter stain-
less steel cylinders with ceramic filters. They were
filled with de-aired antifreeze solution to protect
them when frozen. Transducers measured a maxi-
mum pressure of 350 mb (35 kPa) with combined
non-linearity and hysteresis of š 0.2% best straight
line and thermal sensitivity of š 0.2% of reading
per ° C. All cabling was brought through the soil
on this side so that a 300 mm (scaling to 3 m at
10g) wide strip of slope (two-thirds of the model
width) remained with no sensors or cables. All soil
displacements were measured in this undisturbed
section. Prior to freezing, models were consolidated
for 24 hours under a stress of 3.8 kN/m2 , equivalent
to the self-weight of the soil at a model-scale depth
of approximately 20 mm (200 mm depth at prototype
scale).
Ten columns formed of plastic cylinders 5 mm
in length and external diameter were installed to
record downslope displacement profiles at the end
of each test series. Columns formed two rows of
five, one forming a transect down the centre line
(Figure 2), the second 100 mm from the side of the
model. The model container was then insulated and
frozen from the surface downwards by means of
a steel freezing plate placed on the slope surface.
The plate temperature was lowered to 10 ° C using
cold compressed air supplied from vortex tubes, and
the test slope was frozen under a confining load of
3.8 kN/m2 . The phreatic surface was maintained in
the base of the test soil during freezing, which lasted
around 2 days. Surface frost heaving was measured
automatically using a linear displacement transducer
(LVDT) and manually by measuring three slope
profiles before and after freezing against a fixed
datum.
Models were thawed in the centrifuge under
a gravitational acceleration of 10g. Thawing was
from the surface downwards with air temperature
maintained at around 20 ° C. During each thaw cycle,
sensors were monitored at 30 s intervals via a
Campbell Logger. The top surface and one side
of the model were observed using miniature video
cameras and frame grabbing from the resulting
video tapes allowed movement of surface markers
and thaw settlement to be monitored throughout
each test to an accuracy of š 1 mm. The 12°
slope model (experiment 1) was subjected to four
cycles of freezing and thawing, the 18° slope
model (experiment 2) to two cycles, and the 24°
slope models (experiments 3 and 4) to one cycle
each. A summary of model parameters is given in
Table 2.

Copyright  2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Permafrost and Periglac. Process., 12: 125–135 (2001)
 Scaled Physical Modelling 129

were recorded by two vertical strings of three trans-

Figure 2 Experimental design: (a) freezing stage; (b) centrifuge
thawing stage. The slope angle was changed for successive test
series by constructing the sand base at an appropriate gradient.
RESULTS
Pore Water Pressures
Pore water pressures measured during experiments
1, 2 and 3 are illustrated in Figure 3. Pore pressures
ducers, the upper slope string being located one-third
and the lower string two-thirds of the way down the
slope (Figure 2). Transducer malfunction and prob-
lems with data retrieval result in an incomplete data
set. However, sufficient information is available for
general conclusions to be drawn. Pressure fluctua-
tions during thaw were identical to those recorded
by Harris et al. (1995; 1997) in their full-scale slope
simulation experiment and discussed by Harris and
Davies (1998). This earlier full-scale simulation used
the same test soil as in the present experiments.
Strong negative pressures (suction) were recorded
during the zero curtain phase of soil thawing, inter-
preted as the result of cryosuction developed in
the partially frozen soil (Harris and Davies, 1998).
Pressure rose rapidly as thawing became complete
and overburden stress was transferred from soil/ice
contacts to the soil pore water during thaw consol-
idation. Pressures fell as progressive drainage took
place
Pore pressures within the newly thawed soil may
be normalized for depth by expressing them in
terms of ru , the ratio of pore pressure to total
stress. Since the soil bulk density was approximately
2.04 Mg/m3 , an ru value of 0.49 indicates water table
at the surface, and higher values indicate artesian
conditions. Peak pressures varied somewhat between
each thaw cycle, probably reflecting the distribution
of ice lenses in relation to pressure sensors, but for
all four test series, higher ru values were recorded
in the lower slope (mean ru 0.58, with standard
deviation š0.17) than in the upper slope (mean 0.38,
standard deviation š0.16). This probably reflects
water drainage downslope over the impermeable
frozen substrate.
Pore water pressure data were used in slope
stability analysis based on effective stress condi-
tions. An infinite slope model was adopted, with
the failure surface and seepage parallel to the
ground surface. Figure 4 shows pore water pres-
sures necessary to reduce the factor of safety

Table 2 Centrifuge model parameters.

Experiments Slope No. Frost heave, Heaving Average Average thaw

gradient freeze–thaw model scale ratio thaw rate, rate, prototype
(degrees) cycles (mm) model scale scale (mm/h)
(mm/h)
1 12 4 13.7–22.8 0.16–0.24 10.6–12.5 1.06–1.25
2 18 2 11.9–15.0 0.15–0.18 10.3–9.86 0.986–1.03
3 24 1 12.8 0.15 9.52–9.97 0.952–0.997
4 24 1 23.14 0.25 8.39–9.23 0.839–0.923

Copyright  2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Permafrost and Periglac. Process., 12: 125–135 (2001)
130 C. Harris, B. Rea and M. Davies

(a) 0.13 m 0.16 m 0.26 m 0.46 m

Experiment 1
Upper slope Lower slope Lower slope Lower slope
Cycle d
6

4
porewater pressure (kPa)

-2

-4

-6

-8

-10
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
time (days)
Experiment 2
(b) Cycle a
0.1 m lower slope 0.3 m lower slope
6

4
porewater pressure (kPa)

-2

-4

-6
0.3 m upper slope
-8

-10
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
time (days)
Experiment 3
(c) 0.09 m 0.46 m 0.51 m
6 Lower slope Lower slope Lower slope

4
porewater pressure (kPa)

-2

-4

-6
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
time (days)

Figure 3 Pore water pressures recorded during centrifuge thawing: (a) experiment 1 (12° slope), cycle d; (b) experiment 2 (18° slope),
cycle a; (c) experiment 3 (24° slope), lower slope. Note, time is scaled to the equivalent prototype timescale.

Copyright  2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Permafrost and Periglac. Process., 12: 125–135 (2001)
 Scaled Physical Modelling 131

Experiment 1 (12 degree slope)

8.0

Pore Water Pressure (kPa)

7.0
6.0
5.0
4.0
3.0
2.0
1.0
0.0
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
Scaled Depth

Experiment 2 (18 degree slope)

Pore Water Pressure (kPa)

5.0

4.0

3.0
2.0

1.0

0.0
0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35
Scaled Depth (m)

Experiments 3 and 4 (24 degree slope)

7.0
Pore Water Pressure (kPa)

6.0
5.0
4.0
3.0
2.0
1.0
0.0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
Scaled Depth (m)

Figure 4 Maximum recorded pore water pressures plotted against scaled depth of transducer (prototype scale). The continuous line
indicates pore water pressure resulting in a factor of safety of unity. (a) Experiment 1 (12° slope); (b) experiment 2 (18° slope);
(c) experiments 3 and 4 (24° slope).

F to unity compared with maximum observed weight of soil, z is the depth of the slip surface and
pore water pressures, F being calculated from the cohesion is zero.
equation: In experiment 1 (12° slope), the factor of safety
remained below unity in all transducers, so that
  observed soil displacements were associated with pre-
tan 0 u failure soil shear strain (gelifluction). In experiment
FD 1 6
tan ˇ z cos2 ˇ 2 (18° slope), ru values observed on the upper
slope were similar to those for experiment 1, but
values were significantly higher on the lower slope.
where 0 is the internal angle of friction, ˇ is the This reflects more rapid downslope migration of
slope angle, u is pore water pressure,  is the unit meltwater, and resulted in reduction of the factor

Copyright  2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Permafrost and Periglac. Process., 12: 125–135 (2001)
132 C. Harris, B. Rea and M. Davies

of safety to just below unity. No mudflows were
observed, but gelifluction rates were much higher
than on the 12° slope (see below). The scaled
model slope length was only 7 m, so that end
effects, particularly the absence of a basal run-
out zone, probably provided additional resisting
stresses and prevented slope failure. It is concluded
that the threshold for rapid slope failure for the
experimental heaving ratios (0.15–0.18) and thawing
rate (around 1 mm per hour prototype scale) was
close to 18° . Finally, the steepest experimental slope
(experiments 3 and 4) was clearly well above the
threshold for rapid slope failure, with above critical
pore water pressures recorded in most transducers.
Although recorded pore pressures were highest in
the lower slope transducers, values were also super-
critical in the upper slope region, and, as discussed
below, mudflows were initiated across the slope
from a headscarp region just below the slope
crest.
Soil Displacements: Experiments 1 and 2, Gelifluc-
tion
Only two thaw cycles were possible during exper-
iment 2 18°  slope, and most of the lower slope
surface markers were transported to the footslope
zone. A total of ten displacement columns were exca-
vated at the end of each test series, and displacement
of the topmost column element of each was used
to calculate average movement per cycle within the
uppermost 5 cm (prototype scale) of soil. Frost heave
and subsequent gelifluction resulted in some upper
column members being only partially embedded in
the soil, and many were rotated forwards, particularly
in experiment 2. This probably contributed to inter-
column variation in measured surface displacement.
Average values of 187 š 72 mm/cycle (range 1 SD)
for experiment 1 12°  and 651 š 246 mm/cycle for
experiment 2 18°  (data scaled to prototype) clearly
demonstrate the influence of slope gradient, since

(a) (b)

(c) (d)
displacement (mm) displacement (mm)
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220
0 0
10 10
20 20
depth (mm)

depth (mm)

30 30
40 40
50 50 Column 2.2
Column 2.2 Column 2.3
60 60
Column 2.3 Column 2.4
70 70
Column 2.4
80 80

Figure 5 Profiles of soil movement observed by excavation of displacement columns: (a) column 2.4 experiment 1; (b) columns 2.4
and 2.5, experiment 2 (uppermost member of column 2.4 lies almost directly above column 2.5, and two column members from upslope
lie beyond column 2.4); (c) columns 2.2–2.4, experiment 1; (d) columns 2.2–2.4, experiment 2.

Copyright  2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Permafrost and Periglac. Process., 12: 125–135 (2001)

heaving ratios and thaw rates were similar during
both experiments (Table 2).
Excavation of displacement columns at the end of
each test series allowed the profiles of downslope
soil displacement to be investigated (Figure 5). In
experiments 1 and 2, shear strain was least in
the topmost columns and greatest in the mid-slope
locations. The high rates of surface displacement
observed in the 18° slope have been noted, but
displacement profiles were more concave than those
in experiment 1 (Figure 5c and d) so that the volume
of soil movement per cycle was only slightly greater
in experiment 2 than experiment 1. Taking all ten
displacement columns excavated in each model,
the average volumetric soil displacement per thaw
cycle was 255 cm3 per cm of slope in experiment
1, compared with 567 cm3 per cm in experiment
2. Thus, average near-surface movement rates were
some 3.5 times higher on the 18° slope compared
with the 12° slope, but volumetric soil transport was
only 2.2 times greater.
Soil Displacements: Experiments 3 and 4, mudflow
Experiments 3 and 4 were replicate tests undertaken
on a slope of 24° . Heaving ratios were, however,
0.5 hours 2 hours
Figure 6 Video frames showing development of mudflow streams during experiment 3. The evolution of the slope was determined by
the thaw rate (rate of release of mobile soil) rather than by the speed of the mudflow streams.
Copyright  2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Scaled Physical Modelling 133
slightly lower in experiment 3 than experiment
4. In both cases rapid slope failure by mudflow
was observed. Selected frame grabbing from the
video output during thawing of experiment 3 allows
development of mudflow streams to be observed
(Figure 6). Note two conflicting time-scaling factors
operate once slope failure is initiated:
(1) Thawing of the frozen soil from the surface
downwards, and subsequent thaw consolidation
of the released soil. Model/prototype time-scales
are 1/N2 , where N is the centrifugal acceleration
in gravities.
(2) Rapid mudflow in which dynamic viscosity-
related processes scale close to 1 : 1.
Thus, the centrifuge model simulates a slope in which
release of mudflows is controlled by thaw penetration,
so that the evolution of the model reflects scaling
of thaw penetration 1/N2  at prototype scale. The
actual travel time of an individual soil unit within the
flow scales at or close to 1 : 1 if the flow is a function
of the dynamic viscosity. The modelled mudflow
system is therefore supply limited, where supply is a
function of thaw penetration. Markers were deposited
in the footslope zone, and mudflow activity continued
4 hours
Foot of Slope
Residual Surface
Head of Slope
Permafrost and Periglac. Process., 12: 125–135 (2001)
134 C. Harris, B. Rea and M. Davies
until the thaw depth had reached approximately 70%
of the frozen model thickness, over a 4 hour period
at model time scales (approximately 16.6 days at
prototype scale).
DISCUSSION
The aim of these experiments has been to investigate
mechanisms of soil displacement during active-layer
thawing on progressively steeper slopes. Although
experiments are generic in nature, the sandy silt low-
plasticity test soil is similar to the matrix material
of many tills and detrital soils, though in nature
coarser fractions are commonly also present. The
transition from gelifluction to mudflow has been
clearly demonstrated. Experiment 1 successfully
simulated gelifluction processes, and comparison
with full-scale modelling that used the same soil
material and slope geometry led Harris et al. (2000)
to conclude that there are no scaling conflicts.
The pattern of pore water pressure variation during
thawing of the three models (slope gradients 12° , 18°
and 24° ) was essentially similar (Figure 3). Initially
during thaw, high pore pressures resulted from thaw
consolidation processes. Subsequently pore pressures
fell as drainage downslope occurred. In the modelled
slopes, the duration of positive pore water pressures
was significantly longer in experiment 1 than in
experiment 2 (average duration at prototype scale for
experiment 1 in the 0.26 m depth transducers (three
cycles) was 13.3 days compared with 2.98 days for
the 0.3 m depth transducer in experiment 2 (two
cycles). Thus, if thawing from the surface downwards
leads to an impermeable thaw front approximately
parallel to the ground surface, downslope hydraulic
gradients within the thawed layer increase as slope
gradient increases, leading to higher rates of drainage
and a reduction in the period of soil saturation
following thaw.
The pre-failure shear strain (gelifluction) modelled
here reflects plastic deformation of the soil mass
when its frictional strength is reduced by high pore
pressures. The greater shear stresses generated on
steeper slopes are therefore partly counteracted by
higher frictional strengths resulting from more rapid
post-thaw drainage. This may explain the strongly
concave downwards displacement profiles observed
in experiment 2 compared with those in experiment
1 (Figure 5). Surface displacement rates on the 18°
test slope were on average more than 3.5 times higher
than on the 12° slope. Volumetric transport rates were
also higher on the steeper slope, but only by a factor of
two. Translating this to a field context, it appears that
higher surface mass movement rates on steeper slopes
Copyright  2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
may be misleading in terms of volumetric sediment
transfers, so that field measurements should always
integrate surface marker data with measurement of
subsurface velocity profiles.
The failure of the slope by mudflow processes in
experiments 3 and 4 reflects the non-cohesive nature
of the soil and the high water content and low void
ratio immediately following thaw. It is likely that
moisture contents were in excess of the liquid limit.
CONCLUSIONS
The following major conclusions may be drawn from
the laboratory experiments described in this paper:
(1) Soil processes controlled by thaw consolidation
may be successfully simulated in scaled models
thawed under enhanced gravitational fields. The
approach offers considerable advantages with
respect to construction of reproducible physical
models, control of boundary conditions, and
time scales for experimentation over full-scale
laboratory floor simulation studies.
(2) Thawing of model slopes constructed from a
silty soil led to consistent styles of pore pressure
variation, and these were in turn similar to
pore pressures observed in earlier full-scale
modelling. Drainage of the thawed soil, and
associated reduction in pore water pressure, were
more rapid on the steeper slope models.
(3) Surface movement rates due to gelifluction
increased by a factor of 3.5 between the 12° slope
model and the 18° slope model, but volumetric
soil transport was only some 2.2 times greater
in the latter than the former. This reflected the
strongly concave downslope displacement profile
observed in the 18° slope model.
(4) The 18° slope in experiment 2 was close
to the threshold for failure. In ice-rich silty
non-cohesive soil such as that used in these
experiments, slope failure on steeper slopes
(experiments 3 and 4) is by rapid mudflow. The
mechanism of failure is largely a function of the
geotechnical properties of the thawing soil.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This research forms part of the European Union
PACE project, funded by the EU Environment
and Climate Research Programme (DGXII) under
contract ENV4-CT97-0492. Technical support from
Mr Ian Henderson is gratefully acknowledged.
Permafrost and Periglac. Process., 12: 125–135 (2001)

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