ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY (SCI 113)

The Chemical Basis of Life, Cell, Tissue, Glands &

UNIT 2 Membranes

Course Title: ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

Course Number: SCI 113
Name of Reporter: PRINCESS MARIE AUJERO
SHAYNE SUNICO
ELLA MAE VENUS
ROLEN GONZALES
Course Facilitator: Dr. Louie S. Denosta

Learning Outcomes

At the end of the unit, the students should be able to:

1. Explain how the structures of the cell contribute to its functions.
2. Discuss the movement of materials across the plasma membrane, gene action, normal cell division,
cell cycles and its regulation;
3. Make a comparison of meiosis and apoptosis. Relate them to the number of cells within the various
organs.
4. Relate the structural specializations of the different animal tissue.
5. Make a flow chart to show the process of inflammation in response to tissue damage.
6. Discuss the major events involved in tissue repair.
7. List the structural and functional characteristics of mucous, serous and synovial membranes.

Indicative Content

1. The chemical basis of life

2. Cell structures and their functions
2.1 Structures of Animal Cell
2.2 Organelles and their functions
2.3 Movement through the cell membrane
2.4 Cell division and Apoptosis
3. Tissues damage, inflammation and repair

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Introduction

Chemicals make up the body’s structures, and the interactions of chemicals with one another are responsible
for the body’s functions. The processes of nerve impulse generation, digestion, muscle contraction, and
metabolism can all be described in chemical terms. A basic knowledge of chemistry is essential for
understanding anatomy and physiology. This chapter outlines some basic chemical principles and emphasizes
their relationship to humans.

THE CHEMICAL BASIS OF LIFE

Life on earth would not be possible without carbon. This is in part due to carbon's ability to readily
form bonds with other atoms, giving flexibility to the form and function that biomolecules can take, such
as DNA and RNA, which are essential for the defining characteristics of life: growth and replication.
Biomolecules including carbohydrates, lipids, nucleic acids and proteins which form the basis of life,
contain carbon as a chief component.

 Carbohydrates, also known as carbs, are vital at every stage of life. They're the body's primary
source of energy and the brain's preferred energy source. Carbs are broken down by the body
into glucose – a type of sugar. Glucose is used as fuel by your body's cells, tissues, and organs.
 Lipids perform three primary biological functions within the body: they serve as structural
components of cell membranes, function as energy storehouses, and function as important
signaling molecules. The three main types of lipids are triacylglycerol (also called triglycerides),
phospholipids, and sterols.
 Nucleic acids are the most important macromolecules for the continuity of life. They carry the
genetic blueprint of a cell and carry instructions for the functioning of the cell.
 Proteins catalyze reactions in our bodies, transport molecules such as oxygen, keep us healthy as
part of the immune system and transmit messages from cell to cell. Proteins are the building
blocks of life and come in many different shapes and sizes.

THE CELL STRUCTURES AND THEIR FUNCTIONS

The cell is the basic living unit of all organisms. The simplest organisms consist of single
cells, whereas humans are composed of multiple cells. The human body is made up of
many populations of specialized cells. The cell structures comprises individual
components with specific functions essential to carry out life’s processes.
A cell is consist of three (3) parts: (1) Nucleus (2) Cell Organelles, and (3) Cell Wall.
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NUCLEUS
Definition: Nucleus is the membrane-enclosed
organelle within a cell that contains the chromosomes.
Functions:
a. Nucleus controls and regulates activities of the cell.
b. Nucleus serves both as the repository of genetic
information and as the cell’s control center.
c. It facilitates the replication and transcription.
d. Control of cell division and cell growth.

https://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/cells/nucleus/nucleus.ht

CELL WALL
Definition: A rigid layer of polysaccharides lying
outside the plasma membrane of the cells. A protective
structure that surrounds the cell membrane.
Functions:
a. Provides tensile strength and protection against
mechanical and osmotic stress.
b. It enables transport of substances and information
from the cell insides to the exterior and vice versa.
https://byjus.com/biology/cell-wall/

CELL ORGANELLES
Definition: Is a sub-cellular structure that has one or
more specific jobs to perform in the cell, much like an
organ does in the body.
Functions:
a. It helps in protein synthesis
b. It also helps in reproduction
https://byjus.com/biology/cell-organelles/

STRUCTURES OF ANIMAL CELL

Animal cells are generally smaller than plant cells. Another defining characteristic is its irregular shape. This is
due to the absence of a cell wall. But animal cells share other cellular organelles with plant cells as both have
evolved from eukaryotic cells.
A typical animal cell comprises the following cell organelles:

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Cell Membrane
A thin semipermeable membrane layer of lipids
and proteins surrounding the cell. Its primary role
is to protect the cell from its surrounding. Also, it
controls the entry and exit of nutrients and other
microscopic entities into the cell. For this reason,
cell membranes are known as semi-permeable or
selectively permeable membranes.

Nucleus
It is an organelle that contains several other sub-
organelles such as nucleolus, nucleosomes and
chromatins. It also contains DNA and other genetic
materials.

Nuclear Membrane
It is a double-membrane structure that surrounds
the nucleus. It is also referred to as the nuclear
envelope.

Centrosome
It is a small organelle found near the nucleus,
which has a thick center with radiating tubules.
The centrosomes are where microtubules are
produced.

Lysosome
They are round organelles surrounded by a membrane
and comprising digestive enzymes which help in
digestion, excretion and in the cell renewal process.

Cytoplasm
A jelly-like material which contains all the cell
organelles, enclosed within the cell membrane. The
substance found within the cell nucleus, contained by
the nuclear membrane is called the nucleoplasm.

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CELL ORGANELLES AND THEIR FUNCTIONS

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CELL DIVISION

Cell division is the process by which a parent cell divides into two daughter cells. Cell division usually occurs
as part of a larger cell cycle in which the cell grows and replicates its chromosome before dividing.

There are two types of cell division: Mitosis and Meiosis. Most of the time when people refer to “cell division,”
they mean mitosis, the process of making new body cells. Meiosis is the type of cell division that creates egg
and sperm cells. Mitosis is a fundamental process for life.

MITOSIS

Mitosis is a fundamental process for life. During mitosis, a cell duplicates all of its contents, including its
chromosomes, and splits to form two identical daughter cells. Because this process is so critical, the steps of
mitosis are carefully controlled by certain genes. When mitosis is not regulated correctly, health problems such
as cancer can result.

https://byjus.com/biology/mitosis/ Interphase- is the portion of the cell cycle that is

not accompanied by visible changes under the
microscope, and includes the G1, S and G2 phases.
During interphase, the cell grows (G1), replicates
its DNA (S) and prepares for mitosis (G2).
Prophase- stage of cell division, before metaphase,
during which the chromosomes become visible as
paired chromatids and the nuclear envelope
disappears. The first prophase of meiosis includes
the reduction division.

https://byjus.com/biology/mitosis/

Metaphase- in metaphase, the spindle has captured all the chromosomes and lined them up at the
middle of the cell, ready to divide. At this stage, the two kinetochores of each chromosome
should be attached to microtubules from opposite spindle poles.
Anaphase- in anaphase, the sister chromatids separate from each other and are pulled towards
opposite ends of the cell. The protein “glue” that holds the sister chromatids together is broken
down, allowing them to separate. Each is now its own chromosome.
Telophase- in telophase, the cell is nearly done dividing, and it starts to re-establish its normal
structures as cytokinesis takes place. The mitotic spindle is broken down into its building blocks.
Two new nuclei form, one for each set of chromosomes. Nuclear membranes and nucleoli
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MEIOSIS

Meiosis is a type of cell division in sexually reproducing organisms that reduces the number of chromosomes in
gametes (the sex cells, or egg and sperm). In humans, body (or somatic) cells are diploid, containing two sets of
chromosomes (one from each parent).

Prophase- Meiosis I, the first meiotic division, begins with prophase I. During prophase I, the complex of DNA and
protein known as chromatin condenses to form chromosomes. The pairs of replicated chromosomes are known as sister
chromatids, and they remain joined at a central point called the centromere.
Metaphase 1- In metaphase I, the homologous pairs of chromosomes align on either side of the equatorial plate.
Anaphase 1- in anaphase I, the spindle fibers contract and pull the homologous pairs, each with two chromatids, away
from each other and toward each pole of the cell.
Telophase 1- telophase I, the chromosomes are enclosed in nuclei. The cell now undergoes a process called cytokinesis
that divides the cytoplasm of the original cell into two daughter cells. Each daughter cell is haploid and has only one set
of chromosomes, or half the total number of chromosomes of the original cell.

APOPTOSIS

Apoptosis is a form of programmed cell death that occurs in multicellular organisms and in some
eukaryotic, single-celled microorganisms such as yeast. Biochemical events lead to characteristic cell changes
and death.

Induction- Induction of apoptosis occurs when one or several

cells of a living organism are infected with a virus, leading to cell
death. Cell death in organisms is necessary for the normal
development of cells and the cell cycle maturation. It is also
important in maintaining the regular functions and activities of
cells.
Early stage- is represented by changes to, and ultimate loss of,
the mitochondrial membrane potential. Mitochrondrial membrane
potential is detected by JC-1, a dye that selectively enters the
mitochondria.
Mid stage- In the intrinsic pathway BAX and BAK create a pore
within the outer membrane of the mitochondria which leads to
membrane depolarization and release of pro-apoptotic factors.
The factors released form the signaling complex known as the
apoptosome.
Late stage- The late stage of apoptosis is characterized by DNA
fragmentation (karyorrhexis), which starts upon completion of
nuclear condensation (pyknosis). It is mediated by both caspase
CAPIZ STATE UNIVERSITY dependent and independent
DUMARAOroutes. In the COLLEGE
SATELLITE late phase significant
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morphological and phenotypical changes also occur.
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https://www.genome.gov/genetics-glossary/apoptosis

TISSUES DAMAGE

A tissue is an aggregate of cells in an organism that have similar structure and function. Tissues that work
in unison to carry out a specific set of functions form an organ. Examples of plant tissues are meristematic
tissues and vascular tissues.
The most common soft tissues injured are muscles, tendons, and ligaments. These injuries often occur
during sports and exercise activities, but sometimes simple everyday activities can cause an injury. Sprains,
strains, and contusions, as well as tendinitis and bursitis, are common soft-tissue injuries.
Tissues of all types are vulnerable to injury and, inevitably, aging. In the former case, understanding how
tissues respond to damage can guide strategies to aid repair. In the latter case, understanding the impact of aging
can help in the search for ways to diminish its effects.

What is the cause of tissue damage?

Many bacteria cause extensive tissue damage by the liberation of toxins into extracellular fluids.

https://apexsofttissue.com.au/why-soft-tissue/

INFLAMMATION and REPAIR

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Inflammation is the standard, initial response of the body to injury. Whether biological, chemical, physical, or
radiation burns, all injuries lead to the same sequence of physiological events. Inflammation limits the extent of
injury, partially or fully eliminates the cause of injury, and initiates repair and regeneration of damaged tissue.

https://www.aboutkidshealth.ca/article?
contentid=926&language=english

TYPES OF INFLAMMATION

Chronic inflammation is also referred to as slow, long-term inflammation lasting for prolonged periods of
several months to years. Generally, the extent and effects of chronic inflammation vary with the cause of the
injury and the ability of the body to repair and overcome the damage.

Acute inflammation is an immediate, adaptive response with limited specificity caused by several noxious
stimuli, such as infection and tissue damage (tissue necrosis). The response to sudden body damage, such as
cutting your finger. To heal the cut, your body sends inflammatory cells to the injury. These cells start the
healing process.

TISSUE REPAIR

Tissue repair is defined as the restoration of tissue architecture and function following an injury. In toxicant-
induced injury, tissue repair plays a primary role in determining whether the patient will recover from injury, or
whether the injury will progress and lead to death.

Stages of Wound Healing

Inflammatory Phase- Inflammation both controls bleeding and prevents infection. The fluid engorgement
allows healing and repair cells to move to the site of the wound. During the inflammatory phase, damaged cells,
pathogens, and bacteria are removed from the wound area.

Proliferative Phase- in the proliferation phase, the provisional wound matrix formed during homeostasis is
replaced by granulation tissue, consisting of a large amount of fibroblasts, granulocytes, macrophages, blood
vessels, in complex with collagen bundles, which partially recovers the structure and function of the wounded
skin.

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Remodeling Phase- third phase of healing consists of remodeling, which begins two to three weeks after the
onset of the lesion and can last for one year or more. The core aim of the remodeling stage is to achieve the
maximum tensile strength through reorganization, degradation, and re-synthesis of the extracellular matrix.

https://www.mdpi.com/2075-1729/11/7/665

EXERCISES/ DRILLS

Life on earth would not be possible without carbon. This is in part due to carbon's ability to readily
form bonds with other atoms, giving flexibility to the form and function that biomolecules can take,
such as DNA and (1)___________, which are essential for the defining characteristics of life: growth
and (2)______________. Biomolecules including carbohydrates, lipids, nucleic acids and
(3)___________ which form the basis of life, contain (4)_____________ as a chief component.

Animal cells are generally smaller than (6)________ cells. Another defining characteristic is its irregular
shape. This is due to the absence of a (7)____________. But animal cells share other cellular organelles with
plant cells as both have evolved from (8)_____________ cells.

A (9)____________ is an aggregate of cells in an organism that have similar structure and function. Tissues
that work in unison to carry out a specific set of functions form an organ. The most common soft tissues
injured are muscles, tendons, and (10)_______________.

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EVALUATION

1.1 CHOOSE THE LETTER OF THE CORRECT ANSWER.

1. It is the phase/stage of the wound healing which begins two to three weeks after the onset of the
lesion and can last for one year or more.

a. Remodeling Phase
b. Proliferative Phase
c. Interphase
d. Inflammatory Phase

2. It occurs when one or several cells of a living organism are infected with a virus, leading to cell death.

a. Metaphase
b. Proliferative Phase
c. Induction
d. Elongation

3. Is an immediate, adaptive response with limited specificity caused by several noxious stimuli, such
as infection and tissue damage (tissue necrosis).

a. Tissue Damage
b. Acute Inflammation
c. Injury
d. Necrosis

4. Stage of cell division wherein the chromosomes become visible as paired chromatids.

a. Interphase
b. Prophase
c. Elongation
d. Induction

5. Is a form of programmed cell death that occurs in multicellular organisms and in some
eukaryotic, single-celled microorganisms such as yeast.

a. Meiosis
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b. Inflammation
c. Pre-injury
d. Apoptosis

1.2 IDENTIFICATION

1. Packages of cell membrane that contain materials for transport into or out of the cell.
2. Restoration of tissue architecture and function following an injury.
3. A thin semipermeable membrane layer of lipids and proteins surrounding the cell.
4. Is a sub-cellular structure that has one or more specific jobs to perform in the cell, much like an
organ does in the body.
5. Also referred to as slow, long-term inflammation lasting for prolonged periods of several months
to years.
6. They serve as structural components of cell membranes, function as energy storehouses, and
function as important signaling molecules.
7. Is a fundamental process for life.
8. Empty “bags” within the cell.
9. Powerhouse of the cell that performs cellular respiration.
10. A rigid layer of polysaccharides lying outside the plasma membrane of the cells.

REFERENCES
Seeleys-essentials-of-anatomy-and-physiology-9th-edition
https://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/cells/nucleus/nucleus.html
https://www.mdpi.com/2075-1729/11/7/665
https://www.aboutkidshealth.ca/article?contentid=926&language=english
https://apexsofttissue.com.au/why-soft-tissue/
https://www.genome.gov/genetics-glossary/apoptosis
https://byjus.com/biology/mitosis/
https://byjus.com/biology/cell-organelles/
https://byjus.com/biology/cell-wall/
https://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/cells/nucleus/nucleus.html

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