PHILIPPINE HISTORY

By:

TEODORO AGONCILLO

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Chapter 1 THE PHILIPPINES AND ITS PEOPLE

Geography
Economy
Population
Governent
Filipino Traits and Values

Chapter 2 THE PHILIPPINES IN ANCIENT TIMES (200,000 B.C -1300 A.D)

Early Settlers
Economic Life
Social Life
The Government
Culture

Chapter 3 EARLY CONTACTS WITH NEIGHBORING COUNTRIES (900-1400 A.D)

Early Trade Routes and Contacts

Economic and Cultural Exchanges
The Coming of Islam

Chapter 4 ENCOUNTER WITH THE WEST (1400-1600)

The Coming of the Spaniards

The Battle of Mactan
First Settlement in Cebu
The Settlement in Panay
The Founding of Manila

Chapter 5 THE PHILIPPINES UNDER SPANISH RULE (1600s-1800s)

Reasons for Spanish Colonization

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 Political Changes
Economic Changes

Chapter 6 CHALLENGES TO SPANISH AUTHORITY (1560-1820s)

Portuguese and Dutch Threats

Early Resistance in Luzon, Visayas, and Mindanao
Reasons for the General Failure of the Revolts
The Chinese Presence

Chapter 7 CULTURAL CHANGES AND IDENTITY (1600-1800)

Spanish Influence
Impact of Cultural Changes

Chapter 8 THE BEGINNINGS OF FILIPINO NATIONALISM (Mid 1700s-1900s)

British Invasion and Occupation

The Silang and Palaris Revolts
Basco’s Economic Plans
Laissez-faire and the Opening of Ports
The Rise of the “Filipino”Middle Class
The Education of Some Filipinos
The Opening of the Suez Canal
Liberalism in the Philippines
The Campaign for Secularization

Chapter 9 THE CAMPAIGN FOR REFORMS (1882- 1892)

The Perform Movement

Freemasory and Its Role
La Liga Filipina
Why the Reform Movement Failed

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Chapter 10 BONIFACIO AND THE KATIPUNAN (1892-1896)

The Founding of the Katipunan

The Aims and Structure of the Katipunan
The Teachings of the Katipunan
The Women in the Katipunan
The Kalayaan
Twin Souls of the Katipunan

Chapter 11 THE REVOLUTION OF 1896

Conditions before the Revolution

The Fighting Begins
Rizal’s Execution
The Execution of Bonifacio
The Biak-na-Bato Republic

Chapter 12 THE STRUGGLE CONTINUES

The Relief of Primo de Rivera

The Spanish-American War
Aguinaldo Goes to Singapore
Aguinaldo Returns
The Mock Battle of Manila

Chapter 13 FREEDOM AND INDEPENDENCE

The Dictatorial Government

The Revolutionary Governament
The First Philippine Republic

Chapter 14 THE PHILIPPINE-AMERICAN WAR (1889-1902)

The “Benevolent Assimilation” Proclamation

The Shot that Started the War

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 The Fall of the Mabini Cabinet
The Assassination of Luna
The Conquest of the Visayas
The Kiram-Bates Treaty
Aguinaldo Retreats to Palanan
The Stage of Guerilla Warfare

Chapter 15 THE RESULTS OF PHILIPPINE-AMERICAN WAR

Filipino Casualities and Losses

The Disposition of the Friar Lands
Filipinization of the Church

Chapter 16 AMERICAN COLONIAL RULE: POLICY AND GOVERNMENT

(1899-1907)

The Military Rule

American Policy in the Philippines
Civil Government
The First Philippine Assembly

Chapter 17 TRAINING FOR SELF-GOVERNMENT (1907-1921)

Government Reorganization
Filipinization under Harrison

Chapter 18 THE CAMPAIGN FOR INDEPENDENCE (1922-1935)

The Wood-Forbes Mission

The Conflict between Osmena and Quezon

Chapter 19 THE IMPACT OF AMERICAN RULE (1898-1935)

Education and the School System

Public Health and Welfare

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 Improvement in Trade and Industry
Transportation and Communication
Democracy and Civil Liberties
Language and Literature
Negative Results of American Rule

Chapter 20 THE COMMONWEALTH AND THE WORLD WAR II (1935-1945)

Problems of the Commonwealth

Achievements of the Commonwealth
The War in the Pacific
Government Reorganization
Guerilla Welfare
The Government In-Exile
The Return of MacArthur
The Commonwealth Re-establishment
The End of the War

Chapter 21 THE THIRD REPUBLIC (1946-1969)

Conditions after the War

The Government Reorganization
The Third Republic Proclaimed

Chapter 22 FROM THE FIRST QUARTER STORM TO THE DECLARATION OF

MARTIAL LAW (1970-1972)

Crisis in Society
The 1971 Constitutional Convention and the 1973 Constitution
Declaration of Martial Law

Chapter 23 FROM MARTIAL LAW TO PEOPLE POWER (1972-1986)

Marcos New Society

Mass Movements to End Martial Rule

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 The Assassination of Ninoy
The 1986 Snap Elections
People Power at Edsa

Chapter 24 POST EDSA TO THE PRESENT (1986-2009)

The Aquino Presidency

The Ramos Presidency
The Estrada Administration and People Power II
The Macapagal-Arroyo Government

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 CHAPTER 1

THE PHILIPPINES AND ITS PEOPLE

How come Filipinos have such varied physical features? Such diversed
economic activities? Observers say, one’s geography (e.g., archipelagic and
tropical) can help shape not only a people’s physical appearance but also
their economy, character traits, history and development.

The Philippines is a tropical and archipelagic country found in Southeast

Asia. Endowed with rich natural resources and a warm, hospitable people, it
has its own share of political and economic challenges to meet.

GEOGRAPHY

The Philippines is an archipelago lying southeast of the coast of the

mainland of Asia. It is located a little above the equator and thus, belongs to
the northern hemisphere. Of approximately 7,107 islands and islets that
compose the Archipelago, some 4,000 have no names. Luzon, Mindanao,
Negros, Samar, Palawan, Panay, Mindoro, Leyte, Cebu and Bohol are the
ten biggest islands. The total land area, excluding the bodies of water
surrounded by land, such as Laguna de Bay, Taal Lake, Lake Lanao, and
many more like these, is 300,000 square kilometers. The northernmost
island of Luzon is just 100 kilometers away from the island of Taiwan,
formerly called Formosa. North and west of the archipelago lies the South
China Sea; to the east is the Pacific Ocean; and to the south are the Celebes
Sea and the waters of Borneo.

The coastline of the Philippines is irregular and stretches for about 36,289
kilometers, about twice as long as the coastline of the United States,
excluding that of Alaska and Hawaii. In a note verbale submitted by the

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Philippine government to the United Nations on March 7, 1955, the
Philippines is defined as “a mid-ocean archipelagic state.”

Thus, “All waters around, between and connecting different islands belonging
to the Philippine Archipelago, irrespective of their width or dimensions, are
necessary appurtenances of its land territory, forming an integral part of the
national or inland waters, subject to the exclusive sovereignty of the
Philippines.” Because of the irregular coastline, the country abounds in good
harbors, landlocked straits, and hundreds of rivers, bays and lakes. Manila
Bay, which has an area of a little less than 2,000 square kilometers and a
circumference of about 190 kilometers, is considered one of the finest natural
harbors in the world. The Philippine Deep, which is found east of the
Philippines near Samar and Leyte, is considered as one of the deepest sea
trenches in the world.

A look at the physical map of the Philippines shows that it is mountainous.

There are numerous peaks from north to south, of which Mount Apo in
Mindanao is the highest, standing at approximately 2,954 meters high. The
northern and eastern parts of Luzon have rugged mountains which are
volcanic in origin. There are three large mountain ranges in Luzon. They are
the Western Caraballo Mountain Range, the Sierra Madre Mountain Range
and the Caraballo de Baler. Western Caraballo runs from north to south and
divides itself into the Central Cordillera and the Northern Cordillera. It
crosses the provinces of northern Luzon, west of the Cagayan River. The
Sierra Madre begins at the town of Baler in the eastern part of Quezon
Province and crosses the provinces of Cagayan, Isabela and Quezon. It is
the longest continuous mountain range in the Philippines. The third
mountain range, the Caraballo de baler, begins from the town of Baler and
ends in the Strait of San Bernardino. This mountain range includes Mayon
Volcano in Albay and Bulusan Volcano in Sorsogon.

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Outside of these big mountain ranges are the small mountain ranges of
Zambales and the Tagaytay Ridge. The Zambales Range begins at Cape
Bolinao, follows the coast of the China Sea and ends in the Bataan
Peninsula. The Tagaytay Ridge crosses the provinces of Cavite and
Batangas. Mount Makiling in Laguna and Taal Volcano are parts of the
Tagaytay Ridge. Mindoro, Panay and Negros have small mountain ranges.
The highest peaks in these parts are Mount Halcon in Mindoro and Kanlaon
Volcano in Negros. Leyte and Samar are not as mountainous as the
provinces mentioned above.

Mindanao, on the other hand, has four distinct mountain ranges. They are
the Eastern Mountain Range, which begins at Surigao and follows the Pacific
coast; the Central-Eastern Mountain Range which begins at Butuan and
extends south to Agusan on the East and to Pulangui on the west; the
Central-Western Range, which begins at Mount Apo, follows the boundary of
Cotabato, and ends in the Zamboanga Peninsula; and the Western Range
which begins west of Iligan Bay and ends on the shores of Basilan Strait.

VOLCANOES AND EARTHQUAKES

There are many volcanoes in the Philippines whose eruptions caused much
damage to lives and property. Twenty-six of the volcanoes are considered
active, while the rest are supposed to be dormant or “sleeping.” The most
famous of these active volcanoes are Iraya in Batanes; Taal in Batangas;
Banahaw in Quezon; Mayon in Albay; Bulusan in Sorsogon; Hibok-hibok in
Camiguin Island; and Makaturing in Lanao. Mayon and Taal are the most
active of these volcanoes. They have erupted for no less than twenty-five
times. Mayon is famous over the world for its perfect cone shape, while Taal
is famous for being the smallest volcano in the world. In 1966, Taal volcano
erupted, which led to the resettlement of the people of Volcano Island to
other places.

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The Philippines is within what is called the seismic belt, that is, it lies in the
path of earthquakes. Manila and many parts of Luzon experienced several
earthquakes over the years including that of 1863, which caused the
destruction of many residential houses and government buildings and the
death of the famous priest, Father Pedro Pelaez in the Manila Cathedral; that
of 1937, which destroyed, partially, or completely, many big buildings in
Manila; that of 1968, when many buildings were partially destroyed while an
apartment building was completely destroyed resulting in the death of
hundreds of people; and that of 1990, which registered 7.8 on the Richter
Scale, killing and injuring thousands of people and damaging about 20,000
square kilometers of densely populated areas in Luzon.

CLIMATE

The Philippines has a tropical and maritime climate which is tempered by

the breeze from the Pacific Ocean on the east and China Sea on the west.
Based on rainfall and temperature, there are two major seasons: the dry
season which extends from December to May, and the wet season which
extends from June to November. The period from late November to February
is usually cool. May is often the hottest month of the year, while January is
the coldest. Even so, the climate in general is healthful. Miguel Lopez de
Legazpi, the first governor-general of the Philippines, describing it to the King
of Spain, “This country [the Philippines] is salubrious and has a good
climate…”

Generally, typhoons have influenced the climate and weather of the country.
These typhoons may be classified into “remarkable” and “ordinary.” The
former have destroyed millions of pesos worth of crops and property.
Typhoons and tropical cyclones most frequently enter the Philippine area of
responsibility (PAR) during the months of July to October. Some of the worst
typhoons that ever struck the country include Uring in November 1991,

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Rosing in October 1995, Reming in November 2006, Ondoy in September
2009, Pepeng in October 2009 and Yolanda in November 2013.

NATURAL RESOURCES

Nature has given the Philippines rich soil and plenty of natural resources.
The rich valleys and fertile plains are planted to crops such as rice, corn,
coconuts, sugar cane, bananas, pineapples and varieties of vegetables. The
country has enough water resource for electricity; food such as fish,
seaweeds, sea shells, as well as pearls for jewelry. There is an abundant
supply of minerals like gold, copper, silver, lead, zinc, nickel, manganese and
chromium, as well as non-metallic minerals like salt, clay, coal, sulphur,
asbestos, limestones, gravel and gypsum. Gum resins and lumber can be
obtained from the country’s vast forests.

The Philippines also has oil. Called “black gold”, its discovery at
Malampalaya, Palawan has encouraged foreign and Filipino firms to drill
wells for oil. Its commercial exploration will greatly improve the country’s
economy. However, despite this natural abundance, conservationists and
civil society have expressed concern over the depletion of forests, abuse and
misuse of land resources and threats to marine and coastal ecosystems. A
significant response by the Department of Environmental and Natural
Resources (DENR) was its lobby for Congress to pass the National
Integrated Protected Areas System (NIPAS) Bill in 1992. Now called R.A.
7586, the law is premised on the concept of the involvement of local
communities in biodiversity conservation and habitat management. Thus,
indigenous peoples living in the protected areas are given responsibility over
their territories and sustainable livelihood alternatives. Other laws that protect
our environment include the Philippine Clear Air Act of 1999, the Ecological
Solid Waste Management of 2000, and the Clear Water Act of 2004.

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ECONOMY

Rice is the main crop of the country and is cultivated in large quantities in
Central Luzon, Western Visayas and Mindanao. Its production, however,
remains insufficient due to several factors. First, destructive typhoons and
floods often destroy thousands upon thousands of rice lands leading to
government importation of rice. Second, the agricultural sector remains
backward despite government effort to modernize it through the introduction
of programs like the “Masagana 99” technique in the sixties and the
Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Program in recent years; the use of
“miracle rice varieties”; the use of fertilizers and pesticides to increase rice
production, which puts a toll not only on poor farmers, who oftentimes cannot
afford them, but also on the environment, particularly on the quality of the
soil. Third, the production shift to sources of biofuels such as jathropa and
other cash crops, which command higher prices in the market, has also
affected rice production in no small way. Fourth, the massive conversion of
farmlands for residential and commercial use has also contributed to low rice
productivity, not to mention the lost of farm labor.

The major Philippine products for export include coconut oil, fresh bananas,
pineapples, sugar, gum resins and abaca, among others. Among the
country’s growing industries are mining, lumber, metal, woodcraft, furniture,
and petroleum. The Philippines is also among the world’s supplier of
semiconductors and manufactured goods like ignition wiring sets and other
wiring sets used in vehicles, aircrafts and ships; cathodes of refined copper;
and microprocessors. Clothing and clothing accessories are also produced in
the country. The United States of America remains our top market for exports
followed by Japan, Hong Kong, and the People’s Republic of China. Other
big markets of Philippine products are the Netherlands, Germany, Singapore,
Malaysia, Republic of South Korea and Taiwan (National Statistics Office,
2007).

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Population

Based on the latest figures from the National Statistics Office (2008-2009),
the Philippines has one of the fastest-growing population with a birth rate of
26.42 births/1000. Life expectancy stands at 67.89 years for men and 73.85
years for women. There are approximately 100 million Filipinos today as
projected by the NSO. Concentrated in the more urbanized sections of the
country, 84% of the population is functionally literate. As of 2009, an estimate
of 35 million Filipinos is employed. Thirty-four percent of employed Filipinos
are engaged in agriculture (hunting, forestry, and fishing); 15% work in the
industry sector (mining and quarrying, manufacturing, electricity, gas and
water and construction); while 51% are employed in the service sector
(wholesale and retail trade, repair of vehicles, household goods; hotels and
restaurant; transport, storage, and communication; financial, real estate,
renting and business activities; education, health and social work, etc.).
These figures raise the question whether the country is truly on its way
towards industrialization or not.

The majority of the Filipinos belong to the Austronesian ethnic group. Due
to the early trade contacts and subsequent colonization by the Spaniards
and later by the Americans, Filipinos today are a mixture of races. The
offspring of a native Filipino and a foreigner, whether Chinese, Spaniard,
American is called mestizo. With the phenomenal growth of Filipinos working
overseas (OFWs) the mestizo group has expanded to include Arabs,
Japanese, Koreans and Europeans. There are around 170 spoken
languages with almost of all of them belonging to the Austronesian language
family. Among the major languages are Bicolane, Bisaya, Cebuano,
Chabacano, Hiligaynon/Ilonggo, Ilocano, Kapampangan, Maguindanaon,
Maranao, Pangasinense, Tagalog, Tausug and Waray. Filipino is the
national language with Filipino and English as the official languages of the
country.

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Government

The Philippines is a Constitutional Republic with three co-equal branches:

the executive, legislative and judiciary. The executive branch, headed by the
President and the Vice President, administers the functions of the
government through the cabinet that is made up of departments and headed
by department secretaries. The legislative branch, which is responsible for
enacting bills into law, is composed of the Senate (Upper House) and the
House of Representatives (Lower House), led by the Senate President and
the Speaker of the House, respectively. The judiciary consists of the system
of courts with the Supreme Court as the highest court in the land and headed
by the Chief Justice.

For administrative purposes, the Philippines is subdivided into regions and

provinces except for Metropolitan Manila. Each province is headed by a
governor and has its own legislative body called Sangguniang Panlalawigan.
The provinces, in turn, are composed of cities and municipalities. Cities and
municipalities are further divided into barangays. A barangay is the smallest
political unit of the country and headed by a barangay captain.

The country has undergone five constitutional changes since the Malolos
Constitution of 1899, which set up the First Filipino Republic with Emilio F.
Aguinaldo as president. These constitutions are:

1. The 1935 constitution, which served as the basis for the transition
Commonwealth government with Manuel L. Quezon as president
followed by Sergio S. Osmena;
2. The 1943 Constitution of the Japanese-sponsored government which
recognized the Second Republic under President Jose P. Laurel;
3. The 1935 Constitution, which set up the Third Republic under President
Manuel A. Roxas, followed by Elpidio R. Quirino, Ramon F.

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 Magsaysay, Carlos P. Garcia, Diosdado P. Macapagal and Ferdinand
E. Marcos (for his first term);
4. The 1973 Constitution that extended the term of President Marcos
beyond the provision of the 1935 Constitution, and set up the fourth
republic; and
5. The 1987 Constitution during the presidency of Corazon C. Aquino (as
the president of the Fifth Republic), to that of Fidel V. Ramos, the short
lived administration of Joseph E. Estrada and that of Gloria Macapagal-
Arroyo.

FILIPINO TRAITS AND VALUES

The Filipino people have many common traits. Perhaps the most important
trait of the Filipinos is their hospitality. They welcome visitors, whether
Filipinos or non-Filipinos, with open arms and warm hearts. Visitors are given
the best in the house and they would go to the extent of incurring debts to
make their visitors contented, happy and comfortable. Filipino hospitality is
unequaled and known the world over.

Filipinos maintain close family ties. The family is the unit of society and
consists, at least until very recent times, of the parents, the grandparents and
the children. The head of the family is the father, but it is really the mother
who governs. The mother does a lot of things for the family: she is the first
teacher of the children; she is the treasurer of the home, the accountant, the
censor, the laundrywoman and the cook. Thus, in many Filipino families,
even the father calls the wife “Mama” or “Mommy”. He dutifully hands over
his salary or earnings to the wife, who in case of the father’s illness, works to
support the whole family.

Present-day women’s rights advocates in the country, however, call this

“double-burden.” The problem of the family is not the problem of the parents

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alone; it is all the problem of all the adult members of the family. If Juana,
one of the children, wants to continue her studies, say in high school, the
older brothers and sisters help the parents in sending her to school. If she
finds employment, she in turn helps her parents, brothers, and sisters to
send the younger children to school. Thus, cooperative work within the family
circle is not uncommon.

Respect for the elders is one of the best Filipino traits. Filipino parents
exercise moral influence over their children. The latter obey their parents
willingly and help them in their work. The younger men and women do not,
as a rule, disturb their elders when the latter are talking or conversing with
other people. Even among strangers, respect is shown by slightly bowing the
head or by using some words of respect. The Tagalog po is commonly used
by almost everybody to show respect even to a younger man (or woman) if
the latter is a stranger.

The Filipino is sentimental. This sentimentalism is shown in many ways. For

example, someone from the province pays his friend from another province a
visit. The visiting friend brings along with him gifts for the host’s family. These
gifts are called pasalubong. When it is time to go, the friend may feel deeply
sad to depart from the friend’s house. Kindness is never forgotten. The friend
who is left behind also feels sad and gives the departing friend some pabaon
like food or anything to give to the departing friend’s family. Leaving home for
another country or even for places within the Philippines is usually
accompanied by much crying and silent tearful goodbyes.

Filipinos as a people have several values. Values are those aspects in life
that include customs, traditions, etc., which the people regard as necessary
and important in their dealings with one another. One of these values is
pakikisama, or sense of togetherness or comradeship. Pakikisama refers to
doing somebody a good deed, such as helping a relative or neighbor build a

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house without asking for compensation, or helping someone look for a job,
and so on. If one does these, he/she is said to be mabuting makisama. If one
does the opposite, he/she is said to be masamang makisama. Pakikisama
does not mean doing crooked or dishonest things in order to look good to
others. Pakikisama is a positive value and means doing somebody a good
turn or being helpful without ulterior motive.

Utang na loob or debt of gratitude is another famous Filipino value. A

person who receives favor from another, whether this person is a friend or a
stranger, is expected to pay this debt of gratitude by returning the favor in the
same measure, if not, more. A friend who fails to return a favor is called
walang utang na loob or an ingrate. People who lack utang na loob are
disliked or avoided.

Hiya or kahihiyan is another Filipino value. It means sense of shame. To the

Filipino, just like other Asian people hiya is something that a person must
possess to a high degree. A person without hiya is called walang hiya or
shameless. Because of this value, a Filipino would sometimes do something
foolish in order to save face. Thus, because of hiya, a poor Filipino peasant
will contract debt or borrow money from relatives, neighbors or friends in
order to have a feast for the baptism of a son or daughter. On other
occasions, many Filipinos borrow money to spend on food and other things
to celebrate a town fiesta at the expense of the family budget. Out of shame
or hiya, they do not want neighbors to think that they cannot afford to spend
for the event.

STUDY GUIDE:

1. Using a graphic organizer such as one below, list the products found in
your province. Indicate which of these are exported to foreign countries

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 and which among these are imported from other countries or obtained
from other parts of the Philippines.

Name of Province: _____________________________

Population: ___________________________________

Kinds of products Exported to Imported/Obtained from

1

Etc.

2. Look at the map of the Philippines and that of the United States.
Compare their coastlines. What do you think is the advantage of the
Philippines over continental United States in this respect? What do you
think are the disadvantages of being an archipelagic country in the
tropics?
3. In your opinion, which among the reasons cited in the chapter on why
the Philippines imports rice from foreign countries, can easily be
remedied? Explain your answer.
4. Do you agree that the Philippines is not yet an industrialized country?
Explain your answer.
5. Does having around 170 languages pose an obstacle in unifying the
Filipinos? Provide evidence and data for your arguments.
6. Which among the five promulgated constitutions were under foreign
domination? Which were not under foreign domination and hence
expected to be more democratic? Justify your answer.

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 7. In your opinion, given the archipelagic character of the Philippines, is
the present unitary and presidential system of government suited to its
geographic characteristic? Explain your answer.
8. Filipinos have values. From your observation or experience, which
among the following values: (a) hiya, (b) utang na loob and (c)
pakikisama involve a lot of grey areas or issues. Explain your answer.
9. How would you describe your physical characteristics – are you a
native Filipino or a mestizo? If you are a mestizo, what type of mestizo/
mestiza are you?

SUGGESTED ACTIVITIES:

1. What are the major exports of the Philippines today? Which among
these are the major earners?
2. How many typhoons usually visit the country? Which among these
were the most destructive and when did they occur?
3. Consult a physical map of the Philippines. Reread the first section of
the chapter that describes the physical characteristics of the
Philippines. Identify the geographic features mentioned in this chapter.
Draw a sketch of your province and indicate in your drawing the
following: (a) the mountains, (b) the rivers, and (c) the valleys or plains.
(You may ask help from your parents or local authorities).
4. Draw a blank map of the Philippines on a sheet of bond paper. Identify
the name of the major islands in the country. On the same map,
indicate the location of the major mountain ranges in the Philippines.
5. Make a portrait of yourself, capturing the features of a Pinoy. Use
colorful materials and art paper. Post the portrait on the classroom
walls for viewing, comments and appreciation.

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 CHAPTER 2

THE PHILIPPINES IN ANCIENT TIMES

(200,000 B.C. – 1300 A.D.)

On the average, we Filipinos find it difficult to believe or even imagine the

existence of an ancient and envolved people as our ancestors. These
ancient Filipinos possessed a culture of their own comparable to other
civilizations in Southeast Asia and the rest of Asia for that matters. The lack
of awareness of our ancestry resulted to feelings to inferiority to other
cultures and dependence on the influences brought in by colonizers and
foreigners as sources of our identity as a people.

Evidences, both material (economic, social, and political structures) and

nonmaterial (language, literature, arts, and belief system) demonstrate that
the ancient Filipinos were a productive and creative people. They produced
their own unique technology and culture that were appropriate to their given
natural environment, climate, and geography. Hence, Filipinos were already
a civilized people long before the encounter with the West.

EARLY SETTLERS

Some theories on Philippine prehistory suggest that the Philippines and the
rest of the islands in Southeast Asia may have been sites of human evolution
between 200,000 and 30,000 years ago. One theory says that during the ice
Age, meters below its level. Because of this, large areas of land came to the
surface and formed “land bridges” to mainland Asia. It is said that it was
during this period that the first settlers were hunters and gatherers on an
exploration trip. The earliest stone tools and animal fossils found in Cagayan
Valley in northern Philippines were dated back to at least 200,000 years ago.
Although no human fossils were found yet, the artifacts suggest their

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existence. Collectively, they were called Cagayan Man or homo erectus
philippinensis. They had similar characteristic as the Java man of Indonesia
ad Peking man of China. In 1962, a skull cap of man was discovered in the
Tabon caves of Palawan. From this skull, archeologists learned that man
had been in the Philippines for at least 22,000 years.

The cave where the Tabon man was found was dated back to half a million
years old and had been occupied for more or less 50,000 years. A piece of
charcoal which dated back 30,000 years was also found which may indicate
the first use of fire in the archipelago. The prehistoric people had a primitive
culture characterized by the use of stone implement. They hunted animals
such as the pygmy elephant and rhinoceros. In some languages of the
Philippines, including Tagalog, the world for elephant is gadya. This shows
that once upon a time there were elephants in the Philippines. They wore
clothing made from materials that they got from nature.

Some 25,000 to 30,000 years ago, another kind of settlers, the ancestors of
the Negritos (Aeta, Ati, Dumagat), came to the Philippines by crossing the
“land bridges.” They were said to have come from the south, by way of
Palawan and Borneo. Another Negrito immigrants used blow gun, bow and
arrow. They practiced dry agriculture similar to the kaingin system that is
practiced today by some hill and mountain people. Their tools were made of
stone.

Their clothing cosnsisted of bark of trees, and their houses were made of
leaves and branches of trees. More that 7,000 years ago, long after the ice
that covered the world melted, the resulting rise in the sea level ushered in
the arrival of another group of people, the Austronesians. They came to
Southeast Asia by boats from Southern China. They had brown skin
(Kayumanggi) and an early stone-age culture. Much later, some of them
came to the Philippines from Indochina and South China also by boats.

22
They built their houses with pyramidal roofs. They practiced dry agriculture
and produced yams, rice, and gabe. Their clothing consisted of pounded
bark of trees with various printed designs. The Kalingas, the Gaddangs, the
Apayaos, the Igorots, and the Ilongots, all indigenous group of Luzon; the
native Visayans; the Tagbanuas of Palawan, the Bagobos, the Bilaans, the
Manobos, and the Tirurays of Mindanao, are probably descendants of this
group.

By 500 to 800 B.C., the early Filipinos knew how to make copper and bronze
implements. They irrigated their rice lands and built the first rice terraces in
the Philippines. Another migration allegedly occurred about 300 to 200 B.C.,
or more than 2,000 years ago. Those who came to Luzon by way of Palawan
and Mindoro were said to have known Irrigation, smelting, and manufacturing
of weapons, tools, utensils and ornaments made of iron and other metals.
This Austronesian migration continued up to the beginning of the Christian
era ing the 13th century. The latest group was more advanced than the
previous immigrants. They had a syllabary or alphabet that might have come
from India. These Austronesians were the ancestors of the settlers that
traded with ancient China and early Southeast Asian communities. They
would later lay the foundations of Islam in Sulu and Mindanao. These
theories of migrations, however, are still subjects of debates. The artifacts
are not enough to warrant definite conclusion about Philippine prehistory.

ECONOMIC LIFE

The ancient Filipinos practiced agriculture, which was the main source of
their sustenance. Rice, coconut, sugar cane, cotton, banana, hemp, orange,
and many kinds of fruits and vegetables were raised. Land cultivation was
done in two ways: the kaingin system and tillage. In the kaingin system, the
land was cleared land was then planted to crops. In the tillage system, the
land was plowed and harrowed, then followed by planting. Pigefetta, the

23
historian of the Magellan expedition which reached the Philippines in 1521,
said that he found in Sugbu, (Cebu) such foodstuffs as sorgo, orange, garlic,
gourd, lemon, coconut, sugar cane, and many fruits. The ancient Filipinos
practiced irrigation.

They increased their crop production by irrigating ditches. The rice terraces
in Banawe, Mountain Province attest to this ancient practice. The ditches of
these rice terraces are stone-walled and run for thousands of feet up the
mountain side. If viewed from a distance, the whole rice terraces give the
viewer the picture of a huge stairway to the sky. It is estimated that if placed
from end to end, the length of the Banawe rice terraces would total about 19,
312 kilometers or almost half-way around the world from North Pole to South
Pole. The rice terraces of Banawe is one of the Wonders of the World.

Aside from agriculture, the ancient Filipinos engaged in industries such as

fishing, mining, shipbuilding, poultry and livestock raising, logging, pottery,
and weaving. Textiles like sinamay were woven with threads obtained from
banana and cotton plants. The ancient Filipinos also domesticated chickens,
native ponies, carabaos, pigs, and goats.

Fishing was a common industry because most of the settlements were

along the river and seas. Antonio de Morga, a Spanish official in the judiciary
who wrote about the early Philippines, said that “this industry (fishing) is quite
general in the entire country and is considered a natural activity for the self-
supporting of the people.” Various methods of catching fish were used, such
as the use of nets, bow and arrow, lance or spear, the wicker basket, hook
and line, corrals, and fish poison. Mining was also another important industry
before the coming of the Spaniards. In 1569, Miguel Lopez de legazpi
reported to the victory of Mexico that there was “more or less gold…in all
these islands; it is obtained from rivers and, in some places, from mines
which the natives work.” He mentioned Paracale in Camarines Norte, the

24
Ilocos, the Visayas especially Cebu, and along the Butuan river in Mindanao,
as places where “very good gold” could be found. Shipbuilding and logging
were also thriving industries.

Morga testified that many Filipinos were “proficient in building ocean going
vessels.” This skill can perhaps be explained by the abundance of thick
forest in archipelago that are rich in hardwoods, and by the fact that the
Philippines, being surrounded by water, naturally produced good sailors. The
Filipinos shipbuilders built all kinds of boats for travel, war, and commerce.
The Spaniards later classified these boats into banca, lapis, caracoa, virey,
prau, and vinta. These boats carried products between Manila in Luzon and
Cebu in Visayas and as far as Butuan and the rest of Mindanao. No currency
was used in trading. Goods were bought and sold, through the barter
system called baligya. For example, a goat is exchanged for a big basket
full of fish. Sometimes, the Filipinos would exchange gold for products sold
by the Chinese, who trusted the Filipinos and consigned their goods to be
paid only upon their return trip to the islands. Commerce extended far and
wide into nearby foreign lands such as Borneo, Malaya, Thailand, Cambodia,
Sumatra, and India.

SOCIAL LIFE

The ancient Filipinos were divided into social classes. These were the
nobles, the freemen, and the dependants. The nobles, composed of the
chiefs and their families, were the early society’s upper class. They were
highly respected in their community. In the Tagalog region, the nobles
usually carried the title of Gat or Lakan. One finds these words today in
some surnames like Lakandula (Lakan Dula), Lakanilaw (Lakan Haw),
Gatmaitan (Gat Maitan), Gatchalian (Gat Saian), Gatbonton (Gat Bunton),
and many others. Next to the nobles were the freeman who may be
regarded as the society’s middle class during the ancient period of Philippine

25
history the members of the lowest class were the dependents called alipin
among the ancient tagalogs.

The low social status of the dependent was acquired by captivity in battle, by
failing to pay one’s debt, by inheritance, by purchase, or by being
pronounced guilty of a crime. Among the Tagalogs, the dependents were
classified into aliping namamahay and aliping sagigilid. The namamahay
had his own house and family. He served his masters by planting and
harvesting his master’s crops, by rowing the master’s boat, and by helping in
the construction of the master’s house.

On the other hand, the sagigilid had no house of his own, he lived with his
master, and could not marry without the latter’s consent. Among the
Visayans, the dependents were of three kinds: the tumataban, who worked
for his master when told to do so; the tumarampuk, who worked one day a
week for his master; and the ayuey, who worked three days a week for his
master.

Dependent were further classified into three levels or grades: first, as full
dependant (with one parent being one-half dependent and the other free).
These levels were not permanent. Anyone could move up or down a level
upon payment of debts or by purchase. Thus, there were no slaves in the
real sense of the word ---- only dependents due to debts or captivity from war
or battles.

WOMEN’S POSITION IN SOCIETY

The Filipino women, before the arrival of the Spaniards, enjoyed high
position in society. They could own and inherit property and sell it; they could
engage in trade and industry; and they could succeed to chieftainship of her
community or barangay in the absence of a male heir. Wives also enjoyed

26
the right to give names to their children. The names usually were derived
from an event or trom the physical features of the child.

Thus, a beautiful girl was named Si Maganda; a very healthy boy was
named Si Malakas, and so on. The men respected the women. To show this
respect, the men, when accompanying women, usually walked behind the
latter. This was done not only to show respect for the women, but also to
protect them from any harm that may come from behind.

MARRIAGE CUSTOMS

In most cases, a woman of one class married into the same class. Thus, a
noble married a woman from a noble family; a woman from the freemen
class married into this class; and the man from the lowest class married into
his own class. However, there were exceptions when a man, for example,
showed bravery and courage in battle, or when he had become powerful
enough to lead the people of his community. A man could marry as many
women as he could support. His children by his first wife were considered
legitimate children and could, therefore, inherit his property. The so-called
illegitimate children were not given the right to inherit from their father.
Courtship during that period of Philippine history was long and difficult. A
man served the parents of the girl he loved for a years. He chopped wood,
fetched water, and did errands for the girl’s parents. When accepted by the
latter, the marriage was then arranged.

The man was required to give a dowry, called bigay-kaya, which usually
consisted of a piece of land or gold. To the parents of the girl, the man must
give a gift called panghimuyat. To the girl’s wet-nurse, the man must also
give a gift called bigay-suso. These arrangements were made by the
parents of the bride and the groom. The marriage ceremony was simple. It
consisted of the groom and the bride drinking from the same cup. Then an

27
old man would announce that the ceremony was about to begin. A priestess
would bow to the assembled guest and then would takes the hands of the
couple and join them over a plate of uncooked rice. She would then shout
and throw the rice to the guests. The latter would respond with a loud shout
and ceremony was over.

MIXED MARRIAGES

Mixed marriages, that is, marriages between a man and a woman belonging
to different social classes, were not common. A marriage, for example
between a dependent and a freeman would result in the division of their
children into two classes. If the father was a freeman, the eldest, the third,
the fifth, the seventh, and so on, belonged to father’s class, The rest of the
children, that is, the second, the fourth, the sixth etc., belonged to the
mother’s class. If there was only one child, this child was classified as half-
free and half-dependent. If the number of children was odd, that is, three,
five, seven etc., then the third, the fifth, and the seventh would become half-
free and half-dependent.

THE GOVERNMENT

The community called the Barangay was the basic unit of government. It
consisted of 30 to 100 families. The Tagalog word “barangay” was derived
from the Austronesian balangay, a boat which transported the Austronesian
immigrants to the Philippines. The Spaniards changed the letter “I” in
balangay to “r” and pronounced it the Spanish way: barangay. Each
barangay was independent and was ruled by a chieftain. It was the primary
duty of the chieftain to rule and govern his people justly and to promote their
welfare.

28
The subjects, on the other hand, served their chieftain in times of war with
other barangays and helped him in tilling and sowing the land. They paid to
attribute to him. This tribute was called buwis, the Tagalog word for “tax”.
The chieftain’s children and other relatives were highly respected in the
community and were exempted from paying tribute and from rendering
personal services to the chieftain. The chieftain was powerful and exercised
the power of the executive, the legislative, and the judiciary. In war, he
was the supreme commander.

However, he was aided by a council of elders in his role as lawmaker. This

council gave the chieftain some wise pieces of advice in order to guide him in
the administration of justice. Relations existed between barangays. They
traded with one another. Sometimes, alliances were concluded between
barangays for mutual protection against a common enemy. An alliance was
sealed through a ritual called sanduguan or blood compact. This entailed
drawing of blood from the arms of the contracting parties, mixing their
repective blood in a cup of wine, and drinking the mixture. Having drunk each
other’s blood, the contracting parties then became “blood-brothers”

HOW A LAW WAS MADE?

The chieftain of a barangay made the laws of the community. When he had a
law in mind, he called in the council of elders to give their opinion. If the
elders approved the proposed law, the chieftain ordered a town crier, called
Umalohokan, to announce to the community the approval of the law. With a
bell in one hand, the umalohokan would ring it as he went along to call the
attention of the people. Then he explained the new law to them. Any person
violating the law was immediately arrested and brought before the chieftain
for trial.

29
DECIDING CASES

Most disputes during the ancient times were decided peacefully. The court of
justice was composed of the chieftain as judge and the elders of the
barangay as member of the “JURY.” If conflicts arose between members of
different barangays, the differences were resolved by arbitration. A board
composed of elders from neutral barangays acted as arbiter. The trial of a
case was usually held in public. The accuser and the accused faced each
other with their witnesses. The witnesses usually took an oath to prove their
honesty.

The oath took such form as, “may the crocodile devour me if I tell a lie”; “may
I die here and now if I do not tell the truth;” and so forth. Then the parties
who do the ligitation present their arguments and their respective witnesses.
The man who had more witnesses was usually judged to be a winner. If the
defeated person contested the decision of the chieftain, the latter openly
sided with the winner and compelled the loser to accept his decision. The
loser had no other alternative than to accept the decision of the chieftain.

THE TRIAL BY ORDEAL

The trial by ordeal was not unique to the ancient Filipinos. It was also done in
Europe to determine who of the disputants was right or telling the truth. As
practiced in the Philippines, trial by ordeal consisted of ordering the
suspects, in the case of the theft, to dip their hands into a pot of boiling
water. The suspect whose hand was scalded the most was judged guilty.
Another form of trial by ordeal consisted of ordering the suspects to plunge
into a deep river with their lances. The one who rises to the surface first was
pronounced guilty. Still another from was ordering the suspects to chew
uncooked rice. The one whose saliva was thickest was the culprit.

30
CULTURE

Clothing

When the first Spaniards came to the Philippines in 1521, they found the
early Filipinos with a culture that was different from their own. Some aspects
of this old culture were undoubtedly Malay, but the other aspects were
probably the result of a different environment. Among the ancient Filipinos,
the male clothing consisted of the upper and lower parts. The upper part was
jacket with short sleeves called kangan, the color of the jacket indicated the
rank of the wearer: the chief wore a red jacket, while those lower in rank
wore either black or blue. The lower part of clothing was called bahag, which
consisted of a cloth wound about the waist, passing down between the
thighs.

The women were usually naked form the waist up. They wore a saya or
skirt. Among the Visayans, this lower part was called patadyong. A piece of
white or red cloth, called tapis, was usually wrapped around the waist or the
chest. The ancient Filipinos had no shoes. They walked about barefooted.
Men usually wore a headgear called putong, a piece of cloth wrapped
around the head. The color of the putong showed the number of persons the
wearer had killed. Thus, a man wearing a red putong had killed at least one
man, and the one wearing an embroided putong had killed at least seven
men.

Ornaments

The ancient Filipinos wore ornaments made of gold and precious stone.
Women as well as men wore armlet called kalumbig, pendants, gold rings,
earrings, leglets, and bracelets. Gold was common, so the ancient Filipinos
used it not only in making rings, armlet, and bracelets, but also as fillings in

31
between the teeth. These fillings were made to adorn the teeth. The body as
also adorned by tattooing including the face. The women also tattoed their
arms and faces to make themselves beautiful. Among men, however,
tattooing had another use. It was used as man’s war record, that is, the more
a man was tattooed the more he was admired by the people of his
community for his bravery in battle. According to the first Spaniards
missionaries who wrote about the ancient Filipinos, the Visayans were the
most tattooed people of the Philippines. For this reason, the Spanish
missionaries called the visayans, pintados or painted people.

The Houses

The Filipino house of today in the barrios is no different from the typical
ancient Filipino house. The ancient house was built of bamboo, wood and
nipa palm. This kind of house was (and is) suited to the tropical climate of
the country. The house was set on stakes called haligi, which were made of
bamboo. This held the house above the ground. The lower part of the house
was enclosed with stakes. Fowls were placed inside the enclosure. To go up
the house, one had to ascend a ladder made of bamboo. At night or when
the owner of the house was not around, the ladder was drawn up. There was
also a sort of gallery called batalan where household work was done.

What is called the sala now was used not only as an area for receiving
visitors, but also as a place to sleep in, a small room near the sala, called
silid, was a place where mats, pillows, and baskets of rice were kept. Among
the Ilongots and the Kalingas of northern Luzon and among the Mandayas
and the Bagobos of Mindanao, the houses were built on treetops. On the
otherhand, the Bajaos or Sea Gypsies of Sulu had their houseboats. They
lived in such houses because they are a sea-loving people. They roamed the
seas for a living and for adventure.

32
Education and System of Writing

There were no formal schools but children of school age were taught in their
own homes by their mother who their first teachers. Based on the testimony
of the Spanish Jesuit missionary, father Pedro Chirino, there was hardly a
man or woman who did not know how to read and write. Perhaps it is an
exaggeration to say that the literacy rate was 100% but it is safe to say that
the ancient Filipinos were generally literate.

It is very likely that music and religion were also taught to the children for it is
unthinkable that a religious people like the Filipinos would neglect the
teaching of religion to the children. Our ancestor possessed a system of
writing or alphabet called a syllabary, baybayin or alibata where every letter
is pronounced as a syllable. The syllabary consisted of seventeen symbols,
three of which are vowels (patinig) and fourteen are consonants (katinig). It is
still debated whether the ancient Filipinos wrote from left to right or from right
to left or from top to bottom or from bottom to top.

Writing and language experts still argue about the writing orientation of the
baybayin. Perhaps Pedro Chirino, who wrote a book about the ancient
Filipinos with whom he had early contacts, was correct when he said that the
early Filipinos wrote from top to bottom and from left to right. The early
Filipinos wrote on large leaves of plants and trees, and sometimes on barks
of trees and bamboo tubes. They used the colored saps, of trees as ink,
while they used pointed stick or iron as pencil. Some examples of this
ancient writing that have come down to the present are found among the
Hanunuo Mangyans of Mindoro and Palawan.

33
Mga Kasabihan (Sayings) Salawikain (Proverbs) Bugtong (Riddles)
Ang kapalaran ko di ko man Ang tumakbo ng matulin kung Isda ko sa Mariveles, nasa
hanapin, dudulog lalapit kung matinik ay malalim. loob ang kaliskis
talagang akin. (sagot: sili)
May tainga ang lupa; may Ang hindi lumingon sa Nagtago si perico, nakalitaw
pakpak ang balita. pinanggalingan ay hindi ang ulo
makakarating sa paroroonan. (sagot: pako)
Huli man daw at magaling ay Pag may sinuksok, may Matanda na ang nuno hindi
naihahabol din. madudukot. pa naliligo
(sagot : pusa)

EARLY LITERATURE

The ancient Filipinos had a literature that may be classified into written and
oral. Among the Tagalog, the oral literature consisted of sabi (maxims),
bugtong (riddles), talindaw (boatsong), tagumpay (victory songs) and many
others. In the nineteenth century, the kumintang became a love song. During
the revolution it disappeared and was replaced by the kundiman. The early
Filipinos had also written literature.

The Ifugaos of Northern Luzon, for example, had epics which were originally
recited but later on were written down. Their epics are the Hudhud and the
Alim. The former glorifies ifugao history and its hero, Aliguyon. The Alim, on
the other hand, tells the story of god that resemble the Indian gods in the
epic Ramayana. The epic of the Ilocanos, Biag ni Lam-Ang (life of Lam-Ang)
originated even before the arrival of the Spaniards.

The Bicolanos have their epic called Handion. The Muslims, a very daring,
brave, and courageous people have produced several pics: the Bantugan,
Indarapatra and Sulayman, Bidasari, and Parang Sabil. The other non-
muslims and non-Christian peoples of Mindanao also have their epics, but
these have not yet been written down completely and have not been
translated into English or any of the well-known Philippine languages.

34
Music and Dance

Filipinos are considered born musicians. Many of them play two or more
musical instruments. Pigafetta, already mentioned earlier, that the natives of
Sugbu (Cebu) played such musical instruments are the timbal, the cymbal,
the drum, and other instruments, most of which were made of wood or
bamboo. When an officer to the Spanish explorer Villabos went to Samar in
1543, he saw natives playing a stringed instrument called Kudyapi, among
the Negritos of Zambales and Bataan, the favorite musical instruments were
the kulibaw, which resembled the Jew’s harp made of bamboo; the bansic, a
short of flute made of bamboo; and the gangsa a kind of guitar. To the
accompaniment of these musical instruments, the Negritos performed their
potato dance in which a man was represented as a thief stealing sweet
potatoes in the farm.

They had also the torture dance which commemorated the capture of an
enemy; the duel dance which represented a duel between two warriors; and
the lovers dance in which a man danced around a woman to show his love
for her. The Ilocanos had their musical instrument like the kutibeng, a sort of
guitar with five strings: the flute and the kudyapi. Their favorite dances were
the kinallogong (hat dance) and the konnoton (ant dance). Among the
Visayans favorite dances were the balitaw (exchange of extemporaneous
love verse) and dandansoy (courtship dance).

Both these dances are still popular today. Among the Tagalogs, drama,
dance, and music developed almost at the same time. This was because
drama could not be staged without the accompanying music and dance. So
the music and the dance were classified into balatong, dalit, lulay,
kumintang, tagulaylay, subli, barinbaw, tagayan, and others. Thus, the
ancient Filipinos from all regions had dances and songs for all occasions.

35
The Arts

The earliest Filipino works of art may be seen in their tools and weapons.
These tools and weapons were at first rough, but as time went on, the
Filipinos began to polish them. Later, beads, amulets, bracelets, and other
ornaments were used to improve their appearance. With the introduction of
bronze, certain instrument were manufactured like bronze gongs, bells, and
even drums. This indicates that the social arts such as dance and music
were already developed in ancient times. The early Filipinos also used metal
and glass. Simple weapons, such as daggers, bolos, knives and spears,
were made with artistic designs in their handles. Pottery with beautiful
designs was also made, while images made of wood, ivory and horn were
carved. Muslims art, in particular, deals with plant and geometrical designs,
while ifugao art deals with animal and human representations.

Religious Beliefs

The prehistoric Filipinos believed that the soul was immortal. They also
believed in life after death as evidenced by the manunggul jar, a container for
bones of the dead. They believed in one supreme being they called
bathalang may kapal or simply bathala. Aside from the supreme being, they
also worshipped minor deities whose function were closely related to the
daily life of the people. Thus, the god of agriculture was called Idiyanale; the
god of death, Sidapa; the god of fire, Agni; the god of raindow, Balangaw; the
god of war, Mandarangan; the goddess of harvest, Lalahon; the god of hell;
Siginarungan and other gods of goddesses.

The ancient Filipinos worshipped the sun and venerated the moon, the
animals and birds for they believed in the interconnectedness of the unseen
with the visible. Thus, the object of nature should be respected even every
harmful and dangerous animals, like crocodiles, were venerated. Old trees

36
too, were considered sacred and nobody was allowed to cut down such
trees. Reefs, rocks, and crags were also revered, and dishes and
kitchenwares were left on them as a sign of reverence.

The soul-spirits called anito were venerated. This is called the “cult of the
dead” the memory of dead relatives was kept alive by carving images made
of gold, stone, and ivory. The image was called larawan or likha among the
Tagalogs, diwata among the visayans, and bulol among the Ifugaos. The
people offered prayer and sacrifices to these images or symbols in order to
win their sympathy. Not all anitos were good; some were bad. But whether
an anito was good or bad, the people prayed to it and offered various
sacrifices to win its goodwill if it were good and to placate its anger, if it were
bad the offerings or rituals were laid down by a woman priest called baylana,
babaylan, or katalona, and occasionally by male priests.

Burial

The ancient Filipinos believed in the life hereafter and the relationship
between the living and the dead, which made them respect the memory of
the dead. When a relative died, he/she was placed in a coffin and burial
under his/her blouse. The living relatives placed his/her cloth, and other
valuables in the coffin. This was done because the ancient Filipinos believed
that in this way, the dead relative would be gladly received in the other world.

Upon the death of a person, the neighbors and relatives made fires under
his/her house. Armed sentinels guarded the coffin lest some sorcerers open
it and thus release the foul smell of the dead person. Professional mourners
were hired by the relatives of the dead person in order to show their deep
feeling of loss. Mourning for a woman was distinguished from that of a man
such that the former was called morotal laraw. When his death had been
announced, all quarrels, and even petty wars, were stopped. Spears were

37
carried with the tips pointing downwards; and the wearing of “loud” clothes
was also prohibited.

STUDY GUIDE

1. Make a timeline of events depicting the early settlers in the archipelago.

Include details like period or time of arrival, physical characteristic, and
level of cultural development. What conclusions can you make based on
these data about the Filipinos ancestral origin and way of life
2. What are the similarities of the economic lives of the ancient Filipinos and
the modern Filipinos? Would you say that agriculture as practiced during
that period of our history was practically the same as today? In what ways
do they differ? In what ways are they similar?
3. Why do you think shipbuilding, mining, and lumbering thrived in the
ancient times, long before colonization?
4. Given the social classes during the ancient times in the Philippines, would
you consider the society as democratic and egalitarian? Why or why not?
5. Describe the ancient Filipino houses and clothing (including ornaments)
and show how these reflect the climate and environments in which these
evolved.
6. Are you in favor of the dowry in marriage and the idea of “marrying in the
same class” as practiced during the period? Explain your answer.
7. Do you see any difference or differences between the religious beliefs of
our ancestors and the present Filipinos?
8. What do the various forms of early poetry, song, dance, and visual arts
signify as far as Filipino?

38
SUGGESTED ACTIVITIES

1. Form two teams and conduct a debate on the issue whether the trial by
ordeal is a fair process or not. One team should take the affirmative side
and the other, the negative side.
2. Together, with your classmate, prepare an exhibit on the life of the ancient
Filipinos. Divide yourselves into group and prepare a project following
these suggested topics:
a) A miniature ancient Filipino house
b) Handmade or ready-made dolls showing the ancient Filipino clothing
for male and female
c) A miniature barangay (houses, plants, trees, etc.,)
d) A miniature model of warrior fighting each other
e) Miniature boat or boats used by ancestors
3. Write a short letter (in Filipino or in your regional language) using the
ancient, Filipino syllabary or baybayin. You may write on any topic of your
choice. Read your letter in class.
4. Research on ancient harvest rites of early Filipinos. As a class or in
groups, prepare and perform a ritual for a rich rice harvest led by the
babaylan or baylana. Use costumes and props for the presentation.

39
 CHAPTER 3

EARLY CONTACTS WITH NEIGHBORING COUNTRIES

(900 – 1400 A.D.)

Though less studied due to scarce written sources, the topic on the
Philippines’ early contacts with its neighbors can now be better appreciated
with the recent discovery of material evidences as well as new documentary
sources.

Oral and cultural evidence show that early on, the Philippines already had
trade and cultural exchanges with its Asian and Southeast Asian neighbors.
The seemingly scattered island group of people actively engaged in trade
and commerce with their neighbors; an exposure that further enriched the
economic life and culture of the early Filipinos, long before the coming of the
West.

Early Trade Routes and Contacts

Ancient Filipinos, just like their Southeast neighbors, were expert seafarers
and boat builders. They made all sizes and types of boats- big or small,
single-hulled or outrigged. Because they had mastered the wind and sea
currents, they could travel far and wide to trade with nearby Southeast and
East Asian neighbors. Some scholars suggested they reached even as far as
Champa (present-day Vietnam) and India. Thus, long before the coming of
the Portuguese and Spaniards in the region, the Philippines had outside
trade contacts and along with these, varied cultural exchanges took place.

Scholars have yet to agree as to when and with whom these contacts began.
O.W. Wolters said such a trade may have been there as early as the 3rd
Century, based on the pearls and gold excavated in Funan. Sulu was rich in

40
pearls and gold was abundant in the country. Filipino historians and
archeologists believe the Filipino-Chinese trade contacts began around the
ninth century during the Tang dynasty (618-906 A.D.). They cite as evidence
Tang stonewares that were found in the Babuyan Islands, along the coasts
of Ilocos, Pangasinan, Mindoro (Puerto Galara), Batangas (Calatagan),
Manila (Santa Ana), Bohol, Cebu, Jolo and Cagayan de Oro. If the Chinese
did not bring these items directly to the Philippines, Chinese goods probably
found their way to the islands by the way of the Borneo through Arab traders
who had earlier direct trade contacts with the Chinese.

Arab Trade Routes in Southeast Asia

Between 900 and 1200 A.D., a group of people called Orang Dampuan from
Southern Annam (Vietnam Today), established trading posts in Sulu. A
flourishing trade developed between Champa (Annamese Kingdom) and the
people of Sulu who were called Buranun. This trade proved favorable to the
Orang Dampuans whose prosperity drew the ire of the Buranuns. In a fit of
jealousy, the Buranuns massacred some Orang Dampuans causing the
others to flee and return to Champa. It was not until the 13th century that they
would return to Sulu to trade peacefully once more.

The famous pearl trade of Sulu also attracted another group of people known
as the Banjar of nearby Borneo. Regular Trade relations ensued between
Sulu and Banjarmassin. The Buranuns who had not yet forgotten their tragic
experience with the Orang Dampuans, were also suspicious of the Banjars.
But the traders of Banarmassin, aware of the fate of the Orang Dampuans
were more diplomatic. Instead of antagonizing the Buranuns, they brought
their beautiful princess to Sulu and offered her as a bride to the Buranun
prince, who eventually married her. Sulu thus became a tribute-state of the
empire of Sri-Vijaya, along with the Banjarmassin and Brunei. Sulu
developed into an emporium to which trading ships of java, Sumatra,

41
Cambodia, Siam, and China would anchor to savor Sulu’s prosperous trade
and splendor.

Arab traders, who up to this point dominated this Southeast Asian trading,
were later bared from the central Chinese coast. They relocated to the Malay
Peninsula where they sought an alternative route starting from Malacca and
passing through Borneo and the Philippines to reach Taiwan. They continued
to carry Southeast Asian goods to the Western world using this southern
route. They also carried Philippine goods on board Arab ships to the Chinese
mainland through Canton. So keen was the competition that the Arab ships
carried non-Chinese goods amounting to 20-40% of the total cargo. This
lasted up to the Javanese or Madjapahit period (1377-1478).

The Chinese trade in the Philippines greatly improved during the Ming
dynasty (1368-1478). During this time Emperor Yung-lo sent a fleet of
vessels to the Philippines, under the command of Admiral Cheng Ho, to visit
Lingayen, Manila Bay, Mindoro, and Sulu in 1405-1406, 1408-1410 and
1417. The Chinese Emperor even tried to impose its suzerainty over Luzon,
however, put an end to this ambitious plan.

Economic and Cultural Exchanges

Using the compass on sea voyages, Chinese traders competed with the
Arabs from the eleventh to the twelfth century. Sung porcelain unearthed in
Sta. Ana, Manila and Around the Laguna de Bai, attested to the success of
this trade. By the thirteenth century, the Chinese had overtaken the Arabs in
the region. Description of the lucrative trade between China and the
Philippine archipelago can be found in Chao Jukua’s Chu fan-chi (1225)
where the Chinese mentioned the following places: Ma-I (Mindoro or Baé in
Laguna), Min-to-lang (Mindanao), Ma-li-lu (Manila), Su-lu (Sulu), and Pi-sho-
ye (Visayas). The Philippine trade goods included bulak (raw cotton), abaca,

42
cloth of various patterns, hardwoods, gums, resins, betel nuts, pear shell,
pink and blue coral trees, large conch shells, tortoise shells, sponges, rattan,
beeswax, musk, sandalwood, leather, mats, and pepper.

In exchange, China brought: iron bars, porcelain and pottery, silk chintz,
black damask, java cloths, red taffeta, blue cloth, bronze gongs, small bells,
mirror, scales, coins, jade, projectiles, gold, silver, censers, lead, colored
glass beads, iron needles, tin, lead sinkers for fishing nets, lacquered ware,
copper cauldrons, wine, ivory, and “tint” (a kind of Chinese silver money).
Although trade was conducted in general through the barter system, by the
eighth century, a type of currency began to be used in the form of barter
rings.

By the twelfth century, gold coins (piloncitos) began to be used as medium of

exchange. With trade of products came cultural exchanges, including
religion. These in turn, would influence the indigenous lifestyles, customs
and religious beliefs of the ancient Filipinos. This is particularly true of the
influences on our language, system of writing, technology, attire, ornaments,
food and religious beliefs and practices. Much of the Chinese influence on
the Filipino life is economic in nature. This is shown by the Chinese words
that were adopted into the languages of the Philippines, particularly Tagalog.

Here are some examples:

Chinese Tagalog English

Am-pau Ampaw Puffed rice or corn
He-bi Hibi Dried salted shrimps
Ke-tai Katay Cut up meat
Le-piah Lipya Plowshare
Hok-bu Hukbo Army
Peh-chihai Petsay Chinese cabbage

43
There are hundreds of Tagalog words which have their origin in Chinese.
Most of these words have economic meanings.

The Filipinos also learned from the Chinese the use of umbrellas, porcelain,
gongs, the manufacture of gunpowder, metallurgy, and mining methods.
Perhaps the Filipinos also borrowed the Chinese custom of having parents
arrange the marriage of their children. Wearing white clothing, instead of
black, for mourning of death of family and relatives, is also of Chinese origin,
especially among the Visayans.

Quite apart from the Chinese, the ancient Filipinos were also influenced by
the Indians of India. The ancient Indians may not have settled in huge
numbers in the Philippines, but their influence on Filipino culture may have
come through the ancestors of the present Indonesians. The Malays who
came to the Philippines were possibly Hinduized Malays, that is, Malays who
professed the Hindu religion of India. This Indian influence is clearly seen in
some of the words in the different languages of the Philippines, including
Tagalog, which were derived from Sanskrit, the ancient language of India.
Some of the Tagalog words of Sanskrit origin are the following:

Sanskrit Tagalog English

Ahi Ahas Snake
Swamin Asawa Husband or wife
Bhaga Bahagi Part, portion
Vartta Balita News
Kotta Kuta Fort
Dala Dala Fishing net
Ganda Ganda Beauty
Hari Hari King
Lalarawa Lalawa Spider
Tara Tala Star

44
Sanskrit words or their variations are also found in Visayan and
Maguindanaoan languages. Such words as agama (religion), pandita (priest
or scholar), tumbaga (copper), baginda (emperor), sutra (silk), are of Sanskrit
origin. Several deities in the myths of ancient Filipinos show traces of Indian
influences: Indra Batara, Lord of the Universe; Idiyanale, god of agriculture;
Agni, god of fire. A figurine of the Hindu goddess Padmapani was found in
Butuan and was dated to 300AD. This could attest to that ancient contact
between the Philippines and the Indian sub-continent.

The Philippine Catholic wedding ceremony has Indian influences. The use of
the cord and the veil during the Catholic marriage ceremony in the
Philippines is Indian in origin. It is not originally Western or Spanish Catholic,
because the non-Philippine Catholic marriage has no veil and cord
ceremonies.

The Laguna Copperplate discovered in the Pagsanjan, Laguna river delta in

1986 is another evidence of this early Philippine contact with its Southeast
Asian neighbors particularly the Malays and Indonesians. Dated to 900AD,
the copperplate contains an inscription in an old Philippine language, stating
the full payment of a loan obtained by a woman trader from her contacts in
the nearby Indonesia. The copperplate also shows shared knowledge in
metallurgy and its use in trade and commerce to record transactions as
certificate of credit and loan payment.

THE COMING OF ISLAM

After Mohammad’s death in 632 A.D., Islam spread outside of Arabia in two
stages. In the first stage, Islam was brought to the rest of the Middle East,
Northern Africa, Spain and Central Asia. In the second stage, Muslim
missionaries travelled with Arab merchants to India, China, and to Southeast
Asia where a number of them (traders and also missionaries) settled and

45
intermarried with members of the royalty. They also set up mosques and
madrasahs (schools).

In the Philippines, Islam was introduced by Tuan Masha’ika, a trader from

Malaya, and his companion Tuan Maqbalu who came to Sulu in the 1240’s.
According to Sulu genealogy called Tarsila, his wealth increased and with it,
the status of Muslims in the communities was raised. By 1380, when a
missionary from Java, Karim ul’ Makhdum arrived in Buansa (Sulu), he found
a thriving Muslim community that welcomed him and his efforts to strengthen
Islam around the Mosque he built in Tubig Indangan, Tawi-tawi.

Ten years later (1480), Rajah Baginda arrived from Sumatra. He further
deepened Islamic consciousness among the Muslims in Sulu by building
more madrasahs in the area. He later rose to a position of power tin Sulu.
But it was Abu Bakr (who married Rajah Baginda’s daughter, Paramisuli),
who succeeded in establishing a government similar to the sultanate of
Arabia.

Meanwhile, in Maguindanao (present-day Cotabato and Lanao) Serif

Kabungsuan arrived from Jahore, now a state of West Malaysia, and
converted many inhabitants to Islam. He became the first sultan of
Maguindanao. So rapid was the spread of Islam that when the Spaniards first
arrived in 1570, they found Maynila and nearby places with Muslims
connections. The rulers of the Kingdom of Maynila were found to be related
by blood and marriage to the royal house of Muslim Brunei.

TEACHINGS OF ISLAM

The basic tenets of Islam are found in the Qur’an (Koran), the holy book of
the Muslims. Written in Arabic, the Koran is considered the word of the

46
Supreme Creator, Allah, as directly communicated by the angel to the
prophet Mohammad. Among the teachings of the Koran are the following:

 There is only one Supreme Being, Allah, the creator of the Universe
and all of humankind.
 Allah is just and merciful God and it is Allah’s desire that all should
repent of their sins, purify themselves so they could enter Paradise
after death.
 Life In this world is only temporary and one’s good deeds, as well as
the bad deeds, are listed by an angel for final judgement on the last day
on the last day of the entire humanity. Each one will be judged
according to what one has done in his lifetime.
 The Korean forbids any human or animal representation in their art.
Only geometric patterns are allowed.
 Eating pork, drinking wine, gambling and other vices are forbidden in
Orthodox Islam.
 Islam forbids loans and usury.
 Muslims are duty-bound to help the poor, the orphans and widows.
 Telling lies, stealing, adultery and murder are all grave sins that
deserve serious punishment.
 Every Muslim must have goodness expressed in faith in God and such
virtues as patience, faithfulness, honesty, industry, honor and courage.
 A follower of Allah has to observe the following rituals or obligations: a
declaration of faith in the oneness of God (Shahada); prayer facing the
east (Mecca) five times a day (salah); fasting (sawm); giving the alms
(zakat), and a one-time pilgrimage to Mecca (hadji).

Fasting is observed during the Ramadan, which is held at the ninth month of
the Muslim calendar. No solid food are taken from early dawn until the sun

47
sets. They purify themselves by praying and practicing good deeds and self-
restraint.

The Sultanate

Unlike the barangays of the non-Muslim ancient Filipinos which were smaller
in size and very much decentralized, the Sultanate governed a much larger
territory through a centralized network of officials with the Sultan at the top.

STUDY GUIDE

1. What factors encouraged the ancient Filipinos to trade with China and
its Southeast Asian neighbors?

48
 2. In the absence of written records, what evidences can you cite to show
that a lucrative trade connected the Philippines with China, India and
the rest of Southeast Asia long before the west came to colonize the
region?
3. Among the early trade contacts of the Philippines during the ancient
period, which country do you think had the most influence on the early
Filipinos? Explain your answer.
4. Which among the early contacts of the Filipinos had the least or
minimal influence? Explain your answer.
5. Compare and contrast the way the Orang Dampuans and the Banjars
conducted or carried out their trade relations with the early settlements
in the Philippines.
6. Describe the competition between the Arabs and the Chinese for
dominance in trade. Who eventually won and why do you think this is
so?
7. List as many words in our language which are of Chinese or Indian
origin. Present the list in a chart.
8. Identify the following in relation to the early trade contacts of the
Philippines in ancient times:

a. Buranun i. Buansa
b. Banjars j. Madrasah
c. Orang Dampuans k. Hadjj
d. Admiral Cheng Ho l. Ruma bichara
e. Chu fan-chi m. Imam
f. Piloncitos n. Paramisuli
g. Padmapani o. Ramadan
h. Laguna copperplate

49
SUGGESTED ACTIVITIES

1. Make a timeline of events to show the chronology of early trade

contacts of the early Filipinos before the coming of the Spaniards.
2. With the aid of a map of the Philippines and Asia, trace the trade
routes used by the Arabs and the Chinese in the Southeast Asian
Region during the early times.
3. Make a table listing the dates of the arrival of Muslim missionaries
in the Philippines, the places Islam occupied, the early Muslim
leaders, and their accomplishments.
4. Using a Venn diagram, compare Islam with Christianity. In what
ways are they similar and in what ways are they different? Cite
beliefs and practices that are unique only to the Muslims or to the
Christians and beliefs and practice that both religions share.
5. Research on the various types of boats used by the ancient
Filipinos to travel to different places to conduct commerce. Draw
each one and submit for class reviewing.

50
 CHAPTER 4

ENCOUNTER WITH THE WEST

(1400 – 1600)

To the West, for quite a long time, the Philippines and the rest of the
world was Tierra Incognita (Unknown Lands). Coming into the region
for purposes of trade and other reasons (Christianization and civilizing
the “uncivilized”), these lands were new and exciting “discoveries” for
the Europeans. But this is certainly not true of the Filipinos, of the
“Indians” of America and the “Blacks” of Africa. These peoples,
unknown to the West, have long inhabited these lands and evolved
their own civilizations that are unique to their given environment and
history.

The West, led by Portugal and Spain, rival each other for the
possession of rich colonies in America, Asia and Africa. With her naval
supremacy, daring and imaginative explorers, and a Spanish Pope who
drew up treaties defining territorial rights to her, Spain won over his
rivals. Using both the “sword and the cross” Spanish conquistadores
and missionaries succeeded in establishing colonies in the Americas
without much resistance.

Until the fatal battle in Mactan, Cebu, an island in the Philippines, when
Spain’s famed explorer, Ferdinand Magellan, was killed by the local
chieftain Lapulapu. It took almost fifty years before another attempt to
colonize the islands succeeded under Miguel Lopez de Legazpi. After
meeting stiff resistance in Cebu Legaspi later established the first
European settlement in the archipelago. Then he moved to the island of
51
Luzon where he founded a permanent Spanish colony in the kingdom
of Maynila.

THE COMING OF THE SPANIARDS

How and why the Spaniards and the Portuguese came to the “Orient”
(the European’s term for Asia or the East) is a long story. In the
sixteenth century, Europe was experiencing some changes because of
the growth of industry and commerce, the advances in science, the
improvement in the science of navigation, and the invention of
machines and marine instruments.

Added to this was the desire of the Europeans to know more about the
countries of the “Orient” because of the stories told by the Christian
crusaders of Europe, who went to the Holy Land to reclaim it from the
Muslims. The stories led many Europeans to admire the wonders of the
East. Also, some Europeans were already trading with Asian countries.
Oriental spices, silk, fruits, attar of roses, Persian rugs, perfumes and
precious stones were easily sold in Europeans markets at big profits.
This stimulated more trade with the countries of Asia.

The Venetians or citizens of Venice, which later became a city of Italy,

enjoyed this monopoly at the start. Soon after, the Portuguese, the
Spaniards, and other peoples of Europe began to trade with Oriental
countries. As a result, rivalry developed among the European countries.
This commercial rivalry led to European expeditions to Asia.

52
The Trade Routes

At the time the Europeans were developing their trade with Asia, there
existed three trade routes connecting Europe to Asia. The first was the
Northern Route which passed through Central Asia by land, then to
the cities of Samarkand and Bokhara, then around the Caspian Sea
and the Black Sea, and finally to Constantinople in the Mediterranean.
The second was the Central Route which started from Malacca in the
Malay Peninsula, then to the Indian Ocean and the Indian ports, then to
the Persian Gulf to Baghdad and Constantinople, and finally to Cairo in
the Mediterranean. The third was the Southern Route which also
started from Malacca, then to the Indian Ocean and to the ports of
India, then to the Red Sea, and finally to Cairo in the Mediterranean.

In the fifteenth century an important event took place which led to

research for new routes. In 1453, the Turks captured the city of
Constantinople through which two routes passed. They closed the
Northern and Central Routes. However, they allowed the Venetians to
use the Southern Route on condition that they pay a certain sum as
fee. The Venetians, therefore, came to monopolize the Southern Route.
This proved the advantageous for them, since they controlled the
European trade to the East. This Venetian monopoly compelled
Portugal and Spain to look for another route in Asia so they could
continue their lucrative trade with the Asian countries.

Early Voyages to Asia

Of all European countries, Portugal was the first to send expeditions to

the East. One of the most famous Portuguese navigators was Prince
53
Henry, who was also called, “The Navigator.” In his desire to make
Portugal a sea power, he sent an expedition to the Azores, near the
coast of Africa in 1421.

This expedition “discovered” the islands of Madeira and the Azores and
soon they were developed into Portuguese colonies. Later, Prince
Henry himself led expeditions to Western Africa, using the instruments
for navigation he developed, like the astrolabe, the windrose
compass, and the caravel, which was a kind of ship.

Prince Henry’s voyages inspired other explorers to sail to the East. In

1487, the Portuguese navigator Bartholomew Diaz “discovered” the
Cape of Good Hope and continuing his voyage, reached Calicut, India.
This voyage marked the first time that a European country, through her
explorer, reached the East by sailing around outermost tip of the
continent of Africa. Spain, upon learning of this successful voyage, sent
an expedition to what is now North America.

Christopher Colombus, a native of Genoa, which later became a part

of Italy, went to Spain and offered his services to the King and Queen.
Sailing from Spain, he “discovered” North America in 1492. He tough
that large mass of land he had “discovered” was Asia. Later, Amerigo
Vespucci, also an Italian, was sent by Spanish King and Queen to
explore what Colombus had found. The geographers at the time
thought that Amerigo found a “New World,” and so they named this
land, America.

Other “discoveries” followed soon after. In 1500, Vicente Pinzon

“discovered” what is now Brazil. 1513, Nunez de Balboa crossed what
54
is now Panama and “discovered” the Pacific Ocean. These
geographical “discoveries” led to more explorations of new lands and
their development as colonies of European Countries.

The Division of the World

The fact that Portugal was the first country to sail to the East and
establish colonies earned her the prestige as the first sea power to
chart an alternate passage to India. On the other hand, Spain, which
sent explorers to Americas, began to lay claim to these areas. Thus, a
sea sea rivalry resulted from the “discoveries” made by Spain and
Portugal.

To avoid possible war between the two great nations, Pope Alexander
VI, a Spaniard, whose family name Borja was Italianized into Borgia,
issued a bull in 1493 dividing the world into two. All lands south and
west of the Azores and Cape Verde Islands were to belong to Spain.
Portugal, on the other hand, was to take possession of the continent of
Africa. In order to make this provision clear, the Pope issued another
bull on the same day (May 3) by which an imaginary line was drawn
from north to south at 100 degrees west of the Azores.

Lands to be discovered east of this imaginary line would belong to

Portugal, and those on the west would belong to Spain. But in
September of the same year (1493) the Pope, being a Spaniard,
nullified this provision of the second bull by allowing Spain to own lands
to be discovered in the East, which properly belonged to Portugal. The
King of Portugal protested the decision of the Pope because it violated
the rights of Portugal as provided for in the second bull of May 3, 1493.
55
To avoid any conflict between the two nations, they concluded the
Treaty of Tordesillas on June 7, 1494.

The important provisions of this treaty were the following:

a) An imaginary line was drawn from north to south at a distance of

370 leagues west of the Cape Verde Islands. Lands to be
discovered east of this line would belong to Portugal, and those
on the west would belong to Spain.
b) If the Spanish ships discovered lands east of the demarcation
line, the said lands should be turned over to Portugal, and lands
discovered by Portuguese ships west of the line should be turned
over to Spain.
c) No Portuguese ships shall be sent to lands belonging to Spain,
and vice versa, for the purpose of trading with them.

The Magellan Expedition

Ferdinand Magellan was a Portuguese who went to Spain to offer his

services to the Spanish King. He had seen battles in Malacca and
Africa for the King of Portugal, who ignored Magellan rather than
reward him for his services to the Crown. This hurt Magellan, so he left
Portugal for Spain. With the help of his father-in-law and Don Juan de
Aranda, a man occupying a very high position in the Spanish India
House of Trade, Magellan was able to see King Charles I of Spain. The
meeting between the two was held in 1518.

Magellan, with the help of visual aids like maps and illustrations,
explained to the young King that he could reach the Moluccas, then
56
known as the Spice Islands, by sailing west. Moreover, he told the King
that the Moluccas belonged to the Spanish side of the demarcation line,
drawn according to the Treaty of Tordesillas. So impressed was the
youthful King that he agreed to send an expedition to the Spice Islands
under the command of Magellan.

The expedition consisted of five ships: the flagship Trinidad, the

Concepcion, the Victoria, the Santiago, and the San Antonio. Magellan
and his men heard Mass in the Church of Santa Lucia de la Victoria,
after which, the captains and the crew of the ship took an oath of loyalty
to Magellan as their commander-in-chief. Amidst the cheer of the
people and the ringing of church bells, the ships sailed down the
Quadalquivir River to San Lucas de Barrameda. On September 20,
1519, the expedition left port and sailed southward across the Atlantic.

After two months of difficult voyage, hardship and hunger, the Magellan
expedition reach what is now Pernambuco in Brazil. From here,
Magellan continued his voyage to Rio de Janeiro and reached the Rio
de la Plata in February 1520. In March, he reached Port St. Julian at
the southern tip of South America, where mutiny of his captains took
place. Magellan suppressed the mutiny and punished the rebels
severely.

Continuing his voyage, Magellan reached the southernmost tip of South

America. He crossed a strait to the Pacific Ocean. This strait now bears
his name, the Strait of Magellan. By this time, he only had three ships
remaining. With courage and determination, Magellan crossed the
Pacific and reached the Ladrones Islands, now the Marianas, in March
1521. He ordered his men to rest and to get some fresh food and
57
water. Some of the natives there stole one of his boats. In anger,
Magellan named the islands Islas de Ladrones (Islands of Thieves).
After allowing his men to rest and procure provisions, Magellan
continued his voyage. On March 17, 1521, he sighted the mountains of
what is now Samar. This event marked the coming of the first
Spaniards in the Philippines. The next day, Magellan ordered his men
to land at Homonhon islet so the sick men could be taken care of.

Having rested, Magellan proceeded to the islet of Limasawa, which at

that time was ruled by Rajah Kulambu. He befriended the rajah and
his brother, Si Agu, and sealed their friendship with a blood compact.
This was the first blood compact between Filipinos and the
Spaniards. On Easter Sunday, March 31, Magellan ordered a Mass to
be celebrated on the islet. Father Pedro de Valderrama, who
accompanied the expedition, celebrated Mass near the seashore. This
was the first Mass celebrated in the Philippines. Afterwards, Magellan
ordered that a large cross be planted on the top of a hill overlooking the
sea. Pigafetta said, “After the cross was erected in position, each of us
repeated a Pater Noster and an Ave Maria, and adored the cross; and
the kings [Kulambu and Si Agu] did the same.” Magellan took
possession of the islands in the name of King Charles and called them
the Archipelago of St. Lazarus because it was on St. Lazarus day that
he found the islands.

The First Baptism

Magellan stayed only a week in Limasawa because there was not

enough food in the islet. Hearing of a rich island not far away, he
ordered his captains to sail from what is now Cebu. Guided by Rajah
58
Kulambu, the ships entered the harbor of Cebu on April 8, 1521.
Magellan told his Malay slave, Enrique, to assure the people of Cebu
that they came as friends and not as enemies. The Cebu chieftain,
Rajah Humabon, welcomed the Spaniards and soon a blood compact
ensued between him and Magellan.

Gifts were exchanged between the parties of the blood compact. On

April 15, 1521, Mass was celebrated in Cebu. A cross was erected and
Magellan persuaded the Cebuanos to become Christians. Some 800
natives became Christians that day, among them Rajah Humabon, who
was given the Christian name Carlos in honor of King Charles of Spain,
and his wife, who was given the name Juana, in honor of King Charles’
mother. To commemorate this event, Magellan presented Juana an
image of the Infant Jesus. The Infant Jesus is now the Patron of Cebu.

THE BATTLE OF MACTAN

Meanwhile, a quarrel between two chieftains of the neighboring island

of Mactan occurred. Rajah Sula asked Magellan’s help to defeat his
rival, Rajah si Lapulapu, who according to Sula, refused to recognize
the King of Spain as his sovereign. Magellan at once accepted the
invitation to interfere in the local quarrel in order to show his might. He
and around sixty of his men, all well-armed, sailed for Mactan early in
the morning of April 28. Si Lapulapu, who refused to listen to
Magellan’s demand that he pay tribute to Spain, prepared to fight to the
end. In the battle that followed, Magellan was wounded in the leg.
Seeing this, the brave people of Mactan rushed at him and killed him
with their spears. With the death of Magellan, the Spaniards fled to their
ships and left. Some of them, however, returned to Cebu and there,
59
while attending a party given by Rajah Humabon, were massacred by
some Cebuanos. This horrific event happened because some
Spaniards robbed the natives and raped some women.

The Importance of the Expedition

The remaining Spaniards decided to leave Cebu. Of the three ships,

one was burned because it had become useless. Two ships remained:
the Victoria and the Trinidad. The Victoria was to sail to Europe by way
of Africa, while the Trinidad was to return to Europe by the way of the
Pacific. The Trinidad was captured by the Portuguese, while the
Victoria, commanded by Sebastian del Cano, succeeded in reaching
Spain.

Magellan’s voyage across the Atlantic and the Pacific was the greatest
single voyage ever known to man in early modern times. The hardship,
especially the hunger and the cold weather that the crew of the
Magellan expedition experienced, remains unsurpassed to this day.
The route that Magellan took in reaching the Philippines was a new
“discovery” then, which put an end to the Venetian monopoly of the
Southern Route. From this time on, Spain became supreme in the
building of colonial empire that only Great Britain in later modern times
was able to equal. More importantly, insofar as geography was
concerned, Magellan’s voyage proved conclusively that the earth was
round.

Insofar as Filipinos were concerned, Magellan’s expedition was

significant because it led to other Spanish expeditions to the
Philippines. These expeditions especially that of Legazpi’s, led to the
60
Spanish colonization of the Philippines and with this, contacts between
Europeans and Filipinos were established.

The Villalobos Expedition

The return of the Victoria to Spain won the admiration of the King and
the Spanish people. Encouraged by the result of the Magellan
expedition, King Charles sent other expeditions which, however, failed.
These were the Loaysa expedition of 1525-1526, commanded by
Father Juan Garcia Jofre de Loaysa; the Cabot expedition of 1526-
1530 commanded by Sebastian Cabot; and the Sayavedra expedition
of 1527-1528, commanded by Alvaro de Sayavedra, which reached
Mindanao but did not succeeded in settling in any of the islands.

Meanwhile, Spain and Portugal quarrelled over the possession of the

Moluccas. The monarchs of the two countries were close relatives and
so they agreed to settle the question of ownership by peaceful means.
On April 22, 1529, Spain and Portugal signed the Treaty of Zaragoza,
under which Portugal won possession of the Moluccas after paying
Spain the sum of 350,000 ducats.

To avoid future misunderstanding between the two countries, another

imaginary line was drawn from north to south at 2971/2 leagues east of
Moluccas. Lands to be found on the west of this line would belong to
Spain, while those on the east would belong to Portugal. In paying
Spain a sum to get the Moluccas, Portugal bought what was rightfully
hers in the first place. The Moluccas Islands lay east of the
demarcation line as provided in the Treaty of Tordesillas.

61
For many years after the conclusion of the Treaty of Zaragoza, Spain
respected its provisions. However, from 1538-1541, King Charles of
Spain agreed with his viceroys in Mexico and Guatemala that
expeditions should be sent to the East, particularly to the Spice or
Moluccas Islands. The Viceroy of Mexico chose his brother-in-law, Ruy
Lopez de Villalobos, to command the expedition. With six ships,
Villalobos left Mexico on November 1, 1542, crossed the vast Pacific,
and reached Mindanao in February 1543.

The natives of Mindanao refused to have any dealing with the

Spaniards. Faced with starvation, Villalobos ordered his men to plant
corn to feed themselves. But the crop failed and Villalobos was forced
to send one of his men, Bernardo De la Torre, to Tandaya (now Samar)
to get some food. De la Torre met the local chieftain, Makanadala, who
gave him enough food. Villalobos, in his pleasure, named the islands of
Samar and Leyte, Felipinas in honor of Prince Philip of Spain, who later
became King Philip II. Leaving the Philippines, Villalobos sailed for the
Moluccas where they were captured by the Portuguese. They were
later set free and Villalobos tried to sail for Mexico but died in Amboina
in 1546.

The Legazpi Expedition

Many years passed before another expedition was sent to the

Philippines. In 1556, upon the suggestions of the Viceroy of Mexico, an
expedition to the East was sent by King Philip II, who succeeded his
father, King Charles I. King Philip emphasized that the expedition
should not enter territories belonging to Portugal. The purpose of the
expedition was to survey the trade in spices and make a report on it.
62
The King also specifically ordered that a new return route from the
Oriental islands to Mexico be discovered. The King chose Father
Andres de Urdaneta, who was a member of the Loaysa expedition, as
pilot of the new mission. Miguel Lopez de Legazpi was appointed
head of the expedition. With four ships and about 380 men, Legazpi
sailed from the Mexican port of Navidad on November 21, 1564.

One of the ships go lost on its way but was found later and ordered to
head back to Mexico after reaching Mindanao. The expedition reached
Cebu in February 1565. Later, Legazpi sailed to Cibabao (Leyte) then
to Samar. Here, he concluded a blood compact with some of the
chieftains, one of whom was Bankaw, Datu of Limasawa. Early in
March, he sailed to Camuigin Island, then to Butuan in Mindanao, and
then to Bohol where he enetered into a blood compact with Datu Si
Katuna and Si Gala. The scarcity of food in Bohol led Legazpi to order
his men to sail for Cebu.

The Discovery of a new Route

Having settled in Cebu, Legazpi ordered the return of the ship San
Pedro to Mexico. It was to be piloted by Father Urdaneta and
accompanied by Legazpi’s grandson, Felipe de Salcedo. Sailing from
the port of Cebu on June 1, 1565, Father Urdaneta steered the Ship
northeastward from the Philippines in wide arc through the Pacific and
ended in Santa Catalina, in California. After overcoming many
difficulties, the ship sailed down the California coast to Mexico, arriving
at the port of Navidad on October 1. From Navidad, the ship sailed to
Acapulco. With this return voyage, Father Urdaneta discovered a new
route, which the Manila galleons would follow in later years.
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FIRST SETTLMENT IN CEBU

Legazpi and his men entered Cebu harbor on April 27. The Cebuanos
were hostile to him probably because in the past, some white men who
look like Spaniards maltreated them. Legazpi explained to the
Cebuanos that the white men who maltreated them were not Spanish
but Portuguese. He also told them that he wanted the Filipinos and the
Spaniards to be friends. The Cebuano chieftain, Tupas, did not believe
him and the Cebuanos and the Spaniards found themselves in
skirmishes. Tupas fled to the mountains after setting all the houses on
fire in what is now Cebu City. The day after the skirmish, a Spaniard
found the image of the Infant Jesus which Magellan gave to Juana,
Rajah Humabon’s wife, forty-four years earlier. The image was not
burnt.

Legazpi, although victorious, applied a policy of attraction. He invited

the Cebuanos to come down from the mountains and promised not to
harm any of them. Convicted that Legazpi was sincere, Tupas and his
men returned to the lowland and entered into an agreement with
Legazpi with the help of Tupa’s brothers, Si Makayo and Si Katapan.

The agreement provided that (1) the Filipinos promised to be loyal to

the King of Spain and to the Spaniards; (2) the Filipinos promised to
help the Spaniards in any battle against an enemy; and in return, the
Spaniards promised to protect the Filipinos from all enemies; (3) a
Filipino who had committed a crime against a Spaniard should be turn
over to Spanish authorities, while a Spaniard who had committed a
crime against a Filipino should be turn over to the Filipino chieftain; (4)
goods to be sold, to either the Spaniards or the Filipinos should be
64
moderately priced; and (5) an armed Filipino would not be allowed to
enter the Spanish settlement.

With the conclusion of this agreement, peace and reign in Cebu,

Legazpi then turned his attention to the founding of a Spanish
settlement. A land, donated by Tupas and other Cebuano chieftains,
was used as Spanish settlement. This was in the form of triangle one
side of which faced the land and the other sides faced the sea. A fort
was constructed and the Spaniards called it Fort San Pedro. Initially,
the Spanish settlement was called San Miguel. But Legazpi
remembered the unharmed image of Infant Jesus and renamed the
settlement, “City of the Most Holy Name of Jesus.”

THE SETTLEMENT IN PANAY

Legazpi was beset with many problems in Cebu. One was the bad
feeling of some of his own men who refused to work. Some of them
robbed the graves of the Filipinos. Legazpi acted justly and punished all
to those who refused to cooperate with him. There was also a
conspiracy among the Spanish soldiers to seize the ship San Pablo.
The captain of the boat informed the Master of Camp, Mateo del Saz,
about it and the conspirators were arrested. The leader of the
conspiracy was beheaded, and the rest was pardoned.

Legazpi also faced the hostility of the Portuguese. The latter realized
that the Philippines lay on the Portuguese side of the demarcation line.
The Portuguese captain, Gonzalo de Pereira, harassed Legazpi by
blockading Cebu in order to starve the Spaniards. With the help of
Cebuanos, Legazpi succeeded in forcing Pereira to leave the
65
Philippines. Faced with these problems, Legazpi decided to move to
Panay. Upon learning that there was a plenty of food there, he and
some of his men sailed for Panay in 1569. On the banks of the Panay
River, Legazpi founded the second Spanish settlement in the
Philippines. He won over the people of Panay by convincing them of his
peaceful intentions. The Spanish missionaries, the Augustinian friars,
converted some natives to Christianity. The friendliness of the Filipinos
was shown when they brought food to Legazpi. Consequently, the
Spaniards were saved from starvation.

The First Spanish Voyage to Manila

With Panay as his home base, Legazpi decided to spread Spanish rule
to other islands of the archipelago. He sent small expeditions to the
other islands of the Visayas. Masbate, Burias, and Ticao were claimed
in the name of the King of Spain. Then the same expedition, headed by
Captain Enriquez de Guzman sailed for southern Luzon reached Albay.
At almost the same time, Juan de Salcedo, Legazpi’s younger
grandson, led a small expedition to the north. With a few Spanish
soldiers and about 500 Visayans, Salcedo sailed to Talim Island and
claimed it for Spain.

Then he continued his voyage until he reached Lubang Island, near

Mindoro, and fought Filipinos who refused to recognize him. Defeating
the people of Lubang, Salcedo returned to Panay after reaching the
outer rim of Manila Bay. He reported to his grandfather that Manila was
a prosperous Muslim kingdom. Legazpi then decided to send
expedition in Manila. This expedition left Panay for Mindoro on May 8,
1570, and stayed there for five days. Then the voyage to Manila Bay
66
was continued. The Spanish forces was now divided into two; one was
headed by Martin de Goiti, who succeeded Mateo del Saz as Master
of Camp, and the other was commanded by Salcedo. When they
reached Batangas, Salcedo explored the Bonbon River and what is
now Taal, while Goiti explored Balayan. In Taal, Salcedo had an armed
encounter with some Filipinos. He was wounded in the leg, but the
Spaniards with their superior weapons won the skirmish in the end.
Then Salcedo rejoined Goiti and the two proceeded to Manila by sea.

At that time, Manila or Maynila, as it was called by the natives, was a

thriving Muslim kingdom ruled by Rajah Sulayman or Soliman. The
kingdom was south of the Pasig River in what is now Fort Santiago.
Goiti demanded that Sulayman paid him tribute, but the ruler of Manila
refused. On May 24, Goiti fired a cannon shot to recall a boat he had
sent on an errand. Sulayman and his men thought that it was a signof
Spanish hostility, and so they answered with shots from their native
cannons called lantaka. The superior fire power of the Spaniards led
the Filipinos to burn down their houses and left Manila in the hands of
the enemy. But Goiti did not stay in Manila. He returned to Panay to
report to Legazpi what happened.

THE FOUNDING OF MANILA

Legazpi was happy to hear from Goiti. He informed his men that the
King of Spain appointed him as governor and captain-general of the
islands, which was equivalent to governor-general. He was, therefore,
the first governor-general of the Philippines. Legazpi also informed
them that the King ordered them to colonize the rest of the archipelago.
At this time, however, food became scarce in Panay. Father Diego de
67
Herrera, an Augustinian friar, suggested that they settle in Luzon
instead. So Legazpi decided to leave for Luzon on April 20, with Manila
as the object of his expedition. In Manila, Rajah Sulayman, realizing the
firepower of the enemy, ordered his people to burn their houses and to
retreat in the interior. At the same time, he gathered a force of fierce
warriors from the barangays of Pampanga and Bulacan, and fought the
enemy in the Battle of Bangkusay in Tondo. He and the warriors were
defeated. What happened to Sulayman was not clear. Some say he
died in the battle. Others say that he escaped to the interior. At any
rate, the Filipinos were defeated and Legazpi took over Manila in1571.
Legazpi began laying the foundation of a new city.

Manila was in ruins so he ordered his men to build new houses. A

church was also constructed for the missionaries, while a big house
was built as the governor’s official residence. On June 24, 1571,
Legazpi made made Manila the capital of the Philippines. King Philip
the II later called Manila, “Distinguished and Ever Loyal City”. On the
same day that Legazpi declared Manila as the capital of the
archipelago, a city government or ayuntamiento was organized. He
appointed two alcaldes or magistrates, an alguacil mayor or chief
constable, twelve regidores or legislative council members, and one
escribano or court clerk. With the founding of Manila as the capital of
the Philippines, the foundation of the Spanish colonial empire in Asia
had been laid.

Expeditions to the Other Parts of Luzon

With Sulayman defeated and Sulayman’s uncle, Lakan Dula,

cooperating with the Spaniards, Legazpi thought of sending expeditions
68
to other parts of Luzon. He sent his grandson to the towns of the south
of Manila, while he sent Goiti to explore Central Luzon, as far as
Pangasinan. Salcedo conquered Taytay, Cainta, and other towns of
what is now Rizal Province. Then in 1572, he went to northern Luzon
and defeated the Filipinos in Zambales, Pangasinan, and the Ilocos
region. In what is now Vigan, Salcedo founded the town of Villa
Fernandina in honor of Prince Fernando, the first-born son of King
Philip II. From the Ilocos, Salcedo proceeded to the northeastern coast
of Luzon, marched along the Pacific coast of what is now Quezon
Province, sailed to Polillo Island, back to the shore of Luzon, and from
there returned to Manila over trails, hills, and mountains. Tragedy
greeted him in Manila, for he was informed that his grandfather, Miguel
Lopez de Legazpi, had died on August 20, 1572.

STUDY GUIDE

1. In what way was the capture of Constantinople (Istanbul today)

by the Turks a factor in the geographical discoveries of the
fifteenth and sixteenth centuries?
2. Explain why and how the Spaniards and Portuguese came to
the East
3. Why did Pope Alexander VI divide the world between Spain
and Protugal? Were the terms of this division fair or justified for
each one? Why or why not?
4. Describe the route taken by Magellan from the time he left San
Lucarde Barrameda to the sighting of the coast of Samar. Use
a map or globe.
5. Would you call the sighting of the archipelago by Magellan a
discovery? Explain your answer.
69
 6. Why did Magellan interfere in the quarrel between the two
Mactan chieftains? Was he right in doing so? Give your
reasons
7. What was the importance of the Magellan’s expedition?
8. What were the Treaty of the Tordesillas and the Treaty of
Zaragoza all about? Name the most important provisions of
these two treaties
9. Why do you think were Rajah Humabon and his wife, along
with 800 natives, persuaded by Magellan to become
Christians? Explain your answer
10. Why do you think Legazpi succeeded in befriending Rajah
Tupas and the Cebuanos
11. What was the father Urdaneta’s contribution to the voyage
of Legazpi?
12. Describe the conquest of Luzon and other islands. Name
the places and Spanish conquistador in charge of the conquest
13. What did this conquest mean for the inhabitants of the
islands then? What did it mean for the Spaniards?

SUGGESTED ACTIVITIES

1. On a photocopied or printed map, draw the route taken by

Magellan until he reached Cebu and the return route by Sebastian
del Cano to Spain. Compare the travel by sea during Magellan’s
time and the present. Which is more dangerous of the two? Why?
2. Consult a map of Asia. Read the principal provisions of the
Treaties of Tordesillas and the Zaragoza. Draw the demarcation
lines of the two treaties. To which side of the demarcation lines do
the following lands belong?
70
 a. The Philippines
b. North America
c. The Azores Islands
d. The Moluccas
e. The Malay Peninsula
f. India
3. Have a class day tour (lakbay-aral) within the city or town and visit
important historical landmarks left by Spanish conquistadores to
commemorate their arrival, conquest, and settlement.
For example:
o Manila City Hall in Manila
o Fort Santiago in Intramuros, Manila
o The Cross of Magellan in Cebu City
o The Santo Nino image in the Cathedral of Cebu
o Limasawa in Leyte, where the first mass is believed to have
been celebrated
o The scene of the battle in Mactan, Cebu

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 CHAPTER 5

THE PHILIPPINES UNDER SPANISH RULE

(1600’S – 1800’S)

Unlike the country’s early contact with its Asian neighbors, which was
limited to trade and commerce, the encounter with the West,
particularly with Spain, led to direct rule or colonization. What did it
mean to be a colony, specifically, a crown ‘’colony’’ in those times?

Spain governed the Philippines through the Union of Church and State,
introducing in the process new beliefs, institutions, and practices in the
political, economic, and religious aspects of people’s lives. The results,
though effective and positive for Spain, caused hardships for the
majority of the inhabitants, except for the few members of the maharlika
class. The Maharlika, who later emerged as the new class called
principalia, benefitted under the regime and was integrated into the new
colonial order for good or ill as shown in the succeeding events.

REASON FOR SPANISH COLONIZATION

When King Charles I decided to send an expedition to the Moluccas,

his purpose was primarily commercial. Spices commanded high prices
during that time, so trade in spices was very profitable. Thus, King
Charles was persuaded to send Magellan expedition to Asia to search
for the Spice Islands. Later, when Legazpi succeeded in founding
Spanish settlements and in laying the foundations of Spanish
colonization of the Philippines, the Spanish claim to the archipelago
was sealed based on two reasons. First, since the ‘’discovery’’ of the
72
Philippines was made under the auspices of Spain, the Philippines,
therefore was rightfully owned by Spain. Second, since Spain, being an
actual possession of the Philippines, it had the right to colonize it. In
other words, Spain claimed the Philippines by right of ‘’discovery’’ and
by right of actual occupation or conquest. As such, the Philippines were
a possession or property of the King of Spain and, therefore, a crown
colony.

POLITICAL CHANGES

As a crown colony, the Philippines was administered by the Council of

the Indies. Even so, the Spanish officials in the Philippines were
appointed by the King of Spain, who issued royal orders and decrees
dealing with the proper administration of the colony. In 1863, the
Philippines, as a colony, was placed under the jurisdiction of the
Ministry of the Colonies or Overseas Ministry (Minesterio de Ultramar).
In order to make the administration of the Philippines efficient, the
Overseas Ministry was advised and aided in its work by the Council of
the Indies.

THE CENTRAL GOVERNMENT

In organizing the central government of the Philippines, the Spanish

authorities saw it that they would be guided by their experience in
Mexico and South America. Consequently, many features of the
government established in these countries were adopted in the
Philippines. Like Mexico and Spanish America, the Laws of the Indies
were applied in the Philippines.

73
Some Spanish laws were likewise adopted, like La Novisima
Recopilacion, Leyes de Toro, and the Siete Partidas. These laws, as
well as the Laws of the Indies, were humane, however most of them
were not even enforced In the Philippines. The Spanish colonizers
organized a highly centralized form of government. By this, it meant
that the central or national government was so powerful that almost
everything had to be done with its knowledge and consent. The central
government was headed by the governor and captain general or
governor–general, who was appointed by the King of Spain. As
governor-general, he was the Kings official representative in the colony.
He possessed vast executive, legislative, and judicial powers. There
were, however, only two branches of government: ht executive and the
judicial. There was no legislature or congress because the laws for the
Philippines were made by the Spaniards in Spain and, to a certain
extent, by the governor–general himself. He issued orders with the
force of law, which were called superior decrees. On the other hand,
decrees or orders coming from the King of Spain were called Royal
decrees or orders.

The governor-general was the president or presiding officer of the

Audiencia. He was also the vice royal patron in the Philippines. As the
Kings representative, he could appoint minor officials it the government,
including the parish priests. He was also the commander–in chief of the
armed forces. Combining all these powers, the governor–general was a
truly official. This power was best shown in the right of cumplase
bestowed upon him by the King. The cumplase was the right of the
governor to suspend the operation of a Royal decree or order relative
to the Philippines if n his opinion, the said order or decree would not be

74
beneficial to the administration of the country. The usual formula n
exercising the right of cumplase was ‘’I obey but do not comply’’.

The Audiencia

The judicial powers of the government were exercised by the Audiencia

and the lower courts. The Audiencia was established in the Philippines
in 1583 to administer justice to the aggrieved people in the colony.
Governor Santiago de Vera was its first president. The Audiencia was
the highest court insofar as civil and criminal cases were concerned.

Moreover, political and administrative matters were brought before the

Audiencia by the governor. In the absence of a governor or when he
could not perform his duties, the Audiencia exercised political and
administrative powers. It also audited the finances of government.
Some powerful persons in the colonial government were against the
Audiencia because the population of the Philippines was still small to
justify having an Audiencia. Also, the natives were very poor.

This being the case, the Audiencia was a financial burden to the King of
the Spain. Because of this opposition, the Audiencia was abolished in
1589. In its place, a council composed of 400 members headed by the
governor general was created. This council, however, was
unsatisfactory to many because of its many members. So the King
ordered the re-establishment of the Audiencia in 1595. However, it
actually carried out its function in 1598 when it was inaugurated.

75
LOCAL GOVERNMENT

Under the central government was the provincial government. Pacified

provinces, which were already recognizing the authority of Spain, were
governed by civil provincial governors. Those that were not yet fully
pacified and conquered were rule by military officers. The provincial
governor was called alcalde mayor. He was appointed by the governor-
general. His salary was small but he could collect a part of the tribute to
increase his income. What made him rich and powerful was the right
gien to him to engage in trade. This right was called indulto de
comercio. In all most cases, the provincial governor abused this power
so that he committed graft and corruption.

It was later abolished in 1844 because the alcalde mayor abused his
power to the extent of scandalizing the Spaniards. Another anomalous
practice was the provincial governor role as judge of the province.
Since many abuses were committed by the governors-judge, in 1886,
the King ordered that the provincial governor should remain as judge
only. Another man was appointed as provincial governor whose main
duty was to administer the province.

Under the provincial government was the municipal government. The

town or municipality, composed of several barrios, was headed by the
gobernadorcillo (little governor), also called capitan municipal or simply
capitan. Today, he is called mayor. The gobernadorcillo was elected by
thirteen electors who were prominent in the town. Six of these electors
were former cabezas de barangay; six were actual cabezas de
barangay, and the thirteenth elector was the outgoing capitan. The one
selected as gobernadorcillo had to be approved by the Spanish friar-
76
curate. If approved, his name was sent to the provincial governor who,
in turn, submitted his name to the office of the governor-general in
Manila for final approval. The capitan was aided in the administration of
the town by deputies called tenientes, a chief of police, and subordinate
officials called alguaciles.

The City and its Government

During the first century of Spanish rule, there were only two cities;
Cebu and Manila. As conquest and settlement continued, the Spanish
officials created one city after another. By the seventeenth century, the
Philippines had six cities: Cebu, Manila, Vigan Nueva Segovia (now
Lal-lo, Cagayan), Arevalo (now a part of Iloilo City), and Nueva
Caceres (now Naga).

The city, then and now, was the center of social, commercial, religious,
and cultural life. Its government was different from that of the town. It
was called ayuntamiento, equivalent to today’s city hall, and consisted
of two alcaldes, twelve regidores (now called councilors), a chief of
police, a city secretary, and few other lesser officials.

Each barrio or barangay of the town was headed by a cabeza de

barangay who did not receive any salary. However, he was given a
portion of the taxes collected in his barrio. Also, he was considerd a
member of the principalia or the aristocracy, together with the town
mayor and other municipal officials. As a former maharlika, who ruled
the barangay as datu, gat, or lakan, they were given economic and
political privileges.

77
Propagating the Catholic Faith

When Legazpi sailed for the Philippines, he was accompanied by some

friars belonging to the Augustinian Order. Many Filipinos who were
converted to the Cathoic faith by the first Augustinians that came with
Legazpi in 1565, later on returned to their old animist religion. The
King then decided that the entire Philippines should be converted to the
Catholic faith. Missionaries were sent to the colony after the death of
Legazpi. The Augustinian Order continued to send its missionaries to
make converts. The missionaries spread Catholicism in and around
Manila, the Visayas, the Ilocos, Pampanga, and Pangasinan.

In 1577, the Franciscan missionaries arrived and spread the Catholic

faith in Manila, in the provinces near and around the Laguna de Bay
(pronounced Ba-i), such as the present provinces of Laguna, Batangas,
Rizal, and Quezon. They also established missions in Camarines and
other parts of Bicol provinces. In 1581, the Jesuits, who were not
friars, arrived in the Philippines. They spread Catholicism in Manila,
Leyte, Cebu, Bohol, Samar, and later, in Mindanao. The Dominican
missionaries came into Manila in 1587 to spread the Catholic faith in
Manila, the Cagayan region, and Pangasinan.

The Recollect Missionaries came in 1606 and propagated the faith in

Manila, Bataan, Zambales, Mindoro, Masbate, Ticao, Burias, Cuyo,
Romblon, Negros, and other parts of Mindanao. These missionaries
worked hard to convert the Filipinos to Catholicism that in a span of a
little more than twenty years from the time Legazpi lande in Cebu, the
number of converts to the Catholic faith was about 250,000. This
number rose to a little less than one million in the middle of the
78
eighteenth century; to about four million in the 1860s; and to about six
and a half a million at the end of the Spanish period in 1898, this
number was not enough to cover the entire Philippines. The lack of
missionaries was responsible for the return of some converts to their
old religious practices.

The Union of Church and State

Because the early King of Spain help much in propagating and

defending Catholic faith, they became closely identified with the
Church. There was union of Church and State in Spain. The same
union was introduced in the Philippines, so that the officials appointed
by the King by his representative in the colony, were also defenders of
the faith. On the other hand, the friars and the Jesuits were not only
priests, but also agent of the Spanish King.

Thus, because of this union, the governor-general had the authority to

appoint priests to the parishes. The clergy, on the other hand, were
active in the government and have political powers. The friars became
members of some agencies of the Central Government. In the local
government, the friar-curate almost always was the cencus
enumerator, the health officer, the inspector of schools, the examiner of
pupils who wanted to study in primary school, the census who
approved or disapproved dramas or other writings to published, and the
auditor of the local government. He also certified the good physical
condition of a young people of every town, the friar-curate performed
many duties. In this way, he became very powerful.

79
In some cases, a high Church official was also eligible to become
governor-general during the latter’s absence or illness. Example of
church officials who became acting governors-general were
Archbishop Francisco de la Cuesta (1719-1721); Bishop Juan
Arrechederra (1745-1750); Bishop Miguel Lino de Ezpeleta (1759-
1761); and Archbishop Manuel Rojo (1761-1762).

The Church Organization

To administer the parishes efficiently, the Catholic Church was divided

into district. In turn, each district was divided into parishes and
missions. The districts represented geographic regions that had
different dialects or languages. On the other hand, the parishes
represented villages, while missions represented areas or regions that
were not yet conquered and converted to Catholicism.

In 1578, Manila became a diocese. At first it was a mere suffragan of

the Archbishopric of Mexico, Three years later, Fr. Domingo de Salazar
was appointed the first Bishop of Manila. The Bishopric of Santivanes
as the first archbishop under the Archbishopric of Segovia, the
Ecclesiastical Government by the Pope upon the recommendation of
the King of Spain.

Serving under him were the bishop who administered the parishes
under their jurisdiction. The church, like the civil government, had a
court of their justice called Eccesiastical Court or Archbishop’s Court
and was composed of the archbishop, the vicar-general, a notary, and
other officials. Cases dealing with the laws of the Church and those
involving priest were tried y this court.
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The Inquisition

The Inquisition was an ecclesiastical office, whose duty was to reach

for heretics and those guilty of preaching or practicing religious
doctrines that were contrary to that of the Catholic Church. There was
no office of the Inquisition in the Philippines. There was, however, a
representative or commissary of the Mexican Inquisition in the
Philippines. It was the duty of this representative to ferret out heretics
among the Spaniards, therefore were subject to arrest by the
representative of the Holy Inquisition in Mexico.

The Introduction of Printing

Most religious works used by the missionaries during the early years of
Spanish rule were handwritten. There was no printing press during
those early years. Because it took much time to copy religious books,
the Dominicans introduced in the Philippines the art of printing.

The first printing press they introduced was called xylography or

printing by woodblock, in which a rectangular piece of wood, say, one
or two inches thick, was carved out with words. Then the piece of wood
was covered evenly with ink and piece of paper was placed on the
woodblock and pressed with a heavy object. When the paper is lifted, it
has an imprint of the Christian doctrine in Tagalog and in Chinese.
They were printed in 1593. It cannot be determined as to which of the
two books was no record of the exact rate, the two books were printed
in the same years.

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Printing by woodblock was cumbersome, so the Dominicans improved
printing by introducing the use of movable types. In this kind of printing,
a letter is joined to a small piece of wood or iron or any similar material.
Father Francisco de San Jose, popularly called Blancas de San Jose,
introduced the movable type of printing (also called typography) in
1602, he became an expert in this kind of printing and wrote a grammar
book in Tagalog and printed it in the Dominican press. In 1606, the
Franciscans put up a printing press in Lengua Tagala by
Father Domingo de los Santos was printed in 1703 in Tayabas.

The Residencia and the Visita

Because of the abuses commited by many Spanish officials who were

sent to the Philippines, the King and Ministers of Spain introduced two
institutions in their colonies, including the Philippines. These were the
residencia and the visita. These two institutions were introduced to
stop the abuses of high Spanish officials in the colonies. The residencia
was the public investigation and trial of outgoing colonial officials in
order to ascertain whether they had committed abuses in the
performance of their duties.

The procedures involved the incoming governor-general to conduct the

investigation and trial of his predecessor and other officials of the
government. The result of the investigation and trial was sent to Spain
for final decision. While the residencia was instituted with a good
purpose, in many cases, it was abused by the investigating governor-
general and his men, who often harassed the outgoing governor. It was
common during those days for enemies of an outgoing official to invent
charges to embarrass him. Governor-General Sebastian Hurtado de
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Corcuera (1635-1644) was a good example when his enemies filed
unfounded charges against him, resulting in his imprisonment.

The visita, on the other hand, was a secret investigation of an official’s

conduct as a public servant. Its purpose was to ensure that the official
will work honestly and efficiently as he was expected to do this was
done any time in the duration of the official’s term.

The Plaza Complex

The plaza complex can best illustrate this politico-religious structure of

the colonial government of the country under Spain. The houses of the
natives were situated around a plaza or town center to bring them
close to the church, the convent, the municipio, the marketplace and
the cemetery. This setup allowed the Spaniards to effectively
administer and control the natives. The church easily regulated the
activities of the natives, whose residences were “under the peal of
bells” or bajo de las campanas.

ECONOMIC CHANGES

The Encomienda

In order to reward the Spaniards who helped in the conquest and the
establishment of settlements in the Philippines, the King of Spain, as
early as 1558, ordered that lands be distributed to his loyal subjects. In
accordance with this order, Legazpi gave lands to those who had
helped in the conquest of the Philippines. The encomienda, in
principle, was not actually a piece o land, but a favor from the King,
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under which the Spaniard receiving the favor was given the right to
collect tributes or taxes from the inhabitants of an area assigned to him.
The man who received this favor was called encomiendero. The
encomienda was, therefore, a public office.

The size of the encomienda was determined by the number if people

living in it and the value of the land on which the natives lives. The law
limited the number of natives in an area administered by an
encomendero to 300, while the value of the land was limited to P2,000.
At first, an encomienda could be held for three generations, but it was
later reduced to only two generations.

However, because of the complaints of the holders of encomiendas,

the King in 1635 returned the tenure to three generation. In exchange
for this favor from the King, the laws of the Indies provided that the
encomiendero should teach the natives under his jurisdiction the
Christian doctrine. He was also ordered to protect them from any harm.
However, these humane provisions, like the many laws coming from
Spain, were not followed. Instead, the encomienderos, with possibly
very few exceptions, abuses their authority and maltreated the Flipinos.

There were three kinds of encominedas:

1. The royal encomienda, which belonged to the King:

2. The ecclesiastical encomienda, which belonged to the Church;
3. The private encomienda, which belonged to a private individual.
So many were the abuses committed by the encomienderos that
the King abolished the private encomienda toward the end of the
seventeenth century.
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Forced Labor

In theory, Spain’s colonial system was the best of all colonial systems
followed by other European countries like England, France, and
Holland. The Laws of the Indies, for example, described how to prevent
the exploration of natives in their employment. While Filipinos were
required to render services to the State and the Church, the same Laws
of the Indies provided that the natives, who were ordered to work either
for the State or the Church, should be paid their wages. The Spaniards
officials in the Philippines ordered the Filipinos to work in the
construction of churches, roads, bridges, ships, and in the industries of
hauling cutting timber. However, some conditions were set for forced
labor, called polo y servicios, which included the following:

1. That the Filipinos to be drafted for work must be paid for their
work;
2. That the Filipinos laborer should not be made to work in distant
places where they could not return to their families;
3. That the drafting of laborer should not coincide with the
planting and harvest seasons;
4. That men who are physically incapable should not be
overworked;
5. That forced labor should be resorted to only in cases of
absolute necessity; and
6. That the number of laborers drafted should be diminished as
soon as laborers from other countries had volunteered to work.

On paper, the provisions of the policy on force labor protected Filipino

laborers from exploitation. In practice, however, it was cruel because
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the laws regarding force labor were violated. For example, Filipinos
were not paid their wages. They were separated from their families
from sending them far-flung provinces. They were not given food, as
required by law, but instead they had to provide for them own food.
Moreover, they were overworked and as a result thousands of Filipino
laborers died. This was one of the causes in the decrease in the
population of the Philippines for the some years in the sixteenth and the
seventeenth centuries. For a Filipino laborer to be exempted from force
labor, he had to pay a fee called falla. This is fee was unreasonably
high, and oftentimes the laborer could not afford to pay it.

The Tribute

In order to raise enough money to finance the administration of the

colony, especially, the construction of churches, government buildings,
roads, bridges, and improvements in transportation and
communication, the Filipinos were compelled to pay a tribute in cash
or in kind, in full or installment basis, to the Spanish colonial
government. The tribute was a form of recognition of the Filipinos
loyalty to the King of Spain. When it was introduced officially in 1570,
the amount was small.

Those who paid tribute were persons above sixteen years and those
who below sixty. In 1589, the tribute was raised, of which a small
portion went to the Church. This was called sanctorum. Because of the
opposition to the tribute and to the abuses connected with its collection,
the King abolished in 1884 and the cedula personal was introduced.
This is the present equivalent of the residence certificate class A.

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Taxes

Aside from the tribute, the Filipinos also paid other taxes. They included
the diezmos prediales, the donativo de Zamboanga, and the vinta. The
diezmos prediales was a tax consisted of one-tenth of the produce of
the land. The donativo de Zamboanga, which was introduced in 1635,
was a tax specifically used for conquest of Jolo. The vinta, on the other
hand, was a tax paid by the people of some provinces along the coast
of western Luzon to for the defense of the coasts from Muslim pirates,
who raided the Visayas and Luzon for ‘’slaves’’ that they needed in
their overseas trading.

The Galleon Trade

Even before the arrival of the Spaniards, the Philippines had already
been trading with her neighbors. Jolo and Manila were trading centers
of the archipelago. After the Spanish conquest the settlement of a large
part of the Philippines, Manila became a leading commercial center in
the region. The early Spanish colonial officials encouraged trade
between Manila and other countries of the East because it was so
lucrative that it could make them wealthy within a short period of time.

Ships from Japan, China, Siam (Thailand), India, Cambodia, Malacca,

and what is now, Indonesia, anchored in Manila to unload their valuable
cargoes. These, in turn, were shipped by Spanish traders to Mexico
were they commanded high prices. Later commercial restrictions were
placed on trade due to the complaints of merchants of Cadiz and
Sevilla. They complained that their goods were driven out of Mexico by
the oriental goods that came from Manila. The Spanish merchants of
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Manila denied the charge. But the King did not lift the restrictions on
trade. These restrictions consisted of P250,000 worth of goods to be
sent to Mexico and P500,000 worth of goods to be sent from Mexico to
Manila. This trade across the pacific was called the galleon trade.
Later, the amounts were raise to P300,000 up to P500,000.

Not all could engage in the galleon trade because it was a government
monopoly. Only privileged persons, such as high-ranking officials of the
State, the Church, and the crew of the galleons, were allowed to
engage in trade. The galleon trade was so restrictive that the prosperity
of the Spaniards in Manila depended solely on the success of the
voyage to and from Mexico. In some cases, the galleons were captured
by English Buccaneers. Others, however, sank in the southern coast of
Luzon near Samar. In the nineteenth century when commercial liberty
was adopted as a European policy, the monopolistic galleon trade
declined. In 1811, the last galleon from Manila sailed from Acapulco,
Mexico and the government’s monopoly of the galleon trade came to
an end. Other ports in the Americas, like in Peru and Ecuador, were
open to the Philippine trade and thus, the Manila-Acapulco trade further
declined.

The Mexican Subsidy

Because of the poor economic condition of the country, which the

Spaniards, generally speaking, did not try to improve, the Philippines
became a burden to Spain. In order to prevent the government from
becaming bankrupt, the Mexican government sent to the Philippines an
annual subsidy called the situado. This subsidy amount to P250,000,
on the average.
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This amount was enough to save the colonial government of the
Philippines from bankruptcy. However, the money received from
Filipinos. A large portion of the subsidy went to the pockets of Spanish
officials, employees, and priests in the form of salaries. The Mexican
subsidy was finally stopped when Mexico became independent in 1821.

The Economic Society

Governor Basco founded the Economic Society of Friends of the

Country in 1781 to effectively implement an economic policy in the
colony. This was according to the King’s decree which gave him the
right to establish a society of selected persons who are capable enough
to produce useful ideas. In order to make it solvent from the start,
prominent Spanish traders of Manila give the Society the sum of P960
a year, a hefty sum during those days. The Society was divided into
sections:

1. Factories and manufactures,

2. Industry and popular education,
3. Natural history,
4. Domestic and foreign commerce, and
5. Agriculture and rural economy

Under the auspices of the Society, economics subjects were discussed

by government officials, traders, and merchants; pamphlets on the
cultivation of indigo, coffee, sugar, cacao, hemp, and other plants were
published and widely distributed; agricultural implements from the
United States were imported to improved the agriculture and thus

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increased production; and advanced agricultural methods were also
introduced.

As a result of these activities, the Society was able to export indigo to

Europe for the first time in Philippine history. This was in 1784. The
Society’s activities were not limited to the encouragement of agriculture
and industry. It also founded the Academy of Drawing in Manila in
1824, and granted scholarships to those who were interested in the art
of dyeing. In 1861, the society founded an agricultural school in Manila
for the purpose of training farmers in advanced agricultural methods.

The Government Monopolies

Governor Basco was also remembered for his role in establishing

government monopolies, the most important of which was the tobacco
monopoly. Seeing the advantages of a monopoly in tobacco, Basco
recommended to the King that the monopoly be established in the
Philippines. Consequently, the King issued a decree in 1780 ordering
the establishment of the tobacco monopoly. It was, however, actually
established in the colony in 1782.

The following were the provisions of the decree: (1) the cultivation of
the tobacco was probihited exept for the provinces selected to grow it;
(2) contrabands sale of tobacco was forbidden; (3) the government had
the exclusive right to purchase all tobacco products, to inspect and
classify the tobacco plant, and to prepare and manufacture cigar and
cigarettes; and (4) the government had the right to prohibit the
exportation and importation of tobacco by any agency not connected
with the government. In other words, the government had the monopoly
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of the planting, inspection, sale and purchase of tobacco, and its
manufacture into cigar and cigarette.

Basco’s estimate that increased government revenues would result

from the tobacco monopoly was correct. In 1808, the government
realized a net profit of about P500,000. For the planting year 1880 to
1881 the monopoly lead to the development of agriculture in provinces
where tobacco was grown, like the Ilocos, Nueva Ecija, the Cagayan
Valley, and Marinduque. On the other hand, those advantages of the
tobacco monopoly where offset by its bad results. For example, the
Spanish officials in charge of inspection and classification of tobacco
committed abuses like seizing the lands from tobacco farmers who
failed to produce the required quota of tobacco.

In most cases, inspectors also searched the houses of farmers for

alleged contraband tobacco, but in reality the purpose was to abuse
farmer’s family. In other cases, the farmers were not paid the value of
the tobacco crop; instead, they received nothing but paper promises or
promissory notes saying that they would receive the amount due them.
This amount, in many cases, was not paid because of the dishonesty of
the Spanish employees and officials.

The payment for the tobacco found its way into their pockets. What was
worse was that the tobacco farmers themselves could not smoke the
tobacco they produced. They could not afford to buy cigar
manufactured by the government because of its steep price. Thus,
because of the anomalies connected with the tobacco monopoly,
opposition to it grew. Consequently, the King, in 1881 ordered its
abolition, but it was actually abolished in 1882 in the Philippines.
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The government also had other monopolies, such as those on wine and
liquor, gun powder, playing cards, and buyo or anise while it was true
that these monopolies gave the government a big income, at the same
time, they were a burden to the Filipinos. Many farmers from the Ilocos
and the Cagayan Valley left their homes in disgust and went to Manila.
As a result, the population of the tobacco provinces decreased which
lead to the neglect of agriculture and, consequently, to the low income
of those provinces.

The Royal Company

Governor Basco’s administration was also highlighted by the

establishment of the Royal Company of the Philippines in 1785. The
Company had a capital of P8,000,000. This amount was divided into
32,000 shares costing P250 a share. The aims of the Company were to
promote the progress of the Philippines by improving the foreign trade
of the colony with Spain and to develop the natural resources of the
Philippines by encouraging industry, manufacturing, and agriculture.

Of the expected net profits of the Company, four percent was to be

invested in agricultural pursuits. To implement this program, the King
granted the Company many privileges. For example, it was given the
monopoly of the trade between the Spain and the Philippines. Again,
products that the Philippines exported to Europe where exempted from
tariff duties. Moreover, the Company’s ships were allowed to visit
oriental ports and the prohibition that Manila merchants could not trade
with China and India was lifted.

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Because of this privilege, commercial relations between the Philippines
and Europe were promoted and, consequently, led to increased
revenues. The encouragement of the cultivation of indigo, sugar cane,
pepper, and other spices by the Company, led to increased agricultural
production. Moreover, foreign capital was encouraged to enter Manila
thus improving the trade and commercial relations between other
countries and Philippines.

With the influx of foreign capital the revenues of the government

increased. In spite of these incentives, the company failed in its two-
fold aims. This failure may be attributed to the following causes: (1) the
Spanish merchants in the Philippines, who had been accustomed to the
profitable galleon trade, did not cooperate whole heartedly with the
Company; (2) the Company was not able to establish direct commercial
contact with Japan, China, and India, so it had to buy commodities from
these countries from the Manila merchants, resulting in paying higher
prices for those commodities than in the countries where they came
from; (3) the Company was not well-managed because its officials
spent their time in activities that were not connected with the promotion
of the welfare of the Company; and (4)foreign vessels, instead of the
Company’s vessels brought to the Manila such items are groceries,
canned goods, wine, and other European products. As a result of the
failure of the Company to implement its program for the Philippines, it
was abolished in 1834.

Economic Development: An Overview

The first one hundred and fifty years of the Spanish rule was
characterized by a slow economic development. Population decreased
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and uprisings and revolts became problems to the colonial government.
Several factors accounted for the slow development of the Philippine
economy. First, most Spanish officials were lazy, incompetent, and
inefficient. Instead of developing the natural resources of the colony,
the Spanish officials and minor employees were interested in enriching
themselves in office.

There were many loafers among them who depended on government

employment to earn a living. Consequently, they refused to till the soil.
To them, soiling the hands was demeaning. They wanted ‘’white-collar’’
jobs. Second, there were frequent quarrels among the Spaniards
themselves, especially between the clergy and the governors-general,
on one hand, and the high-ranking ecclesiastical officials and the friar-
curates, on the other. These quarrels sapped their energy and led to
demoralization. Instead of improving the condition of the colony, they
helped make things worked by spending their time fighting each other.

Incompetence was paramount among Spanish officials. It was seldom

that one of them cared for the welfare of the Filipinos. For these official
and employees, the Filipinos were there to be exploited. Thus, even the
Spanish writer, Tomas de Comyn, said in 1810:

In order to be a chief (governor) of a province of those islands

(Philippines), no training or knowledge or special services are
necessary; all persons (Spaniards) are fit and admissible… It is
quite a common thing to see a barber, or a governor’s lackey, a
sailor or a deserter, suddenly transformed into an alcalde
(provincial governor), administrator, and a captain of the forces of

94
 a populous province without any counselor but his rude
understanding, or any guide but his passions.

Under these circumstances, the people became unproductive and

seemingly indolent. There was very little economic and social
improvement in the life of the masses, while the colonial officials and
the church hierarchy grew rich.

STUDY GUIDE

1. Besides the commercial and religious goals of Spain in colonizing

the Philippines, give two other reasons (political and legal) why
Spain claimed the country as its possession or the property of the
king of the Spain.
2. What is meant by crown colony? Can you give an example of a
present crown colony?
3. Why was the governor-general powerful? Enumerate his powers.
4. Define or explain the following
a. Cumplase e. Capitan
b. Audiencia f. Principalia
c. Superior decree g. Cabeza de Barangay
d. Indulto de comercio h. Ayuntamiento
5. How did the Spanish king try to lessen, if not completely prevent,
the abuses of Spanish officials? How effective were the steps
taken by the king to stop these abuses?
6. What is your opinion on the effects of forced labor on the Filipino
laborers? Explain your answer.

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 7. Name and define some of the taxes imposed on the Filipinos by
the Spanish government. Discuss with your classmates wether
these were necessary or not.
8. What was the effect of the galleon trade on the Philippines? Why
did it decline despite its prosperous start?
9. How did the Economic Society help to improve the economy of
the Philippines?
10. Why were monopolies established during the Spanish period?
What were the bad effects of the established monopolies? What
were their advantages?

SUGGESTED ACTIVITIES

1. Hold a debate on the following topic:

Resolved: The Union of Church and State will be beneficiary to
the Philippines Today.
2. Read the 1987 Constitution of the Philippines. Study carefully the
provisions regarding the power of the President. Compare his/her
power with those of the Spanish governor-general. Make a data-
retrieval chart to present your report. Follow the example below:

Powers of the Governor-General Powers of the President

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3. Make an outline map showing the route of the galleon trade
Superimpose the pre-colonial trade routes in the region before the
Spaniards came into the picture. Make comparisons.
4. Hold a class exhibit on the barangay system of governance and the
pueblo or municipal government under Spanish colonial system.

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 CHAPTER 6

CHALLENGES TO SPANISH AUTHORITY

(1560 - 1820s)

Ruins of old Spanish forts, a moro watchtower along the coast, statues
of Spanish conquistadores and missionaries, and occasionally, images
of Filipino heroes like Lapulapu, Rajah Sulayman, Sultan Kudarat, mark
many Philippine towns. Though seemingly cold and mute, these
markers have great stories to tell and lessons to teach.

The Spanish colonial government was greatly challenge by its rivals,

the Portuguese and the Dutch, as well as the numerous uprisings and
revolts by the Filipinos in Luzon, Visayas, and Mindanao. However, the
colonial government was able to quell all these revolts in spite of the
very small number of Spaniards in the country.

Why? First, the revolts lacked coordination. Second, the Filipinos had
no leader of great ability. Third, the Filipino rebels had insufficient arms
with which to fight on equal terms the Spaniards and their Filipino
soldiers. Fourth, there was no feeling of unity and nationalism among
the Filipinos. Fifth, many Filipinos were more loyal to the Spaniards,
especially to the friars, than to their countrymen. The Spanish colonial
officials and friar-curates worked hand in hand and adopted the policy
of "divide and rule".

This policy was so successful that the Spaniards could boast that with
only a few Spanish soldiers, they were able to hold the Philippines for
the King of Spain; that in all the revolts, The Spaniards used Filipinos
98
against Filipinos. The Spaniards alone never succeeded in quelling the
numerous revolts and uprisings. It was the Filipino soldiers who did the
job for them.

THE PORTUGUESE AND DUTCH THREATS

Spanish claim over the Philippines was challenged by a keen rival from
the very start. The Portuguese knowing that the islands belonged to
them under the Treaty of Zaragoza, refused to acknowledge that
Legazpi's presence in Cebu was legal. In 1566 and again in 1568,
Portuguese ships under the command of General Gonzalo Pereira
anchored in Cebu without Legazpi's permission and on both occasions
asked Legazpi to leave.

When Legazpi refused, Pereira blockaded Cebu to starve the

Spaniards but Legazpi and his men held their ground and forced the
Portuguese to leave instead. Returning in 1570, Pereira bombarded the
Spanish settlement. However, the Portuguese again failed to dislodge
their rivals. Portuguese incursions into the archipelago ceased only
when Portugal became part of the Spanish empire in1580.

The Dutch, the inhabitants of a small country called Netherlands or

Holland, also threatened Spanish rule. At the height of Spain's power
under King Charles I and his son, King Philip II, Holland was part of the
Spanish Empire. The Dutch, being a freedom-loving people, revolted
against Spain and proclaimed their independence in 1579. Spain,
however, refused to recognize Dutch independence.

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Soon after the Thirty Years' War in Europe, in which Spain was deeply
involved, Spain finally recognized Holland's Independence with the
conclusion of the Treaty of Westphalia in 1648. Spain, however, closed
the port of Lisbon to the Dutch to discourage them from trading with the
Portuguese. The need for trading posts forced the Dutch to send their
ships to the East. In the process, Holland colonized Malaya and what is
now Indonesia.

In 1597, Holland sent an expedition to the East under the command of

Admiral Oliver van Noort. Reaching Manila Bay, van Noort seized
Filipino and Chinese vessels. A Spanish squadrom under the command
of Antonio de Morga engaged the Dutch in a battle. In the first battle of
Mariveles, van Noort was defeated and was forced to leave for Holland.

The second Dutch attack occurred in 1610 when they tried to land on
Cuyo Island. The Filipinos were, however, hostile the Dutch and fought
them off. Another expedition was sent later, and upon reaching Manila
Bay, the Dutch fleet blockaded Manila. The Spaniards, aided the
Filipinos, fought them and the second battle of Mariveles took place. In
this battle, the Dutch were badly beaten.

In spite of this, the Dutch were relentless. In 1616, another Dutch fleet
appeared near Manila Bay and began to plunder vessels carrying
foodstuff from the provinces to Manila. The Audiencia, which was then
discharging the duties of the governor-general, sent a fleet against the
Dutch and in a Battle of Playa Honda in 1617, the Dutch were again
defeated.

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There were more Dutch attacks in the succeeding years, but they were
always defeated by the Spaniards with the help of the Filipinos. The
last attack which occurred in 1647, tried to capture Cavite and Bataan,
but this time they were finally driven off. The Dutch never again made
any serious attempt to contest Spanish sovereignty in the Philippines.

EARLY RESISTANCE IN LUZON, VISAYAS, AND MINDANAO

The early uprisings against the Spaniards were from Luzon. These
were attempts to regain lost freedom and authority over their kingdom
and territory. Manila was probably the earliest Spanish stronghold to
stage an uprising. Lakan Dula was friendly to Legazpi and his men and
cooperated with them in many ways. For instance, he and his men
helped Legazpi rebuild Manila.

He also helped Martin de Goiti, Legazpi's second Master of Camp, in

the conquest of what are now the Central Luzon provinces. Legazpi
repaid Lakan Dula by exempting him and his descendants from the
payment of tribute and from forced labor. When Legazpi died, his
successor, Governor Guido de Lavezares, perhaps through ignorance
or bad faith, lifted the exemption of Lakan Dula and his relatives from
the tribute and forced labor.

The old rajah resented this treatment. In 1574, during the attack on
Manila by the Chinese adventurer Limahong, Lakan Dula led a revolt
against the Spaniards. Having put to death some Spanish soldiers, he
retreated to what is now Navotas, Rizal Province, and gathered his
warriors.

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Legazpi's grandson, Juan de Salcedo, and Father Geronimo Marin
persuaded Lakan Dula to lay down his arms. In return, they promised to
exempt him and his descendants from the payment of tribute and
forced labor. Lakan Dula believed them and ordered his men to return
to their homes in peace. The governor pardoned him and gave him gifts
of silk and gold.

The Tondo "Conspiracy"

Despite the Spanish promises of good treatment, the Filipinos harbored

feelings of hostility toward the colonizer. In some cases, the hostility
was ignited by love of freedom. These happened in 1587 when a group
of Filipinos in Tondo formed a secret society whose purpose was to
regain their freedom. Among the members of the society, which the
Spanish writer wenceslao E. Retana called the first Katipunan, were
Lakan Dula's son Magat Salamat; his nephew Agustin de Legazpi;
Juan Banal Chief of Tondo; Pedro Balingit, Chief of Pandacan; and
many others.

The plot spread throughout Central Luzon and as far as Cuyo Island
and Borneo. The society's plan was to have a Christian-Japanese ally
bring Japanese weapons and soldiers to the Philippines and with these
weapons drive away the Spaniards. After which Agustin de Legazpi
would be proclaimed King of the Philippines. The plan seemed good,
but it was aborted due to spies who reported it to Spanish authorities.
Immediately, the leaders were arrested and executed, while those
implicated were banished to Mexico.

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The Revolt of Magalat

Disillusionment with Spanish rule may not be national in scope but it

spread to many places. In Cayagan, some natives, led by Magalat,
rose in revolt against Spanish rule in 1596 and although it was quelled,
the Filipino rebels continued their opposition to the Spaniards. The
governor-general sent a strong contingent composed of a few Spanish
soldiers and hundreds of Filipino recruits against Magalat but the
Ilocanos fought bravely. When they failed to defeat Magalat, the
Spanish authorities thought of another way to get rid of him. They hired
a Filipino assassin to murder Magalat. The plan succeeded and
Magalat was killed. According to a Spanish contemporary historian,
Antonio de Morga, with the death of Magalat, Cayagan "became quiet"
and peace reigned once more.

Ladia's "Conspiracy"

A man claiming to be a descendant of Lakan Dula tried to instigate a

revolt in 1643 against the Spaniards of Malolos, Bulacan. He was
Pedro Ladia, a native of Borneo who came to Bulacan to lead an armed
uprising against Spaniards. If they succeeded he would be proclaimed
"King of the Tagalogs". His plan reached the friar-curate of Malolos who
dissuaded the town peolpe from believing Ladia. He urged them to
remain faithful to the Church and to the King of Spain. At the same
time, the friar-curate notified the Spanish authorities of Ladia's
activities. Ladia was arrested, sent to Manila, and then executed.

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The Revolt of Maniago

Central Luzon, since time immemorial, had been the center of

discontent in the country. In 1660, Kapampangans, under the
leadership of Francisco Maniago, declared war against the Spaniards.
This revolt, like the conspiracyof Agustin de Legazpi and that of Ladia,
sought to destroy Spanish power and to declare that the people of
Central Luzon were free and independent.

But aside from this purpose, the revolt was also caused by the abuses
of the Spanish officials who refused to pay for the food they had taken
from the Filipinos. The angry Kapampangans set fire to their houses
and swore they would continue to fight until they regained their
freedom. Attempts of the friar-curates of the province to persuade the
rebels to lay down their arms failed. Instead, the Kapampangans tried
to stop commerce between Manila and the Central Luzon towns by
setting up stakes along the rivers. At the same time, they issued an
appeal to the people of Pangasinan and the Ilocos provinces to join
them in their battle for freedom. The governor-general deployed
Filipinos troops under the Spanish officers to the affected areas to
prevent the further spread of the revolt.

The governor-general himself, fearing other towns might follow

Maniago's example, personally conferred with the Chief of Arayat, Juan
Macapagal, who promised to help the Spaniards quell the revolt.
Maniago's cause weakened with Macapagal's announced intention to
side with the Spaniards.

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Consequently, Maniago sent an emissary to the governor-general in
order to make peace and make the following demands: (1) for the
governor-general to pardon all those who participated in the revolt; (2)
the Kapampangans to receive the sum of P200,000 as payment for the
rice which the Spaniards seized from their barangays, of this amount,
P14,000 was actually paid as down payment, and the remainder of the
total amount to be paid in installment; and (3) for the Kapampangans to
continue to cut timber, as required by the law on forced labor, but they
would be given sufficient time to perform their duties at home. The
governor-general accepted these demands and Maniago, satisfied, laid
down his arms. The revolt was a success in the sense that Maniago
was able to air his people's grievances and get what they wanted.

The Revolt of Malong

It soon became apparent that these struggles for freedom were due to
Spanish oppressive imposition, for instance, one of the causes of the
disillusionment of the people of Pangasinan was maltreatment of the
people by Spanish officials of the province with regard to the polo y
servicio (forced labor). The Spaniards needed labor to cut down trees
for timber.

In 1660, under the leadership of Andres Malong, a native of

Binalatongan (now San Carlos), the people of Lingayen rose up in
arms, The revolt spread to the whole province and in the course of the
disturbance, many Spaniards including the provincial governor, were
killed. So successful was the revolt that Malong, in his enthusiasm,
proclaimed himself “King of Pangasinan”. With this royal title, he
appointed officials in the areas under him.
105
At the same time, he urged the people of the Ilocos pprovinces,
Zambales, and Cagayan to take arms against the Spaniards. To show
his strength, he sent thousands of soldiers to Ilocos, Cagayan, and
even Pampanga, were Maniago was also fighting the Spaniards, to
incite the people of provinces to join the revolt. By sending his own
soldiers to other provinces, Malong weakened his position.

The government forces, as usual consisting mostly of Filipino recruits,

pursued Malong and in a skirmish he was defeated and captured.
Later, he was executed for having been a “traitor” to Spain. In 1762,
like Malong’s revolt, the people of Binalatongan, Dagupan, Clasiao,
Santa Barbara, Mangaldan, San Jacinto, Malasiki in Pangasinan, and
Paniqui (then a part of Pangasinan) rose in arms over the imposition of
tribute. Led by Juan dela Cruz Palariz, the uprising lasted a year and
came to be known as the Palaris Revolts.

Revolt of Bancao

Disillusionment with Spanish rule was not confined to the provinces of

Luzon disturbances in Visayas were also widespread. In Leyte in 1622,
Bancao, a chieftain of Limasawa, led revolt against the Spaniards
because of the intolerance of the friars. Legazpi befriended Bancao
who had given him food and other supplies. He became Catholic and a
loyal subject of the Spanish king. Later, Bancao returned to the religion
of his forefathers. Because of this apostasy, the Spanish friars-curate of
his town hated him as he convinced a lot of natives to go back to their
original faith.

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The natives stopped going to church, which led the friar-curate to seek
help from the governor of Cebu to help restore Spanish influence on
the Warays in Visayas. This uprising spread from Carigara to other
parts of Leyte and endangered the friar-curate and the Catholic faith in
the province. The provincial governor of Cebu sent troops consisting of
hundreds of Filipino soldiers under Spanish officers and defeated
Bancao, who died fighting. As in other instances, the Filipinos, not the
Spaniards, defeated their fellow-Filipinos.

The Revolt of Sumuroy

In accordance with the law on forced labor, in 1649the governor-

general ordered the provincial governors of the Visayan provinces to
send workers to the Cavite shipyard. Consequently, the provincial
governors recruited workers who were sent to Cavite. The workers
resented leaving their homes to be separated from their families. To
show their deeps resentments, the people of Palapag, Samar, gathered
under leadership of Agustin Sumuroy, and revolted against the
Spaniards. The friars-curate of Palapag killed and soon the fire of
discontent swept other towns and islands. The revolt spread to
Mindanao particularly to Zamboanga, Camiguin, Masbate, Camarines
and Albay.

The governor-general in Manila was alarmed at the spread of the

revolt. He gathered a force consisting mostly of Filipino soldiers under
Spanish officers and sent an expedition to Samar. Sumuroy fought
bravely and he won over the Spanish-Filipino forces in several
skirmishes. Sumuroy chose mountain as a natural fortress and he
withstood attacks from the enemy. In 1650, the government sent a
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strong army contingent and engaged Sumuroy in a battle in the
mountains. He was defeated, captured, and executed. The event in
Samar did not discourage Tapar who led the uprisings in Oton, Panay
in 1663, and Dagohoy who just like Tapar wanted to return to the
religion of their ancestors. Dagohoy’s uprising proved to be one of the
longest rebellions in our history, lasting from 1744 to 1829. Dagohoy
set up his own “government” in the mountains, with some 20,000
followers obeying his orders and practicing their own faith.

More Rebellions in Luzon

The succeeding rebellions, mainly Luzon were clearly economic in

nature. By the 1700s, friar estates and the hacienda system had
dramatically expanded due to the demand by the galleon trade for
agricultural products. This caused many inhabitants to lose their lands
along with their rights over communal rivers and forests. Thus, the
violent uprisings in 1702 in Tondo; Biñan, Laguna; and Silang, Cavite
were due to the loss of pasturelands and lands for agriculture. By 1743,
Pasig, Taguig, Bicutan, Parañaque, and parts of Cavite and Bulacan
were up in arms due to their lack of access to rivers and forests.

In 1745 haciendas in Bulacan’s Buenavista, Pandi, and Lolomboy were

burned and their friar-owners killed. Up in the north, the principal couple
Diego and Gabriela Silang led a widespread revolt in Ilocos Sur on the
issue of the right to engage in the galleon trade (indulto de comercio)
by non-Spaniards on Indios (as what the Spaniards called the native
Filipinos). Likewise in 1807, the Basi revolt in Ilocos Norte erupted over
the issue of government monopoly on the production, pricing, and sale
of basi, a favorite local wine among the Ilocanos.
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Resistance in the Interior and Mountainous Parts

Rich in gold, forest products and trees for logs or lumber the interior
and mountainous areas of the country were hard to penetrate yet much
coveted by the Spaniards. In the Cordillera region, for instance, people
lived in separate and distant tribal communities led by a mingel, a
warrior-leader and expert in headhunting. Trade and commerce with
the lowlanders existed but on a limited basis among the locals.
Attempts by the Spaniards to send expeditions to the region between
1591 and 1608 failed due to the fierce resistance by the taong bundok,
which literally meant, ‘people of the mountains.”

Their ancient beliefs and way of life that were less exposed to the
outside world, made them more resistant to colonization whether
Spanish or any of the later incursions by the Americans and Japanese.
The process did not only prove expensive and frustrating for the
Spaniards, but also dangerous as confrontations were practically
reduced to pangangayao or headhunting expeditions for the lumads,
another term for those who remained non-Christians and non-Muslim
long after the colonization. This situation would also be true of the
Lumads in the Visayas, as well as in Mindanao.

The Moro Wars in the South

Certainly the longest and the bloodiest attempt by the Spaniards was
the colonization and Christianization of the Muslim in the southern
islands of Mindanao. In fact, the process did not only take the longest,
but also the most frustrating for the Spaniards. The Muslims in the
country remained unconquered and unconverted until the end of
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Spanish rule. The first encounter between the Spaniards and the Moros
(the term used by the Spaniards for the Muslims, who also ruled their
country for more than 400 years), took place in Cebu between Martin
De Goiti and the group of the Bornean traders in 1569. Manila, even in
1571 to 1572 could hardly be called a Muslim kingdom. The connection
between Islamized Brunei and Manila was more by ties in marriage and
economic or commercial transaction, rather than religious. Thus, no
sultanate ever evolved in Manila (Luzon) or in the Visayas. However,
Islam penetrated the south early and spread throughout Mindanao.

Two sultanates were eventually set up, one in Sulu and another in the
Maguindanao-Cotabato area. It was logical, therefore, that ties between
Brunei and the sultanates would continue despite the Spanish conquest
of Manila. In fact, the new government in Manila had to send troops to
Borneo three times (in 1576, 1578 and 1588) to put an end to their
trading activities and military aid to manila.

However, succeeding military expeditions by the Spaniards directed at

Sulu and Maguindanao (1596 to 1638), though bloody and fierce on
both sides, failed. The Spaniards could only put up forts as defenses
for their small territorial gains as outpost, one in Jolo and another in
Zamboanga. Under the capable leadership of Sultan Kudarat,
Maguindanao and Sulu united as a confederacy (1638-1671). This
event forced the Spaniards to finally withdraw from the place and focus
instead on Luzon.

During this time, the Muslims carried out raids in the Visayas and
Luzon for labor force (slaves or bihag) that they needed in the
procurement of products and in trading between Sulu and Maguidanao
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on one hand, and Borneo, the Moluccas, Malaya, and Indonesia on the
other. After Sultan Kudarat’s death in 1671, these raiding activities
slacked. The two sultanates, are lacking an expert leader like Kudarat,
again engaged each other in battles over the issue of trade and
supremacy in the area.

By 1716 to 1747, Spain came back in steamboats equipped with more

powerful cannons. Their victory allowed them to build forts in Iligan
Cagayan de Oro. They also brought some Jesuits for mission work in
Mindanao. In the face of developments, The Moro leadership finally
entered into a treaty with Governor-General Urbiztondo in 1851. With
some compromises in the treaty, but with no actual surrender of
territory within the realm of the sultanate, the Moros continued to resist
the Spaniards. In 1762-1764, during the brief British occupation of the
Philippines, the Moros were forced to give up of Palawan and Sabah on
a lease basis. Nevertheless, until the end of Spanish rule in 1898 they
remained sovereign.

How were the Muslims able to do this? Historians offer the following
reasons: (1) the Spanish force lacked the number and the military
capacity to break through the Moro Kuta (defense forts); (2) Mindanao
is far from Manila, the center of power and governance; (3) the
Spaniard were more preoccupied in several fronts with wars or
resistances by the Portuguese, the Dutch, and the various provinces of
Luzon and the Visayas; and (4) Islam provided the Spaniards an
Identifiable enemy called “Moros;” thus forcing all followers of Islam to
resist as one, despite ethnic differences among them. Of these four
factors, the last one is considered the most plausible explanation to
their successful resistance to Spanish colonization and Christianization.
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Their common identity as Muslims, sworn-enemies of the Spaniards,
helped to unite them.

REASONS FOR THE GENERAL FAILURE OF THE REVOLTS

There were several reasons why these uprisings failed. First, the
Spaniards possessed superior weapons and were able to employ
native volunteers or mercenary soldiers. Second, the people remained
divided and lacked unity, although a centralized form of government
and a geographic identity had been established in the country. This
was due to the zeal and clever use by the Spaniards, particularly the
friars, of the “divide and rule” tactic, which kept the strong, if not intact,
regionalistic tendencies of the people.

And third, the giving of positions of power and privileges to the

chieftains and their families by the Spanish authorities, weakened unity
among the people and prevented the birth of leaders that could
consolidate the many revolts, however disconnected and isolated from
each other they may be. This further prevented the development of a
sense of common identity and purpose as a people.

It was the factor, the lack of a concept of a nation that was most
significant and the hardest one to come by. The people were not only
separated into many ethnolinguistic groups, but also geographically into
more than 7,000 islands. Evolving the idea of belonging to one
homeland, having one soul, and one destiny as a nation, would take
longer and require more elements than what were present at this time.

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THE CHINESE PRESENCE

Among the early foreign contacts of the ancient Filipinos, the Chinese
appeared to be the most constant and steady visitors, most of them
coming in from Canton.They readily interacted with the Filipinos,
adapted to the local ways, and eventually married native women. There
had been economic and cultural contacts with the Chinese for centuries
before the Spaniards came. The Chinese came to Manila annually,
bringing with them fruits, ceramics, bowls and plates, silk and other
items to exchange with Philippine gold and silver.

To the Spaniards, the Chinese were Sangleys, which meant “traders

who came and went,” with no intention of conquest and colonization.
The Spanish started to get alarmed by the Chinese presence in 1574
when the famous Chinese commander Limahong came with his
shipsand bombarded the walled city of Intramuros and nearby Malate.
Martin de Goiti lost his life in this attack. The combined forces of the
Spaniards and Lakan Dula forced Limahong to leave and head for
Lingayen, Pangasinan, only to be pursued by Spanish-Filipino forces.
However, Limahong and his men managed to escape.

Despite the Chinese treat on the Spaniards, the Chinese merchants,

with their stores and restaurants, remained inside Intramuros. Their
wares and goods like chocolate, candles, shoes, and bread, as well as
services that Spanish and Filipino communities needed, like carpentry,
smithing, and many more, were in great demand. Thus, the Sangleys
rapidly grew in number and the Spanish authorities were forced to
situate them within a limited space called Parian. The word, “parian,”
according to some, came from the Chinese word palien, meaning
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“union” or “federation.” Originally, the Parian occupied a space in front
of the old Sto. Domingo Church inside Intramuros. When it burned
down, the government moved their quarters outside Intramuros, along
the present day Manila Post Office, Liwasang Bonifacio, Arroceros, and
the GSIS building in Roxas Boulevard, Manila. In a sense, the parian
was the precursor of the country’s Chinatown. The government also
passed laws allowing the Chinese to live in the provinces, in an effort to
spread them out. All sorts of taxes were imposed on the Chinese,
which in the course of time, became abusive and oppressive.

These impositions provoked the Chinese to rebel. In 1603, Chinese

uprisings erupted in Tondo and Quiapo, which were easily quelled by
the combined Spansih-Filipino force. To scare the Chinese, their leader
Eng Kang was beheaded and his head was put on public display. But
this did not prevent other Chinese revolts to spread from Manila to
Makati, Taytay, Antipolo, and the provinces.

Again, the combined forces of the Spaniards and their Filipino soldiers
stopped these rebellions in 1639, 1662, and in 1762 at the cost of some
23,000 Chinese lives and great loss to their properties and businesses.
Several decrees were passed for their expulsion in 1744, 1758, and
1759, but these too failed because by this time, the Chinese had
controlled the source of livelihood and even the daily needs of both
Spaniards and Filipinos. Their presence had become a necessity for
everyone’s comfort and convenience. Thus, from 150 Chinese living
around Manila upon the arrival of Legazpi in 1571, the Chinese
reached 100,000 during the Revolution of 1896.

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STUDY GUIDE

1. Why were the Filipinos disillusioned with Spanish rule?

2. Generally speaking, what were the causes of these early revolts?
Which cause, in your opinion, is the most serious and why?
3. Was Lakan Dula justified in his revolt? Explain your answer.
4. Would you consider Tondo’s plot a conspiracy? Why or why not?
5. What factors would you give to explain the relative success of
Dagohoy’s revolt which lasted for eighty-five years?
6. Why do you think the Moros were able to resist Spanish
colonization and Christianization?
7. What vital lessons or insights have you learned from this chapter
or topic?

SUGGESTED ACTIVITIES

1. Using a graphic organizer or table, classify the various uprisings and

revolts according to their causes. Indicate the places in which they
took place and their respective dates. Follow this format:

Uprisings/ Revolt Date Leader/s Place Cause/s

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2. Discuss in groups one of the following topics, ideas, and analysis.

a. Why Filipinos had no unity?

b. The role of the Filipino soldiers in quelling Filipino revolts.
c. The Spaniards were justified and they should have been left
in peace.
d. The Moros were never conquered and therefore were not
part of the colonial government and society.

116
 CHAPTER 7

CULTURAL CHANGES AND IDENTITY

(1600-1800)

Efforts to quell the early uprisings and revolts by force and imposition of
the principle of "divide-and-rule" (i.e., by exploiting the fragmented
geographic features of the country, its multicultural characteristics, and
regionalistic tendencies), were certainly not enough to keep the people
peaceful and loyal to spain.culture and the many changes in this area
played a crucial role in maintaining Spanish rule in the Philippines and
in keeping the inhabitants subjugated for centuries.

Spanish influence made its impact on the indigenous culture through

the change in Filipino names, intermarriages, the plaza complex,
fiestas and other religious rituals, forms of amusement, attire and
ornaments, house styles, painting and engraving, religion, and
education. The meeting of the two different cultures worked well to
unite the Filipinos under the Spanish crown, rather than incite them to
resist and free themselves from colonial rule. Thus, the effects of the
Spanish influences on the Filipinos' consciousness, though enriching in
some ways, were more negative at this stage, Spanish cultural
influence kept the indios generally submissive.

SPANISH INFLUENCE

The coming of the Spaniards brought the Filipinos into contact with
western culture. In particular, the spanish way of life was introduced:
their clothing, cooking, eating habits, forms of amusement, Spanish
117
words, and Christianity - all these resulted in the mixing of Spanish and
Filipino cultural elements. It was inevitable that such mixture should
result in each group of people borrowing some aspect of culture from
the other so that the thing borrowed merged with what was indigenous.
The combination of the two, so to speak, which was neither native nor
Spanish, in the course of time, became the dominant culture. This
happened to the Filipinos. They borrowed so many of the things that
the Spaniards introduced in the Philippines. In time, the things that
were borrowed were no longer Spanish but something having the
characteristics of both cultures. This new culture, which was Spanish
and Filipino in origin, has now become recognizably Filipino yet colonial
in impact and function.

CHANGE IN FILIPINO NAMES

Before the coming of the Spaniards, Filipinos had no surnames. The

name of a boy, for example, was taken from his physical appearance or
from any natural event, or object. Thus, if a boy looked strong, he was
named Si Malakas. The little word "si" is not part of the person's name.
Thus, when the Spanish records referred to Sigala, it should actually be
spelled as Si Gala; Cimaquio for si Makyo; cilapulapu for si Lapu-Lapu,
and so on. The Spaniards, at first, made little changes in the names of
the Filipinos. Those who had Christian surnames chose Spanish
names, usually the names of saints.

Thus, a boy was named after a saint, such as: Santo Tomas, San
Gregorio, or San Andres, and so forth. Many Filipinos did not change
their names. They used such names as Magiting, Magtanggol, Bayani,
Dimagiba, Dimalanta, Gatbonton, Gatmaitan, and others. Because
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many Filipinos had no surnames, confusion arose. Two or more men
with the same brought confusion to Spanish authorities. To put an end
to this confusion, Governor-General Narciso Claveria issued a
decree in 1849 allowing the Filipinos to change their names. A very
long list Spanish name was prepared so that Filipinos could choose the
names they wanted to use. Thus, Spanish names such as Juan, Pedro,
Sixto, Teofilo, and surnames such as Cruz, Reyes, Santos, Rivera,
Santiago, San Jose, and many more, were adopted by most Christian
Filipinos. A few Filipinos, however, continued to use their Filipino
names although they adopted Christian names such as Francisco,
Jose, Jovito, and others. Today, one finds such names as Francisco
Dimagiba, Juan Gatbonton, Jose Gatmaitan, Pedro Lacanilao, Calixto
Lakandula, and similar names, which are a combination of Spanish
Christian names and Filipino surnames.

INTERMARRIAGE

The Spaniards as a rule did not intermarry with Filipinos. There were, of
course, exceptions and these exceptions led to limited intermarriages
between Spanish men and Filipino women. There were very few
recorded marriages between a Filipino male and a Spanish female. The
child of the marriage of a Filipino and a Spaniard was called Spanish
mestizo (mestizo espanol).

Toward the end of the Spanish period, the qualifying word, "mestizo,"
was also used to refer to children of a male Chinese and a native
woman, as in mestiza de Sangley. Today, a child of Spanish and
Filipino parents is simply called "mestizo” referred to Spanish mestizo
or mestiza. The intermarriages between Spaniards and Filipinos
119
resulted in an interesting addition to the racial stock. The same thing
happened to the blending of Spanish with Chinese mestiza. Those who
belonged to the pure indigenous stock were called "indios" or "Indians."

SOCIAL LIFE

The social life in any Christian community during the Spanish times
revolved around the church because the friar-curate was the all-
powerful person in the whole community. What he wanted was always
followed. The church was usually located in the best part of the town.
Beside the church was the municipal building called tribunal where
the gobernadorcillo or capitan held office. The proximity of the church
and the tribunal to each other symbolized the union of church and
state.

The capitan could not do anything important without the knowledge and
consent of the friar-curate. If a fiesta was to be held, the capitan had to
consult the friar-curate. The letter also determined the amount to be
spent for the mass, the fireworks, the perticipants in the play to be
staged before and during the fiestas, and a thousand other things
connected with the occasion and other religious events. The pista or
fiesta gave the Filipinos a day or so of relaxation from their toils in the
farms. To make the festivities lively, committees created by the capitan
with the consent of the friar-curate, were charged with preparing the
program of activities.

Some of these activities included games with prizes offered to winners;

the staging of plays called moro-moro, comedia and later, zarzuela,
which lasted two or three nights; and of course, the religious
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procession. The comedia, the moro-moro, the zarzuela, and the carillo
were theatrical performances which were popular not only in Manila but
also in the provinces.

It was during fiesta time that even the poorest Filipino family prepared
plenty of good foods for their guests. Oftentimes, poor families
borrowed money in order to feed their guests. As a result, the poor
families became heavily indebted. This practice was passed on from
father to children, through generations.

AMUSEMENT

Cockfighting was the principal form of entertainment of the Filipino

man. Some foreign travelers who had been to the Philippines attested
to their "passionate eagerness" in the game. According to a German
scientist, Feodor Jagor, the Filipinos used cockfighting as amusement
and as a form of gambling. It is not true that cockfighting was
introduced by the spaniards. Pigafetta, the chronicler of the Magellan
expedition, testified that on their way back to Spain after Magellan's
death, they dropped anchor in Palawan, and here they saw men
engaged in cockfighting. So this game and form of gambling was
already in the Philippines long before the spaniards settled in the
country. But the spaniards encouraged cockfighting among the
Filipinos. In this way, the government collected more taxes. Many terms
used in cockfighting are mostly Spanish innovations such as Soltada,
Kareo, Ruweda, Sentensiyador, pusta, dihado, Ilamado, and others.

Cockfighting was a regular event during fiestas and even to this day.
Gambling in other forms were introduced by Spain. These games
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included panggingge, monte, tres siete, and others. Lottery, horse race,
and bullfighiting were all Spanish origin. Bullfights were held in what is
now Claro M. Recto Avenue near the Cinerama Theatre, then in Paco,
and finally, in Pasay.

Wakes were held with mourners playing cards (with or without stakes),
or with juego de prenda, the ninth day after the death of a person was
celebrated by staging the duplo. This was a kind of debate in verse
between two men or between a man, called bellaco, and a woman,
called bellaca. The loser was "punished" by making him/her sing,
dance, or simply let his/her palm be hit lightly by an object or a piece of
wood.

CHANGES IN CLOTHING

The barong, or what is popularly called today as barong tagalog, began

to be worn at this time by the ordinary menfolk. Unlike the European
and Spanish shirt that was tucked in, the barong was loosely worn to
distinguish the natives from the foreigners. In place of the original
putong, the Filipino male learned to wear hats. Inthe case of the capitan
or gobernadorcillo, he wore a salakot with a silver top. He also wore a
coat over a long shirt, and carried a gold-hilted cane. This was the
symbol of his authority as capitan. The well-to-do Filipinos wore
slippers or shoes, but the poor people went about barefooted. The
women, on the other hand, still wore their skirt or saya, the tapis, and
the patadyong. They learned to wear a camisa in a Spanish way. The
camisa was made of fine material such as husi or pinya. They, too,
learned to wear shoes and slippers.

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THE MESTIZA DRESS

The mestiza dress was worn by Filipino women married to Europeans

amd was definitely influenced by the Spanish dress. It consisted of an
upper transparent part called camisa which is made silk, hemp, husi, or
pineapple filaments. The lower part is called saya or skirt. Supported by
the shoulders is the baksa, which, is made of the same materials as the
camisa. In time, the mestiza dress came to be worn by any woman who
could afford to buy the material for such dress. Today, the mestiza
dress is still worn but without the baksa. Clothing ultimately became a
status symbol to distinguish one's social class and race.
.
THE ANTILLEAN HOUSES

Similarly, house-types provided distinctions between the rich and the

poor. For example, the Spaniards introduced the type of house called
antillean. This was either a rectangular or square house made of strong
materials such as first-class wood like narra, ipil, and molave. The roof
was made of either nipa or tiles. In many cases, the roof was made of
red tiles. At the back or at the side of the house was the azotea. The
houses of rich Filipinos during those days were of Antillean
architecture.

Today, in many parts of the Philipines, one can still see this kind of
architecture. On the other hand, the houses of poor Filipinos remained
almost the same as in pre-Spanish times. A few changes had been
made, however, the ordinary Filipino hose during the Spanish period
had a banggera (probably from the Spanish bangquera or frame), on
which clean plates, cups, and other things were placed. Then the
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ladder was improved and the stairs were, in some cases, made of
wood. Of course, bamboo ladder continued to be in used. Another
improvement was the addition of the balcon, which was a sort of
gallery where members of the family could sit and look at the people
passing by.

The Position of Women

Men and women were treated equally, before the Spanish conquest.
However, during Spanish times, the women existed as dependents of
men. Their rights over property which they enjoyed during pre-Spanish
times were curtailed. They could not sell the property they inherited
from their husbands. But their husbands could sell the same property
even without their knowledge. The friar-curates taught the Filipino
women to be very obedient to their husbands, even if their husbands
were cruel and immoral. The friars taught them to prepare themselves
for marriage, which was thought to be the only function of women. They
were taught prayers and how to behave in public.

There were taught how to use the fork, the spoon, and the knife in
formal dinners. They were not, however, taught how to be independent,
how to help the husbands in earning more for the family, how to work in
order to earn when their husbands were sick or away and they were not
taught to think for themselves. During the Spanish period, the women
lived to raise children. Despite these changes, however, the Filipino
women continued, and still continue, to be the treasurer of the home.
The husbands dutifully handed over their earnings to their wives, who
kept the money for the family.

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A COMMON RELIGION

The Spaniards introduced Catholicism to the Filipinos, who, contrary to

earlier views, did not readily accept the new religion. In fact, many of
the earliest resistances or uprisings were due to the desire of the
people to return to the religion of their ancestors before Spanish
colonization. If the Spanish missionaries and the friar-curates, in a span
of comparatively short time, were able to convert a great majority of the
Filipinos to the Catholic religion, this was due to a large extent to the
adaptations of the Catholic religion to the indigenous faith and traditions
of the people.

Only then did Catholicism win the hearts and minds of millions of
Filipinos, who to this day, remain in the majority. For instance, the
mass, sacrament of baptism, marriage, prayers for the dying, among
others, were similar to their ancient rituals. The intercession through the
saints were no different from the ancient way of asking deities for
favors and guidance. The colorful cenaculo and processions were just
as festive and unifying as the ancient rituals and chanting of epics.
While Catholicism did not unify the Filipinos in the real sense of the
word, it nevertheless sutained their faith in the creator or bathala amidst
adversities and sufferings as a people.

GEOGRAPHICAL IDENTITY

The conquest and colonization of the philiphines by the Spaniards

created geographical unity for the country. Before their arrival, there
was no such geographical unit as the Philiphines. There were only
thousands of islands and islets divided into many barangays with.
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When the spaniards came, they organized a central government
through the plaza complex. A central authority ruled the whole country,
except the non-Christian areas. The Christianized Filipinos, who
constituted the great majoriy of the people in the lowlands, recognized
this central autority and followed the laws promulgated either by the
government of Spain or by the governor-general. The same laws were
followed in all christianized areas because ther was already
geograpical unity in the colony under the Spanish empire.

THE INFLUENCE OF THE SPANISH LANGUAGE

While it is true that Spanish administrators, including the friar-curates,

did not teach the Spanish language to the Filipinos, nevertheless, many
Filipinos who haf contacts with the Spaniards learned the language.
Such contacts led to adoptions of Spaniards words among many
Filipino languages. At the same time, the friar-curates, the
missionaries, and the Spanish civil officials and employees used
Spanish words and phrases in their dealings with the people.

In the course of time, Spanish words like silla, mesa, cama, and many
more, were incorporated into the Philipphine languages like Hiligaynon,
Sugbuhanon, Bicolano, Tagalog, Ilocano, and others. Tagalog was
especially influenced by the Spanish language because the Tagalog
region was and still is, in the center of the social, political, cultural, and
economic setup of the country. Such Tagalog words as Sibuyas,
Kabayo, Bintana, Balkon, Kusina, and others, were Spanish words
pronounced and spelled the Tagalog way. These words came from the
Spanish words Cebolla, Caballo, Vintana, Balcon, and Cocina. Thus,

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native languages were enriched by the incorporation of Spanish words,
which have become part of everyday language or communication.

PRINTING AND ENGRAVING

The Dominican missionaries introduced printing by woodblocks when

they published the first books in the Philippines, the Doctrina
Christiana, one in Tagalog and one in Chinese. Later, printing by
typography was introduced. Filipinos and Christianized Chinese aided
the Spanish friars in their printing work. One of the earliest printers was
Tomas Pinpin, he was called the "Prince of Filipino Printers" because
of the many books he printed for the Dominicans.

Another Filipino printer who became famous was Nicolas de la Cruz

Bagay. He was not only a printer, but a good engraver. He engraved a
map prepared by a Jesuit. Domingo Loag was also a printer and an
engraver. He printed many relugious books and dictionaries. Other
famous engravers were Cipriano Bagay, Felipe Savilla, and Laureano
Atlas.

With hundreds of books printed (mainly religious and pious readings),

Catholicism and its teachings spread far and wide in the provinces.
Hence, Catholicism became a common religion among the Filipinos,
with its beliefs, own set of marolity, and practices.

EDUCATION

During the early peiod of Spanish rule, education was not available to
the majority of Filipinos. However, in the second half of the nineteenth
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century, primary and secondary schools were opened to Filipino
school-age children. Despite this move, many can children were still
afraid to go to school because the teachers were oftentimes brutal.
With the rise of the middle class, many Filipinos were able to go to
colleges like San Juan de Letran, San Jose, and the Ateneo Municipal.

Later, these Filipinos were admitted to the University of Santo Tomas

where they finished courses in law, medicine, pharmacy, and
surveying. It was true that the teaching method of the Spaniards was
very poor. It was also true that science courses were not taught as they
should be. Despite these shortcomings, the Spaniards allowed the
Filipinos to enroll in schools and colleges where they were taught Latin
Spanish, arithmetic, philosophy, theology, and others. It must be
remembered that the last half of the nineteenth century, was a period
when European imperialism was approaching its climax.

When one compares the educational system under the spaniards in the
Philippines with the educational system under the Spaniards in the
Philippines with the educational system of other European countries in
their colonies during the same period, one will readilly see the stark
difference. The motive for imperialism of other European countries was
based solely on the economic exploitation of their colonies.

The colonizing countries did not educate the people of their colonies.
Only the children of the ruling class were educated up to a ceartain
level, just like in India, Malaya, and in what is now Indonesia. However,
they were not allowed to study to become lawyers, physicians,
chemists, pharmacists, and the like. They were given little education
and were only allowed to serve as clerks in the civil service. On the
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other hand, the Filipinos, at least those who had the money and the
talent, were given a chance to become lawyers, physicians, teachers,
and so on.

No other colonized country in Asia produced many intellectuals in the

class of Jose Rizal, Marcelo Del Pilar, Graciano Lopez Jaena, Mariano
Ponce, Juan and Antonio Luna, Cayetano Arellano, Apolinario Mabini,
and scores of others like them who could be the pride of any coountry
in the world. Other Asian colonies did not produced such brilliant
painters as juan Luna, Felix Resurreccion Hidalgo, Lorenzo Guerrero,
Antonio Malantic, Telesforo Sucgang, Rafael Enriquez, and many
others. Such colonies did not produce composers and musicians like
Marcelo Adoney, Bibiano Morales, Hipolito Rivera, Ladislao Bonus,
Andres Dancel, Manuel Luna, Bonifacio Abdon, and many more.

IMPACT OF CULTURAL CHANGES

The overall impact or effects of the cultural changes brought by Spain

in Philippines may be described as both positive and enriching, as well
as negative and divisive. Naming the islands after King Philip II as
"Felipinas," later becoming "Felipinas" was positive. The name was
later used to refer to the archipelago as one geographic unit. What
used to be separate and scattered kingdoms composed barangays
soon became one country. For the firs time, the archipelago could be
found on world maps as colony, but nonetheless an identifiable political
unit of more than 7,000 islands with a central government and body
laws. The creation of pueblos (towns) within this geographic entity
through the plaza complex, however, held the inhabitants under the
control of both the parish priest and governadorcillo.
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Except for the chosen ones --- the principalia class - the Filipinos had
no rights or privileges of their own. Christianity may have deepened
and enriched tha indigenous sprituality or faith of the people, but its
colorful processions, fiestas, and pilgrimages rendered them genarally
oblivious, if not passive, to the difficult and worsening economic and
political conditions around them.

The use of the vernaculars by the priests in the both sermons and
printed materials, such as novenas, stories on the lives of the saints,
and the like, served as a medium of spreading the religion among the
masses. These riligious traditions and activities kept the people,
women in particular, long-suffering and obedient to the friar-curates.
None of the printed religious materials and readings developed a
consciousness of political or social connectedness of any significance.

Clothes, shoes, houses, among the others, may have advanced in style
and comfort, and may have been a delight in sight, especially as the
Spanish and the Filipino styles produced a beautiful mix. However, this
was true only among the well-to-do Filipinos, while the poor became
noticeably different in their drab and ordinary attire, and poorly built and
insufficiently lighted nipa huts or houses.

Education, which was limited to a few, was conservative in orientation

and kept the majority ignorant for a long time. But towards the second
half of the 19th century, as the advances in travel and communication
reached the country, new ideas and educational opportunities produced
professionals and intellectualls among the rising middle class. Such a
development would lead to a radical impact on the consciousness of

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the Filipinos, who would later be asking for reforms and rights equal to
the Spaniards, regardless of race and social status.

STUDY GUIDE

1. Explain how the Spaniards influenced the Filipino way of life as

identifiably that of a Spanish subject.
2. Describe the social life of the Filipinos during the Spanish period.
Relate this to the daily tasks of the people at that time.
3. How did Soanish-Filipino intermarriages affect the physical
appearance of their children? Can you identity them in your
community? How can you identity them in your community? How
can you identity them?
4. Why were Filipino names changed to Spanish? What advantage, if
any, did the Filipinos get from adding surnames to their first names?
5. How did the styles in dressing bring about social divisions and
emphasize racial differences in those times?
6. Compare the position of the Filipino woman before and after the
coming of the Spaniards. At which period do you think did women
enjoy a higher status? Give your reasons.
7. What are the advantages of having one religion? Are you in favor of
having only one religion for the Filipinos? Why?
8. What is meant by "geographical unity?" How does it differ from
political unity? How do these two concepts relate to the idea of a
nation?
9. What were the Spanish influences on the Philippine languages? Do
you think these influences enriched the Filipino languages? Why?
10. Name some of the forms of amusement today which are of
Spanish origin. What is the value of amusement? Were the
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 amusements good or bad people under Spanish rule? Explain your
answer.
11. Name Spain’s achievements in education. What do you think of
this kind of education?
12. As a whole, would you consider Spanish influences to be positive
or negative? Give your reasons.

SUGGESTED ACTIVITIES

1. Read Rizal’s chapter, "Tribulations of a teacher" in the novel Noli Me

tangere. Report to class what Rizal said during the second half of
the nineteenth century about primary education in the Philippines.
Compare it with primary education today. What are the advantages
enjoyed by primary school children today compared to those of the
Spanish times?
2. Read the chapter, "A class in Physics" In the novel EL
Filibusterismo. Report to class what Rizal said about college
education during the Spanish times. Consolidate your reports in this
activity and the previous one. Together, they form a fairly good
picture of the educational system of Spain in the Philippines.
3. Read articles or books about the comedia, moro-moro, zarzuela, and
the carillo. Were they merely entertaining or not? How did these
forms of entairtainment affect the ordinary folks' social
consciousness?
4. Observe how the present-day fiesta is celebrated.discuss with your
classmates the similarities and differences between the fiesta
yesterday and the fiesta today. Are you in favor of celebrating
fiestas? Give your reasons for your answer.

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5. Go out and look for houses in your localitybwhich are of the antillean
type. Draw it on a sheet of bond paper. What landmarks in your town
have Spanish influenced? Draw them on a sheet of bond paper.
Discuss with your classmates the architectural features of these
houses and landmarks. Identify which features are Spanish and
which are Filipino.

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 CHAPTER 8

THE BEGINNINGS OF FILIPINO NATIONALISM

(MID 1700s – 1900s)

Up to the 1700s, Filipino revolts were fragmented and local with various
and oftentimes unrelated purposes among which are (1) to retake one’s
lost kingdom or chiefdom; (2) to resist forced labor that separated the
men for long periods from their families; (3) to get rid of the oppressive
tribute; and (4) to return to their ancient religion, the worship of Bathala
and the anitos. Though violent, their attacks against the Spanish
colonial government did not acquire a racial tone or an awareness of a
united people against colonial rule. How different in character would the
succeeding revolts in the 1800s to 1900s be?

Certain events and developments in the 1800s to 1900s led to a further

awakening of the people’s consciousness as a nation with common
grievances against colonial rule. These events included (1) the British
invasion in the colony that exposed Spain’s vulnerability; (2) the Silang
and Palaris revolts that demonstrated the capability of the regions to
unite and expel the Spaniards from their territory; (3) the united Basi
revolt in the north against Governor-General Basco’s tobacco and wine
monopolies; (4) the opening of foreign ports and the Suez Canal that
allowed entry of advanced technology and liberal ideas from the
Americas and Europe; and (5) the secularization movement led by
Indio and mestizo secular priests to fight for the right to administer
parishes that were held by Spanish regular priests.

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The movement was opposed by the Spanish religious orders on the
ground that the “native” clergy or secular were ill-prepared for the
position. What started as a religious issue, regulars versus seculars,
later acquired a racial undertone, “Filipinos” versus “Spaniards.” The
controversy ended with the execution of the three leaders of the
movement, Fathers Gomez, Burgos, and Zamora, despite the failure of
the government to prove their alleged involvement in the Cavite Mutiny.

BRITISH INVASION AND OCCUPATION

In 1761 Spain and France entered into a treaty of alliance against

England’s ambition for supremacy. During the Seven Years’ War in
Europe between France and England, Spain was naturally drawn into
the conflict. The British sent an expedition from India, which at that time
was a colony of England, to the Philippines to occupy and seize it from
Spain. Archbishop Manuel Rojo was acting governor-general when the
British, with 6,000 men including Sepoys from Bombay, bombarded
Intramuros, Malate, Ermita, and Bagumbayan (now Luneta) on
September 22, 1762.

Unprepared for such a decisive attack, the Spaniards with their Filipino
soldiers tried desperately to defend Intramuros, particularly the
ramparts of San Diego and San Andres. Their cannons were no match
to the superior cannons and weapons of the English. Archbishop Rojo
surrended Manila and Cavite while Simon Anda, a magistrate of the
Audiencia, escaped to Pampanga to continue the resistance. The
British took over the reins of government and guaranteed the safety of
Spanish officials, the community, and property.

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THE SILANG AND PALARIS REVOLTS

The Spaniards defeat in the hands of the British opened the eyes of the
Filipinos to the impermanence of Spanish rule in the country and to the
fact that if could be challenged by force of arms. In the same year,
1762, Diego Silang, an Ilocano from Ilocos Province rose in revolt. He
demanded the expulsion of Spaniards and Spanish mestizos from
Ilocos. He was successful at first and was able to expel the Spanish
provincial governor and may Spaniard from Vigan. He then declared
himself “King of the Ilocos.” The British, impressed by Silang;s victories,
tried to win him over to their side by sending him gifts and promising to
make him governor of the province if he conspired with the British
against the Spaniards. Silang accepted their offer but the alliance
ended when he was killed by an assassin. His wife, Gabriela, took over
the leadership and carried on the fight courageously but she was later
captured and hanged, along with 100 followers.

That same year, 1762, Juan de la Cruz Palaris led a widespread revolt
in Pangasinan, demanding for the end to the payment of tributes and
countless abuses by the Spanish officials, The revolt, which started in
Binalatongan, spread to the towns of Bayambang, Paniqui (then a part
of Pangasinan), Dagupan, Calasiao, Santa Barbara, Mangaldan, San
Jacinto, and Malasiki. Palaris, having been inspired by the recent
success of the British invasion of Manila, succeeded in inciting the
people to revolt. He ignored the friar-curates province. Upon the
conclusion of the war with France and Spain, the British left in 1764.
Spain, now rid of Gabriela Silang, sent 3,000 Ilocano troops to
Pangasinan to quell the revolt. Palaris was defeated and died in battle.

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BASCO’S ECONOMIC PLANS

These widespread revolts alarmed the Spanish authorities. Not long

after, reforms, especially in the economy, were introduced. However,
the economy developed slowly for several reasons, such as:

1. The incompetence of Spanish officials

2. Graft and greed of the merchants and religious corporations
engaged in the galleon trade;
3. Restrictive economic policies which closed some parts of the
country to other foreign countries; and
4. The constant quarrels between the civil and ecclesiastical
authorities assigned in the colony.

In 1778, Jose Basco y Vargas who was appointed governor-general of

the Philippines, surveyed the economic condition of the colony and
found it to be far from satisfactory. He found the galleon trade
particularly unproductive for the government because it was benefitting
only the few officials and religious orders that monopolized it. Due to
their preoccupation with the galleon trade, these officials neglected to
develop the rich agricultural potentials of the provinces and other
industries in the colony. To improve commerce, industry, and
agriculture, Governor Basco encouraged the cultivation of crops for
export like indigo, coffee, cocoa, sugar, hemp, mulberry trees, spices
and cotton. He also encouraged the development of mines that
produces gold, tin, and copper. He offered prizes to those excelled in
the manufactured of silk and fabrics of cotton and flax. Advanced
agricultural implements were imported from the United States.

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For the effective implementation of the economic plans, Governor
Basco founded the Economic Society of Friends of the Country in 1781
and established the Royal Company in 1785. The Royal Company
failed in its purposes to improve foreign trade between the colony and
Spain because of mismanagement and lack of cooperation of the
manila merchants who preferred to engage in the galleon trade.

His efforts would have brought about economic progress at that time,
but Basco’s establishment of government monopolies in 1782
apparently negated most of his positive economic projects. The
monopolies for tobacco and wine particular, while turning out to be
profitable for the government. Had devastating effects on the
manufacture of wine outside the provinces selected for these products
were prohibited as well as their contraband sale. Only the government
had the exclusive right to purchase, classify, and sell these products
locally and export them abroad. In 1807, some 10,000 rebels in Ilocos
revolted against the government monopoly of a locally-produced wine
from sugarcane called basi. The Basi revolt as it was called was among
the bloodiest uprisings ever recorded during this time.

LAISSEZ-FAIRE AND THE OPENING OF PORTS

Laissez-faire or “let alone policy” in commercial and trading ventures by

the Europeans soon caught the interest of the Spanish king. This policy
gave full freedom to private individuals and firms to engage in
economic activities without much interference from the government.
This also allowed for the entry of foreign firms into the country. In 1834,
the king, realizing the futility of opposing modern trends in commerce
and trade, opened Manila to foreign traders. In 1842, Manila could
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boast of two American, one French, one Danish, and eight British
commercial firms.

By 1859, the number of foreign firms increased to fifteen. The ports of

Iloilo, Zamboanga, and Sual (in Pangasinan) were opened to foreign
trade in 1855. The opening of these ports increased the value or
exports. Consequently, manufacturing and agriculture developed to
answer the demand for different products from the different provinces.
Batangas produces coffee; Camarines Norte, Camarines Sur,
Sorsogon and Albay produces hemp; indigo and tobacco came from
the Ilocos and Cagayan Valley. Sugar cane was produced in Negros
and Iloilo in the Visayas and Pampanga, Laguna and Batangas in
Luzon. The British vice consul in Iloilo, Nicholas Loney, introduces the
first modern machinery that converted sugar cane into refined sugar.
This led to the unprecedented prosperity of the provinces engaged in
sugar production and to the rise of the middle class.

THE RISE OF THE “FILIPINO” MIDDLE CLASS

It was inevitable that with material progress, social changes would

follow. Somehow the fruits of these developments in trade and
commerce benefitted the mestizos, particularly the Spanish and
Chinese mestizos. As exports in agriculture increased, Inquilinos or the
tenants in the haciendas and their families began to accumulate wealth.

Together, they constituted the middle class—a group below the

aristocratic Spanish officials, families, and religious orders but higher or
above the masses (the poor, uneducated Indio’s). As members of the
middle class, they were able to send their children to colleges and
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universities in Manila and even to Europe. Hence, the wealthy and
highly-educated Filipinos called Ilustrados composed the middle class
in Philippine colonial society under Spain. The term “Filipino,” however,
needs to be clarified at this stage.

The term, up to this period in late 19th century, actually applied only to
Spaniards born in the Philippines or the Insulares. Spaniards born in
Spain, working or residing in the country, were called Españoles or
peninsulares. The rest were either mestizos or Indios. Belonging to the
middle class also meant changing their former lifestyle, clothing,
houses, forms of amusement, and cultural activities to those that were
similar or closer to what Spaniards and Europeans did and maintained,
which were comfortable and expensive. By contrast, Indios in the lower
class lived in poverty and ignorance, and suffered more discrimination.

At this early date, two events foreshadowed the developing

consciousness of the masses as a different race and class in society.
The first event was the Tagalong publication of Florante at Laura in
1838 by Francisco Baltazar or Balagtas. There was reference for the
first time to the country as oppressed and in need of freedom as
expressed in the following lines:

Sa loob at labas ng bayan kong sawi

Kaliluha’y siyang nangyayaring hari
Kagalinga’t bait ay nalulugami ininis sa hukay ng dusa’t pighati.

Another event was the revolt by Apolinario de la Cruz or “Hermano

Pule” in tayabas (now Quezon province) in 1841. The Spanish
authorities were alarmed by its pure Indio membership under the guise
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of Confradia, whose aim was to revive the ancient catalonan teachings
within the Catholic Church. Only Indios were admitted into the
confraternity, whose membership spread fast to nearby Laguna
province. Hermano Pule had become so popular that the Tagalogs in
the region called him “King of the Tagalogs.”

The government lost no time in suppressing their activities. Hermano

Pule and his followers won some of the encounters against the
provincial troops. However, with Filipino soldiers as reinforcements
coming from Manila, the rebels were overwhelmed. Hermano Pule was
captured and shot. His body was quartered. His head was hung in front
of his house in Lucban and the legs and arms were put in cages and
hung in the town of Tayabas.

THE EDUCATION OF SOME FILIPINOS

The Spaniards in the Philippines founded many colleges for men and
women. But these colleges and universities were exclusively for the
Spaniards and the Spanish mestizos. These included San Juan De
Letran, San Jose, San Felipe, and others. The Schools for women
included the College of Santa Potenciana, Santa Isabela College, and
the Santa Rosa College, among others. It was not until the second half
of the nineteenth century that these colleges, including the University of
Santo Tomas, admitted natives. Owing to the opening of the doors of
Spanish colleges and universities to Filipinos, the well-to-do Filipino
parents were able to send their children to these schools.

As a result, a good number of those children became lawyers,

physicians, pharmacists, teachers, land surveyors, and merchants. The
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educated Filipinos later asked for reforms in the Spanish administration
of the Philippines. As the Spaniards feared, it was the Ilustrados who
would later ask embarrassing question about Spanish misdeeds,
incompetence, inefficiency, greed, and corruption. And most
dangerously, they pushed the idea of the Indios as “Filipinos” with
equal rights as the Spaniards in the country.

THE OPENING OF THE SUEZ CANAL

The changes that took place in the second half of the nineteenth
century had far-reaching effects on the Filipinos. One of these
important changes was the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869. This
resulted in the shorter route and travel time between Spain and the
Philippines. Many Spaniards with progressive ideas migrated to the
Philippines. Among them were exiled creoles from Mexico like Varela
and Novales, whose subversive ideas and activities advocated freedom
and liberties. Later on, they influence some educated Filipinos and
soon both were asking the government to introduce changes in the
administration of the colony. Another effect of the shorter distance
between Spanish and the Philippines was the influx of progressive
books and periodicals to the country. Books on American
independence and the French Revolution circulated in the country.
Sending these materials from Spain to the Philippines became easy
and inexpensive. These books and periodicals were read by the
educated Filipinos who learned about democratic practices in Europe,
such as freedom of the press, freedom of speech, and the free
exchange of ideas among people.

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Printed literature and magazines, plus the introduction of modern
technology such as the mail (1854), the telegraph (1873), the
telephone, ideas and awareness of the happenings between the cities
and countryside. Likewise, shorter travel time and distance between the
Mother Country and the colony encouraged many educated Filipinos to
go to Europe to continue their studies and to prove that they were the
equal of the Spaniards. Before the opening of the Suez Canal, the
voyage from Spain to the Philippines and vice versa took time and was
often dangerous that many Filipinos who could afford to go to Europe
did not bother to travel.

LIBERALISM IN THE PHILIPPINES

In 1868, a revolution took place in Spain. The revolutionists were

against the autocratic reign of Queen Isabel II. When the revolutionists
won, Queen Isabel was forced to flee to France. As a result of this, the
Republic of Spain was born. It lasted from 1868 to 1878. The triumph of
the Spanish revolutionists, who fought for popular suffrage and freedom
of speech, the press, and or religion, brought to the country some
liberal and progressive Spaniards. One of them was Governor- General
Carlos Maria de la Torre. When he arrived in Manila in 1869, he put
into practice the liberal principles of the revolutionists in Spain. He
showed his democratic ways by living simply and avoiding luxury, by
dismissing the halberdiers of his palace, and by walking the streets of
Manila in civilian clothes. This was something new at that time,
because in the past, the governors wore their military uniforms,
complete with medals and ribbons, on most occasions.

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The educated Indios, mestizos, and Spaniards born in the Philippines
who sympathized with liberalism and Governor de la Torre, serenaded
him to show their appreciation of the governor’s kind attention and
democratic ways. The governor welcomes the serenaders, while a
Spanish woman recited a patriotic poem. The Spaniards who were for
the monarchy were scandalized, but they remained quiet. They were
waiting for the time when a governor to their liking would again assume
office in Manila.

De la Torre’s administration of the Philippines was significant because

of the following reasons: (1) he abolished the censorship of the press,
(2) he abolished flogging as a punishment, and (3) he solved the
agrarian unrest in Cavite. To many Filipinos, mestizos, and Spaniards
who embraced progressive ideas, governor de la Torre was the best
governor-general the Philippines has ever had.

THE RETURN OF AUTOCRACY

Unfortunately for the Filipinos and their allies among the mestizos and
the progressive Spaniards, the administration of Governor de la Torre
was brief. The Republic of Spain ended in 1870 when the monarchy
was restored and a new king assumed the Spanish throne. With this
change from republic back to monarchy, the monarchist officials in
Spain sent to the Philippines some like-minded Spaniards to take over
the political leadership of the country. One of these was Rafael de
Izquierdo, an autocrat; he boasted that he would rule the Philippines
“with a cross in one hand and a sword in the other.”

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This boast was not an empty promise. Immediately, he reversed the
reforms of de la Torre. He disapproved the establishment of a school of
arts and trades in Manila because he was afraid that it might be used
as a political club. Censorship of the press and restrictions on freedom
of speech were restored. Those who were known to have favored the
administration of de la Torre were considered suspects and were spied
upon. Naturally, the friars and the monarchists among the Spaniards
became his staunch supporters and were happy over his reactionary
attitude.

THE CAMPAIGN FOR SECULARIZATION

Priesthood during the Spanish period was composed of two classes:

the regular and the secular. The regular priests were those who
belonged to the religious orders like the Dominicans, the Recollects,
the Augustinians, and the Franciscans. The secular priests were not
members of any religious orders. The regular priests, or simply
regulars, have a mission to fulfill, i.e., to convert non-Christian people to
Christianity, they would leave and go to another area to make converts.

In the Christianized areas, churches or parishes were built which the

seculars administered. In the Philippines, the friars or members of the
religious orders not only made converts to Christianity but they also
occupied parishes. As such, they were called friar-curates. They had to
administer the parishes as friar-curates because there were very few
seculars during the first century of Spanish rule. When some natives
studied for the priesthood and became seculars, they were given
subordinate positions. The friar-curates refused to vacate the parishes.
This refusal led to a controversy between the seculars and the regulars.
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This controversy started when the seculars asked for their right to
administer the parishes. At first the Spanish archbishop and some
governors supported their demand and a few Filipino seculars became
parish heads. Later, however, they remain neutral. In the early
nineteenth century, the controversy became more heated when a
decree was passes denying the native clergy the right to administer the
parishes occupied by the regulars.

The government even went as far as giving the parishes, run by the
Filipino seculars, to Spanish regulars. This led to the campaign called
secularization. The movement would later be called “Filipinization”
because of its racial overtone. The secular priests felt that the position
as parish head was being denied to them because they were not
Spaniards and thus, inferior to the regulars.

Initially, the leader of the Filipino campaign to secularize the parishes

was father Pedro Pablo Pelaez (1812- 1863), a Spanish mestizo. After
his death, he was succeeded by Father Jose A. Burgos (1837-1872),
another Spanish mestizo. Other secular priest involved in the
secularization movement who were either Spanish mestizos, Chinese
mestizos, or Indios included Fathers Jacinto Zamora, Mariano Gomez,
Toribio del Pilar, Mariano Sevilla, Pedro Dandan, Jose Guevara, and
many more.

THE CAVITE MUTINY

The relations between the Filipino seculars and the Spanish regulars
grew from bad to worse. The Spanish regulars who continued to
occupy the parishes blamed the Filipino priests by saying that the latter
146
were not prepared to administer parishes. This caused greater enmity
between them. On the other hand, the Filipino seculars continued their
campaign relentlessly.

At the height of the secularization controversy, the Cavite mutiny

occurred on January 20, 1872, involving a number of workers and
some marine detachment. This mutiny was caused by the revocation of
the privilege of shipyard workers to be exempted from forced labor and
from paying tribute by Governor-General de Izquierdo. The Mutineers
included Indios, mestizos, and crillos (Spaniards born in Mexico and
exiled in Cavite). They were led by a military sergeant named La
Madrid. They killed some Spanish soldiers and officers in the fort.

The Governor of Cavite province informed the governor-general in

Manila about the rebellion by telegraph. Alarmed, the governor-general
sent an expedition to Cavite to put down the rebellion. The leaders and
the participants were arrested and later shot to death. The government,
believing it to be a rebellion, ordered the arrest of the Filipinos and
mestizos who were allegedly behind it.

Among those arrested were Fathers Jose Burgos, Mariano Gomez,

Jacinto Zamora, Pedro Dandan, Toribio del Pillar, Mariano Sevilla,
Agustin Mendoza, Jose Guevara, and others. Among the civilians
arrested were Pedro Carillo, Antonio Regidor, Joaquin Pardo de
Tavera, and others. They were sentenced to be banished to Guam,
while Gomez, Burgos, and Zamora were sentenced to death.

147
THE EXECUTION OF GOMBURZA

The priests, Gomez, Burgos, and Zamora were jailed in Fort Santiago
before they were tried for rebellion. Priests, both regular and secular,
were allowed to see them. Each one of them had a confessor. During
the trial, the government failed to prove convincingly with the January
mutiny. The governor-general promised to present documents to prove
that the three priests were guilty of “rebellion,” which too many was
actually a mutiny, But he never presented any document had been
found to show that Gomez, Burgos, and Zamora were, in any way,
connected with the mutiny. Nevertheless, they were sentenced to death
by garrote.

On February 17, 1872, the three priests marched from Fort Santiago to
Bagumbayan Field (now Luneta). It is said that Zamora lost his mind
and silently accepted to be garroted. He, together with Burgos, and
Gomez maintained their innocence until the end. While they were being
executed one by one — first, Zamora, then Gomez, and lastly Burgos—
the witnesses of the event took off their hats and knelt to pray for the
souls of the innocent priests. The Spaniards who were present, thinking
that the Filipinos were preparing to rise in revolt, fled toward the city.

The importance of the execution of the three priests rested on the fact
that the Filipinos who witnessed the execution began to think and feel
as Filipinos, not as Ilocanos, Tagalogs, Visayans, Bicolanos and the
Spaniards, who had always felt superior over the Filipinos, took them
for beasts of burden. From this time forward, they began to feel the
necessity for unity. Rizal, who was eleven years old at that time, would

148
later dedicate his second novel El Filibusterismo (The Rebel), to the
memory of the three martyred priests. He wrote:

The Church be refusing to degrade you, has placed in doubt the

crime that has been imputed to you; the Government, by
surrounding your trials with mystery and shadows, causes the
belief that there was some error committed in fatal moments; and
the Philippines, by worshipping your memory in no way
recognizes your culpability.

The execution of Gomez, Burgos, and Zamora may have halted the
secularization movement but not its advocacy for “Filipinization” of the
parishes. The Spanish government with its cruel measures, continued
to frighten the Filipinos into submission. Nevertheless, the seeds of
Filipino nationalism had been planted on fertile ground.

STUDY GUIDE

1. Explain how the British occupation of the country opened the eyes of
the people in certain regions to the idea of freedom and expulsion of
the Spaniards.
2. Why did the economic plans of Governor-General Basco fail?
3. Why were the Spanish authorities in the Philippines opposed to the
education of the Filipinos?
4. Explain how the Filipino middle class arose. Who composed the
middle class?
5. Explain how the opening of the Suez Canal affected the educated
Filipinos.

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6. What was the effect of the migration of liberal Spaniards on the
educated Filipinos and mestizos?
7. How did the Spanish Revolution of 1868 affect the events in the
Philippines?
8. What were the reforms of Governor-General Carlos Maria de la
Torre that endeared him to educated Filipinos?
9. Why was liberalism in the Philippines short-lived? Why was a
reactionary governor-general sent to the Philippines?
10. Explain what is meant by secularization. How did this lead to
Filipinization?
11. Why do you think the Spanish authorities called the Cavite mutiny
a rebellion?
12. Explain the importance of significance of the execution of Fathers
Gomez, Burgos, and Zamora.

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 CHAPTER 9

THE CAMPAIGN FOR REFORMS

(1882- 1892)

Ten peaceful years elapsed after the execution of Gomez, Burgos, and
Zamora. It was a peaceful period on the surface because the Filipinos
were cowed into silence by the Spanish authorities. There were threats
of persecution for those who would oppose or criticize the Spanish rule.
Underneath, there was discontent, not only among the poor, but also
among the educated and the well-to-do Filipinos. The masses were
discontented because the remained poor and burdened with heavy
taxes. The educated and the wealthy were discontented because of the
abuses of the Spaniards and because they were not free to air their
complaints or even allowed to participate in the administration of the
government .

As a result, the educated and wealthy left for Spain where there was
freedom. There, they studied and worked for the introduction of reforms
in the Philippines. The reform movement, also called Propaganda
Movement, began in 1882. It lasted up to the early months of 1892
when the important Filipino reformists returned to the Philippines, like
Rizal, who founded the La Liga Filipina. The reform movement which
they started included the idea to assimilate the Philippines as a
province of Spain.

As much, and not as a colony of Spain, The Philippines would be

presented in the Spanish lawmaking body called the Cortes. The
Filipinos would become Spanish citizen, who would enjoy all the rights
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and privileges by all Spanish citizens. They would also be obliged to
discharge their duties as Spanish citizens. As Spanish citizens, the
Filipinos could not be treated cruelly by the friars and the Spanish civil
authorities. This move to make the Philippines a province of Spain and
the granting of Spanish citizenship to the Filipinos was called
assimilation. Assimilation of the Philippines would allow the Indios to
be finally called Filipinos.

The important Filipino reformists were Graciano Lopez Jaena, Jose

Rizal, and Marcelo H. Del Pilar. They were the great triumvirate:
Lopez Jaena was the great orator, Rizal was the great thinker and
writer; and Del Pilar was the great political analyst. The other reformists
were Jose Ma. Panganiban, Antonio Luna, Mariano Ponce, Eduardo de
Lete, and a few others. They were all young men who went to Europe
to study. In the course of their studies, they involved themselves in the
cause of their country.

Graciano Lopez Jaena

Graciano Lopez Jaena was born in Jaro, now a part of Iloilo City, On
December 18, 1856. His parents were Placido Lopez and Maria Jacobo
Jaena. He studied at the seminary of Jaro to become a priest, but later
on, he changed his mind to become a physician instead. He was
observant and saw the injustices, immorality, and greed of the friars
and civil officials. He wrote a long story about a certain friar he named
Fray Botod, who was greedy, immoral, and cruel. The story was
circulated in Iloilo and soon, the friars hated him for it. He went to
Manila to escape persecution and to continue his studies. But the
Spanish authorities harassed him, which compelled him to secretly sail
152
for Europe in 1880. In Spain, he studied medicine but later on gave it
up and devoted his time and energy to writing articles.

In 1989, he founded the fortnightly newspaper La Solidaridad

(Solidarity) and became its first editor. According to his editorial, the
aims of the newspaper were the following:(1) to fight reaction (2) to
stop all efforts to keep the Philippines a backward country, (3) to extol
liberal ideas, and (4) to depend progress. The newspaper became the
propaganda arm of the Filipino reformists in Spain.

Copies were sent secretly to the Philippines and distributed to educated

Filipinos. Lopez Jaena not only wrote articles favorable only to the
Filipinos but he also delivered speeches defending them from the cruel
charges of Spanish writers like Pablo Faced and Wenceslao E. Petana,
who were anti-Filipino. In all his speeches he praised the Philippines
and called it "Pearl of the Orient".

In one of his speeches, he called the Philippines "a piece of the

palpitating heart of Spain". He expressed the demands of the Filipino
reformists. These demands included the following: (1) representation in
the Spanish Cortes; (2) the right to vote; (3) freedom of speech, of
assembly and of the press; (4) freedom of commerce; (5) the removal
of the friars from the Philippines because they were an obstacle to
progress; (6) the education of the people; (7) reforms in the jails of the
country; and (8) the abolition of the diezmos prediales or the tithe
consisting of one tenth of the produce of the land. Lopez Jaena
suffered from hunger and illness, and on January 20, 1896, he died in
Barcelona, Spain.

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Jose Rizal

The most brilliant of the Filipinos during his time, Rizal was born in
Calamba, Laguna on June 19, 1861. He studied at the Ateneo
Municipal and later at University of Santo Tomas. He went to Europe to
continue his medical studies. He observed early in life how the
Spaniards maltreated the Filipinos. He saw, how the Spanish
authorities ordered his aging mother to walk from Calamba to the town
of Santa Cruz, the capital of the province, because of a false charge
made against he by Spanish provincial officials. He saw all the
Injustices being committed against the Filipinos and thus, his young
mind and heart rebelled against them. He swore to work for freedom of
his country.

In 1882, he went to Spain with the help of his uncle and elder brother,
Paciano. He studied medicine and several languages such as French
and German. He spent his time wisely. He never gambled. He never
spent his money aimlessly. He bought many books which he read and
kept. At the age of twenty-six, he wrote his first novel, Noli Me Tangere
or Touch Me Not. In this novel, he exposed the defects of the Spanish
administration of the Philippines, the greed and immorality of the friars,
and the superstition of the Filipinos.

Next, he wrote his second novel, El Filibusterismo (The Rebel), which

was a sequel of the first novel. In the second novel, Rizal expressed his
political ideas and, in story form predicted the coming of the Revolution.
Although very much disappointed in the lack of response by the
Spanish government in Spain to their campaign, he did not want the
Philippines to have a revolution. At that time, the Filipinos were not yet
154
prepared to fight the Spaniards. He wanted, first of all, to educate the
people so that they would know how to discharge their unities correctly
and faithfully.

Rizal wrote poems, essays and many articles- all showing his love of
country, his patriotism, his love of parents, his happiness and sorrows
Because of his attacks on the civil and ecclesiastical authorities in the
Philippines, they hated him and worked for his arrest. They found a
concrete basis and opportunity when he returned to the Philippines and
founded La Liga Filipina, a patriotic society which was suspected of
uniting and preparing the people for revolution. He was first banished to
Dapitan, Zamboanga, and later tried by a military court that sentenced
him to be shot to death. He was executed in Bagumbayan Field (now
Luneta/Rizal Park) on December 30 1896.

Marcelo H. Del Pilar

Marcelo H. Del Pilar, whom even his Spanish enemies called the
"greatest journalist produced by the purely Filipino race," was born in
the barrio of Cupang, Bulacan, Bulacan. On August 30, 1850. He
studied at the collage of San Jose and later at the University of Santo
Tomas, whre he finished his law studies in 1880. In this same year he
began his campaign againts the abuses of the friars and Spanish civil
officials. He spoke in meetings, especially in the crowded cockpit where
the common people heard him criticize the friars.

In 1882, he founded the Tagalog-Spanish newspaper, Diariong

Tagalog, which, although short - lived, published suggestions on ow to
improve the administration of the country. It also published mild
155
criticisms of the Spaniards - mild, because there was no freedom of the
press and speech during the Spanish times. In 1888, the Spanish friars
of bulacan persuaded the Spanish officials of the province to arrest Del
Pilar; but his admirers warned him about the order for his arrest and s
he secretly left for Spain. A year after his arrival in Spain, he became
the editor of La Solidaridad.

Thereafter, he became its guiding spirit. He not only edited the

newspaper, but he also wrote many articles and editorials. Two of his
books in Filipino (Monastic Sovereignty in the Philippines) and La
Frailocracia Filipina (Frailocracy in the Philippines). Unlike Rizal and
the other reformists, Del Pilar wrote in the language of the masses. He
wrote Caiingat Cayo, Dasalan at Toksohan, Kadakilaan ng Dios, Sagot
ng Espania sa Hibik ng Filipinas, and many others. These writings in
Tagalog were truly enjoyed by the masses.

Due to his heavy work and lack of proper food, Del Pilar contracted
tuberculosis. During winter when it was very cold in Spain, he would
pick up a cigarette butts on the streets of Barcelona and smoke them to
keep him warm. He wanted to return to the Philippines because he
believed that the campaign for the reforms was a failure and that it was
time to shift to revolutionary action. Unfortunately, he died on July 4,
1896.

The Pro-Filipino Societies

The Filipino who went to Spain believed that it was wise for them to
seek the help of Spaniards with liberal ideas. In order to cultivate the
friendship and sympathy of these Spaniards, the Filipinos organized
156
societies with members that were sympathetic to the cause of
introducing reforms in the Philippines, whether they were Spaniards or
Filipinos. In 1882, they organized the Circulo Hispano-Filipino (The
Spanish-Filipino Circle).

In order to propagate their views, the society published the newspaper

Revista del Circulo Hispano-Filipino (Journal of the Spanish-Filipino
Circle). The purposed of this newspaper was to bring to the attention of
the Spanish authorities in Spain the conditions in the Philippines and to
work for the introduction of reforms which would benefit the Filipinos.

But this newspaper and the society did not last long. It died a natural
death because of lack of financial support and most of all, lack
leadership. Another society was founded with patriotic aims, the
Asociacion Hispano-Filipina, which was inaugurated in 1889. Like
the Circulo, it was composed of Filipinos and Spaniards who
sympathized with the Filipinos cause. The association's aspiration was
"to work for the material and moral improvement of the Philippines."

Some of its aims were as follows: (1) the abolition of the diezmos
prediales and the sanctorum; (2) the compulsory teaching of Spanish in
all schools in the Philippines; (3) radical reforms in the University of
Santo Tomas; (4) abolition of flogging as a form of punishment; (5) the
establishments of agricultural banks; and (6) tax and other reforms. All
of these aims were to benefit the Filipinos. This society lived longer
than the Circulo, but it never realize its goals because the Spanish high
officials in Spain were too busy with state problems to even mind and
solve the problems of the colony.

157
Freemasonry and its Role

The Filipino reformists in Spain did not spare any effort to win friends
for the sake of the country. During the last two decades of nineteenth
century, Freemasonry (Masonry) was popular in Europe, even in Spain.
Many Spaniards with liberal ideas are Masons. The Filipino reformists,
including Rizal, Lopez Jaena, Del Pilar, Antonio Luna, and others,
decided to join Masonry not only because they wanted to win friends
among the Spanish Masons, but also because of its anti-friars
character.

The friars hated Masonry because it provided an inspiration to the

Filipinos who were questioning their right to remain in the Philippines.
Lopez Jaena was very active in Masonry. He taught of bringing
together all Filipino Masons when he founded the lodge, Revolucion in
Barcelona in 1989 this lodge was exclusively for and by Filipinos the
following years, another lodge, La Solidaridad (not to be confused with
the newspaper) was founded in Madrid. When lodge Revolution, was
dissolved, all its members were taken in as members of lodge La
Solidaridad. Unity among Filipinos in Spain was maintained by this
masonic lodge. In time, Filipino masons thought to establish lodge in
the Philippines.

Early in 1891, some Filipinos who had been to Spain met and decided
to establish the Maonic lodge Nilad in Manila. The Masons in the
Philippines, mostly coming from Manila and surrounding areas,
expressed the following aims of organization: (1) to work for freedom
and prosperity of the Philippines: (2) to work for the government; (3) to
ask for representation in the Spanish Cortes; and (4) to establish the
158
Philippines as a province of Spain. All these were also the aims of the
Filipino reformists in Spain. The Filipino Masons, therefore, merely
expressed their program in the Philippines in accordance with the
official stand of the reformists in Spain.

Masonry became popular in the Philippines, and by May 1893, there

were thirty-five Masonic lodges in the country, of which, nine were in
Manila. The popularity that Masonry enjoyed in the Philippines was
shown by the fact that even women founded their own Masonic lodge,
Walana. The prominent women Masons included Rizal's sisters Josefa
and Trinidad, Rosario Villaruel, Marina Dizon, Valeriana Legazpi,
Romualda Lanuza, Sixta Fajardo, and Purificacion Leyva.The Masons
were anti-friars and they wanted the friars to be shipped back to Spain.
It can be said that practically all, if not all, members of the reform
movement were Masons.

La Liga Filipina

In 1892, Rizal returned to the Philippines. On the way home, he passed

by hongkong and stayed there for some time. During his stay in the
British colony, he prepared a constitution of a society. Soon after his
return to Manila, he proposed the establishment of a civic society. In
meeting held on the night of July 3 1892, Rizal and a group of patriotic
Filipinos, including Andres Bonifacio, founded the society, La Liga
Filipina. The Following officers were elected; Ambrosio Salvador,
president; Agustin Dela Rosa; fiscal; Bonifacio Arevalo, treasurer; and
Deodato Arellano, secretary. The aims of the La Liga according to its
constitution were:

159
 a) to unite the whole archipelago into one strong body;
b) to give mutual protection of all members in case of necessity;
c) to encourage agricultural, commerce and education;
d) to depend members against any kind of violence and injustice;
and
e) to study and apply reforms

To carry out these aims, the society to be governed by a supreme

council, a provincial council, and a popular council. The members off
the society were to pay a monthly due of ten cantavos. The money of
the society was to be used for the following purpose: (1) to support
member or his son without financial means but with enough ability and
industry; (2) to support the poor against the rich and the powerful; (3) to
give financial help to any members who suffered losses; (4) to open
stores and shops which would sell goods to members at low prices;
and (5) to introduce machines in order to promote industries.

The Society was civic in nature, but even then, the Spanish authorities
considered it dangerous. They saw in La Liga Filipina an organization
capable of uniting the Filipinos for self-sufficiency and defense. On the
night of July 6, the governor-general ordered the arrest of Rizal. He
was detained in Fort Santiago pending deportation to Dapitan,
Zamboanga.

As a consequence of his arrest, the La Liga died a natural death. Some

patriotic members revived Liga, the members quarreled among
themselves. Some of them founded another patriotic society, the
Cuerpo de Compromisarios (Body of Compromiser), but this, too,
did not last long. All the patriotic societies that were founded for the
160
purposed of making for reforms did not last very long. They all failed in
their mission.

Why the Reform Movement Failed

The campaign to introduced reforms waged by patriotic Filipinos in the

Spain and in the Philippines failed. It is true that some of laws beneficial
to the Philippines were passed, such as the Maura Law of the 1893,
which provided for the reorganization of the local government; the law
for the compulsory teaching of Spanish in all schools; and introducing
reforms in the judiciary. However, these laws were not implemented,
they were therefore, dead laws.

Four reasons may be mentioned to explain why the reforms

movement failed. First, the Spanish high officials in the Spain were
too busy with their own problems to listen to the collective voice of the
reformists. Second, the reformists in Spain and in the Philippines did
not have the necessary financial means with which to make their
campaign effective. Funds were particularly difficult to get because
most of the patriotic Filipinos had no money to finance such a big
project. Third, the reformists themselves were not united. There were
jealousies among them.

The unity of the Filipinos in Spain once endangered by the tivalry for
leadership between Rizal and Del Pilar. There were other quarrels
which were not good for the cause of the Filipinos. Lastly, the friars in
the Philippines had influential friends and supporters in Spain. These
supporters opposed the introduction of the reforms in the Philippines.
Against the rich and powerful friars, the Filipino reformists could not do
161
much to obtain the goals that would make the colony a province of
Spain, with equal rights as the enjoyed by the Spanish

Study guide

1. Explain the nature of the reform movement. What did it stand for?
2. Name the foremost reformists who went to Spain describe each of
them.
3. What did the reformists wants?
4. What is meant by "assimilation?" In what way or ways would it
benefit the Filipinos? Explain your answer
5. What were the aims of La Solidaridad? Why was it founded
6. In what was was Marcelo H. Del Pilar different from Rizal? As
propagandists of the Filipino cause, who between the two was
more effective? Explain your answer
7. What role did the pro-Filipino societies play? Why did they failed?
8. Explain how masonry helped in the campaign for reforms. Name
at least two Masonic Lodge in the Philippines during Spanish
period which helped propagate the cause of the Filipinos. How
significant was masonry for the Filipino women?
9. Why did Rizal founded the La Liga Filipina? What were its aim?
Why was not successfully? In your opinion, was the La Liga
reformist or a revolutionary? Explain why?
10. Explain why the reform movement failed

Suggested Activities

1. Read the short biographies of Rizal, Lopez Jaena, and Del Pilar.
Make a list of their important works and discuss with your
162
 classmates why most of their works were against the friars but not
against the Spaniards as a people.
2. Discuss in class why the reformists failed in their mission. Explain
your answer to the Following question;
3. If the reformists had enough financial, could they have succeeded
in the aims?
4. Go to the school library and read works about the writings of the
reformists make a list of their pen names. Why did they use pen
names instead of their real names?
5. Research on Juan Luna and Felix Resurrection hidalgo. Who
were they and what works did they contribute to help the
Propaganda movement
6. Search for materials on Dasalan at Toksohan by Marcelo H. Del
Pilar. Dramatize it in class.
7. Choose experts from Noli and Fili that contain Rizal's ideas for
reforms in Noli and on revolution in Fili. From these passages,
how would you consider Rizal, was he a reformist or already
separatist? Explain your answer.

163
 CHAPTER 10

BONIFACIO AND THE KATIPUNAN

(1892 TO 1896)

The failure of the reform movement led even a reformist like Marcelo H.
Del Pilar to think of revolution. Insurrection, wrote in La Solidaridad, is
the last remedy, especially when the people have acquired the belief
that peaceful means to secure the remedies for evils prove futile. With
Rizal’s La Liga Filipina nipped in the bud, Del Pilar’s warning of
Insurrection no longer seemed a far-fetched idea. By 1892, the struggle
changed its course from reform to revolution.

Upon Rizal’s arrest and exile to Dapitan, an unknown member of the

Liga, Andres Bonifacio, saw the futility of continuing the peaceful
campaign for reforms. Whether moderate or radical, he knew Spain
would not listen to the demands of men like Rizal, Del Pilar, Lopez
Jaena, and others, who did not believe in armed revolution as a remedy
to the evils existing in the Philippines.

Bonifacio had a different idea; he would teach the people to depend on

themselves for their salvation. He wanted an organization unlike
thosewhich depended on Spanish goodwill for a solution. He
established a society whose aims ere opposed to the aims of the
reformist societies, and one that as ready for revolution. Thus, as
organized the Katipunan, the revolutionary society responsible for the
Philippine Revolution of 1896.

164
THE FOUNDING OF THE KATIPUNAN

On July 7, 1892, the newspaper published news about the arrest of

Rizal the previous night and the governor-general order to banish him
to Dapitan. That night, a small group of patriotic Filipinos met at a
house of Azcarraga Street, Manila (now Claro M. Recto Avenue), and
decide to create a secret society. These men were Andres Bonifacio,
Teodoro Plata, Valentin Diaz, Ladislao Diwa, Deodato Arellano, and
one of two others. All of them belonged to the lower class of society,
Arellano as the most educated among them.

They organized society called Kataastaasan Kagalanggalangang

Katipunan ng mga Anak ng Bayan (KKK or Katipunan) or Supreme and
Venerable Association of the Sons of the People. The founders of the
Katipunan performed the blood compact ritual to show their patriotism
and love of things that were Filipino. The blood compact was an ancient
Filipino custom of sealing friendship or brotherhood (kapatiran).

The members at first agreed that they would recruit the Filipinos to
become members through a method called triangle system. For
example, member Jose would Recruit Pedro and Juan to become
members. This new members knew Jose but they did not know each
other. This method was used to minimize the danger of discovery by
the Spanish authorities. Later, a new system of recruiting members
similar to Masonry was adopted to speed up the process of enlisting
members. It was also agreed that each member would pay a
membership fee and monthly dues.

165
THE AIMS AND STRUCTURE OF THE KATIPUNAN

Andres Bonifacio, who conceived the idea of organizing the society,

laid down three primary objectives of the Kapatiran: civic, political,
and moral. The civic objectives as based on the principle of self help
and the defense of the weak and the poor. The political objective was
the separation of the Philippines from Spain, that is, to secure the
independence of the colony. The moral objectives focused on teaching
of good manners, hygiene, and good moral character. The Katipunan
members or katipuneros were urged to help sick comrades and their
families. In case of death, the society paid the funeral expenses.
Hence, there was a damayan among its members.

THE KATIPUNAN GOVERNMENT

Bonifacio had seen and attended the only meeting of the La Liga
Filipina. He took note of this society’s structure and when he founded
the katipunan he borrowed the structure of the Liga. The katipunan had
three governing bodies: the Kataastaasang Sanggunian or Supreme
Council, the Sangguniang Bayan or Provincial Council, and the
Sangguniang Balangay or Popular Council. The supreme council was
the highest of these governing bodies, followed by the Provincial
Council and the Popular Council. Respectively, they were the
equivalent of the central government, the provincial government, and
the municipal government.

There was a judicial council, called Sangguniang Hukuman, which

passed judgement on members who violated the rules of the Society.
The Katipunan Assembly, on the other hand, was composed of the
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members of the Supreme Council and the presidents of the Provincial
and Popular Councils. There was also a Secret Chamber, composed
of Bonifacio, Emilio Jacinto, and Pio Valenzuela. The Chamber
sentenced members who exposed the secrets of the Katipunan.
Usually, expulsion from the Society was the punishment meted out to
erring members who could not keep secrets.

THE KATIPUNAN ELECTIONS

The triangle method of getting new member was slow and ineffective.
As a result, there were only about 100 new members taken into the
Society by the end of 1892. It was, therefore agreed that all members
should be allowed to get as many new members as circumstances
permitted. Consequently, the membership of the society increased in a
few months. It was then thought that because the katipunan had
enough members, a set of officers would be elected. The elected
officers of the first supreme council were the following: Deodato
Arellano, president or supremo; Andres Bonifacio, comptroller, Ladislao
Diwa, fiscal; Teodoro Plata, secretary; and Valentin Diaz, treasurer.

As months passed, Bonifacio observed that Arellano, being a very busy

man, was not very active in the Society. So, early in 1893 Bonifacio,
through an election, moved to replace Arellano. Roman Basa was
elected in Arellanos place. The officers of this second supreme council
were as follows: Roman Basa, supremo; Bonifacio, fiscal; Jose Turiano
Santiago, secretary; and Vicente Molina, treasurer. The elected
councillors were Briccio Brigido Pantas, Restituto Javier, Teodoro
Plata, Teodoro Gonzales and Ladislao Diwa. Early in 1895, Bonifacio,
not contented with the performance of Basa as supremo, had himself
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elected to replace Basa. He remained the supremo of the Katipunan
until the establishment of a revolutionary government in Tejeros,
Cavite.

MEMBERSHIP

The Katipunan members were of three kinds: the first grade was called
Katipon; the second grade as Kawal; and the third was Bayani. The
password of the katipon was Anak ng Bayan, that of the Bayani as
Rizal. In order to recognize each other in the streets, a member upon
meeting another member would place the palm of his right hand on his
breast, and as he passed the other member he would close his hand
and bring his index finger and his thumb together.

THE KATIPUNAN CODES

Because the danger of discovery of the society as always present,

Bonifacio invented a system of writing which would make it difficult for
the Spaniards to read the katipunan letters or any written
communication. The first secret code invented by Bonifacio was the
following:

Spanish Equivalent in the Spanish Equivalent in the

Alphabet Katipunan Alphabet Alphabet Katipunan Alphabet
A Z M V
B B N I
C C O C
D D P P
E Q Q E
F H R R
G G S S
H F T T
I R U M

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J L V M
K K w W
L J X U
LL N Y Y

Three more Katipunan alphabets were devised by Bonifacio, the last of

which were made in Cavite in March 1897. The changes in the codes of
the Katipunan were necessitated by the discovery of the previous
codes by the Spaniards and, later, by the people considered as
enemies by the Katipunan.

THE KATIPUNAN FLAGS

Aside from the secret codes, Bonifacio also wanted a flag to be used by
the members as a symbol of their unity. Consequently, he requested
Benita Rodriguez, to make a flag for the Katipunan. With the help of
Bonifacio’s wife, Gregoria De Jesus, a flag as made. It consisted of a
rectangular piece of red cloth with three letters K arranged horizontally
in the middle. This was declared the official flag of the katipunan.
However, it was changed a few weeks after the revolution broke out in
August 1896. The new official flag consisted of a red rectangular piece
of cloth with a white sun and eight white rays in the middle. Inside the
circle representing the sun as the letter K in the ancient Tagalog script.
Bonifacio had his own personal flag. It consisted of a red rectangular
piece of cloth with a white sun with an indefinite number of white rays in
the center. Below the sun were the three K’s arranged horizontally.

THE TEACHINGS OF THE KATIPUNAN

To guide the Katipuneros in leading a highly moral life, Bonifacio

prepared some sort of Ten Commandments for the members. He called
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these commandments Katungkulang Gagawin ng mga Anak ng Bayan
(Duties of the Sons of the People). These teachings may be described
as a Decalogue. Emilio Jacinto, Bonifacio’s friend, close friend and right
hand man, wrote the Kartilla which consisted of thirteen teaching.
Members of the Society were expected to take the teachings to heart.
Here are the important portions of the Kartilla. These to writings of the
two great Katipuneros constituted the teachings of the Katipunan.

1. Life which is not consecrated to a lofty and sacred cause is like a tree without a shadow, if not a
poisonous weed.
2. A good deed that springs from a desire for personal profit and not from a desire to do good is not
kindness
3. True greatness consists in being charitable, in loving ones fellowmen and in adjusting every
movement, deed and word to true reason.
4. All men are equal, be the color of their skin black or white. One may be superior to another in
knowledge, wealth, beauty, but cannot be superior in being.
5. He who is noble prefers honor to personal gains; he who is mean prefers personal profit to honor.
6. To a man with a sense of shame, his word is inviolate.
7. Dont fritter away time; lost riches may be recovered, but time lost will never come again
8. Defend the oppressed and fight the oppressor.
9. An intelligent man is he who cautious in speech and knows who to keep the secrets that must be
guarded.
10. In the thorny path of life, man is the guide of his life and children; if he who guides moves toward
evil, they who are guided likewise move toward evil.
11. Think not of woman as a thing merely to while away time with, but as a helper and partner in the
hardship of life. Respect her in her weakness, and remember the mother who brought you into this
world and who cared for you in your childhood.
12. What you do not want done to your wife, daughter and sister, do not do to the wife, daughter and
sister of another.
13. The nobility of a man does not consist in being a king, nor in the highness of the nose and the
whiteness of the skin, nor in being a priest representing God, nor in the exalted position on this
earth, but pure and truly noble is he who though born in the woods, is posses of an upright
character, who is true to his words; ho has dignity and honor; ho does not oppress and does not
help those ho oppress; who knows ho to look after and loves the land of his birth.
14.

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 1. Love God with all your heart
2. Bear always in mind that the love of God is also love of Country, and this, too, is love of
ones fellowmen.
3. Engrave in your heart that the true measure of honor and happiness is to die for the
freedom of your country.
4. All your good wishes will be crowned with success if you have serenity, constancy,
reason, and faith in your acts and endeavour.
5. Guard the mandates and aims of the K.K.K. as you guard your honor
6. It is the duty of all to defend, at the risk of their own lives and wealth, anyone who runs
great risks on the performance of his duty.
7. Our responsibility to ourselves and the performance of our duties will be example set for
our fellowmen to follow.
8. Insofar as it is within your power, share your means with the poor and the unfortunate.
9. Diligence in the work that gives sustenance to you is the true basis of love, love of your
own self, for your wife and children, and for your brothers and countrymen.
10. Punish any scoundrel and traitor and praise all good work. Believe, likewise that the
aims of the K.K.K. Are god given, for the will of the people is also the will of god.

THE WOMEN OF THE KATIPUNAN

Bonifacio wanted to involve the woman in the Katipunan without putting

it in danger of discovery. So he suggested that women be taken in as
members of the Katipunan. To minimize the danger of exposing the
Society to women who could not be relied upon, Bonifacio decided that
only the wife, sister, daughter of Katipuneros, and a few selected
women could be eligible for membership. The strict requirement
compelled the women members to keep the secrets of the Katipunan.
The Katipuneras duty, aside from helping the male members in their or
of propagating the ideas and ideal of the society, as to make the police
authorities believe that no katipunan meeting as being held in a house.
The women engaged in dancing and singing in full view of the people
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on the street. While the Katipuneras were doing this, the male
members were holding a meeting in a room behind the sala, where the
women are singing and dancing. In this way, the authorities were not
able to detect the meetings of the Katipunan in places designated by
Bonifacio.

Among the prominent women members of the Katipunan were Josefa

Rizal, president; Gregoria de Jesus, vice president; Marina Dizon,
secretary; and Angelica Lopez Rizal, Rizal’s niece, as fiscal. Gregoria
de Jesus, in particular, frequently risked her life by keeping Katipunan
documents in her person at a time when the Spanish authorities were
watching the movements of the members.

THE KALAYAAN

Bonifacio and Jacinto believed that they could easily propagate their
revolutionary ideas by having a printing press. However, the
organization had no money to purchase a printing press. Two
experienced printers, Ulpiano Fernandez and Faustino Duque, both
Katipuneros managed the press. Dr. Pio Valenzuela suggested the
name of the newspaper, kalayaan. After weeks of preparation the
newspaper, written in Tagalog, came out in the middle of March 1896.
The Kalayaan contained articles written by Bonifacio, Jacinto and
Valenzuela.

To mislead the Spanish authorities, they put Yokohama as the place of

publication and Marcelo H. Del Pilar as the editor. Jacinto’s Pahayag
(Manifesto) and Bonifacio’s poem, Pag ibig sa Tinubuang Lupa (Love
of Country) were published in the only issue of the Kalayaan. They did
172
not sign their true names for fear that the Katipunan might be
discovered. Likewise, they did not like the Spanish authorities to run
after them. Jacinto used the pen names Pingkian and Dimas Ilaw;
Bonifacio used Agapito Bagumbayan; and Valenzuela used Madlang-
away.

As Bonifacio and Jacinto thought, the Kalayaan easily influenced many

Filipinos to become members of the Society. In January 1896, the total
membership did not exceed 300. But after the distribution of the
alayaan in Pampanga, Tarlac, and in the Tagalog provinces, from
manila in the centers of Nueva Ecija on the north and Batangas on the
south, the total membership reached about 30, 000. The kalayaan had
done its duty before it as destroyed by Fernandez and Duque to
prevent the Spanish authorities from confiscating it. The fiery pen,
revolutionary spirit, and political ill of the tandem Bonifacio Jacinto in
the newspaper proved effective in unifying the people towards kalayaan
(freedom and independence).

TWIN SOULS OF THE KATIPUNAN

Andres Bonifacio and Emilio Jacinto

Bonifacio and Jacinto both believed that the time had come to change
strategy and tactics. The Katipunan with revolutionary aims, was a
totally different society from the La Liga which worked for radical
reforms using evolutionary or peaceful means. The Katipunan aimed to
make the Philippines a free country by force of arms.

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It’s founder, Andres Bonifacio, was born on November 30, 1863 in a
small nipa house on what is now Azcarraga Street near the present
Manila Railroad Station. His parents, Santiago Bonifacio and Catalina
de Castro, belonged to the lower middle class. His mother, Catalina
was Spanish-Chinese of Filipino origin from Zambales, and worked at a
cigarette factory. His father, Santiago was a tailor, a boatman, and a
former municipal official of tondo. Bonifacio’s parents died while he was
in his teens. As such he had to support the family which consisted of
himself, his brother, Ciriacio, Procopio, and Troadio, and his sister,
Espiridiona and Maxima. He sold canes and paper pans in his early
years. Because of his poverty, he was not able to finish the equivalent
of grade four today. He worked as a messenger of J.M Fleming and
Co., an English trading firm; and later, as an agent of the German
trading firm, Fressel and Co.

At night he read newspapers and books, which were all written in

Spanish. He taught himself to read and write in this language, and in
time he became literate in Spanish. One of the books he read was the
original Spanish version of Rizal’s Noli me Tangere and later El
Filibusterismo. He also read books on the French Revolution of 1789.
When Rizal was executed on December 30, 1896, Bonifacio felt sad
and angry. He felt sad because a great Filipino was executed; and he
felt angry with the Spaniards because of what they did to Rizal and his
cause to fight for justice and liberty.

Unlike Rizal and other reformist who were anti-friar and anti-Spanish.
He hated all Spaniards, whether they were friars, civil employees, or
officials. To him, they were all the same: greedy, immortal, cruel and
lazy. His poems in Tagalog, especially Tapunan ng Lingap and Ang
174
mga Cazadores, attacked the Spaniards furiously. He called the
Spaniards “white castle”. His poem “Huling Hibik ng Pilipinas” openly
called for independence from colonial rule.

The Revolution of 1896 was, therefore, the Katipunan revolution, for it

was the katipunan that sowed the seeds of national independence in
the minds of the masses. As founder and later as Supremo of the
Katipunan, Bonifacio may be rightly regarded as a leading thinker of the
Revolution of 1896.

Bonifacio found a twin soul in the Katipunan—the young and intelligent

Emilio jacinto. Born in Tondo, Manila on December 15, 1896 Jacinto
also lived a hard life when he was young like Bonifacio. His father died
early which compelled his mother to send him to his uncle’s house for
support. He first studied at San Juan de Letran and later transferred to
the University of Santo Tomas where he studied law.

As a young man of about eighteen, Jacinto heard about the katipunan

and immediately joined it leaving his studies. Bonifacio came love this
young man who was serious-minded, humble, intelligent, and
industrious. Bonifacio warmed up to him and a deep friendship
developed between the two. The two of them greatly influenced the
katipunan.

Jacinto, like Bonifacio, wrote in Tagalog, the language of the masses,

except for one poem in Spanish, A Mi Patria (to my country). Like
Bonifacio, Jacinto believed that the people, the masses, could be
reached only through their own language, so they both wrote in
Tagalog. It is for this reason that Bonifacio and Jacinto succeeded in
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uniting the people behind them. This was where the reformist failed
because they wrote for the intellectuals and Spaniards who read only in
Spanish, more than in any of the Philippine language. Jacinto wrote
such pieces as the Kartilla, Liwanag at Dilim, Pahayag, Sa mga
Kababayan, and others. When the revolution broke out, he fought side
by side with Bonifacio. Later, Bonifacio assigned him to lead the rebels
in Laguna. He died in Mahayhay, Laguna on April 6, 1899, at the young
age of twenty-four.

STUDY GUIDE

1. Explain why Marcelo Del Pilar shifted to the idea of revolution.

What make him think in terms of revolution?
2. What was the immediate cause of the founding of the katipunan?
What cause Bonifacio to change tactics and strategy? Was he
right to make such a change? Give your reasons.
3. Explain briefly the “triangle method.” How successful was it in
recruiting members for the katipunan?
4. What were the aims of the Katipunan? In what ways was the
Katipunan different from La Liga Filipina?
5. In what way did the Katipunan government resemble or differ from
the Spanish colonial government?
6. When Bonifacio worked for the replacement of Deodato Arellano
and Roman Basa as supremo of the Katipunan. What trait or
character did he show? Was Bonifacio right in replacing Arellano
and Basa? Give your reasons.
7. Name the grades of membership of the Katipunan and their
respective passwords. What do you notice about the passwords,
particularly the use of “Rizal” for the highest member?
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 8. Explain why Bonifacio invited the Katipunan secret codes. How
would you characterize Bonifacio for inventing such codes?
9. Why were the Katipunan members called “the sons of people”
Explain this very carefully.
10. Why was the Katipunan branch for women founded? Who were
its members?
11. In what way did the Kalayaan help propagate the revolutionary
ideas of Bonifacio and Jacinto?
12. Identify and comment on the following code names: Madlang-
away; Agapito Bagumbayan; and Pingkian.

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 CHAPTER 11

THE REVOLUTION OF 1896

What were the economic, social, and political conditions in 1896 that
justified a nationwide revolt against Spanish colonial rule in favor of
separation or independence? Were the people ready and united to act?
Was the Katipunan, as the leading organization in that time, ready for
its role?

By 1896, there were concrete and objective conditions in the economy,

society, and governance that justified revolution at that time of the
Katipunan, The people, however, were not totally united. The wealthy
and educated class was divided on the issue of independence and the
use of force to obtain it. It was the masses, mostly the poor, less
educated, and illiterate, led by the Katipunan, who were ready.
Unfortunately, the conflict over leadership inside the Katipunan (the
elite versus the non-elite) caused the rift that resulted in the tragic
death of Bonifacio, founder and leader of the armed revolution.

Ironically, it was the martyrdom of Rizal (who had disengaged himself

from the actual plan of the Katipunan), that led to the downfall of
Spanish rule in the Philippines. The poet, Cecilio Apostol, expressed it
well, “Que si una bala destrozó tu craneo, tu idea, en cambio, destruyó
un imperio.” (Though a bullet pierced or destroyed your skull, your idea
destroyed an empire.) From here, despite the tragedy in the Cavite, the
lack of arms, and loss of many lives, the Filipinos fought valiantly
towards freedom and independence of a nation yet to be born.

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Conditions before the Revolution

Late in 1895, when Bonifacio was busy propagating the political ideals
of the Katipunan in many towns around Manila, some Spanish
authorities were already suspecting a brewing unrest related to an
underground society whose purpose was to end Spanish rule.
However, they had no clear proof of its existence. The friars informed
the governor-general about their suspicions but the governor did not
believe them.

Consequently, nothing was done about this, but rumors continued to

reach the friars through their spies. One such example was the secret
gathering in Batangas where rifles and other weapons were being
smuggled occasionally along the coast of the province. It was also
rumored that the weapons came from Hong Kong and Yokohama. So
persistent were the rumors tha the governor-general, in order to mollify
the friars, ordered the banishment of some prominent citizens of
Batangas and Bulacan.

The friars suspicions were correct all along. Undoubtedly, there was a
general dissatisfaction among the Filipinos. Money was difficult to get.
Very few Filipinos were gainfully employed. While there was no
starvation, the life of the people was far from prosperous. The common
people were suffering from heavy taxation, from abusive friars and civil
authorities, and from lack of economic opportunities. While the
government was spending millions of pesos for the army and navy, the
amount being spent for public improvement was pitifully small. For
example, the budget for the fiscal year 1894-95, the eve of the
revolution, the expenditure for the Department of War and Navy totaled
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more than six million and a half peso, while the expenditure for public
works was only Php 628,752. 46. This showed that very little was spent
for improvements in public works which would benefit the people.

Of all the causes of the people’s dissatisfaction, the most serious were
the abuses of the Spanish-friars and civil authorities alike. The personal
honor and dignity of the Filipinos were taken for granted. They were
physically maltreated in public places and unjustly ordered to be
executed or banished to faraway places like Guam, Jolo, and Palawan,
on suspicions of committing crimes, even pretty ones. The institution of
forced labor provided opportunities for rampant abuse of Filipinos by
the Spaniards. For three hundred years, the Filipinos suffered these
abuses in silence. However, the seed of hatred had been planted in
their hearts, even when outwardly they were smiling and saying, “Si,
Senor,” to every command of a Spaniard.

The discovery of the Katipunan

Father Mariano Gil was the Parish curate of Tondo, Province of Manila.
He was one of the friars who had earlier warned the Spanish civil
authorities that this society, with the aim to kill all Spaniards in the
country, had been recruiting members. But the Spanish civil authorities
did not listen to him until a Katipunero by the name of Teodoro Patiño
came to see him one afternoon. Patiño had visited his sister in an
orphanage in Mandaluyong which was then a suburb of the province of
Manila. Having quarreled with another Katipunero, Patiño told his sister
about the Katipunan and its aims. The sister cried when she heard
about the aims of the society. She told the Madre Portera of the
orphanage about it. The latter advised Teodoro Patiño to tell Father
180
Mariano Gil all about the Katipunan. Acting on this advice, Patiño went
to see Father Gil that afternoon of August 19, 1896; and revealed to
him what he knew about the plans of the Katipunan.

Father Gil immediately rushed to the headquarters of the Manila Police

and informed the officers regarding Patiño’s revelation. In the printing
shop of the daily newspaper, Diario de Manila, Father Gil, the police,
and the owner of the newspaper, found some Katipunan receipts and
other pieces of evidences pointing to the existence of the secret
society. Patiño told Father Gil that the pieces of evidence were
genuine. As such, the police was convinced and to avert a possible
rebellion, they raided many hoses in Manila and the suburbs looking for
alleged members of the Katipunan. That night of August 19, the police
arrested many innocent Filipinos.

The Cry of the Pugadlawin

Bonifacio wanted the wealthy Filipinos to help finance the Katipunan in

its struggle to free the country from Spain. He ordered some of his
trusted men to approach the rich Filipinos and ask for contributions to
the society. Francisco L. Roxas, a Spaniard born in the Philippines,
who considered this country as his own, was asked to support the
society. He was a millionaire, who belonged to a family that owned vast
tracts of lands and put up the San Miguel Brewery. When he heard
about the Katipunan, he got angry and threatened to tell the police
about it. Many wealthy Filipinos refused to help the Katipunan, with a
few exceptions like the physician, Dr. Pio Valenzuela.

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In spite of the refusal by the wealthy Filipinos to help the Katipunan,
Bonifacio and his men did not lose hope. When the Katipunan was
discovered in August 19, Bonifacio was in Caloocan with his wife,
Gregoria de Jesus. Fearing that he might be arrested if he remained in
Caloocan, Bonifacio decided to move to Balintawak, He ordered his
“runners” to inform all Katipuneros that there would be a meeting in
Balintawak on August 24. Accompanied by four men, Bonifacio
reached Balintawak at midnight of the 21st, in the afternoon, about 500
Katipuneros left Sitio Kangkong, a part of Balintawak, and arrived at the
next sitio called Pugadlawin the following day.

A huge meeting was held at the yard of Juan A. Ramos, the son of
Melchora Aquino or Tandang Sora, known as the “Mother of
Katipunan.” Bonifacio asked his men whether they were prepared to
fight for freedom and independence. Everyone shouted they were
prepared to die. “In that case,” Bonifacio told them, “bring out your
cedulas and tear them to pieces to show that we are prepared to take
up arms!” All the men brought out their cedulas and tore them to
pieces. The ground was littered with those pieces of paper, which to the
Katipuneros, symbolized their slavery. Then they shouted in one voice,
“Long live the Philippines! Long live the Katipunan!” This event, which
happened on August 23, is known as the “Cry of the Pugadlawin.” It
symbolized the determination of the Filipinos to fight for independence
even unto death.

The fighting begins

While the event at the Pugadlawin was happening, a group of

Katipuneros, who had come from Manila, informed Bonifacio that the
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civil guards were following them and that they were about to inspect the
mountains. Because of their inferior weapons, Bonifacio adviced his
men to retreat to another sitio, called Pasong Tamo. On August 25,
some women notified Bonifacio that civil guards and infantrymen were
coming. A burst of gunfire followed. The Katipuneros deployed
themselves and deliberately fell to the ground to avoid being hit. A short
skirmish ensued in which one civil guard and two Katipuneros were
killed.

The Spaniards and their hired Filipino soldiers, thinking that the rebels
were strong, retreated. The rebels, believing their weapons were
inferior to those of the civil guards, also retreated to Balara. From here,
they proceeded to Marikina and on to Hagdang Bato. On August 28,
Bonifacio issued a manifesto telling the people to take up the Filipino
cause. He also set the attack on the City of Manila for August 29, 1896.
He ended his manifesto by saying that, “”Anybody who obstructs this
secret ideal of the people will be considered a traitor and an enemy.”

The proposed attack on Manila did not take place because Bonifacio
and his men lacked reinforcements and necessary supply of arms and
ammunition to carry out the plan. Instead, Bonifacio ordered his men to
attack the arsenal located at San Juan del Monte. A fighting broke out
between the attacking Filipino forces and the defending Spanish
soldiers on August 30, 1896. The latter, knowing that it would be foolish
to fight the numerically superior Filipino head-on, fought a delaying
battle while waiting for reinforcements. When they arrived, the
Spaniards drove back Bonifacio and his men, who suffered heavy
losses.

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Martial Law

The revolutionary flame was rapidly spreading to other provinces of

Central Luzon and the southern Tagalog provinces of Cavite, Laguna,
and Batangas. Faced with this ever-increasing threat, the Spanish
colonial government initiated a reign of terror to frighten the people into
submission. Arrests of mere suspects continued. Governor-general
Ramon Blanco issued a decree on August 30 to prevent the spread of
the revolution. The first eight provinces which rose in arms - Cavite,
Manila, Laguna, Batangas, Bulacan, Pampanga, Tarlac and Nueva-
Ecija - were placed under martial law. The decree further provided that
those who would surrender within forty-eight hours after the publication
of the decree would not be tried by the military court. This policy, known
as Blanco’s policy of attraction, was intended to win over the
Filipinos to the side of the government and thus, end the rebellion.
Some Filipinos, among them Dr. Pio Valenzuela and a few of his
companions, took advantage of this provision and surrendered to the
government.

Persecution continues

The reign of terror did not stop with the proclamation of martial law in
the first eight provinces that rebelled against Spain. The colonial
government continued its policy of repression to cow the people into
silence. The suspects and Manila and the provinces were punished
without trial. Heads of families were shipped to the Carolines in the
Pacific and to the Spanish penal colony in Africa. Fort Santiago was
packed with hundreds of prisoners, most of whom were innocent. Many
died when the waters of the Pasig River entered the lower portion of
184
the cells, while others died of suffocation. Some wealthy Filipinos, like
Luis R. Yangco, were arrested for allegedly having connections with the
Katipunan.

In reality, the Spanish authorities wanted to extort money from them,

promising them their freedom if they would pay for it. In some places,
like Bulacan, the Spaniards massacred many people. Men were
tortured to force them to tell on their friends and even relatives. In many
cases, the suspects were shot to death without any trial. On September
4, 1896, four Katipuneros were executed in Bagumbayan Field, which
is now a part of the Rizal Park in Manila. Eight days later, thirteen
suspects from Cavite were executed. Today, the people of Cavite call
them the “Thirteen Martyrs of Cavite.” On January 4, 1897, the
Spaniards killed twelve Bicolano patriots, and in Kalibo, which was then
part of Capiz, nineteen patriots were also shot to death. Blood flowed
like the waters of a river. Many Filipinos, instead of staying at home,
joined their countrymen in the field of battle.

Rizal’s execution

The height of the Spanish brutality in the Philippines came when the
government ordered Rizal’s trial and execution. Rizal had been in
Dapitan, Zamboanga Del Norte since 1892. He had lived there
peacefully, helping the people in their work. In 1896, he asked the
government to allow him to go to Cuba to serve as a military surgeon.
The Cubans then were fighting for their independence from their
Spanish masters. Rizal’s request was granted; so from Dapitan, he was
brought to Manila Bay where he waited for a streamer that would take
him to Cuba by way of Spain. He was in a Spanish cruiser in Manila
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Bay when the revolution broke out. He refused to be rescued when
revolutionaries offered to save him. He was transferred to the streamer
when it arrived in Manila.

Sailing for Spain on the way to Cuba, Rizal was ordered to return to
Manila. The ship was near Spain at that time. Upon reaching Spain, he
was detained and then shipped back to Manila. He was imprisoned in
Fort Santiago and later, was tried as a traitor to Spain. Rizal defended
himself with the help of a Spanish military lawyer. He strongly denied
any connection with the Katipunan and the plan to topple the
government. He explained that since his exile in Dapitan, he had
stopped any political involvement with groups.

But the military court did not listen to his arguments. He was sentenced
to be shot to death. His parents, brother, and sisters appealed to the
governor-general for pardon, but the governor refused to grant their
request. Another appeal was made to the Minister of War in Spain, but
he also did not grant the appeal. Rizal was executed early in the
morning of December 30, 1896. His execution did not dishearten the
revolutionists; in the contrary, they resolved to fight to the bitter end.
Rizal’s execution, in fact, emboldened the Filipinos to fight for their
country and its independence.

Bonifacio goes to Cavite

Meanwhile, in Cavite, Emilio Aguinaldo, the young mayor of the town of

Kawit, led the rebels against the Spaniards. He won victory after victory
and people, admiring his qualities as a military leader, called him
Heneral Miong. His famous victory was in Imus when he defeated the
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Spanish army contingent, under the command of Ernesto de Aguirre,
on September 5, 1896. The latter, in his haste to avoid being captured,
left his sword behind. Aguinaldo took his sword and kept it as a
memento of his victory. At that time, the Katipunan in Cavite was
divided into two fractions: the Magdiwang and the Magdalo. The
rivalry between the two fractions led to several defeats of the
revolutionists. Bonifacio was requested to go to Cavite to mediate
between the factions. Accompanied by his wife and the two brothers,
Bonifacio arrived in Cavite toward the end of December 1896. An
assembly was held in Imus on December 31, 1896, to determine
whether the Katipunan should be transformed into another body with
governmental powers. The Magdiwang favored the retention of the
Katipunan, while the Magdalo favored a change in the Katipunan
structure. Nothing resulted from this meeting.

The Tejeros Convention

The Spanish army was trying to its best to subjugate Cavite, which was
now a major battleground of the revolution. Town after town fell into the
hands of the Spaniards. Faced with this bitter fact, the rebels decided
to meet at Tejeros, San Francisco de Malabon, (now General Trias).
On March 22, 1897, a convention was held at the estate house of
Tejeros, which the rebels had captured from the friars. During the
second part of the convention, this was presided over by Bonifacio with
Artemio Ricarte as secretary, the member who were present agreed to
form a new government. Officials of this government were to be elected
by those present in the convention. It was also agreed unanimously
that whoever would be elected would be respected by everyone,

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regardless of economic status and education. The result of the election
placed the following Katipuneros into office:

President……………………... Emilio Aguinaldo

Vice President………………...…. Mariano Trias
Captain General………….……. Artemio Ricarte
Director of War……..… Emiliano Riego de Dios
Director of the Interior………. Andres Bonifacio

When Bonifacio was being proclaimed, Daniel Tirona, a member of the

faction Magdalo, stood up and said that Jose del Rosario, an attorney
from Cavite was more qualified for the position and should be elected in
the place of Bonifacio. Bonifacio was hurt by this protest because it had
been agreed upon that everybody would respect the outcome of the
election. Bonifacio demanded that Tirona take back what he said but
the latter refused. Bonifacio took out his pistol and aimed at Tirona
when Ricarte quickly held his hand. The angry Bonifacio, being the
incumbent Supremo of the Katipunan, declared the results of the
election as null and void. Then he and his men hurriedly left the place.

Another meeting at Tejeros

The following day, March 23, Bonifacio, Ricarte and many others met at
the same place. They agreed to issue a document which would put on
record what happened in the election that was held the previous day.
This document was called Acta de Tejeros (Minutes of Tejeros).
However, the report on the proceedings of the convention contained a
resolution. Hence, it should rightly be called Tejeros Resolution. In this
document, Bonifacio and those present, numbering about forty-five in
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all, gave their reasons for rejecting the results of the previous day’s
election and fraud committed by the Magdalo people. After signing the
resolution, the men followed Bonifacio to Naik.

The Naik Military Agreement

Still angry with Daniel Tirona, who insulted him, Bonifacio, now in the
town of Naik, Cavite, persuaded his men to draw up another document.
It was a military agreement in which another government would be
established. General Pio Del Pilar was to become the commander of
this army. Obviously, the head of the government to be established was
Bonifacio himself. Among those who signed the document, aside from
Bonifacio and his brothers were Artemio Ricarte, Pio Del Pilar, and
Severino de las Alas.

The execution of Bonifacio

After signing the Naik military agreement, Bonifacio, his wife, and his
two brothers, and some followers, left for the town of Indang and settled
in the barrio of Limbon. Meanwhile, Aguinaldo, who claimed he was
sick at that time, heard about the Naik agreement, for which he sent an
emissary with some soldiers to persuade Bonifacio to recognize the
Tejeros election results, and thus present a unified stand against the
enemy. Colonel Agapito Bonzon, who headed the party to contact
Bonofacio, used force on Bonifacio and his brothers. As a result
Bonifacio and his brothers, fought back. His brother, Ciriaco, was killed
in the skirmish, and Bonifacio himself was wounded on the neck and on
the left arm. He was captured and brought to the municipal building of
Indang. Later he was transferred to Maragondon, where he was tried
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for treason. The military court that tried Bonifacio was composed of
men who were hostile to him. Without strong evidence, the military
court pronounced Bonifacio and his brother Procopio, guilty f treason.
They were sentenced to be shot to death. According to Aguinaldo, he
commuted the death penalty to banishment. But when General Pio Del
Pilar, who was formerly a follower of Bonifacio, and General Mariano
Noriel received Aguinaldo’s commutation order, they rushed to his
headquarters in Maragondon and persuaded him to withdraw the
commutation of the death sentence.

They reasoned that they could not afford to be divided at the time when
the enemy was capturing one town after another. Because of this
argument, Aguinaldo recalled, he withdrew his commutation order. In
other words, the original death sentence was carried out. On May 10,
1897, Major Lazaro Macapagal, who received the sealed order of
General Noriel, took the risoners from their prison cells and brought
them to Mount Tala, where the Bonifacio brothers were executed.

The Government of Central Luzon

During this period, the Filipino rebels suffered one defeat after another.
The Spanish forces, on the other hand, suffered from tropical diseases
and lack of experience. At this stage, the Spanish army was composed
of many Spanish recruits to replace the Filipino soldiers who had
defected to the revolutionary force. Governor-general Camilio de
Polavieja, who succeeded General Ramon Blanco in December 1896,
grew tired of fighting the Filipinos who refused to surrender. His health
failed him so he asked to be relieved. His successor was Governor
General Fernando Primo de Vera, who had served previously as
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governor of the country. Primo de Vera took personal charge of the
military campaign against the rebels. By May, almost the whole
province of Cavite was in the hands of the Spaniards. Aguinaldo, in
order to escape captivity, retreated to Batangas. The Spanish army
followed him and tried to trap him. Aguinaldo, however, succeeded in
eluding the enemy and, with some faithful followers, headed for the hilly
parts of Morong (now Rizal province).

With 500 faithful armed men, Aguinaldo walked the distance to San
Juan del Monte and Montalban, and on to Mount Puray. From here, he
and his men walked all the way to Biak-na-bato, in San Miguel de
Mayumo, Bulacan, where he established his headquarters. Meanwhile,
news of Aguinaldo’s arrival in Biak-na-bato reached the people in
Central Luzon.

Immediately, the people of the provinces of Zambales, Pangasinan, the

Ilocos, Tarlac, and Nueva Ecija renewed their offensive against the
enemy. Such was the situation when the rebels met at Mount Puray
and established the Departmental Government of Central Luzon. This
compromised the provinces of Manila, Morong, Bulacan, Laguna,
Bataan, Nueva Ecija, Tarlac, and Pangasinan. Those present in the
meeting elected the following officials:

President……………………… Father Pedro Dandan

Vice President…………………. Anastacio Francisco
Secretary of the treasury…………….. Paciano Rizal
Secretary of War…………………. Cipriano Pacheco
Secretary of Interior…………….. Teodoro Gonzales
Secretary of Welfare……………… Feliciano Jocson
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The Biak-na-Bato Republic

Primo de Vera failed to win over the Filipinos back to Spain. The
Filipinos were tired of Spanish promises. For more than three hundred
years, they heard nothing but promises and now they wanted to live an
independent life. Before July or early in July, Aguinaldo established a
republican government at Biak-na-bato called Bato Republic. He
ordered the preparation of a constitution for this Republic. Felix Ferrer
and Isabelo Artacho copied, word for word the Cuban Constitution of
Jimaguayu, except for one article. The Constitution, in its Preamble,
declared the aim of the Revolution as the separation of Article VIII
provided that “Tagalog shall be the official language of the Republic.”
The Constitution was approved on November 1. The following day,
these officers were elected:

President……………………………….. Emilio Aguinaldo

Vice President………………………….…. Mariano Trias
Secretary of Foreign Affairs….…... Antonio Montenegro
Secretary of the Interior…….………….… Isabel Artacho
Secretary of War………………. Emiliano Riego de Dios
Secretary of the Treasury………. Baldomero Aguinaldo

The Truce of Biak-na-Bato

Because of the difficulties that confronted both the Filipinos and the
Spanish army, some sort of understanding between the combatants
was made. Pedro A. Paterno, a Filipino of Chinese ancestry,
approached Governor Primo de Rivera and offered himself as
mediator. The governor agreed, and soon Paterno was negotiating with
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the two camps on how to end the bloody struggle. On November 18,
1897, the first document was signed by Paterno on behalf of the
Filipino rebels, and by Primo de Rivera, on behalf of the colonial
government. Other matters were clarified and a second document was
signed by Paterno and Primo de Rivera on December 14, 1897. On
December 15, a third document was signed. These three documents
together constitute what maybe called the Truce of Biak-na-bato.
Among other things, the agreement provided the following:

p. that Aguinaldo and his men would go into voluntary exile;

q. that Primo de Rivera would pay Aguinaldo the sum of Php
800,000 in three installments: (a) Php 400,000 upon his
departure from Philippines, (b) Php 200,000 when the arms
surrendered to the Spanish authorities exceeded 700 pieces,
and (c) the remaining Php 200,000 when general amnesty had
been proclaimed and the Te Deum had been sung; and
r. that Primo de Rivera would pay an additional Php 900,000 to
the families or non-combatant Filipinos who suffered during the
revolution.

On December 27, Aguinaldo, together with some men of his choice,

boarded a ship for Hong Kong. He had with him a check for Php
400,000

The Failure of the Truce

The month of January 1898 was a happy one for the Spaniards. Peace
reigned once more and the Spanish community enjoyed their usual
activities like attending horse and boat races, fireworks, and going to
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theaters. The Te Deum was sung at the Manila Cathedral on January
23 to celebrate the publication of a peace treaty. Meanwhile, the
Filipino military officers, who were left at Biak-na-bato to attend the
surrender of firearms, kept themselves busy. Others, however, were
suspicious of Spanish motives and held on their weapons. Likewise,
the Spanish authorities did not trust the Filipinos. This mutual suspicion
resulted to armed clashes that started in February.

One of the military leaders, General Francisco Makabulos of Tarlac,

who was suspicious of Spanish motives, organized the Central
Executive Committee which acted as an independent government. It
intended to operate temporarily as a government, pending the central
government run by Filipinos. It had a constitution, popularly called the
Makabulos Constitution. In the months that followed, armed clashes
between the Filipinos and Spaniards occurred. These clashes made
the Filipinos and the Spaniards more suspicious of each other. Bad
faith on both sides ultimately caused the truce to fail.

STUDY GUIDE

1. Describe the conditions in the Philippines before the outbreak of

the revolution. In your opinion, which of the causes of the struggle
oppressed the Filipinos the most? Why?
2. Why and how was the Katipunan discovered?
3. What was the “Cry of Pugadlawin?” What did it signify?
4. Why did Governor Ramon Blanco declare martial law in the eight
provinces of Luzon? What are these provinces?
5. What is meant by “policy of attraction?” Why was it initiated?

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 6. What was the colonial government’s reaction to the outbreak of
the revolution? Was it justified? Why?
7. What was the effect of Rizal’s execution on the Filipino
revolutionaries?
8. Explain why Bonifacio went to Cavite. Was he right in going to
Cavite? Why? What kind of character did he show in going to
Cavite?
9. Why was the Tejeros convention called? Did it succeed in unifying
the Katipunan? Explain your answer.
10. Why did Bonifacio and his companions refuse to recognize the
results of the elections at Tejeros? Were they justified in doing so?
Explain your answer.
11. Why was Bonifacio tried and executed? Was his execution just?
Why?
12. Describe how Aguinaldo eluded the Spanish army sent to destroy
him. How would you describe Aguinaldo regarding his success in
the fight against the Spaniards?
13. Why did Aguinaldo retreat to Biak-na-bato? Why did he choose
Biak-na-bato?
14. Discuss the Truce of Biak-na-bato and its important provisions.
15. Why was the truce a failure?

SUGGESTED ACTIVITIES

1. Go to the library and copy a map of Luzon or that part of Luzon

showing the provinces of Cavite, Laguna, Batangas, Morong (now
Rizal Province), and Bulacan. With a red pencil, trace the route
taken by Aguinaldo from Maragondon, Cavite, to Biak-na-Bato in
Bulacan.
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 2. Read about the arrest, trial, and execution of Rizal. Dramatize
Rizal’s last moments in Fort Santiago, including the writing of the
Last Farewell.
3. Surf the internet and read the biography of Bonifacio and the
study why he succeeded in uniting the masses, which the
intellectuals like Rizal, Jaena, and others failed to do. What traits
would you ascribe to Bonifacio who successfully founded the
Katipunan and expanded its membership? Write an essay on this.
4. Discuss this topic in class by preparing arguments to support your
views.
a. Was Teodoro Patiño justified in revealing the secrets of the
Katipunan to his sister? Why or why not?
5. What lesson can we learn from the many acts of betrayal and
conflicts in the Katipunan?

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 CHAPTER 12

THE STRUGGLE CONTINUES

(1897 - 1898)

Governor-General Primo de Rivera’s success in the battlefield of Cavite

over Aguinaldo’s forces could have ended the Revolution. Instead, a
truce was agreed upon, apparently an attempt on both sides to recover
from their losses and resume fighting later. Some Filipinos, in fact,
continued to engage the Spanish forces and established a temporary
government like the Makabulos “Republic” in Tarlac. However, the
entry of a third party, the United States of America, complicates the
struggle for independence.

Even before the Filipinos could recover from the battles of 1896,
General Emilio Aguinaldo, as the recognized leader of the Filipinos in
exile in Hongkong and at home, negotiated the situation with the
Americans to delay confrontation with an obviously more powerful
country. But the United States misled Aguinaldo to believe that the
Americans came as an ally of the Filipinos in their fight to end Spanish
rule in the country. But in the end, the Filipinos’ fears and suspicions
proved to be true. The Americans came to stay and eventually took
over as the new colonial master.

THE RELIEVE OF PRIMO DE RIVERA

Governor-General Primo de Rivera’s success in stopping the

bloodshed was highly praised in Spain. The Queen of Spain, who was
reigning for her son, rewarded him with the Grand cross of San
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Fernando and a pension of about ₱10,000. When armed hostilities
occurred in mid-February 1898, many Spaniards blamed the Filipinos
for violating the Truce of Biak-na-Bato. Meanwhile in Spain, the
elections resulted in the triumph of the Conservative Party. It sent
General Basilio Augustin as governor-general to succeed Primo de
Rivera. This event was unfortunate because Primo de Rivera was
performing well in the Philippines. He had good intentions which, he
thought, would make the Filipino rebels return to Spain as faithful
subjects, just like before the revolution.

He wanted to continue as governor so that he could make plans for the

future. At that time, there was rumor that the Spaniard and the
Americans on the other side of the world were drifting toward war.
Primo de Rivera knew the Philippines very well because he had served
previously as governor of the country from 1880 to 1883. With the
possibility of a war between the United States and Spain, Governor
Primo de Rivera would have been a wise choice to govern the
archipelago since he knew the Filipinos well. The newly-appointed
Governor-General Augustin had never been to the Philippines and did
not know the problems confronting the country. But the new Spanish
Prime Minister insisted on Primo de Rivera’s relief. On April 9, 1898,
General Augustin arrived in Manila and the following day Primo de
Rivera turned over the reins of the government to him.

THE SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR

The relationship between Spain and the United States was becoming
sour. The Cuban Revolution had won the sympathy of the Americans
because the latter had big investments in Cuba which they did not want
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to be destroyed. Some influential Americans, like Theodore
Roosevelt, wanted war with Spain so that the American Navy could
expand. In 1897, he became Assistant Secretary of the Navy. It was he
who conceived the idea of taking Manila in case war with Spain would
be declared. To carry out his plan, Roosevelt work for the appointment
of Commodore George Dewey as commander of the American Asiatic
Squadron. On February 25, 1898, Roosevelt told Dewey to make
Hongkong, which was very near Manila, as his base of operations.
Roosevelt later admitted that Dewey was appointed commander of the
Asiatic Squadron because “it was deemed wise to have there a man
who could go to Manila if necessary” Spain did not imagine a war with
the United States, because the U.S was starting to develop into a rich
and powerful country.

Spain on the other hand, was preoccupied with two revolutions: one in
Cuba and the other in the Philippines. These conflicts were very
expensive for Spain and were draining its resources. On February 15,
1898, the American battleship, USS Maine exploded at Havana Harbor
in Cuba. Spain was blamed for the mishap. More than two hundred
American sailor and officers died. The American people were outraged
and demanded that war be declared on Spain. So on April 25, 1898,
the Congress of the United States formally declared war on Spain.
However, a later investigation of the incident failed to connect the
explosion to the Spaniards.

The Battle of Manila Bay

On the same day the war with Spain was declared, Dewey received a
message by cable from the Secretary of War. It said “War has
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commenced between the United States and Spain. Proceed particularly
against the Spanish fleet. You must capture vessels or destroy, use
“utmost endeavor.” Dewey ordered his fleet to sail for Manila Bay.
Quietly his fleet entered the bay in the early morning hours of May 1,
1898. The Spanish batteries in Corregidor were too late in detecting the
passage of the fleet. The Spanish squadron, commanded by Admiral
Patricio Montojo, was waiting near Sangley Point, Cavite. Montojo
was watching Dewey’s course as he entered Manila Bay. At dawn,
Dewey spotted the Spanish ships and ordered his fleet turn back and
sail toward Cavite.

Standing on the bridge of the flagship USS Olympia, Dewey estimated

the distance between the two fleets. When he thought that his guns
could effectively hit the enemy, he turned to the captain of the ship and
said calmly: “You may fire when you are ready Gridley,” the signal for
firing was given and the guns of all the American ships burst with fire.
The Battle of Manila Bay was one-sided.

The heavier and better-armed American ships out gunned the Spanish
fleet, and by 12:30 in the afternoon, Admiral Montojo’s fleet was
already destroyed. The Spaniards hoisted a white flag in Cavite as a
sign of surrender. The news of Dewey’s victory was flashed around the
world. The American people were delirious with joy. But they did not
know where the Philippines was. Most Americans thought it was a part
of China. It was said that the whole American nation was heard
opening geography book to locate the Philippines on the map.

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AGUINALDO GOES TO SINGAPORE

It was early April of 1898 when rumors had already reached Manila that
war between Spain and the United States was to be declared any time.
In Hongkong, Aguinaldo and his companions in exile were following the
events on the other side of the world. They felt that in case of war, it
would be a good opportunity for the Filipinos to oust the Spaniards from
the Philippines. However, Aguinaldo was in trouble. Isabelo Artacho,
one of the plagiarists of the Cuban Constitution, went to Hongkong and
demanded Aguinaldo to divide the P400,000 indemnity that was given
by the colonial government to the rebels.

Aguinaldo did not want the money to be divided because he was

thinking of using it to buy arms and ammunition with which to fight the
Spaniards. Artacho asked for his share of the money but Aguinaldo
refused. To avoid scandal, Aguinaldo was advised by Felipe Agoncillo
to leave Hongkong. With two companions, Gregorio Del Pilar and Jose
Leyba, Aguinaldo left for Singapore. Artacho, who was now a paid
agent of the Spanish Embassy in Hongkong, sued Aguinaldo in the
Hongkong Supreme Court. His purpose was to force Aguinaldo to
divide the money. With the money divided among so many rebels,
Aguinaldo would not be able to buy arms and ammunition. This was the
strategy of the Spanish Embassy. But with the departure of Aguinaldo
for Singapore, Artacho’s court suit did not materialize.

The Interview with Pratt

Aguinaldo and his companions arrived in Singapore on April 23, 1898.

That afternoon, an Englishman, Howard Bray, who had lived in the
201
Philippines for a long time, came to visit Aguinaldo came to Singapore
incognito and he thought, nobody knew about his arrival. Bray said that
the American consul at Singapore, E. Spencer Pratt, wanted to have an
interview with Aguinaldo. Bray was acting as interpreter because Pratt
did not know Spanish and Aguinaldo did not speak English. The
request was granted and during the interview, Pratt told Aguinaldo,
through interpreter Bray, that Aguinaldo should side with the
Americans. When Aguinaldo expressed his doubts, Pratt told him not to
worry because the United States, which was near Cuba, had no desire
to take Cuba as a colony.

The Philippines was very far from the Philippines? Moreover, the
Americans would leave Cuba as soon as the Spaniards had been
driven away. In other words, Pratt assured Aguinaldo that the United
States had no intention of making the Philippines a colony. Aguinaldo
then agreed to return to the Philippines to renew the hostilities against
the Spaniards. Pratt made all the arrangements for Aguinaldo’s return
to Hongkong.

Aguinaldo and Wildman

On April 26, 1893, Aguinaldo and his companions sailed for Hongkong.
Dewey had already left for Manila when Aguinaldo arrived in the British
colony. He was disapointed. However, the American consul at
Hongkong, Rounseville Wildman, told him that Dewey had left
instruction for the return of Aguinaldo to the Philippines. Wildman later
told Aguinaldo to establish a dictatorial government in the Philippines
so that he could easily take steps to continue the revolution against
Spain. But after the hostilities, Aguinaldo should establish a
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government like that of the United States. Having been won over by
Wildman’s frankness, Aguinaldo entrusted him to purchase rifles and
ammunition to be used by the Filipino army. For this purpose, he gave
Wildman the sum of ₱50,000. Later, he gave Wildman ₱67,000 for the
purchase of more arms and ammunition. The first shipment of arms
and ammunition costing ₱50,000 was consummated but the second
transaction, which costed ₱67,000, was never realized. There was no
record that Wildman returned the money

The Hongkong Junta

When Dewey won the Battle of Manila Bay and news about it reached
all parts of the world, the Filipino patriots in Hongkong met to discuss
the steps to be taken to take over the Philippines. These Filipino
patriots composed the Hongkong Junta. Those present in the meeting
were informed that Aguinaldo had returned to Hongkong and thus, they
decided to adjourn temporarily to greet Aguinaldo. When Aguinaldo
arrived at the meeting place, everybody embraced him. He told the
Hongkong Junta about his interview with Pratt and Wildman. Aguinaldo
told the Junta that the situation the Philippines was very serious and
sought their opinions over the matter. There was an exchange of points
of view and the Junta unanimously decided that Aguinaldo should
return to the Philippines. He would lead the Filipinos once more against
the Spaniards.

AGUINALDO RETURNS

Aguinaldo accepted the Junta’s decision, for he had faith and

confidence in its members. They were all very highly educated and
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patriotic Filipinos. The members of the Junta, among others, were
Filipe Agoncillo as president with Doroteo Lopez as secretary; Teodoro
sandico, Anasticio Francisco, Mariano Llanera, Miguel Malvar, Andres
Garchitorena, Severo Buenaventura, Maximo Kabigting, Faustino
Lichauco, and Antonio Montenegro. On May 17, 1898, Aguinaldo
boarded the American revenue cutter McCulloch, which was bound for
Manila. The ship arrived in Manila Bay two days later. Immediately, he
was transferred to Dewey’s flagship, the Olympia, where he was given
honors due a general of an army.

According to Aguinaldo, while he was aboard the Olympia, Dewey

assured him that the United States did not need colonies. Dewey, who
had been promoted to Rear Admiral, assured him that the United
States would recognize the independence of the Philippines. Dewey
would later deny having made any promise to Aguinaldo and that his
relation with the Filipino leader was purely personal, not official.

The Struggle Continues

When Aguinaldo had finished disembarking the war equipment which

were purchased in Hongkong, Filipino rebels came to pay him a visit.
He handed them copies of proclamations that he had prepared on the
way to the Philippines. These proclamations urged the people to rise in
arms once more and to continue the struggle against the Spanish
oppressors. The news of Aguinaldo’s return spread far and wide. Many
Filipinos in the Spanish army defected to Aguinaldo’s forces. Some
arms were given to the Filipinos by the American officers of the Navy.
On May 21, Aguinaldo issued a proclamation saying that, “Everything
appears favorable for attaining independence… I urge that we strive to
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unite our efforts, and let us fire our hearts with the idea of vindicating
our country.

Many nations are on our side.” By the end of May, Aguinaldo’s armed
forces had captured about 5,000 prisoners. Town after town, in Cavite
and Morong, fell into the hands of the Filipino rebels. In Pampanga,
Laguna, Batangas, Bulacan, Nueva Ecija, Tayabas, Bataan, and
Camarines, the people were up in arms against Spain. By June 1898,
practically the whole of Luzon, with the exception of the Port of Cavite,
which was in American hands, and the City of Manila, which was under
the Spaniards, was in the hands of the Filipino rebels. On June 12
1898, Aguinaldo signed the Proclamation of the Philippine
Independence in Kawit, Cavite.

The Siege of Manila

The defeat of the Spanish fleet discouraged the Spanish officials in the
city. What demoralized them was Aguinaldo’s return. It meant that the
Filipinos would renew the struggle against the Spaniards. Added to this
was the further desertion of many Filipino soldiers from the Spanish
armed forces. They joined the cause of the revolutionaries and
transferred under Aguinaldo’s banner.

To prevent the Filipino population from siding with Aguinaldo,

Governor-General Basilio Augustin issued a circular saying that the
unity of the Philippines and its liberties lay with Spain. He appointed
prominent Spanish mestizos to the Consultative Assembly for the
purpose of winning over to the Spanish side all the wealthy and
influential Filipinos and thus, make it appear that he had the welfare of
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the Filipinos at heart. But many intelligent Filipinos saw the
Consultative Assembly as nothing but a puppet since it could not pass
laws. Its only duty was to give advice to the governor.

This last desperate effort by the governor-general proved useless. The

Filipinos did not cooperate with the Spaniards. Instead, the Filipino
rebels besieged Manila, which was then called Intramuros or the
Walled City. Dewey could not deploy troops in Manila because he did
not have enough soldiers abroad the battleship. All he could do was to
guard Manila Bay and prevent Spanish ships from entering or leaving
the bay.

On the other hand, Aguinaldo ordered his forces to lay siege to the city
to starve its Spanish population and make them helpless. Tondo, Santa
Cruz, San Juan, and even as far as Caloocan were filled with Filipino
rebels that surrounded the city. Aguinaldo also ordered that the city’s
food and water supply be cut off. Then he demanded the surrender of
the Spanish forces inside the city, but Governor Augustin, thinking of
Spanish honor, refused to surrender

The Secret Agreement

Dewey did not besiege the city because he did not have enough forces
to do it. In June and July, however, American troops arrived in Manila
Bay. They landed in Paraňaque and encamped south of Pasay. With
this force, the American military commanders, among them General
Arthur MacArthur believed that they could fight the Spaniards. But
Dewey thought that he could make the Spaniards surrender without a
fight. He sent the Belgian consul to governor Augustin to negotiate with
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him. The Government of Spain did not like this. He was relieved of his
duty and was succeeded by General Fermin Jaudenes. Jaudenes
believed that the Spanish position was very weak, but he could not
surrender without losing face. So he entered into a secret agreement
with Dewey and General Wesley Merritt. As agreed, both sides would
stage a mock battle to lead to Spanish surrender. It was also agreed
upon that the Filipino rebels should not be allowed by their American
allies to enter the city. This secret agreement was known only to
Jaudenes, Merritt, and Dewey.

THE MOCK BATTLE OF MANILA

It was August 13, 1898. The day was dreary; there was a downpour
because the rainy season has arrived. The American soldiers walked
quietly toward the walls of the city in preparation for the “battle.” On the
other hand, Aguinaldo’s generals suspected that the Americans were
not being faithful to them. Questions lingered in their minds about the
true intentions of the Americans. Why were American soldiers
positioned to enter the battle? It was just a matter of time, perhaps a
day or two, for the Spaniards to surrender to the Filipino forces. Why
were they staying? Didn’t they promise that they would not colonize the
Philippines?

These questions were asked by Filipino field generals like General

Artemio Ricarte, General Mariano Noriel, and General Pio Del Pilar.
Ricarte, among others warned Aguinaldo to be careful “because it
seems that the Americans want to fool us.“ When the firing started, the
Filipino soldiers advanced. General Merritt ordered General Francis V.
Greene to stop the Filipinos. Greene did as he was ordered and
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warned Aguinaldo not to allow his soldiers to enter the Walled City.
Greene added that if they did otherwise, the American soldiers would
be forced to fire at the Filipinos. Aguinaldo, much against his will,
ordered his soldiers to desist from entering Intramuros. Meanwhile
firing started and no American was killed. Then Dewey and Merritt saw
a white flag fluttering in the breeze. It was hoisted by the Spanish
soldiers at a corner of the walls, facing what is now the Manila Hotel.
Firing ceased and Merritt entered the city as the victor of a mock battle

The American Terms

At five o’clock in the afternoon of August 13, the Spanish governor-

general agreed to sign the surrender document. In line with the terms of
surrender, the Spaniards including the Filipino volunteers under the
payroll of the Spanish Army inside the city, agreed to admit defeat. On
the other hand, the Americans agreed to protect the city, its inhabitants,
its buildings, and churches. The following day, Sunday, the document
containing these terms were formally signed by the representatives of
the United States and Spain.

Meanwhile, in Washington, D.C., the protocol of peace was signed by

the representatives of Spain and the United States. According to this
protocol, both nations would appoint not more than five commissioners
each. These commissioners were to meet on October 1, 1898 in Paris,
France to discuss the terms of peace treaty. The two countries also
agreed to stop the hostilities between them. On August 12, Washington
time, President William McKinley of the United States issued a
proclamation ordering that “all military operations against the enemy be
suspended.” On the same day, the proclamation was cabled to General
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Merritt in Manila. It did not reach Merritt on time, however, because
Dewey cut the cable linking Manila with the outside world after the
battle of Manila Bay. Merritt received the proclamation on August 16,
three days after the mock battle of Manila. The Americans who had
promised friendship and alliance to Aguinaldo’s forces had taken over
the Philippines.

STUDY GUIDE

1. Explain why Primo De Rivera was relieved as governor-general of

the Philippines. Do you think that this move was wise? Explain your
answer.
2. Why did the Americans favor the Cubans? Do you think that the
Americans were justified in their attitude? Why?
3. What was the immediate cause of the Spanish-Americans War? Do
you think the Spaniards had something to do with the sinking of the
battleship USS Maine? Why?
4. In your opinion, what is the importance of the battle of Manila Bay?
5. Explain why Aguinaldo went to Singapore. Was he justified in doing
so?
6. Why do you think Isabelo Artacho asked for the distribution of the
₱400,000 given to Aguinaldo as payment for the rebels’ surrender?
Do you think it was right to do this?
7. What was the agreement between Aguinaldo and Spencer Pratt in
Singapore?
8. Why did the Hongkong Junta decide that Aguinaldo should return to
the Philippines? Was this decision wise?
9. What was Aguinaldo’ purpose in returning to the Philippines? Why
do you think Aguinaldo refused to live in Hongkong?
209
10. Dewey could have bombarded the City from Manila Bay, but he
did not. Can you explain why Dewey did not besiege the City of
Manila?
11. Explain why the American commanders entered into a secret
agreement with General Fermin Jaudenes. Was this right? Explain
your answer.
12. What was the secret agreement? Why do you think General
Jaudenes did not want the Filipino rebels to enter Intramuros?
13. What was the mock battle of Manila? Why was it called a mock
battle?
14. What were the terms of capitulation or surrender? Were the terms
just? Explain your answer.
15. Explain why the mock battle of Manila should not have taken
place. What is the significance of this battle?

SUGGESTED ACTIVITES

1. Make a map showing Manila Bay, Bataan, Cavite, including

Sangley Point, and the City of Manila.
2. Read an extended account of the Battle of Manila Bay and then
trace the route of Dewey’s fleet with red ink.
3. Surf the Internet or consult any American encyclopedia and read
about George Dewey and Wesley Merritt. Keep a separate
notebook for your short biographies of men mentioned in this
book. Arrange the biographies in alphabetical order.
4. Discuss in class any of the following topics
a) Aguinaldo was wrong in keeping ₱400,000 given to the
rebels by the Spanish colonial
government.
210
 b) Isabelo Artacho was right in demanding the distribution of
the money to the rebels.
c) It was not right for Dewey and Merritt to enter into a secret
agreement with Governor-General Jaudenes.
d) Aguinaldo was right in telling the Filipino forces not to stop
the Americans during the occupation of Intramuros.

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 CHAPTER 13

FREEDOM AND INDEPENDENCE

(1898 – 1899)

The circumstances surrounding the declaration of Philippine

independence, its constitution and form of government. were certainly
not ideal. The Filipino forces could have chosen a better timing. The
U.S. take-over of Intramuros on August 13, 1898, to the exclusion of
the Filipino forces who had earlier laid siege to the city, muddled the
issue of who were the real victors of the battle: was it the Americans or
the Filipinos that were responsible for the Spanish surrender?

General Emilio Aguinaldo, together with Apolinario Mabini, were faced

with the difficult task of uniting the educated and rich with the majority
who were poor and uneducated under a form of government worthy of
international respect and recognition. This, they had to do in just a short
time with the impending U.S. occupation of the country. The elite
dominated the Congress in Malolos and succeeded in crafting and
approving a constitution and government in the hands of an “oligarchy
of the educated.” Aguinaldo and Mabini, despite their opposition, failed
and in the end, found themselves behind the birth of a premature
Republic of the Philippines that was controlled by the elite.

THE DICTATORIAL GOVERNMENT

When Aguinaldo was in Hongkong, he asked Mariano Ponce to

prepare a constitution that provided for a republican form of
government. When Aguinaldo returned to the Philippines, he realized
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that it was time to organize a government, as what Consul Wildman
had earlier advised. He was to establish a dictatorial form of
government because such a government was very effective in a critical
period such as what the country was experiencing. The conditions in
the Philippines were serious. There were many problems that needed
to be addressed like financing a new government; food for the people;
reconstruction of destroyed buildings and houses, including roads and
bridges; and many other concerns that would require honesty,
dedication, and competence on the part of the Chief Executive.

Probably, because Aguinaldo was convinced that a dictatorial form of

government was more efficient than a republican government in a time
of crisis, he asked Ambrosio Rianzares Bautista, a lawyer of good
standing, to prepare the machinery for the establishment of a dictatorial
government. On May 24, 1898 Aguinaldo, upon the advise of Bautista,
formally established the Dictatorial Government “to be admonished by
decrees promulgated under many [Aguinaldo’s] sole responsibility.”
Hereafter, all decrees issued in the name of the Biak-na-Bato Republic
were declared null and void. Aguinaldo made it clear that this form of
government was temporary in nature anad that in the future the people
may modify it.

Mabini Enters the Scene

While Aguinaldo was in Hongkong, he was in the company of many

wise men. They were all patriotic men of experience. It was these men,
who composed the Hongkong Junta, which Aguinaldo consulted for the
major decisions. Before he left for the Philippines, Felipe Agoncillo, who
had left for the Philippines in 1895 because some friars were after him,
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gave him some good advice. Realizing that Aguinaldo would need the
services of dedicated and patriotic men, Agoncillo advised him to look
for a certain Apolinario Mabini of Tanawan, Batangas. He was,
according to the imformant, a bright young man who could be relied
upon in times of crisis.

Now in Cavite, Aguinaldo remembered Agoncillo’s advise. He learned

that Mabiniwas resting in Los Banos, Laguna. He ordered his men to
fetch Mabini and bring him to Kawit, Cavite. Mabini was carried in a
hammock from Los Banos, Laguna to Kawit, Cavite. It was a long and
difficult journey considering that there were no good roads between the
two towns.

When Mabini was brought before Aguinaldo in his office, the General
looked at the man before him. He was thin and obviously sick. He was
paralyzed from the waist down to his lower limbs, a sickness which he
must have contracted since birth. Despite this sickly appearance,
Aguinaldo noted that there was a strange light in Mabini’s eyes that he
could not explain. There was something in those eyes that captivated
Aguinaldo. No one spoke.

There was a long silence. Aguinaldo thought to himself that he must

have made a mistake in sending for the man. He was useless for all
practical purposes. Then Aguinaldo heard Mabini’s voice for the first
time. It was firm. It had deep conviction. It had courage. All at once,
Aguinaldo’s doubts vanished. He smiled and reached for Mabini’s right
hand. He held the latter’s hand tightly. This meeting was the beginning
of a friendship that, unfortunately, lasted for only one year.

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The Declaration of Independence

With a Filipino government now in operation, Aguinaldo thought that it

would be the best to declare the independence of the country. He
believed the people would work hard to protect that independence and
thus, contribute to the stability of the newly established government.
But Apolinario Mabini, who was not yet Aguinaldo’s official adviser at
the time, objected. He said that the more important thing to do was to
reorganize the government first, to make it popularly based and thus
more stable than a dictatiorial government. In this way the foreign
countries would know that the rebel government was secure.
Aguinaldo, however, stood his ground and insisted on the proclamation
of Philippine independence.

On June 5, Aguinaldo ordered that June 12 be set aside for the

proclamation of independence. To make the event memoriable, he
asked Julian Felipe, a musician from Cavite, to compose a march
which would be played during the Independence Day ceremonies. Six
days later, Julian Felipe showed Aguinaldo and some of his officers the
music he had composed. It was entitled “Marcha Filipina Magdalo.”
Upon hearing the music, Aguinaldo decided to make it the official
march of the Philippines.

On June 12, between four and five in the afternoon, Aguinaldo

proclaimed the independence of the Philippines from the window of his
home in Kawit. The Philippine flag, designed by Aguinaldo and sewn in
Hongkong by Mrs. Marcela Agoncillo with the help of Delfina Herbosa
and Lorenza Agoncillo, was officially hoisted for the first time to the
accompaniment of the “Marcha Filipina.”
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The Act of the Declaration of Independence was prepared and read
in Spanish by Ambrosio Rianzares Bautista. This was his last official
act. After June 12, he faded from the picture and Mabini stepped in as
Aguinaldo’s topmost adviser. The Declaration of Independence was
signed by ninety-eight persons. U.S. Admiral Dewey declined the
invitation to the ceremonies. Instead, an American army officer by the
name of Colonel L. M. Johnson attended on his behalf. It was Luzon
promulgated the proclamation of independence.

Local Government Reorganized

Mabini began playing a very important role in the Filipino government

after the declaration of independence on June 12, 1898. He set to work
immediately by preparing a decree for Aguinaldo’s signature in which it
was started that “the first duty of the government is to interpret faithfully
the will of the people.” Mabini felt that the people who would surround
Aguinaldo should be close to the people so that Aguinaldo would their
needs at once.

Hence, Mabini prepared the decree of June 18 which provided for the
reorganization of the government in provinces that were already taken
from the Spaniards. The right to vote was given to men of high moral
character and good standing in his community. They were the ones
who would elect the town head, cabeza of each barrio, and the
delegate for police and internal order, the delegate for justice and civil
registry, and the delegate for taxes and property. All these and the town
and barrio chiefs constituted the Popular Assembly. The town chief
acted as president of the Assembly; the cabeza of the poblacion or
town proper as the vice president; and the delegate for justice and the
216
civil registry as the secretary. On the other hand, the provincial chief or
governor and three councilors were elected by the town chiefs, in
consultation with the Popular Assembly. The provincial chief, the chief
of the capital of the province, and the three councilors constituted the
Provincial Council. Mabini thought that there should be a Revolutionary
Congress. To prepare for this, he included in the June 18 decree a
provision stating that each province should elect its delegates to
Congress was “to propose…measures concerning the preservation of
internal order and external security of these islands…”

The Administration of Justice

In a supplementary decree of June 20, Mabini provided for the

administration of justice in areas under the Filipino government. For the
time being, the Spanish Penal Code was adopted except for this
provisions which were contrary to the decrees of the Filipino
government. Under the setup, the town chief was automatically
assigned as the town judge. In criminal cases, the papers relating to a
case had to be sent to the Provincial Council. This, in turn, would order
the accused to appear before the Provincial Council trial. In civil cases,
the decisions were made by the Popular Council. All decisions were to
be considered temporary and may be changed by a court of higher
jurisdiction.

THE REVOLUTIONARY GOVERNMENT

Upon the advice of Mabini, Aguinaldo changed the form of government

from dictatorial to revolutionary. This took affect on June 23. From this
time on, the name of the government was Revolutionary Government.
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The decree, prepared by the Mabini, changed the title of the Chief of
State from Dictator to President. To help the President in his duties,
four departments were created.

They were the Department of Foreign Affairs, Navy and Commerce; the
Department of War and Public Works; the Department of Police and
Internal Order, Justice, Education, and Hygiene; and the Department of
Finance, Agriculture, and Manufacturing industry. The June 23 decree
also provided for the creation of Congress. Provinces which could not
hold any election for delegates to Congress, because they were still
under Spaniards, would be represented by appointive delegates to
Congress. The Congress was not a lawmaking body but an advisory
one. It would advise the President on matters pertaining to the
organizationof the Revolutionary army and the raising of funds to
support it – not just the vague statement: “the welfare of the country.”

The Malolos Congress

Following the provisions of the decrees of June 18and 23, Aguinaldo

called the Congress to meet at Barasoain Church in Malolos, Bulacan.
On September 4, Aguinaldo appointed fifty delegates to Congressto
represent provinces that were experiencing unstable conditions
because of peace and order issues. On final count, ninety-two
delagates came. Thirty-five delegates were elected, while fifty-seven
were appointed.The majority of these were educated and rich. Lawyers,
physicians, and businessmen made up 59%. None from the peasants,
labor, Muslims, and other ethnolinguistic groups were represented.

218
The Basilica of Barasoain was filled with people on the morning of
September 15, 1898. The Banda Pasig played the “Marcha Filipina,” at
the churchyard. The marcha is now known as the National Anthem.
Cries of “Viva!” reverberated when Aguinaldo arrived with his aides. He
entered the church and sat in one of the chairs designated for him. He
acknowledged the applause and then stood up. He read his message
in Tagalog and later in Spanish. He announced that the ceremonies
were over and that the Congress should elect its officers.

In the meeting of September 29, Congress ratified the proclamation of

independence in Kawit on June 12. This was the first significant act of
Congress. Aguinaldo congratulated the members of Congress,
especially the elected officers, and said in Tagalog,”… now we witness
the truth of what the famous President Monroe said to the effect that
the United States was for the Americans; and I say the Philippines is for
the U.S. government, whose representative Admiral Dewey continued
to be uncommitted to the idea of an independent Philippines.

The Malolos Constitution

What Mabini provided in the decrees of June 18 and 23 was for

Congress to function as an advisory group to the President; he meant
for it not to act as a lawmaking body. He believed that in times of
emergency, as what was happening in those days, the Chief Executive
should not be hamperedby too much discussion in order to execute
plans immediately. The members of Congress, who by then were
mostly the elite, however, were opposed to Mabini. They believed that it
was necessary to have a modern constitution where Congress
functioned as an equal branch of the executive charged with legislative
219
power. They believed that it was necessary to have a modern
constitution which would answer the needs of the people so that the
foreign powers would readily recognize Philippine independence.
Mabini answered that the unstable times were not conductive for such
a constitution. They needed more time to deliberate in order to
decisively frame the provisions of the constitution. Mabini prepared a
draft of the constitution called Constitutional Plan of the Philippine
Republic and submitted it to Congress. Congress did not like it because
it was based on the statutes of Universal Masonry.

Felipe G. Calderon, a descendant of a Franciscan friar of Santa Ana,

Manila, prepared his version of the version of the constitution with the
advice of Cayetano Arellano, a brilliant lawyer. Calderon and Arellano
borrowed from the constitutions of many countries, like Costa Rica,
Guatemala, Mexico, Belgium, France, and Brazil. Calderon presented
his version and the days that followed were spent in discussing the
Constitution, article by article. There was strong opposition to the article
providing for a State religionwhich was Catholicism. After long
discussions and a tied decision, a second vote was taken. Those
against the provision of making Catholicism the State religion won by
only one vote, that of Pablo Tecson of Bulacan. Other provisions were
modified because of Mabini’s objections. The final version of the
Constitution was promulgated by Aguinaldo on January 21, 1899.

The Constitution: Its Importance

The Malolos Constitution was the first important state document that
the Filipino people, speaking through their representatives, had ever
produced. Republican in orientation, the Congress worked hard to have
220
a constitution for the people, which was democratic in its aspects.
According to this Constitution, the government that was established
was “popular, representative, and responsible.” It was divided into
three branches: the executive, the legislative, and the judicial.

The Constitution also provided for national and individual rights not only
of Filipinos, but also of foreigners. Safeguards against abuses were
provided for so that the people would not experience what they had
experienced under Spain. The Assembly had only one house. In other
words, it was unicameral. The President was elected by the Assembly,
which took the place of Congress. The department secretaries – the
secretaries of foreign affairs, secretary of justice, among others – were
responsible not to the President, but to the Asssembly.

The Malolos Constitution is unique for three reasons: first, the

Assembly or the legislative branch was more powerful than the
executive or the judicial branch; second, it provided that when the
Assembly was not in session, a Permanent Commision, composed of
members of the Assembly, would sit as a legislative body; and lastly,
the Constitution established a unicameral legislature.

Calderon explained later that the reason behind the superior rank of the
legislative branch over the executive or the judicial branches of
government was that he was afraid that if the executive branch, (i.e,
Aguinaldo) became powerful, then the ignorant soldiers who were for
Aguinaldo would dominate the government. He said he preferred the
oligarchy of the intellect over the oligarchy of ignorance. But since
education was accessible only to the few rich, this exluded the many
who were poor and uneducated. This also included many veterans of
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the 1896 Revolution, the soldiers and leaders of the Katipunan in the
provinces.

THE FIRST PHILIPPINE REPUBLIC

In preparation for the inauguration of the Philippine Republic,

Aguinaldo, as early as January 2, 1899, reorganized his Cabinet. The
following were appointed:

President of the Cabinet and

Secretary of Foreign Afftairs ……………… Apolinario Mabini
Secretary of the Interior …………………… Teodoro Sandico
Secretary of War ……………………………Baldomero Aguinaldo
Secretary of Finance ……………………… Mariano Trias
Secretary of Welfare, Public Instruction, Public Works,
Communications, Agriculture, Industry and Commerce ……. Gracio
Gonzaga

This Cabinet was also called the Council of Government. Mabini, in a

last effort to include the “ignorant masses” declared that the Cabinet
“belongs to no party, nor does it desire to form one; it stands for nothing
save the interests of the fatherland.”

At the inauguration of the Republic on January 23, Aguinaldo took his

oath of office as President of the Republic. The army took its oath of
loyalty to the country before President Aguinaldo. Then the Malolos
Constitution was read article by article so that the people would know
what it was all about. To make the event memorable, Aguinaldo
pardoned all prisoners of war who were not regular members of the
222
Spanish army. Also, Spaniards and aliens were granted the right to
engage in business in the Philippines.

Education

The armed struggle between the Spaniards and the Filipinos resulted in
the destruction of schools and buildings. Consequently, all schools
were closed. However, in the interest of Filipino children and adults, the
Revolutionary Government ordered the provincial governors to reopen
schools that had been abandoned during the revolution. For the budget
of 1899, Aguinaldo included an item for education amounting to
P35,000. Then a decree provided for the improved curriculum of the
Burgos Institute. The curriculum included subjects such as Latin
grammar, universal geography, English, French, history, mathematics,
physics, chemistry, philosophy, and natural laws.

In October 1898, a decree was issued creating the Literacy University

of the Philippines. The subjects taught were medicine and surgery, civil
and criminal law, pharmacy, and notariat. Dr. Guerrero delivered the
commencement address of the school on September 29, 1899. The
university did not last very long. The Philippine-American War broke out
and led to the disbandment of the professors, who, in their own way,
worked for their country in the fight against a new enemy.

Periodicals of the Revolution

A struggling nation like the Philippines, towards the end of the

nineteenth century, needed propaganda media to make the feelings
and ideas of the people known to the world. As a first step toward
223
realizing this objective, the Revolutionary Government founded its
official organ, El Heraldo de la Revolucion, which came out on
September 29, 1898. Later, its name was changed to Heraldo Filipino,
then to Indice Official, and finally to Gaceta de Filipinas.

These newspapers published the decrees of the government, some

news, and Tagalog poems. Privately-owned newspapers were also
founded and joined the crusade for Filipino nationalism. The most
famous of these newspapers was La Independencia. Its editor and
part-owner was General Antonio Luna. The newspaper came out on
September 3, 1898 and great Filipino writers in Spanish wrote in its
columns like Cecilio Apostol, Fernando Ma. Gurrero, Jose Palma,
Rafael Palma, Epifanio de los Santos, Jose Abreu, Mariano V. del
Rosario, Salvador V. del Rosario, Rosa Sevilla, and Florentina
Arellano.

Other nationalistic newspapers that were circulated were La

Republica Filipina in Mandaluyong; La Libertad in Manila; Ang Kaibigan
nang Bayan in Malolos; Columnas Volantes in Lipa, Batangas; La
Revolucion in Jaro, Iloilo; La Oportunidad in Tagbilaran, Bohol, and
many others. Copies of these periodicals were no longer available and
they did not last for long. But they did their duty to the country and
people as they inspired the Filipinos to fight till end, in defense of
human dignity, honor and freedom.

The Treaty of Paris

In order to convince the foreign powers that the Filipino were civilized
and capable of maintaining a stable government, Aguinaldo sent out
224
diplomatic agents abroad. These Filipino diplomats were Felipe
Agoncillo for the United States; Mariano Ponce and Faustino Lichauco
for Japan; Antonio Ma. Regidor for England; Juan Luna and Pedro
Roxas for France; and Eriberto Zarcal for Australia. In France and
Spain, propaganda committees were stablished for the purpose of
working for the recognition of Philippine independence by foreign
powers.

The assignment of Agoncillo was deemed most important. He was

accompanied to the United States by Sixto Lopez. Agoncillo’s efforts to
seek official audience with President McKinley failed. He then sailed for
Europe to attend the Paris peace conference where American and
Spanish peace commissioners discussed questions relating to Cuba,
the Philippines, and other matters.

Agoncillo again tried to submit a memorandum explaining why the

Filipinos deserved to be recognized as an independent people, but
again he failed. The commissioners refused to have any official
business with him. On December 10, 1898, the Spanish and
Americanpeace commissioners signed the Treaty of Paris. By this
treaty, Spain turned over the Philippines to the United States for the
sum of $20,000,000 as payment for the improvements made by Spain
in the Philippines. Also the United States agreed to permit Spaniards to
ship commodities to the Philippines for a period of ten years on the
same terms as those of the United States.

Agoncillo returned to Washington, D.C. to prevent the ratification of the

treaty. Although this treaty. Although this treaty had already been
signed, it was not yet approved by the Senate of the United States.
225
Without Senate approval, the treaty would not become law. In the
Senate, many were against the treaty. Agoncillo submitted a
memorandum to the United States entitled, Memorial to the Senate,
stating the reasons why Spain had no right to transfer the Philippines to
the United States. He said that at the time, the treaty was signed, Spain
had already been ousted from the Philippines by the Filipinos.
Therefore, Spain no longer owned the Philippines. Since the
Philippines was already independent with a government of its own,
what right does Spain have to give away something that is no longer
hers?

Many Americans were also against the treaty and even established the
Anti-Imperialist League which was very vocal against the move of the
Unites States to colonize the Philippines. When the Philippine
American War started on February 4, 1899, the American newspapers
said it was the Filipinos who started the war. This turned the tide for the
approval of the treaty. On February 6, the Senate voted to pass the
Treaty of Paris. The American imperialists, who propagated the
falsehood that the Filipinos started the hostilities, won the day.

STUDY GUIDE

1. Explain why Aguinaldo established the dictatorial form of

government upon his return from Hongkong. What are the
advantages of a dictatorial government over a republican
government?
2. Why was Mabini summoned by Aguinaldo to Kawit? What was his
first impression upon seeing Mabini? Why did this first impression

226
 change when he heard Mabini speak? What can you say about
Mabini’s personality?
3. Tell the story of how the independence of the Philippines was
proclaimed. Why was the proclamation important to the Filipinos?
4. Why, in your opinion, did Mabini want the local government
reorganized? What was his motive?
5. Was Mabini’s decree of reorganizing the towns and the provinces
democratic? Explain your answer.
6. How was justice administered under the Filipino government?
Was it an improvement over the administration of justice during
the Spanish period? Why?
7. What was the Revolutionary Government? Why was the
Dictatorial Government replaced? How long did it last?
8. Why was the Malolos Congress called in session? According to
the June decrees, did it have any right to frame a constitution?
Why?
9. Why did Mabini object to the framing of the constitution? Was he
right in doing so? Explain your answer.
10. What was the Malolos Constitution? Explain how it was passed
to Congress.
11. What is meant by a unicameral assembly? Why do you think
Calderon preferred a unicameral assembly against a bicameral
assembly?
12. In what way is the Malolos Constitution important? Write as
many reasons as you can think of.
13. Why did Calderon prefer an oligarchy of the intellectuals over an
oligarchy of the ignorant? Which do you prefer and why?
14. What was the Revolutionary Government’s attitude toward
education? Discuss the government’s educational policy.
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 15. Discuss the principal provisions of the Teatry of Paris. What
were Agoncillo’s arguments why Spain had no right to give the
Philippines to the United States? Do you agree with him? Explain
your answer.

SUGGESTED ACTIVITIES

1. Make a chart of the town and provincial governments under the

Revolutionary Government in 1898 and another chart of the same
governments under the present form of government. Compare the
two.
2. Go to the library and read the biography of Apolinario Mabini.
Include his biography in the list of biographies you have in your
notebook.
3. Reenact the proclamation of Philippine independence. Remember
that the Filipino flag was raised officially during the ceremonies
and the National Anthem was played at the same time. If your
school does not have a copy of the Proclamation of
Independence, ask your teacher or principal to write to the
National Historical Institute, National Library Building, T. M. Kalaw
Street, Manila, and ask for a copy of the proclamation. This
proclamation should be in your school’s library bulletin board.
4. Read the biographies of the following and add them to your list of
biographies of great Filipinos: Emilio Aguinaldo, Felipe Agoncillo,
Sixto Lopez, Ambrosio Rianzares Baustista, and Mariano Ponce.
5. Research on the representation of your province in the Malolos
Congress: the names of the representatives, occupation,
education. If no one from your province was elected to be
representative, who was appointed to represent it?
228
 6. Research on the American Anti-Imperialist League. Identify some
of its principal members and their ideas with regard to the
acquisition of the Philippines.

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 CHAPTER 14

THE PHILIPPINE-AMERICAN WAR

(1899 - 1902)

Contrary to the expectations of the Americans, the occupation of the

Philippines and its control took more time and violence to accomplish.
The Filipinos, though lacking in arms and munitions, fought valiantly
throughout the country. As Mariano Santos, a veteran of the Revolution
of 1896 and the Philippine-American War, recalled when interviewed in
1976 at age 101:

“Nang dumating ang mga Amerikano, tubig lamang at lupa ang

hindi nila dala. Armas, pagkain, gamot, kasuotan mga kabayo at
bagol – halos lahat na.” (When the Americans came, they brought
everything with them except water and land. Arms, food,
munitions, clothing, horses and trains – everthing.) But he quickly
added, “Ngunit hindi kami natakot sa kanila. Nasindak lang sa
kanilang dami at armas. Matatapang ang mga Pilipino noon.” (But
we were not scared, merely awed by their numbers and arms.
The Filipinos were brave then.)

The colonial motives of the United States over the Philippines were
economic, politico-military, and religious. Aguinaldo and the
Revolutionary Army in Malolos, who by then were convinced of
American take-over, prepared for war. The Filipinos, facing a fully-
equipped and trained army for conventional warfare, were badly
beaten. But the Filipinos ably substained the resistance through guerilla
warfare. The U.S. responded with repressive and violent measure to
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end the war – using water cure, reconcentration and scorched-earth
tactics. The people, threatened by starvation and diseases that were
related to the war, opted for peace.

THE “BENEVOLENT ASSIMILATION” PROCLAMATION

Before the signing of the Treaty of Paris, President McKinley said he

did not know what to do with the Philippines. He added that one night
he fell on his knees to pray to God to enlighten him on what to do with
the Philippines. But he was surrounded by men who had interests in
making the Philippines an American colony.

These men, representing pressure groups were (1) The American

business whose interest included the Philippines not as only the market
for American products, but also a stepping stone to Asia’s markets; (2)
the military and naval pressure group, who wanted the Philippines as
base for American ships and as first line of defense; and (3) the
religious pressure group, who wanted the Philippines as a base for
Protestant missionaries. All these pressure groups worked hard to
make the Philippines an American colony.

After the signing of the Treaty of Paris, President McKinley issued the
so-called “Benevolent Assimilation” Proclamation. For the first time,
McKinley officially announced the American policy regarding the
Philippines. It clearly indicated the intention of the United States to
exercise sovereignty over the entire Philippines, making it a United
States colony. At the same time, the proclamation ordered the
American military commanders in the Phippines to extend American
sovereignty over the entire archipelago by force. General Elwell Otis,
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who succeeded General Meritt, did not publish the full text of
McKinley’s proclamation for fear of arousing the anger of the Filipinos.
Instead, he changed some word to soften the language of the
proclamation so as not to antagonize the people.

Filipino Reaction to the Proclamation

Unfortunately for General Otis, General Marcus P. Miller, who was in

Iloilo, published the original text of the proclamation. Copies of this
unchanged version fell into the hands of Filipinos. Antonio Luna, editor
of La Independencia, attacked the proclamation severely and said it
was a trick to make Filipino people quiet. Later, Luna added that the
Americans would put into practice what the Spaniards had done in the
Philippines. On January 5, 1899, Aguinaldo issued a strongly worded
proclamation saying that “my government is disposed to open hostilities
if the American troops attempt to take forcible possession of the
Visayan Islands.” Otis, realizing the meaning of Aguinaldo’s
proclamation, quietly strengthened the American lines as the Filipino-
American relations entered a critical stage.

Attempts to Relax the Tension

Aguinaldo knew very well that a war with the United States would bring
hardship and suffering to the people. He tried to relax the tension by
suggesting to Otis that their representative should meet to discuss
ways and means of avoiding a conflict. Consequently, Otis appointed
his representatives which were composed of three military officers.
Aguinaldo also appointed his three representatives. The six
representatives met for almost a month in January but nothing came
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out of the meetings because the American representatives were
stalling, which heightened the tension of the two panels. The Filipino
military officers believed that the Americans were only fooling the
Filipinos and that they were not interested in keeping the Filipino-
American diplomatic relations.

THE SHOT THAT STARTED THE WAR

Some incidents which were originally minor in themselves became

serious in the face of mounting tension between two peoples. On
February 1, 1899 a group of American engineers was arrested by
Filipino troops. Otis protested, but Aguinaldo replied that the Americans
were not arrested but merely detained because they were found within
the Filipino lines. On February 2, General Arthur MacArthur protested
the presence of some Filipino soldiers within the American lines. The
Filipino withdrew and MacArthur was satisfied.

On the night of February 4, 1899, Private Willie W. Grayson shot a

Filipino soldier on the corner of Sociego and Silencio Streets in Santa
Mesa, Manila. The Filipinos answered with fire and the American-
Filipino War was on. Within an hour, all American units were
effectively deployed and mobilized throughout Manila and the suburbs.

The Incident Investigated

That night, Captain Fernando Grey sent a telegram to Malolos saying

that the Americans had commenced hostilities. The Filipino commander
of the sector where the firing started was In Malolos, together with the
officers, attending a dance. Aguinaldo sent a emissary to inform Otis
233
that the “firing on our side the night before had been against my order.”
But Otis, haughty and arrogant, said that the “fighting, having started,
must go on to the grim end.”

Aguinaldo wanting to know how the incident happened, ordered an

investigation to determine the truth. Subsequent investigation showed
that even as early as February 2 and 3, the Filipino employees in the
service of the American ships had been dismissed; that in the morning
of February 4, between 200 and 300 American soldiers boarder two
cascos for Cavite. Later, it was learned that the soldiers returned to
rejoin their units. It was also noted during the investigation that the
sudden attack by the Americans in all sectors showed that they
preparing for an offensive against the Filipinos. On the other hand, the
American commander, Otis, did not attempt to make any investigation.
Instead, he ordered an all-out attack against the Filipino troops
everywhere.

The American Drive to the North

Because of their advanced preparations and superior arms, the

American troops easily captured town after town in what is now the
Rizal province. Earlier in the north of Manila, the Americans won
victories in the Battle of La Loma, near the Chinese cemetery, where
Major Jose Torres Bugallon died in combat. With La Loma in his hands,
MacArthur proceeded to Caloocan where he was met by General
Antonio Luna’s force. In the battle that ensued, Luna was defeated. The
superior arms of the Americans could not be neutralized by bravery and
courage alone. Luna then planned to recapture Manila. On March 22,
he led the attack on the city. Two days later, he reached the Azcarraga
234
Street. The American’s realizing the significance of Luna’s victory in
this sector, fought hard and succeeded in forcing the intrepid Antonio
Luna to retreat to Pulo, Bulacan.

American reinforcements arrived in February and March. Otis took the

offensive in the north, while General Henry Lawton started in offensive
in the south. In a few days, Pulo fell into the Americans and by March
30, they were at the door of Malolos. Meanwhile, Aguinaldo evacuated
to Malolos and transferred the capital to San Isidro, Nueva Ecija. Otis
ordered to MacArthur to rest in Malolos, while Lawton is ordered to
continue his offensive against Cavite. The Filipinos had very few
victories, but these victories were costly to the Americans. On March
25, the Filipino troops repulsed General Lloyd Wheaton in the Battle of
Pulo and killed an American colonel. In Quinga (now Plaridel), Major
Bell of the American cavalry was killed in combat with the troops led by
“boy” general, Gregorio Del Pilar. In a battle fought in April 23, General
Stotsenberg was killed. On December 18, General Licerio Geronimo’s
group defeated the Americans under General Lawton in the Battle of
San Mateo. General Lawton was killed in the battle.

The Battle of Bagbag

The capture of Malolos by MacArthur led General Luna to retreat

farther north of Luzon. He established his headquarters in Calumpit, the
town immediately north of Malolos. Here he prepared his defenses
against the Americans who were pursuing him. Luna sent a telegram to
General Tomas Mascardo in Guagua asking for reinforcements.
Mascardo was under Luna’s jurisdiction, refused. This angered Luna
and ordered his officers to leave for Guagua to punish Mascardo. He
235
brought with him the artillery units, the cavalry and the units of the
infantry. During Luna’s absence, General Gregorio Del Pilar
commanded the sector at Bagbag, a barrio at Calumpit. The Americans
swarmed all over the place and defeated Del Pilar. When Luna
returned to Calumpit at twilight, the Americans had already captured
the large portion of the town. Luna retreated farther north, to Pampanga
and made preparation to meet the advancing enemy.

THE FALL OF MABINI CABINET

Mabini is the next most powerful man in the country, after Aguinaldo.
He was president of the cabinet and, as such, he was Prime Minister.
He was also a Secretary of Foreign Affairs. Aguinaldo depended on
him because he was honest, hardworking and incorruptible. He never
used his position to enrich himself in office. He was poor when he
entered the government service. He was very poor when he died.

When the Americans tried to win over the Filipinos by promising them
freedom and autonomy, Mabini said this was the trick of the enemy. He
was for the independence of the Philippines. He would not accept
anything less than independence. However, his enemies like Pedro A.
Paterno, Ambrosio Rianzaress Bautista, Felipe Buencamino and many
others who belonged to the wealthy and the powerful, opposed him.
They believe that autonomy would be good to Filipinos. So they
accepted the American offer of autonomy. Since the group knew that
Mabini was opposed to their view, they persuaded Aguinaldo to remove
Mabini from office. On May 7, Aguinaldo informed Mabini that Paterno
was forming a new cabinet. Mabini knew what it meant. So he sent in
the resignation of the entire cabinet he was heading. Mabini spent his
236
last years in his armchair writing articles against the Americans, and his
memoirs of the Philippine struggle for independence.

THE ASSASINATION OF LUNA

General Antonio Luna was the most brilliant among the military officers.
Belonging to an educated and wealthy family of Ilocos Norte, Luna
however was born in Manila, in the district now known as San Nicolas.
He studied pharmacy in Manila and in Spain, where he identified
himself with the propagandists. He was also a good writer in Spanish.
He had one defect, which the members of the Luna family have in
common; he was short-tempered. He was exiled to Spain by the
colonial government; and on his way back to the Philippines in 1898, he
passed by HongKong. He asked Felipe Agoncillo, a family friend, to
give him a letter of recommendation for General Aguinaldo. Agoncillo
gave him the necessary recommendation and a revolver.

Aguinaldo recognized his brilliance and appointed him to a high

position in the army. Luna saw that the army had no discipline in the
army, but the common soldiers particularly the Kawit regiment did not
like him for it. They refused to take orders from him. When the Filipino-
American War broke out, Luna was the chief of the military zone that
included many provinces of Central Luzon. He made many enemies
because of his short temper. He slapped Felipe Buencamino,
Aguinaldo’s Secretary of Foreign Affairs, who disagreed with his
(Luna’s) strong opposition to any negotiation or compromise with the
Americans. He also used to slap soldiers due to their inefficiency or if
they failed to meet his standard. While he was in Bayambang,
Pangasinan inspecting the defenses against the advancing Americans,
237
he received a telegram from Cabanatuan saying he was wanted there.
So he went there with his aide, Colonel Francisco Roman, and some
soldiers. When he reach Aguinaldo’s headquarters in Cabanutan on
June 5, 1899 and did not find the president there, he got angry. Then
he heard a rifle shot, rushed downstairs, cursed the soldiers, and
slapped one of them. A captain named Pendon Kastila for Cavite,
hacked Luna with a bolo. The other soldiers, seeing that he was
wounded, started hacking him as well as with their bolos; some even
fired gunshots at him. Luna drew his revolver but fell outside the
convent and died saying, “Cowards! Assassins!” He died with more the
forty wounds in his body and head.

THE CONQUEST OF THE VISAYAS

Meanwhile, Otis instructed Miller to invade Iloilo. To Miller’s demand

that the Filipino troops surrender, the Visayan patriot under the
leadership of General Martin Delgado decided to fight instead. To
prevent the enemy from capturing the city, Delgado ordered his men to
burn it. The Americans landed with full force and on February 20, 1899
Jaro fell, followed by Santa Barbara, Oton and Mandurriao. With Iloilo
in their hands, the Americans send an expeditionary force to Cebu and
on February 22, the city surrendered the enemy. The Cebu patriots,
however, did not give up the fight so easily. They resorted to Guerilla
warfare under the command of General Arcadio Maxilom and
Leandro Fullon. It took some time and much effort for the Americans
to completely subdue the brave Cebuanos.

Meanwhile in Negros, many wealthy Negrenses sympathized with the

Americans. When the enemy came, they raised the American flag. A
238
committee composed of prominent Negrenses was sent to Manila to
ask General Otis to allow them to arm a battalion to maintain peace
and order. Otis approved the petition, for it was an unusual act of
collaboration with the Americans.

On March 1, Otis issued an order providing for the creation of the

military district to include Panay, Negros, and Cebu. This was known as
the Visayan Military District. The Negrenses were allowed to meet in a
convention to frame a constitution. Known as the Negros Constitution, it
was submitted to President McKinley for approval. The American
President, however, did not take it seriously, and nothing came out of it.

THE KIRAM-BATES TREATY

Upon learning that the Spaniards failed to completely subjugate the

Muslims, the Americans dealt with them in a diplomatic way in order to
neutralize their offensive. General John C. Bates tried to win the
friendship of the Muslim by negotiating with them and treating them as
equals. The Sultan of Jolo, Datu Kiram, insisted that the Americans
must not be allowed to occupy any other part of Sulu except the town
proper of Jolo.

Furthermore, the Sultan insisted in collecting customs duties in places

that were not occupied by the Americans. Thus, on August 20, 1899,
an agreement was signed by General Bates, representing the United
States, and the Sultan of Jolo and his datus, representing the Sulu
Sultante. Known as the Bates treaty, it provided that the “Sovereignty of
the United States over the whole archipelago of Sulu and its
dependencies is declared acknowledged” and that “the rights and
239
dignities of His Highness, the Sultan and his datus shall be fully
respected.” However, the Americans promised not to interfere in
religious matters and not to persecute anybody on account of his
religious beliefs. The Americans also agreed to pay the Sultan and his
leading datus monthly salaries. With the neutralization of the Muslims,
the Americans proceeded with the so-called pacification of the Christian
areas of the Philippines.

AGUINALDO RETREAT TO PALANAN

With the death of General Luna, many Filipino field commanders were
demoralized. A number of Aguinaldo’s generals surrendered to the
enemy. This development led Otis to make plans to entrap Aguinaldo,
the recognized leader of the Filipino people and his army. Aguinaldo,
on the other hand, seeing the collapse of his regular army, ordered his
troops and the people to conduct guerilla warfare against the enemy,
which was expected to be more effective than conventional warfare
during that time. The Americans who were not familiar with the local
terrain and not used to the tropical climate would be put to a great
disadvantage with this tactic.

Meanwhile, Aguinaldo together with some selected men, his son, wife,
mother, and sister, fled to Pangasinan. The Americans followed him
and tried to catch him. But they failed, because the people warned him
about the approaching Americans. People were cooperative.. They
contributed money, food, and other supplies to Revolutionary Army.
Determined not to be captured, Aguinaldo walked from town to town
with very little rest. Later, he left his family behind in order to spare
them from the hardships of travelling on foot over rivers, valleys,
240
mountains, and streams. Aguinaldo and a handful of faithful followers
walked to Tierra Virgen, Cagayan. On September 6, 1900, he and his
men reached Palanan, Isabela where he established his headquarters.

The Battle of Pasong Tirad

While fleeing the Americans, Aguinaldo reached the Mountain

Province. He ordered his trusted general, Gregorio Del Pilar, to remain
behind as they continued to advance. Del Pilar was to intercept the
Americans who were tracking them. This would Aguinaldo sufficient
time to widen the distance between him and the pursuing Americans.
Del Pilar, after the departure of Aguinaldo, chose to delay the enemy of
Pasong Tirad, a narrow pass of 4,500 feet high where he had a good
view of the surrounding country. There was only one trail leading to it.
So narrow was the trail that only one man at a time could climb it. It
was in this place that Del Pilar and sixty loyal soldiers positioned
themselves.

The American troops positioned under Major Peyton March pursued

Aguinaldo. In the morning of December 2, 1899, March and his well
armed men proceeded toward Del Pilar’s position. The Filipinos
guarding the narrow pass fired at the Americans who had no recourse
but to retreat. Unfortunately, an Igorot guided the Americans to a secret
trail leading to Del Pilar’s men. The Americans slowly and quietly went
up the trail and surprised the Filipino troops. A fierce battle was ensued
and Del Pilar was killed by a bullet that has passed through his neck.
The American soldiers rushed to the dead body of the young general
and looted his personal belongings for souvenirs. The Americans left

241
the body there and for two days remained unburied. On the third day,
the Igorots buried his remains in a shallow grave.

THE STAGE OF GUERILLA WARFARE

Aguinaldo was no longer an effective leader at this stage of the war.

Instead, local military leaders sustained the war. Through surprise
attacks or ambuscades, and with the support of the townspeople
including many of the elites, the war lasted longer than expected. Many
Filipino officers were emboldened to fight with renewed enthusiasm.
They took advantage of the cooperative attitude of the wealthy Filipinos
to help the people in the resistance. Faced with the effective guerilla
warfare, Americans used cruel methods to persuade the Filipinos to
cooperate with them.

For example they used the “water cure” on many Filipinos to punish of
extract information to them. This form of torture was done by forcing
water into the stomach of a person until it gets filled. Then the person
would be made to lie on his back and an American soldier would jump
on his stomach. Another torture was placing a rope around a person’s
neck and twisting it to choke him. Still, another form of torture was
beating the victim until he became blue to his face. In Samar, the
Americans also resorted to massacre to avenge the death of their
comrades who were killed by the Filipino guerillas under the command
of General Vicente Lukban. The Americans also burned the whole
town of Balangiga and killed all men and even boys over ten years old.
The Americans burned houses, blockaded food from getting to
guerillas, re-concentrated pueblos where diseases like cholera and

242
malaria reached epidemic proportions. Many surrendered because they
could not take any more of these brutalities.

The Capture of Aguinaldo

With the help of a Spaniard, Lazaro Segovia, who joined the Filipino
forces against the Americans, Colonel Frederick Funston planned the
capture of Aguinaldo. The Spaniard led some men from Macabebe and
pretended to have captured some American soldiers. They walked to
Palanan and informed Aguinaldo through a courier that they were
bringing in the American captives. Aguinaldo was happy to hear the
news and made preparations for the soldiers who had captured the
enemy. When Segovia arrived in the house where Aguinaldo was
staying, he and his men signaled to their comrades to start firing. When
Aguinaldo rushed to the window to see what was happening, Funston
and his men told Aguinaldo to surrender. It was useless, he said, the
whole house was surrounded.

Aguinaldo was brought in Manila where, on April 1, 1901, he took the

oath of allegiance to the government of the United States. In
proclamation of April 19, he appealed to the Filipino people to accept
the “sovereignty of the United States.”

The End of the Guerilla Warfare

Upon Aguinaldo’s capture many Filipino field commanders

surrendered, while the wealthy Filipinos collaborated with the
Americans. However, there were still a few Filipino general who refused
to give up the fight like Simoen Ola in Bicol, Roman Manalan in
243
Pangasinan and Zambales, Manuel Tomines in Isabela, and many
more. General Miguel Malvar of Batangas took over the leadership of
the Filipino Government and fought the enemy in running battles. He
was so successful that the Americans tried to frighten the civilian
population by concentrating them in place where food supply was
supposedly assured. To live outside these zones or sona meant of
protection and sure hunger.

At this time, too, rinderpest killed over 90% of carabaos, thus rice
planting was greatly affected causing severe shortage of food. The
Americans continued their relentless campaign against the guerillas.
On February 27, 1902, they captured General Vicente Lukban in
Samar. This was the end of the guerilla warfare in that province. Two
months later, on April 16, General Malvar surrendered in order to save
his people from the brutality of the enemy and from hunger. With the
surrender of General Malvar, systematic opposition to American
sovereignty ceased. It is true that here and there, as in the case of
Macario Sakay, patriots refused to surrender, but at this point, their
effect on the Americans was negligible. The guerilla warfare was
crushed.

Pacifying the Ladrones, Non-Christian and Moro People

Despite the official declaration of the war by President Theodore

Roosevelt on July 4, 1902, recent studies point to the continuation of
the fight against the colonizers by politico-religious groups called
Ladrones by the Americans, which means thieves and bandits.
Composed of poor and uneducated peasants, these groups continued
to harass the newly-organized Philippines Scouts or the Filipinos now
244
serving the US Army. These groups who believed in the powers of
prayers, rituals and amulets (anting-antings) were not only anti-
foreigners (friars, Spanish and Americans) but also anti-caciques and
landlords. Among them were the samahans and confradias of
Ruperto Rios in Tayabas; Apo Ipe Salvador in Bulacan, Pampanga,
Nueva Ecija, Tarlac and Pangasinan; and Papa Isio of Negros who was
greatly feared by the elite who welcomed the Americans and put up
their own Republic. There were also the Pulajanes in Cebu (led by the
Tabal brothers), “Dios-Dios” in Leyte led by Faustino Ablan and Papa
Pablo in Samar. War was ended in these places in piecemeal fashion
from 1903 to 1913, using violent means.

The non-Christian Filipinos like those in the Cordillera of Luzon and the
Muslims in the Sulu archipelago on the south, were “pacified” through
the creation of two special provinces; the Moro Province in 1903 and
the Mountain Province in 1908. In the Moro Province, however, warfare
would continue for a decade up to 1916. The brutal military campaigns
of the U.S. against them was revealed in the massacre at Bud Dajo in
1906 in Sulu, where after four days of fighting, the U.S. forces suffered
20 casualties and 70 men wounded. All the Tausugs – men, women,
and children, about a thousand of them, were all killed.

STUDY GUIDE

1. What was the so-called “Benevolent Assimilation” proclamation?

2. What pressure groups in the United States exerted strong influence
over President McKinley?
3. What was the Filipino’s reaction to McKinley’s proclamation? What
was Aguinaldo’s feeling after reading the proclamation?
245
4. Why did Aguinaldo take steps to relax the tension between the
Filipinos and the Americans? Was he right in taking such steps?
Explain your answer.
5. Describe how the Philippine-American War started. Who actually
started the war?
6. Recount the results of the investigation regarding the incident at
Santa Mesa. Why was there no order for investigation regarding the
incident by the American commander?
7. Why were the Filipino troops defeated in the Battle of Bagbag? Why
did General Luna leave for Guagua at a time when the Americans
were about to attack?
8. Name some of the Filipino victories against the Americans. What do
these victories show?
9. Explain why the Mabini Cabinet fell. Was Mabini right in his stand for
Philippine independence? Explain your answer.
10. Why was General Luna murdered? Was hi murder justified?
Explain your point of view.
11. Explain how the Visayas fell into the hands of the Americans.
Was General Delgado right in ordering the burning of the houses in
Iloilo? Why?
12. What was the Kiram-Bates Treaty all about? How did the treaty
affect the Muslim Filipinos? Were they conquered at this time?
Explain your answer.
13. Explain why Aguinaldo retreated to Palanan. What was his motive
in doing so? Was he justified? Why?
14. Describe the Battle of Pasong Tirad. Why was General Del Pilar
killed in the battle? What lesson can be learned from Del Pilar’s
tragic death?

246
15. Describe the capture of Aguinaldo. What was the significance of
his capture?
16. List the causes or reasons that led to the collapse of the guerilla
warfare. Why did General Malvar finally surrender?

Suggested Activities

1. Read the biographies of General Antonio Luna and General

Gregorio Del Pilar. Make a summary of each and add them to
your list of biographies.
2. Discuss the following topics with your classmates:
Had General Luna lived, the Americans would have been
defeated.
3. Make a map of Central and Northern Luzon showing the
provinces and important towns. With a red pencil or ink, trace the
route taken by Aguinaldo from Pangasinan to Palanan, Isabela.
4. Research on the leading commander or commanders in your
province or region during Philippine-American War. Read their
biographies. Make a summary for each hero and heroine and add
them to your list of biographies.
5. How would you explain the defeat of the Filipinos in this war
against the American colonizers?

247
 CHAPTER 15

RESULTS OF THE PHILIPPINE-AMERICAN WAR

In 1903, when Mabini was asked whether it was wise to go on with

armed resistance to American rule or not, he gave this reply in part:

“..Let us cease that the people may rest; that it may work to
recover from its recent proprietary losses. Let us conform to the
opinion of the majority although we may recognize that by this
method we do not obtain our desires.”

The Philippine-American War resulted in great loss of lives and

decreased economic productivity which affected the whole population,
rich and poor alike. Also, the Filipinos’ desire for independence was
crushed for the second time. The peasant’s dream to own land was
frustrated by both the Filipino elite and the Americans. Perhaps, the
country’s only victory and gain from this cruel war is the birth of the
Philippine Independent Church. Where many Filipino clergy became
administrators of parishes and bishops of the church for the first time -
independent from Rome and the other frats.

Filipino Casualties and Losses

Historians find it difficult to give the exact figures of Filipinos who were
killed in the battlefields and the number of casualties from the
epidemics and in the reconcentration camps. Records of these deaths
were not kept; or if they exist, access is difficult. Most accounts of the
war, however, estimate that some 250,000 Filipinos died. General
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Franklin Bell, who took charge of the bloody campaigns in Batangas
admitted in an interview that over 600, 000 people in Luzon had been
killed and had die of diseases as a result of the war. If the numbers of
those killed in the Visayas and Mindano were to be added, the figure
could rise to a million. The same degree of loss could be said on the
economic side. The fact that some 90% of the carabaos died due to
rinderpest which was also war-related as recent studies suggest, rice
production went down to one-fourth of its normal production. Certainly,
this level was not enough to feed a population of nearly eight million.
Formerly productive industries and agricultural activities could not have
thrived under conditions of war. What used to be cultivated haciendas
or fields of sugarcane, coffee, tobacco, and abaca had been turned into
jungles, devastated and uncultivated.

The Disposition of the Friar Lands

The support to the war, especially by the poor masses, can be

measured from the figures of casualties composed mostly of peasants.
From the first phase of the Revolution (1896-1898 against Spain) to the
second phase (1898-1902 against the U.S.), owning a piece of land, in
addition to independence, was a major goal of the struggle. It is true,
the revolutionary government in Malolos confiscated the friar lands,
but these went to those who could present security in cash or kind.

As a result, these lands were awarded to the illustrados and families

with means. The peasants, who tilled small plots before losing these to
the various religious orders, did not get their share. When the Treaty of
Paris was signed, where Spain ceded the Philippines to the U.S. for
$20 million, huge tracts of church lands amounting to 422,000 acres
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became the property of the U.S. colonial government. But the friars
protested and demanded for repossession of their land. Governor Taft
quickly negotiated with the Vatican for the forced sale of the estates to
the U.S. with the possibility of reselling the friar’s lands to American
corporations. In 1905, the U.S. completed the purchase of these lands
from the Vatican for $6.9 million. In subsequent years, the Filipino elite,
along with American businessmen, would be able to buy these estates
as a reward for their cooperation and support to the newly established
U.S. colonial regime. The peasants, who fought and from whose ranks
thousands had died sine 1896, remained poor and landless.

Filipinization of the Church

The story of the birth of the Aglipayan church (Iglesia Filipina

Independiente) is to a great extent the story of the struggle of the
Filipino clergy to Filipinize the Catholic Church in the Philippines. The
struggle in a sense revived the secularization, later the Filipinization
movement, By Fathers Burgos, Gomez abnd Zanora twenty-six years
earlier. The controversy was clearly racial in character. The Spanish
friars opposed the appointment of Filipino clergy to the powerful
position oh heads of parishes.

Since the great majority of the priests were Spaniards, it was natural
that they sided with the government during the Katipunan Revolution. It
was for this reason that Apolinario Mabini, in a letter to General Otis in
1898, accused the Spanish friars of helping the colonial government to
oppress the Filipinos. Moreover, Mabini pointed out that the friars were
arming themselves and fighting the Filipinos, something which was

250
foreign to their spiritual calling. Consequently, Mabini refused to release
the friars that were captured by the Filipino rebels.

In the second part of the Revolution which began when Aguinaldo

returned to the Philippines in 1898, the governor-general and the
archbishop tried to win over the people to the side of Spain. They sent
Father Gregorio Aglipay, a Filipino secular priest who sympathized
with Spain, to persuade the revolutionary leaders, especially General
Artemio Ricarte, Mariano Trias, and Emiliano Riego de Dios, to side
with the Spaniards against the Americans. The Spanish Authorities
promised to give autonomy to the Philippines if the revolutionists would
fight the Americans. Aglipay failed to persuade the Filipino leaders to
abandon their ideal of Independence. Meanwhile, Aguinaldo, who had
just returned from Hongkong, sent an emissary to Aglipay to persuade
him to join the Filipino cause.

Aguinaldo requested Aglipay to go the Northern Luzon to propagate the

revolutionary cause. The archbishop, Bernardino Nozaleda, in turn,
urged Aglipay to investigate the condition of the parishes there. Aglipay
did as he was told by the archbishop and then returned to Manila to
repost his findings to Archbishop Nozaleda. However, Manila was
being besieged by Agunaldo’s forces, and AGlipay, realizing the
significance of the siege of the city went to Cavite and joined the
revolutionary forces.

Aglipay Becomes Military Vicar General

Mabini, who was a Mason, felt happy over the new development. At his
instance, the Revolutionary Government, late in 1898 recognized the
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validity of civil marriage. Mabini reasoned that since the Revolution had
separated the Church and the State, it was logical to recognize civil
marriage as valid. During the Spanish rule, civil marriage was not
recognized either by the Church or the State. Going one step farther,
the Revolutionary Government, again at the instance of Mabini, refused
to recognized the authority of the Archbishop. It prohibited Filipino
priests from accepting any position from the Catholic Church without
first securing the approval of the Revolutionary Government. Mabini’s
intention was to persuade the Filipino priests to join the revolutionary
cause. On October 20, 1898, Aguinaldo appointed Aglipay Military
Vicar General. As such, Aglipay was the religious leader of the
Revolutionary Government.

Nozaleda Excommunicate Aglipay

Aglipay’s position in the Catholic Church and in the Revolutionary

Government was anomalous. As a Catholic priest, he owed allegiance
to the Church. But as a Filipino he owed allegiance to the Revolutionary
Government. Faced by this dilemma, Aglipay chose to be Fiilipino first.
And so, the day after his appointment as Military Vicar General, he sent
a circular to the Filipino priests urging them to unite in the interest of the
country. “The Revolutionary Government,” said Aglipay in his circular,
“is supporting us in our aims because it cannot recognize as head of
the Filipino clergy ang Spanish bishop, for the powerful political
influence of the clergy in the Spanish Government is proverbial.”

Aglipay also suggested the creation of a council (Cabildo) which would

ask the Pope to appoint Filipinos to all church positions. In another
circular or manifesto on October 22 1898, Aglipay urged the Filipino
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priest to organize themselves so as to occupy all vacant parishes.
Moreover, he urged them to rally to the revolutionary cause which, he
said, was favorable to the cause of the Filipino clergy.

Nozaleda was alarmed at this development. In April 1899, he accused

Agliopay of usurping power and punished. More than this, Nolazeda
issued a decree excommunicating Aglipay effective May 5,1899. The
decree declared Aglipay to be a asurper and a schismatic. Aglipay, for
his part accused Nolazeda of starving the Filipino masses and of
collaborating with the Americans.

Mabini and the National Church

Being a patriot and a nationalist, Mabini, who no longer held a

government position was vacationing in Rosales, Pangasinan, where
he issued a manifesto on October 22 1899 urging the Filipino priest to
establish a National Church. It was to be Catholic but bunder the
control and supervision of Filipino priest. According to Mabini in his
manifesto to the Filipino clergy:

Let the Filipino clergy show their zeal and love for the Church; let
them show their capacity to govern not only the parishes but also
the diocese; let them show that the regular orders not needed in
the Philippines to maintain alive the faith in the Cartholic religion,
and the Pope who cannot separate from justice as a Vicar of
Christ who is God has to recognize the rights and merits of the
Filipino priests. This is the most oopportune occasion which
Divine Providence offers them to obtain the reparation of their

253
 grievances: those who aspire to be something more than mere
coadjustors and pages must not let this occasion pass.

Mabini was against the destruction of the Catholic Church in the

Philippines. He was for its preservation, according to Mabini, must be
based on the appointment of Filipino priests to all positions. Thus, the
National Church would still be Catholic, recognizing the Pope at Rome,
but a Filipino Catholic Church. It should, in the opinion of Mabini,
cooperate with the Revolutionary Government and not with the Spanish
colonial government.

The National Church

Mabini’s suggestion that a Filipino National Church be established was

hailed by the Filipino clergy. The Filipino priests now believed,
especially because the Filipino Government was favorable to their
aspirations, that the time had come for them to assert their right not
only to occupy parishes, but also occupy high positions in the Church
and thus, manage it. For this purpose, Aglipay, on October 23, 1899
called a meeting of Filipino priests at Paniqui, Tarlac.

In his speech, he said that the Catholic Church in the Philippines

should be Filipinized, that is, administrated by Filipino priests.
Consequently, a provisional constitution of the proposed Filipino
Church was prepared. One of the canons of the constitution forbade
the recognition of foreign bishops by the Filipino clergy except under
extreme circumstances. This provisional constitution of the Filipino
church was a declaration of independence of the Filipino clergy from
Spanish control and supervision. But the condition of the time, namely,
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the Philippine-American War and its impending effects in the country,
i.e., destruction and chaos, prevented the actual establishment of the
Filipino National Church.

Opposition of Filipinization

The campaign to Filipinze the Catholic Church in the Philippines

simultaneously suffered a setback with the series of Filipino defeats on
the fields of battle. In January 1900, the new Apostolic Delegate to the
Philippines, Monsignor Placido Chapelle, an American, arrived in
Manila. Instead of sympathizing with the Filipino priests, he announced
that those who opposed the Spanish friars were the enemies of religion
and public order. He threatened the Filipino priests by saying that he
would dominate them by force, because, he explained, he was the
Pope’s delegate the Philippines, on one hand, and an American, on the
other. He also said that the heads of the revolutionary leaders should
be chopped off., He added insult to the injury by saying that the Filipino
priests were incompetent and therefore, fit to occupy only menial
positions in the Church. Such brutal frankness, which has quite rare
among ecclestiastics won him the enmity of the Filipino clergy.

The Separation from Rome

Chapelle’s unwarranted frankness may be tolerated by Americans like

him. But Filipinos consider such kind of frankness not as honesty but
discourtesy and boorishness. Consequently, the Filipino priests felt
insulted and, as a result, they closed ranks and continued to work for
gthe Filipinization of the Church in the Philippines. In Rome, two
Filipino priests, Jose Chanco and Salustiano Araullo, appeared before
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the Pope and ttold His Holiness about the problem of the Filipino
clergy. The Pope, being human, did not promise anything, which was
equivalent, to not granting the petition of the Filipino priests to have the
Church Filipinized. Meanwhile, in Spain a Filipino writer and scholar,
Isabelo de los Reyes, angrily demanded the establishment of a
Filipino Church independent of Rome. “Let us now form,” he said,
“without vacillation our own congregation, a Filipino Chruch, conserving
what is good in the Roman Church…”

Isabelo de los Reyes returned to Manila in 1901. He founded the first

labor union in the Philippines in July of the same year. He called it
Union Obrera Democratica (Democratic Labor Union). Anti-friar feeling
during the time was widespread and de los Reyes took advantage of it.
On the night of August 3, he called a meeting of his labor union and
delivered a bitter anti-friar speech. He suggested the establishment of a
Filipino Church independent from Rome, with Aglipay as the Supreme
Bishop. The suggestion was loudly proclaimed by those present and
the new Church was called Iglesia Filipina Independiente (Philippine
Independent Church). With the founding of this Church, the separation
from Rome was complete.

Converts to the New Church

In his enthusiasm, Isabelo de los Reyes made a list of what he

considered to be sympathizers of the new Church. He included in his
list such “big” names as Fernando Ma. Guerrero, Martin Ocampo,
Trinidad H. Pardo de Tavera, Manuel Artigas, and priests such as
Adriano Garces, Jorge Berlin, Manuel Roxas, Toribio Dominguez, and
others. These men were not hostile to the new Church, but they were
256
not prepared to join it either. And so they denied any connection with
the New Church. Aglipay himself was not interested in the
establishment of a new Church without his knowledge. He believed that
all means should be exhausted in fostering an understanding with
Rome before taking any radical step.

De los Reyes was disappointed, for he thought that those men he listed
as sympathizers of the new Church would join it. However, the masses
showed their sympathy with the Iglesia Filipina Independiente and
joined in. Affiliation papers were distributed and by the end of 1902,
fourteen Filipino priests affiliated with the new Church. Other Filipino
priests followed suit, especially, in Ilocos Norte. More followers came
later to swell the ranks of the Philippine Independent Church.

Attempts to Win Back Aglipay

Aglipay was irritated upon learning that he was proclaimed Supreme

Bishop of the New Church. He was at the same time conferring with a
Spanish Jesuit in the Jesuit House at Santa Ana, Manila. The Jesuits
invited Aglipay to a conference at the Jesuit House through Leon Ma.
Guerrero and Joaquin Luna. The Jesuits chose Father Francisco
Foradada, S.J., a Spanish author of a book on the Philippines, to
persuade Aglipay to return to the Catholic Church. Aglipay actually had
not yet left the Catholic Church.

But he was working for the Filipinization of the Church in the

Philippines, which meant that Filipinos, and not Spaniards, would
administer the Catholic Church in the country. On the fifth day of the
conference between Aglipay and Foradada, the latter asked Aglipay to
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sign a document which was a confession of Catholic faith. This means
that Aglipay was returning to the Spanish Catholic Church. Aglipay
studied the document and refused to sign it. Foradada’s promise to
make him bishop or archbishop if he would sign the document made
Aglipay angry. He seized the priest by the back of the neck and shook
him violently. Aglipay left the Jesuit in anger.

Consecration of Aglipay as Bishop

Aglipay’s disillusionment with Fr. Foradada gave him the excuse to

accept the position of Supreme Bishop of the Iglesia Filipina
Independiente. Consequently, he signified his invention to accept the
position. On October 1, 1902, he presided over the meeting of the
Council which was summoned to frame a constitution for the new
Church. On October 26, he celebrated his first Mass as Supreme
Bishop. On January 18, 1903, he was consecrated Supreme Bishop by
the bishops of Cagayan, Pangasinan, Isabela, Abra, Nueva Ecija,
Cavite and Manila. The new Church was still Catholic but independent
of Rome. It was Catholic nature of the new Church that made the
American Protestants in Manila refuse to join Aglipay in the Iglesia
Filipina Independiente.

Another attempt to win back Aglipay to the Catholic fold was made
around 1910. This time, Aglipay, now the Supreme Bishop of the new
church, was invited by the Jesuits to the house of F. Theo Rogers,
publisher of the Philippines Free Press. Father Joaquin Villalonga, a
kind and energetic missionary, had a heart-to-heart talk with Aglipay. In
spite of Villalonga’s kind words and assurances of good faith, Aglipay,
who was at the same time accompanied by a young Aglipayan priest,
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the Rev. Fr. Santiago Fonacier, refused to return to the Roman Catholic
fold. “The Philippine Indepent Church,” he said, “will live on, and neither
the Pope nor the Jesuits will be able to impede it. Aglipay will live and
die as poor as when he was born, but he will never betray the interests
of his people!”

Aglipay left. The attempts to win him back to the Roman Catholic
Church religion failed.

Importance of the New Church

The Iglesia Filipina Independiente, popularly know as Aglipayan

Church, was a child of the Revolution. As such, it was in line with the
nationalistic spirit that dominated the Filipino patriots who fought not
only for political, but also for religious independence. Just as the
revolution was a violent reaction to Spanish injustices, the Aglipayan
movement was a reaction to the Spanish refusal to recognize the right
of the Filipino priests to administer the Catholic Church in the
Philippines. That many of the Filipino priests dared to join the
movement to be independent from Rome was proof that they, too, were
patriotic, like their countrymen in arms against Spain and later, against
United States.

For more than three-hundred years, the Spanish priests in the

Philippines ignored the Filipino clergy and considered them incapable
of holding high positions in the Church. This discrimination was
quashed by the Filipino priests inspired by GomBurZa and headed by
Aglipay, who showed their capacity to administer parishes and manage
the Church. By founding the Philippine Indpendent Church Aglipay and
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his companions actualized a centuries-old goal of vibrant and dynamic
Filipinism.

Study Guide

 What were the goals of the Filipinos in the war against U.S.? Which
among these goals greatly suffered? Why? Explain your answer.
 Explain how Aglipay came to join the revolutionary forces of
Aguinaldo. What was Aguinaldo’s purorpose in sending Aglipay to
Northern Luzon? What was Nozaleda’s purpose in sending him to
the same place?
 Was Aglipay justified in joining Aguinaldo? Why?
 What was Aguinaldo’s motive in appointing Aglipayas Military Vicar
General? Consult an encyclopedia or surf the Internet and see what
it says about Military Vicar General.
 Why did Nozaleda excommunicate Aglipay? Was he right in doing
so? Explain your answer.
 What was Mabini’s role in the formation of the National Church?
Explain in simple language why Mabini urged the Filipino priests to
establish a National Church.
 What was the National Church? In what way was it different from the
Spanish Catholic Church?
 Explain Chapelle’s opposition to the Filipinization of the Catholic
Church in the Philippines. What do you think was his reason for this
opposition? What was the effect of his attitude on the Filipino
priests?
 Recount how the separation from Rome was affected. Who was the
real founder of the Philippine Independent Church? Why did he
establish it?
260
 Who was the first Supreme Bishop of the new Church? Explain why
he was elected as such.
 Why did the Jesuits try to win back Aglipay to the Roman Catholic
fold? Why did Fr. Foradada fail to persuade Aglipay to remain with
the Roman Catholic Church? What trait did Aglipay show in refusing
to accept Foradada’s offer?
 Discuss the importance of the Philippine Independent Church. Why
was it a child of revolution?

Suggested Activities

1. Who suffered the most losses in the Philippine-American War?

Explain your answer. Discuss your answer in class.
2. Discuss the following in class:
3. Aglipay was justified in joining the revolutionary movement.
4. Nozaleda was justified in excommunicating Aglipay.
5. The founding of the Philippine Independent Church was timely.
6. Read the Catholic Encyclopedia or surf the Internet and make a
comparison between Roman Catholic Church and the Aglipayan
Church. List down their similarities and differences. You may
present this in a Venn diagram.
7. Read the biographies of Isabelo de los Reyes and Gregorio
Aglipay. Tell the story of their lives in class. Be sure to add their
biographies to your little dictionary of Filipino Biographies.
8. Analyze the painting of Edgar Talusan Fernandez in the chapter
opener. What message do you read from the painting. Do you
agree with these messages or impressions? Why or why not?

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 CHAPTER 16

AMERICAN COLONIAL RULE: POLICY AND GOVERNANCE

(1899-1907)

Winning the war did not guarantee that the Filipinos were willing to
accept American colonial rule. From the very start, American
policymakers and authorities realized that winning the hearts and minds
of a conquered people was more important and certainly not easy to
accomplish. The United States intended to occupy the Philippines with
the least violence and to govern the country with much regard for the
interest and welfare of the Filipinos. Their plan was to set up a civil
government immediately. However, this was prevented by the war. It
took them almost a decade to completely pacify the Filipinos after
resorting to repressive measures, like the passage of Martial Law and
Brigandage Act, and the use of reconcentration tactics. All of these
measures stopped guerrilla warfare at the cost of hundreds of
thousands of deaths that weighed heavily on the Filipino side. After the
war, the United States initiated benevolent efforts and programs such
as public education and elections. An all-Filipino Lower House was
created, two resident commissioners were appointed to the U.S.
Congress and U.S. government scholarships were initiated to stabilize
American rule in the country.

The Military Rule

After Manila fell into the hands of the Americans, the country was
administered by the President of the United States through the military.
Thus, President McKinley ordered the military commander, General
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Wesley Merritt, to establish a military government in the Philippines
with Merritt as the first military governor. In August 1898, he was
ordered to go to Paris to testify before the peace commissioners
regarding the conditions in the Philippines. Merritt was succeeded by
General Elwell Otis as military governor. Otis remained in his post up
to May 1900, and was succeeded by General Arthur MacArthur who
governed until May 1901. As representative of the President of the
United States in the Philippines, the military governor exercised wide
powers which included the executive, legislative, and judicial. In 1899,
the military governor was divested of his judicial powers, which were
transferred to the judiciary.

Slowly, his other powers were taken away from him. In 1900, his
legislative powers were transferred to the Philippine Commission,
and by 1901 his executive power was finally given to the civil governor,
when the local government was established. The military governor’s
duties included the pacification of the provinces which had not yet
recognized the authority of the United States and the maintenance of
peace and order in areas already pacified. In the latter case, the
military governor ordered the organization of town and provincial
governments. Baliwag, Bulacan, was the first town under the American
colonial rule to hold local elections on May 7, 1898. It was also the
military government that introduced the public school system in the
Philippines with some soldiers acting as teachers.

American Policy in the Philippines

Toward the end of 1898, even before the conclusion of the Treaty of
Paris, American policy regarding the Philippines was already clear.
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There was no mistaking the fact that McKinley wanted the entire
Philippines for the United States. In order to help him formulate this
policy, McKinley created what is now known as the first Philippine
Commission. This was called the Schurman Commission, named
after its chairman, Dr. Jacob Gould Schurman, President of Cornell
University in New York.

For the guidance of the Schurman Commission, McKinley issued his

“Instructions.” These instructions clearly indicated that the authority of
the United States should be extended all over the Philippines in a
peaceful manner. It was also instructed to “secure, with the least
possible delay, the benefits of a wise and generous protection of life
and property.” as well as to respect the customs and traditions of the
Filipinos. The Commission was enjoined to tell the Filipinos about
America’s “just and benevolent” intentions.

The Schurman Commission

The Commission arrived in Manila in March 1899. Immediately, it

conducted an investigation into the condition of the country. For the
purpose, it interviewed the highly-educated and wealthy Filipinos, the
ilustrados. While this group of Filipinos was willing to cooperate with the
U.S., the great majority led by Aguinaldo, persisted in fighting for
recognition of Philippine independence and the Malolos Republic. A
month after its arrival, the Commission issued the following
recommendations to implement Americal rule:

1. The enforcement of American sovereignty over the entire

Philippines;
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 2. Training for self-government of the Filipinos compatible with the
maintenance of order and with a wise, just, and economical
administration of public affairs;
3. Protection of the civil rights of the Filipinos; and
4. The promotion of the welfare of the Filipinos

With its work finished, the Schurman Commission returned to the

United States and McKinley appointed a second commission, known as
the Taft Commission. Its chairman was William Howard Taft. The
Taft Commission had the task of fulfilling the “benevolent intentions” of
the Americans.

The Taft Commission

Created in 1900, the Taft Commission was instructed by McKinley to

establish a government for the Filipinos and that the steps toward
attaining this goal should be in accordance with the customs and
traditions of the people. Free primary education was to be introduced
by the Commission in the Philippines and that the English language
should be used as the medium of instruction.

To summarize, American policy with regard to the Philippines was

based on President McKinley’s intructions to the Schurman and the
Taft Commission. This policy consisted the principle that the American
came to the Philippines not as conquerors but as friends, whose aim
was to work for the benefits and welfare of the Filipino people. Unlike
the fact-finding Schurman Commission, the Taft Commission may be
described as an organizing commission. It did not leave the Philippines
but stayed on to organize the civil government.
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The Civil Government

Early in March 1901, the Congress of the United States passed the
Army Appropriations Act. Senator John Spooner of Wisconsin inserted
an amendment in the appropriations act which authorized the President
of the United States to establish a civil government in the Philippines.
This amendment, known as the Spooner Amendment, became the
basis of the civil government in the Philippines. After the passage of the
Army Appropriations Act, the administration of the Philippines was
passed on the U.S. Congress.

On July 4, 1901, the civil government was inaugurated with William

Howard Taft as the first civil governor. Being the chairman of the
Philippine Commission, the first law making body of the Philippines
under the Americans, Governor Taft exercised legislative powers.

Resistance to Taft’s Policy

Governor Taft realized the enormity of his problems, particularly the

peace and order situation in the country. Not all the provinces of the
Philippines were pacified. Guerrilla fighting continued and reached its
peak in 1899 to 1900. In Luzon and in the Visayas, the Filipino patriots
were harassing the Americans. The guerrillas appeared peaceful by
day but at night they attacked the Americans wherever they were
found. Even newly-elected town officials secretly aided the guerrillas
with food, supplies, and information. The guerrillas stopped fighting
when the problem of food supply arose. There was famine because
agriculture was neglected during the war and due to rinderpest that
killed 90% of the country’s main farm animal—the carabaos.
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Consequently, with scarce food supply, people suffered from hunger
and malnutrition. This weakened the mass support to the war. Also,
sanitation conditions in the reconcentration camps were very poor
due to overcrowding. Many died of diseases caused by unsanitary
conditions. Finally, there was not enough money with which to
reconstruct and rehabilitate the devastated country. Taft studied these
problems and tried to minimize their effects but without success.

The period in fact saw the passage of repressive laws like the
Reconcentration Act which provided for the zoning of the inhabitants
of a town known to have “thieves” and “outlaws.” The purpose of the
law was to discourage the civilian population from supporting the
guerrillas, and to subject them to zoning. According to James Blount
(1913), Section 17 of General Orders 100 authorized the military to
starve unarmed and armed natives in order for them to immediately
recognize American military authority. Moreover, the orders allowed
food supplies to be seized from the unarmed natives and brought to
towns. Those that were seized from the armed and hostile natives were
“lawfully” destroyed.

To further explain the reconcentration policy of the American military,

Blount mentioned:

To those not familiar with the reconcentration tactics it should be

explained that reconcentration means this: You notify, by
proclamation and otherwise, all persons within an area that on
and after a certain day they must all leave their homes and come
within a certain prescribed zone or radius of which a named town
as the centre, there to remain until further orders, …rice found in
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 the possession of families outside the protected zone…be moved
with them to the town (which was the center of the zone) and that
found apparently cached for enemy’s use should be confiscated,
and also destroyed if necessary.

According to Circular Order No. 19 issued on December 24, 1901,

“these rules were made in order to make the existing condition of war
and martial law so inconvenient and unprofitable to the people that they
will earnestly desire and work for the reestablishment of peace and civil
government.”

To suppress Filipino nationalist feelings and crush guerrilla warfare, the

Philippine Commission, whose members were mostly Americans,
passed severe laws. On December 20, 1900, martial law was declared
to “interrupt, and if possible, completely destroy the system by which
supplies and information are sent to insurrectos from occupied towns.”
Succeeding laws suppressed any act that did not favour American rule.

Thus, the Sedition Law, passed in 1901, provided that any Filipino
advocating independence or separation from the United States would
be punished severely by death or imprisonment. The following year, the
Brigandage Act was passed providing for severe penalty to those
found in the company, or were members, of armed groups who were
stealing carabaos, which were in great shortage due to rinderpest.
Guerrilla warfare under these circumstances was suppressed.

The Filipino guerrillas were forced to surrender soon after. Little by

little, peace and order improved and Taft appealed to the American
Congress to appropriate sufficient funds to give economic relief to the
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suffering Filipinos. Congress listened to his appeal and appropriated
₱6,000,000 to help the Filipinos start a new life. As mentioned earlier,
in 1903, Taft went to Rome to negotiate the purchase of the so-called
friar lands so these could be distributed to tenants. Taft succeeded in
purchasing 410,000 acres of the friar lands and resold these estates to
tenants on easy installment plan.

Tenants, at this time, were actually renters of friar lands hired to

cultivate these lands. They were the same ilustrado and middle class
elite under Spanish rule. Thus, the agrarian or land troubles in many
parts of the Philippines, especially in Central Luzon, remained
unsolved.

Governor Taft is remembered for his principle, “the Philippines for the
Filipinos.” Taft noted that some Americans were greedy and wanted to
exploit the Filipinos for their own selfish ends; so in February 1903 in
Iloilo City, Taft boldly announced that Americans and foreigners should
leave the Philippines at once if they “found fault with the way the
government was being run.” He also insisted that the government was
being run for the Filipinos. He criticized Americans who were impatient
with his policy of attraction and with his doctrine of the “the Philippines
for the Filipinos.” It seemed his policies and programs were only good
as rhetorics. The Combination of peace and war methods does not
work.

Banishment of the Patriots

Even before the fall of the Aguinaldo government, many wealthy and
educated Filipinos were already collaborating with the enemy. Filipinos
269
like Trinidad H. Pardo de Tavera, Benito Legarda, Felipe Buencamino,
Cayetano Arellano, and others were telling the Schurman Commission
that the Filipinos were not prepared for self-government. On the other
hand, there were patriots who refused to collaborate with the enemy.
Mabini, the most irreconcilable of all, wrote articles attacking the
Americans.

He urged the Filipinos to continue the struggle for the Philippine

independence. Because of patriots like Mabini, who would rather suffer
than prosper under the colonizers, the Americans decided to banish
Filipino leaders who refused to collaborate with them. Consequently,
they exiled some patriots to Guam like Mabini, Artemio Ricarte, Maximo
Hizon, Julian Gerona, Pablo Ocampo, Melchora Aquino or Tandang
Sora, and many others.

The Philippine Bill of 1902

In 1902 the U.S. Congress passed a law known as the Cooper Law or
the Philippine Act of 1902. The law boosted Governor Taft’s
Administration. This law approved all the acts of the President of the
United States relative to the Philippines. It also provided for a bill of
rights which guaranteed Filipinos the right of free speech, free press,
and freedom to petition for the redress of grievances. Executive
department were provided for, such as the Department of Finance and
Justice, and the Department of Public Instruction.

The Filipino people were also given the right to send two
representatives, known as resident commissioners, to the United
States Congress so they could work for the interest of the Philippines in
270
that body. However, while they could discuss matters pertaining to the
Philippines, they could not vote. One of the most important provisions
of the Cooper Act was the establishment of a Philippine Assembly to be
run by Filipinos two years after peace and order had been proclaimed
throughout the Philippines by the President of the United States.

The Census of 1903

With guerrilla warfare under control, Governor Taft recommended to

President Theodore Roosevelt that peace and order be officially
proclaimed in the Philippines. After the proclamations, the civil
government under Taft decided to take the census of the Philippines.
March 2, 1903 was declared as Census Day. This was the first
scientific census ever to be taken in the Philippines. The earlier census
taken by the Spanish friars during the Spanish regime was deemed
inaccurate and unreliable. A reliable census of the country was
necessary before elections for the Philippine Assembly could take
place. The census takers were instructed to note down the number of
inhabitants of the locality where they were assigned, to list the number
of any king of industries, disease, and all kinds of information about the
people and the country. In 1905, the results of the census taking were
published in four volumes. It showed that the population of the
Philippines as of March 2, 1903 was 7,635,426.

Political Parties

As part of the preparations for the election of members to the First

Philippine Assembly, some measure of freedom was given to the
Filipinos. For example, they were allowed to form political parties as
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long as their platform was not based on independence. Thus, Trinidad
H. Pardo de Tavera was allowed to form the first officialy recognized
political party in the Philippines. He founded the Federal Party whose
platform was based on the annexation of the Philippines as one of the
states of the United States of America. Filipinos who opposed this
platform founded the first Nacionalista Party (1901), the Liberal Party
(1902), the first Democrata Party (1902), and others.

These political parties ran on the platform of independence. The

Nacionalista Party campaigned for immediate independence. The rest
favored step-by-step grant of independence. Later, the Federal Party,
which favored American rule, change its name to Progresista Party. In
1907 two political parties favoring independence decided to merge. The
merger became the second Nationalista Party.

This party was led by young lawyers like Sergio Osmeña of Cebu and
Manuel L. Quezon of Tayabas. The Nacionalista Party became popular
because of its platform on the immediate granting of independence.
This showed that some Filipino politicians remained pro-independence
despite the collaborationist stand of others such as the Federalistas or
Progresistas.

The Election of 1907

In accordance with the Cooper Act or the Philippine Bill of 1902, the
Filipinos could elect delegates to the Philippine Assembly two years
after peace and order has been proclaimed in the country. The Filipino
political parties prepared for the coming election to the Assembly. The
issue presented before the people was whether or not they wanted
272
immediate independence, as announced by the Nacionalista Party, or
eventual independence, as proclaimed by the Progresista Party. In the
election of July 30, 1907, the people gave their verdict: they were in
favor of immediate independence. This was attested by an
overwhelming vote for the Nacionalista Party which won fifty-nine
seats. The Progresista Party won only sixteen seats, while the
independents won five seats.

The First Philippine Assembly

The Philippine Assembly, which was to become the Lower House of the
Legislative body of the country, and the Philippine Commission being
the Upper House, was inaugurated in the old Opera House at Rizal
Avenue on October 16, 1907. William H. Taft, then Secretary of war,
was the guest speaker. In his speech, he sain in part:

The avowed policy of the national administration under these two

Presidents [McKinley and Roosevelt] has been and is to govern
the islands, having regard to the interest and welfare of the
Filipino people…the policy looks to the improvement of the people
both industrially and in self-governing capacity.

The Assembly elected its officers, where, Sergio Osmeña, who was
only twenty-nine years old then, was elected Speaker; while Manuel L.
Quezon was elected Majority Floor Leader. The delegates to the
Assembly, mostly young men, adopted the rules of the American
Congress to guide them in their deliberations. The Philippine Assembly
was the first significant step toward close Filipino-American
cooperation. The Filipinos, for the first time since the Malolos
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Congress, were given representations in lawmaking. This function was
dominated by its American members. With the inauguration of the
Assembly, the lawmaking body of the Philippines was divided into two:
the Upper House composed mostly of Americans, and the Lower
House or the Assembly, composed exclusively of Filipinos.

The Work of the Assembly

Under the able leadership of Speaker Osmeña, the Assembly outlined

its activities based on the following goals: (1) cooperating with the
United States on the basis of mutual respect; (2) making the Assembly
an instrument in achieving the autonomy of the Philippines; (3) passing
of laws intended to hasten the economic, social, and political
development of the people; and (4) substituting the oppressive policy of
the past with progressive policies.

Among the achievements of the Assembly were the establishment of

an agricultural bank; the construction of new railway lines; the
installation of telegraph and telephone lines; the construction of school
houses, roads, bridges, and irrigation canals; the creation of the Bureau
of Labor for the protection of the labouring class; the establishment of
the School of Fine Arts of the University of the Philippines; and the
establishment of the National Libray.

The Resident Commissioners

In compliance with the provisions of the Philippine Act of 1902, the

Philippine Assembly elected two resident commissioners to the
United States Congress. The first resident commissioners were Pablo
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Ocampo (1907-1909) and Benito Legarda (1907-1912). Manuel L.
Quezon, then Majority Floor Leader, was elected resident
commissioner in 1909 to replace Ocampo. In 1912, Manuel Earnshaw
replaced Legarda. The other resident commissioners were Teodoro R.
Yangco (1917-1920), Jaime C. de Veyra (1917-1923), Isauro Gabaldon
(1920-1928), Pedro Gueverra (1923-1935), Camilo Osias (1929-1934),
and Francisco Delgado (1934-1935). These resident commissioners
worked for laws that were beneficial for the Philippines, on one hand,
and fought for the rejection of bills presented to Congress which were
detrimental to the Filipinos.

The Public School System

One of the great achievements of the Americans in the Philippines was

the introduction of the public school system. Unlike Spain’s educational
policy which was good on paper but selective in practice, the American
system of education was democratic. Immediately after the battle of
Manila Bay, the Americans established the first school in Corregidor.
After the mock battle of Manila, schools were established. These
schools were free and open to everyone. Later, with many towns that
were pacified under martial law and after the effective reconcentration
tactics, primary schools opened, attracting many to enrol.

In 1901, the Department of Public Instruction was established. At the

same time, normal schools and schools of arts and trade were also
established. Americans teachers called “Thomasites” were brought to
the Philippines and sent to the different provinces of the country to
teach Filipino children the English language. With the compulsory use
of English as the medium of instruction, literacy rose. Through the
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English language, more middle class Filipinos speaking different native
languages came to understand one another better.

Pensionado Program

The pensionado program, which was inaugurated in 1903, sent Filipino

students to the United States for higher educations as government
scholars. After four years of college and living with American families,
they returned to the Philippines as teachers, lawyers, engineers, and
mostly as civil servants in the bureaucracy. The pensionados and some
pensionadas met American standards of expertise. They were also the
most qualified persons to hold government positions from among the
Filipino upper class families. Some talented students from the lower
class were also included in the program. In time, most of these
pensionados would become the most loyal and friendly to American
rule. These pensionados, having been direct beneficiaries of the
benevolent but colonial policies, would later support American stay in
the Philippines.

The Position of Women

During the Spanish period, the position of women was relegated to the
status of mere housewives whose duties were to rear children and
serve the husband. Few Filipino women were highly education. Even
these highly-educated women were destined for the home. Under the
Americans, women were allowed to enrol in colleges and universities
established by them. Thus, women studied to become teachers,
pharmacists, dentists, lawyers, physicians, and scientist. Their
liberation from the drudgery of household work gave them the
276
opportunity not only to help their husbands, but also to contribute their
expertise and knowledge to benefit their families and countrymen.
Women would also be granted the right to vote and run for public office
by 1935.

Study Guide

1. Explain the American policy in the Philippines. Why do you

think McKinley instructed the Schurman Commission to respect
the customs of the Filipinos?
2. What event changed the military government to civil
government? In what way or ways was civil government better
than military government insofar as the Filipinos were
concerned?
3. Discuss the achievements of the military government.
4. What was the Schurman Commission? Why was it created?
5. Of the steps to establish American rule in the Philippines,
which do you think is the most important insofar as the Filipinos
were concerned?
6. Was Governor Taft’s policy of attraction regarding the
Philippines successful or not? State briefly, in your own words,
what this policy was and explain your answer whether it was
success or not.
7. Why were Mabini and the other Filipino patriots banished to
Guam? Do you know of someone in your town or province was
also exiled due to opposition to American rule?
8. What steps were taken by the American authorities to suppress
patriotism among the Filipinos, especially during the period of
guerrilla warfare?
277
 9. What was the Cooper Law? In what way or ways did it favor
the Filipinos?
10. What kind of political parties were approved by the
American authorities? Why was the Federal Party influential in
the government?
11. What does the election of 1907 mean insofar as the ideal of
the Filipinos was concerned?
12. Why was the first Philippine Assembly significant?
13. State the achievements of the Assembly. In your opinion,
what was the greatest achievement of the Assembly? Explain
your answer.
14. Compare the position of women during the Spanish period
and the American period. Which do you prefer? Why?

Suggested Activities

1. Go to the library and read about the first American teachers in the
Philippines. You can read a book or article on the so-called
“Thomasites.” Why were they called “Thomasites?”
2. Compare the school systems during the Spanish period and the
American period. Compare the percentage of literacy between the
two period.
3. Read on the life and heroism of Artemio Ricarte, Maximo Hizon,
Julian Gerona, Pablo Ocampo, and Melchora Aquino. Add them
to your list of biographies.

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 CHAPTER 17

TRAINING FOR SELF- GOVERNMENT

(1907-1921)

With the existence of general peace and order, the Americans had the
opportunity to put into practice what their leaders in Washington, D.C.
had promised (1) to give the Filipinos the benefit of wise and just
administration;(2) to give the Filipinos civil liberties they never enjoyed
under Spanish colonial rule; and (3) to train the Filipinos in self-
government as preparation for independence, a concept that was
unheard of under Spain. But like other colonial pronouncements, such
promises could mean two things. First, the American policy in the
training of Filipinos in self-government meant that the Americans did
not believe that the Filipinos were ready for independence. Second, it
also meant that the Americans were not yet willing to give up the
Philippines as their colony. Thus, the government established by the
Americans, by the large, was a government controlled by the
Americans with the Filipinos in charge of running or operating it;
Filipinos who were wealthy and educated, pro-Americans and
westernized in their lifestyles.

The Americans took several steps to train the Filipinos for self-
government before the grant of independence. First, they passed the
Cooper Law or the Philippine Bill of 1902. This law was responsible for
the establishment of the Philippine Assembly, which gave Filipinos the
right to be represented in the lawmaking body through their elected
delegates to the assembly.

279
Second, the Americans passed the Jones Law in 1916, which handed
over both houses of the lawmaking body exclusively to the Filipinos. It
also promised to grant independence to the Filipinos “as soon as a
stable government be established therein.” Third, the Americans under
Governor-General Francis Burton Harrison gave the Filipinos greater
participation in the government.

This was done by employing trained Filipinos in low and high positions
in the government. This process was called Filipinization. Fourth, the
American Congress passed the Tydings-McDuffie act in 1934 which
provided for the establishment of transition government called the
Commonwelt. At the end of this transition period, the Philippines would
finally be given her independence.

Government Reorganization

To make the reorganization of local governments effective and

systematic, a committee composed of two Filipino lawyers and three
American military officers was created. This committee formulated
plans for the reorganization of the municipal government throughout the
areas under American jurisdiction. In accordance with this plan and
with President McKinley’s instructions to give the Filipinos the right to
manage their local affairs, the Philippine Commission which was the
lawmaking body during the early years of the American occupation in
the Philippines , passed the Municipal Code Act. This law provided that
the municipal governmrnt was to be administered by the following
elected officials: the municipal president, the municipal vice president,
and the municipal council.

280
These officials were to be elected every two years. The qualified voters
were males, twenty-three years old and over, had resided of the
municipality for at least six months, had held a position in the town
government during the Spanish period, or owned property worth
500.00, or paid taxes worth 30.00 a year, and who could speak and
write in English or Spanish. This law was restrictive because it only
granted the highly-educated peoplr were not given the same right. The
effect of such law was to perpetuate the rule of the principalia of elite
groups.

The Philippine Commission also reorganized the nprovincial

governmrnt by passing the Provincial Code Act. According to this law,
the provincial government was to be administeredby a board composed
of a governor, a treasurer, and a supervisor. The governor was to be
elected by the qualified voters of the province for a term of two years.
The treasurer and the supervisor were to be appointed. These
appointive offecials were Americans in the early years of the American
rule. Later, the American supervisor was replace by a Filipino who was
elected into that position. By 1916, the provincial government had
been completely Filipinized, that is, the reins of governance were in the
hanbs of Filipino officials.

The Civil Service

The Americans, known for their efficiency, exerted all efforts to make
the national or central government efficient by establishing the civil
service. In 1900, the Philippine Commission passed the Civil Service
Act. Accordind to this law, all government employees, whether in the
municipal, provincial, or national government, shall be placed under the
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administrative control of the Bureau of Civil Service. This bureau was
under the control and supervision of the governor-general.

The law required all persons who were interested in joining government
service to trake competitive examinations given by the Bureau of Civil
Service. The purpose of the law was to minimize, if not completely
eliminate, political political pull in government service. This meant that
service in the government was a career and not an adventure. The
introduction of the civil service also set up the merit system in which
individual positive qualities and abilities, and nothing else, counted
when it came to promotions. The influence of politics or the church was
disregarded, hence, making the civil service system efficient and
propessional.

Employment of Filipinos

In order to comply with President McKinley’s instructions regarding

training Filipinos in self-government, the American authorities in the
Philippines gave highly-educated and pro-American Filipinos seats in
the Philippine Commission. Consequently, in 1901, three Filipinos of
known pro-American stance were appointed to the Commission. These
were Trinidad H. Pardo de Tavera, the founder of the pro-American
Federal Party, Jose Luzuriaga, and Benito Legarda. When Francis
Burton Harrison became governor-general, he increased the number of
Filipinos in the Commission. They were Rafael Palma, Jaime C. De
Veyra, Victorino Mapa, Vicente Ilustre, mand Vicente Singson
Encarnacion.

282
Filipinos were also represented in the Supreme Court. The first chief
Justice was Cayatano arellano. Later, some Filipinos were appointed
as associates justices, like Victorino Mapa, Manuel Araullo, and others.
In the civil service, the number of qualified Filipino employees
increased from year to year. In the provincial and municipal
governments, practicalloy all employees were Filipinos.

The Harrison Appointment

While the Filipinos in general were in favor of immediate and absolute

independence, the Americans had different ideas about Philippine
independence. The democratic party which was anti-imperialist stood
for Philippine independence, while the republican party which favored
imperialist interests was for the training of Filipinos in self-government
first before granting them independence. From the moment the
Americans set foot on Philippine soil in 1898 up to 1912, the
republicanparty ruled the Philippines through governors appointed by
republican presidents who wanted to keep the Philippines as a U.S
colony.

During the presedential election of 1912, the Democratic Party

candidate, Woodrow Wilson, announced an opposite view. He was in
favor of granting independence to the Philippines. Wilson was elected
president, and soon after he sent an investigator to the Philippines to
study the condition of the country. The investigator, Henry Ford Jones,
reported to Wilson that the Filipinos had the capacity to govern
themselves. He recommended that the Philippine Commission, which
had many quarrels with the Philippine Assembly, should be abolished.
Wilson, in order to show his good faith in favoring independence for the
283
Filipinos, appointed Francis Burton Harrison of New York as governor-
general of the Philippines. Harrison was known to be sympathetic to
Filipino Aspirations. Harrison’s appointment as governor-general,
therefore, was hailed by the Filipino political leaders as a wise move on
the part of President Wilson.

FILIPINIZATION UNDER HARRISON

Filipinization, or the placing of the government in the hands of Filipino

administrators, was Governor Taft’s idea. His policy of the “Philippines
ofor the Filipinos” was the beginning of Filipinization. During the
administration of Republican governors-general, steps were taken to
employ as many qualified Filipinos as there were vacancies in the civil
service. Slowly, the municipal and provincial governments were placed
the hands of Filipinos. In the central or national government,
meanwhile, steps were also taken by the Republican administrators to
give Filipinos employment, first, in subordinate position and, then, in
high position. When Hassion, a democratic appointee, became
governor-general in 1913, he immediately worked for the Filipinitionof
the national geverment. In one of his speeches, he vsaid:

We regard ourselves as trutees acting not for the advantage of

the United States, but for the benefit of the people of the
Philippine Islands. Every step we take will be taken with a view to
the ultimate independence of the Island and as a preparation for
that indepence. The Administration wil take one step at once and
will give to the native citizens of the Upper as well as in the lower
house of the Legislature a majority representation will be secured
for them.
284
The number of Filipinos in the Philippine Commision was increased
from three to five. In the different bureaus of the government, Harrison
appointed Filipinos instead of Americans to occupy high administrative
positions. Many Americans in the government service either retired or
resigned because day did not want to be under Filipino chiefs.

This facilitated Harrison’s policy of Filipinizing the national government.

By 1921, when Harrison’s term of office was terminated by the defeat of
the Democratic Party in the presidential election, the Americans in the
Democratic party in the presidential election, the Americans in the
Philippines government constituted only about six percent of the total
number of officials and employees. To Harrison, therefore, belonged
the honor of arpidly filipinizing the government. This meant that the
Filipinos proved themselves competent to run their government.

THE JONES LAW

True to President Wilson’s promise that every step would be taken

toward the independence of the Philippines, Representative William
Atkinson jones introduced two bills in the American Congress proving
for Philippine independence. It was, however, the bill he introduced in
1915 that was approved by congress. Known as the Jones Act 1916, it
stated in the preamble tat the Philippines would be granted
independence”as soon as a stable government [could] be established
therein.” Toward this end, the Jones Act provided that bthe domestic
affairs of the Filipinos should be administered by them so that “they
may be better prepared to fully assume the responsibilities and enjoy
the privileges of complet independence.” The sibnificance of the jones
Law lay in the fact that the American people, acting through trier
285
representatives in Congress, for the first time committed themselves to
Philippine independence. It was the first indication by the American
government of a desire to make the Philippines an independent
country.

Important Provisions

Aside from a promise of independence, the Jones Law also provided

for a government patterned after the United States. The government
was to have three branches-the executive, the legislative, and the
judicial. The executive branc was headed by the governor-general who
was to be appointed by the President of the United States with the
approval of the American Senate. The vice governor, also an American,
was to be appointed in the same manner as the governor-general. He
was automatically the Secretary of Public Instruction.

Assisting the governor-general was a cabinet composed of department

secretaries who were responsible to him. The deparment secretaries
wereappointed by the governor-general with the approval of the
Philippine Senate. The legislative power or the power to make laws
vested in the Philippine Legislature. This was composed of houses: the
Upper House or the Senate and the Lower House or the House of
Representatives. Memders of both houses, except those representing
the non-Christian tribes, were elected by qualified Filipino voters. The
judicial power, on the other hand, was exercised by the Supreme Court
and the courts of justices were appointed by the prisedent of the United
States with the approval of the American Senate. Perhaps, the most
important provision of the Jones Law was the Bill of Rights. This
provision enumerated the civil rights of the Filipino people. These
286
included the freedom of speech, freedom of the press, freedom from
illegal search, freedom assemble for the redress of grievances, and
other rights exercised by people in democratic counmtries. These rights
were never enjoyed by the Filipinos under Spanish rule.

The Legislature

When the Jones Law took effect, the Filipinos began to enjoy self-
government in larger measure, comperd to any time during the Spanish
regime or under the Republican governor-general. Before the passage
of the Jones Law, the all-American Philippine Commission was at first,
the only lawmaking body of the Philippines. With the inauguration of the
Philippine Assembly in 1907, the Filipinos shared with the Americans
the responsibility for making laws.

With the passage of the Jones Law, the entire task of making laws
passed on to the Filipinos. The Philippine Commission was abolished
and in its place the Philippine Senate was created, which became the
Upper house. The Assembly became the House of Representatatives.
Sergio Osmena continued to be Speker of the house, while Manuel L.
Queson who, together with Osmena, worked for the passage of the
Jones Law, was elected Senator and then President of the Senate.

The Philippine Legislature under the Jones Law was inaugurated in

Manila on October 16, 1916. Hey could pass laws subject to the vetoes
of the American governor-general and the U.S President. In the
election of 1916, the nacionalista Party, which hab stood for immediate
and absolute independence, won over the Progresistas. With the defeat

287
of the Progresistas, it decided to merge with the newly-established
Democrata Party.

The Council of State

The Jones law specifically provided that all deparment under the
executive branch were under the direct supervision and control of
Governor-General Harrsion. In his desire to give more experience to
Filipinos in the exercise of their right to make decisions and act on
them, he went beyond the clear intention of the Jones Law. Acting on
the suggestion of Speaker Osmena, he created the Council of State.
This was composed of the governor-general acting as chairman, the
Speaker of the house, the Senate President, and the member of the
Cabinet. The composition of the council, therefore, was predominantly
Filipino, and only the governor-general and the vice governor were
Americans. Speaker Osmena became the vice chairman of the Council.
He, therefore, was recognized as a leader among the Filipinos, was
considered as the number two man in the Philippine government.

The duty of the council was to advise the governor-general on matters

of republic importance. But to Osmena, whose purpose in suggesting
the creation of the Council was towiden the power and the participation
of Filipino political leader in the government, the Council meant a
political body by, of, and for Filipinos. Even policies of the different
departments under the executive were outlined and planned by the
Council. This was a violation of the Jones Law.

Harrison, however, did oppose such move instead, he agreed to must

suggestions of the Filipino member of the council. In view of these
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power of the Council of State, it shared with the governor-general the
power to initiate legislation. For all practical purposes, Harrsion was,
under the circumstances, a mere presiding officer. But, as Leonard
Wood’s biographer said,” The majority [that is, Filipino member of the
Council] rules.”

By the time Harrison left the Philippines in 1921, the Filipino were
administering their government. However, in the upper bracket of the
government service where final decision were made, the governor-
general and the vice governor, who was also Secretary of Public
Instraction, were Americans. The government, then, may be said to be
run by Filipinos under U.S authority. The significance of the Harrison
administration lay in the fact that he paved the way for larger Filipino
participation in government. Since the majority came from the
propertied and educated class. Filipinization, at the end meet
bureaucracy in the hands of the illustrados or the old pricipalia class.

STUDY GUIDE

1. What is meant by self-government? What was its significance

insosfar as Filipinos were concerned? Enumerate the step taken
by the Americans to train Filipinos in self-government.
2. How did the American proceed with the reorganization of the
municipal government, the provincial government, and the
national government?
3. Why, in your opinion, did the Americans limit the right to vote to
those owning property and to the highly educated?

289
 4. What was the purpose of the American authorities in instituting
civil service in the government? Do you think it was a wise step?
WHY?
5. Why was the government service Filipized? Was it a wise move
on the part of the Americans? Why?
6. Insofar as Filipinos were concerned, what was the significance of
the appointment of Harrisor as governor-general of the
Philippines?
7. Discuss Filipinization under Harrison. Compare Filipinization
during his administration and during the administrations of
Republican governor-general like Governor Taft. Which
Filipinization, in your opinion, was more effective and through?
Why?
8. What is the importance of the Jones Law? What are its most
important provisions with reference to self-government?
9. In what way did the Jones Law affect the lawmaking body of the
Philippines?
10. What was the Council of State? Why was it created? Who
inspired its creation? What was the real motive behind its
creation?
11. Discuss the achievements of Harrison in the Philippines. Of
these achievements, what is the most important inyour opinion?

SUGGESTED ACTIVITIES

1. Compare colonial government under Spain and under the United

State. Emphasize the advantage or strengths of one over the
other.

290
 2. To get a good picture of Filipinization under Harrison, read his
book, the Cornerstone of Philippine Independence. Read the
chapter on Filipinization. This will complete the picture of how the
Filipinos hand been trained in self-government.
3. In your opinion, What do you think were the kinds of law that were
passed by the legislature during the American period considering
that majority of the Filipino leadership came from the elite?

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 CHAPTER 18

THE CAMPAIGN FOR INDEPENDENCE

(1922-1935)

American leaders were divided on the issue of Philippine

Independence. The Republicans were for an indefinite retention of the
colony. The Democrats were willing to let go of the Philippines as soon
as a stable government was in place. The Filipino leaders, on the other
hand, wavered and at this time clashed on their goals-immediate and
complete independence versus piecemeal grant of independence after
sufficient training in self-government.

Filipino leaders encountered problems under Governor Wood. Unlike

his predecessor, Governor Harrison, Wood reversed the Filipinization
of the government and was clearly opposed to the goal of Philippine
independence: This led to conflicts between him and Filipino leaders
such as Osmena and Quezon. Rivalry for leadership between the two
contributed to the delays in the granting of independence and
compromised bills on its approval. Quezon, in the end, won and got a
law that granted Philippine independence, with him as the elected
President of the Commonwealth.

The campaign for women’s suffrage was more united and successful.

The Wood-Forbes Mission

The presidential election of 1920 in the United States resulted in the

defeat of the Democrats. The new president, Warren G. Harding, sent
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an investigating mission to the Philippines. He appointed a former
governor-general, William Cameron Forbes, and a former commander
of the American forces in Mindanao, General Leonard Wood, to head
the mission to determine whether or not the Filipinos were prepared for
independence in particular.

Wood and Forbes interviewed many people to determine to real effects

of Filipinization. The results of the mission’s studies severely criticized
the Harrison administration for alleged incompetence. The report to
President Harding stated that many of Harrison’s policies, especially
those dealing with finance, banking, and currency, were unwise, too
much politics by the Filipinos in government resulted in bossism, graft,
and mismanagement.

The report also stated that most of the Christian Filipinos were for
independence, but the non-Christians, who constituted about 10
percent of total population were for continued American occupation.
The mission, therefore, favored the Republican policy of not granting
independence to the Filipinos until such time as they had shown
competence in self-rule. The Filipino Resident Commissioners to the
United States protested the report of the mission.

The Filipino leaders felt that the mission insulted the Filipinos in
doubting their capacity for self-government. Maximo Kalaw
commented that the issue of “the incapacity of the Filipinos to carry on
ant decent form of government” has served the Americans’ political
needs. According to him, without any clear criteria for capacity for self-
rule, the Americans could delay Philippine independence at their own
will or whim.
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Wood Becomes Governor

President Harding was satisfied with the Wood-Forbes Mission’s report.

He wanted General Wood to be the next governor-general of the
Philippines. Wood was reluctant to accept the position at first but was
later persuaded to take on the task of governing the country. Wood was
an experienced administrator, since he served as the military governor
of Cuba. He also fought in Cuba during the Spanish-American War.
When he arrived in the Philippines, he showed from the beginning that
he was different from Harrison.

While Harrison administered the country in accordance with the spirit of

the Jones Law, Wood governed according to the letter of the same law.
Believing that Harrison had abdicated most of the governor-general’s
powers under the Jones Law, Wood began to exercise those powers
once more. In so doing, he antagonized Manuel L. Quezon and Sergio
Osmena, the two most powerful political leaders at that time. With
Governor Wood’s tight hold on the government, the Republicans
reversed Harrison’s Filipinization policy.

The Conflict between Osmena and Quezon

From the establishment of the Philippine Assembly in 1907 up to the

end of Harrison’s term of office, the foremost Filipino political leader
was Speaker Sergio Osmena. William H. Taft, then Secretary of War of
the United States, described Osmena as the number two man in the
government, second only to the governor-general. Osmena wielded
vast powers, for which the governor-general often consulted him. When
Quezon became President of the Senate, he thought that he should
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outrank Osmena. He believed that the leadership of the Filipino
participation in the government should go to the Senate President and
not with Speaker of the House. Osmena of course thought otherwise.
Quezon, realizing Osmena’s influence, did not fight him at this time. He
waited for the opportune moment to challenge the Speaker.

In 1921, Quezon; Believing that the time had come to challenge

Osmena for the leadership of the Filipino people, started to criticize
Osmena’s leadership. He complained about Osmena being a dictator
and getting all the honors for which other Filipino statesmen also
worked for. Osmena firmly denied these accusations. Later, Quezon
formed a group within the Nacionalista Party known as the
colectivistas, which believed that the political leadership should be
exercised collectively, that no one person should dictate policies but
instead all should participate in their formulation. Osmena, on the other
hand, led the other group in the party called the unipersonalistas who
believed that leadership should be exercised by one person, not by a
group.

In the election of 1922, the issue between Osmena and Quezon was
clarified: unipersonalista leadership against colectivista leadership.
Quezon’s group won more seats than Osmena’s group. A third party,
the Democratic Party, successfully challenged both colectivistas and
unipersonalistas. To prevent a further weakening of their parties,
Quezon and Osmena reconciled and merged for the 1925 elections.
Osmena was elected to the senate and Manuel A. Roxas was elected
to succeed Osmena as speaker of the House of Representatives. In the
Senate, Quezon was reelected president, while Osmena was elected
president protempore. Osmena, to preserve party leadership, was
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content to let Quezon succeed him as the main political leader of the
Filipinos.

The Cabinet Crisis

Governor Wood’s policy of exercising all the powers and authority of

the governor-general as defined by the Jones Law was met with strong
opposition from the Filipino political leaders. This opposition became
stronger ever time Wood deviated from Harrison’s policy of giving
Filipinos greater participation in the government. In 1923, Manuel L.
Quezon, now the most prominent political leader of the Filipinos, had a
quarrel with the governor. The cause of the quarrel concerned an
American detective in the Manila Police Department, by the name of
Ray Conley. Manila Mayor Ramon Fernandez suspended Conley for
allegedly accepting bribes and committing acts of immorality. The
suspension was approved by the Secretary of the Interior, Jose P.
Laurel.

Wood insisted that Conley be brought to trial. Laurel requested that

Conley be investigated administratively as well, to which, Wood agreed.
Conley was found not guilty by the investigating committee, Governor
Wood then ordered Laurel to reinstate Conley in his position and to pay
him back wages covering the period of his suspension. Laurel then
suggested to Mayor Fernandez to comply with the governor’s order.
But at the same time, Laurel sent his letter of registration to Wood
saying, “I could not continue as Secretary of the Interior and at the
same time have under my department a man who, I am convinced, is
dishonest.” Conley was declared not guilty by the court, but this same

296
court also stated that Conley’s behavior was open to suspicion. Conley
retired and got his retirement pay.

Quezon took advantage of the Conley case as he and other political

leaders, attacked Wood and branded him as anti-Filipino. They also
accused Wood of interfering even with the smallest detail of
governance in order to curtail the rights of the Filipinos. As a result, the
Filipino members of the Cabinet and the members of the Council of
state resigned Wood accused them of challenging the authority of the
United States and he accepted their resignation. This mass
resignation of the Filipino members of the Cabinet and the Council of
State contributed what was known as the Cabinet crisis.

Other Conflicts with Wood

Wood was a very competent and honest man; but he was stiff and very
formal. In his attempts to recapture the powers of the governor-general.
Which the Filipino political leaders tried to exercise in violation of the
provisions of the Jones Law, he antagonized Quezon, Osmena and
other Filipinos in the government. One of the causes of the conflicts
between Wood and the Filipino leaders was the so-called board of
control case. The board of control was composed of the governor-
general, the Senate President, and the speaker of the House.

The board of control managed the affairs of government corporations.

Under the setup, the governor-general was always outvoted by the two
Filipino members of the board. Under Harrison, the Filipino members
exercised powers belonging to the governor-general. Wood objected to
this and said that the Jones Law vested in him executive control of the
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board. He abolished the board of control. Quezon and Osmena filed a
case with the Supreme Court but lost. They appealed to the Supreme
Court of the United States, but they were likewise defeated.

Another source of conflict between Wood and the Filipino political

leaders was the so-called veto power. Quezon and Osmena accused
Wood of exercising his veto power without any restriction. They pointed
out that since Wood became governor. He had vetoed more than 120
bills submitted to him by the Philippine Legislature. Wood answered
that he vetoed them because they were unwise, illegal, or defective.
Quezon, who was good political strategist, was suspected of
deliberately passing defective bills which he knew Wood would surely
veto. Having vetoed the bills, Wood was accused as anti-Filipino and
against the interest of the Filipino people. Quezon and other political
leaders protested to President Calvin Coolidge, but the latter sided with
Wood. The conflict with Wood ended only with his death in 1902.

Independence Missions

Unlike the struggles for independence in 1896 against Spain and in

1899-1902 against the United States, which were through the use of
violence, the campaign for independence since the passage of the
Jones Law in 1916 was carried out peacefully.

After the First World War in 1914-1918, the Philippine Legislature

created the Independence Commission whose purpose was to study
ways and means of negotiating for Philippine Independence. The first
independence mission was sent to the United States in 1918 but
because of the world situation resulting from the recently concluded
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world war, the mission did not achieve anything. The following year,
another independence mission was sent to the United States to
convince the American Congress that the condition set by the Jones
Law, as prerequisite for independence had been met. Like the first
mission, the second mission achieved nothing.

In the succeeding years, particularly in 1922-1928 and in 1930, the

Philippine independence missions were a failure. The enemies of
independence, particularly the American business firms in the
Philippines succeeded in preventing the passage of any bill in
Congress favoring Philippine independence. Nevertheless, the people
showed their willingness to sacrifice in order to achieve an independent
political status. In 1930, an Independence Congress met in manila
and passed a resolution favoring the early grant in independence to the
Philippines.

The Osmena-Roxas Mission

The failure of the independence mission to achieve their purpose did

not dishearten the Filipino leaders. In 1931, through the
recommendation of Quezon, another independence mission was sent
to the United States. It was headed by Senator Sergio S. Osmena and
Speaker Manuel A. Roxas. This mission was known as the Os-Rox
Mission. It was instructed by the Legislature to work for the early grant
of Philippine independence. This time, there were a number of
American groups that were favorable to Philippine independence. The
First one was the American farm group which believed that Philippine
agricultural products. Like sugar and coconut oil, which were entering
the United States free of duty, competed with American farm products.
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To eliminate this competition, the American farm group lobbied for
independence for the Philippines and for Philippine farm products to be
taxed upon entering the United States. Second, American labor
leaders believed that Filipino laborers that were entering the United
States without any restriction were also competing with American
laborers because Filipino laborers accepted low wages, driving out
American laborers, whose higher standard of living required them to
demand for higher wages.

Consequently, the American labor group wanted the Philippines to be

Independent so that in the future the number of Filipino laborers could
be limited and thereby eliminate labor competition. The Third group
that favored Philippine independence was the isolationists. These
Americans believed that if the Philippines were given independence,
the United States would not have to go to war with Japan. Japan at the
time (1931) had invaded Manchuria and, in later years, would, would
invade China. This expansion of Japan in search of raw materials for
her industries, as the isolationists feared, might result in a war between
Japan and the United States if the latter were still occupying the
Philippines. All these groups helped the Os-Rox mission in its
campaign for independence.

The Hare-Hawes-Cutting Law

As a result of the intensive campaign of the Os-Rox mission and the

help extended by the American pro-independence groups. The U.S.
Congress passed the Hare-Hawes-Cutting Act. This law provided that

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at the end of a ten-year period, to be named as the Commonwealth
Period, Philippine independence would be granted.

The commonwealth government to be established in the Philippines

was to be autonomous, except that the foreign affairs and currency of
the Philippines would still be under the President of the United States.
There was to be an American High Commissioner who would act as the
President’s representative in the Philippines. The law also provided that
fifty Filipino immigrants would be allowed to enter the United States
every year for a period of ten years.

Some Philippine products, like sugar, oil, abaca, and other fibers were
to enter the United States in limited quantities, while U.S. products
were allowed free entry to the Philippines. The bill also authorized the
United States to retain land or other property designated by the
President of the United States for “military and other reservations”
Originally, this Hare-Hawes-Cutting bill was vetoed by President
Herbert Hoover, but the Congress overturned his veto and passed the
bill into law.

The Quezon Mission

When Quezon was informed about the passage of the Hare-Hawes-

Cutting Law, he thought that it was not a good law. He was therefore
obliged to work against its approval by the Legislature. His reason was
that the law, as a whole, was disadvantageous to the Filipinos on the
following grounds:

301
 1. The provisions on trade relations did not ensure economic
security for the Philippines after independence;
2. The immigration quota was offensive and one-sided;
3. The powers of the American high Commissioner were “too
indefinite”; and
4. The retention of military, naval and other reservations was
“inconsistent with true independence “that violate national dignity
or sovereignty.

He worked hard for the law to be rejected b the Philippine Legislature.

Quezon reorganized the Legislature so as to weed out the supporters
of the Hare-Hawes-Cutting Law, who also happened to be supporters
of Osmena and Roxas. Quezon replaced them with lawmakers who
shared his stand. After the rejection of the Hare-Hawes-Cutting Law,
Quezon went to the United States to get another law which, in his view,
would be better than the Hare-Hawes-Cutting Law.

Late 1933, Quezon realized that the chances of having a better law
passed were nil. Faced with embarrassment, Quezon worked with
Senator Millard Tydings and Representative John McDuffie to have the
Hare-Hawes-Cutting Law reenacted with practically little change. It was
understood that where inequalities’ existed, these could be corrected
later, assured by no less than President Franklin Delano Roosevelt.
The Tyding-McDuffie Act was signed by the President Roosevelt on
March 24, 1934 with one revision: “the retention of naval reservations
and fueling station “instead of “the retention of military and other
reservations.”

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So why did Quezon object to the Hare-Hawes-Cutting Law only to have
it reenacted as the Tydings-McDuffie Act? The more popular reason
was Quezon’s fear that if he allowed the acceptance of the Hare-
Hawes-Cutting Law, which was the fruit of Osmena’s and Roxas’s
labor, Osmena would have an advantage if he were to run as President
of the Commonwealth. As such, Quezon would then revert to his former
position of “second fiddle” to Osmena.

He did not want this to happen. He wanted to remain the leader of the
Filipino people. And so, he worked for the rejection of the Hare-Hawes-
Cutting Law and its reenactment as the Tydings-McDuffie Act. The
limelight would be his as the one who secured Philippine independence
from the Americans for which the Filipino people would be grateful. But
closer scrutiny would reveal that there was also a serious reason. The
Tydings-Mcduffie Act removed the retention of U.S military bases on
Philippine soil.

Framing the Constitution

The Tydings-McDuffie Act provided for the framing of a constitution for

the Commonwealth government. In accordance with this provision, the
election to the constitutional convention was held on July 10, 1934.
Two hundred and two delegates were elected. The Constitutional
Convention was inaugurated on July 30, 1934 with Claro M. Recto, a
learned scholar, lawyer, poet, and parliamentarian, as president.
Although the Convention delegates wanted to frame a constitution very
much suited to the Filipinos and their history, they were unfortunately
not free to do so. There were certain requirements imposed by the
Americans which the delegates could not contradict. For example, the
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Tydings-McDuffie Act required for provision in the future constitution to
allow Americans to enjoy the same civil rights as Filipino citizens.

The law also provided for the new constitution to include that United
States should have control over the foreign affairs and currency of the
Philippines before it would completely withdraw from the islands.
Delegates of the constitutional convention like Recto could not include
nationalistic provisions in the new constitution because of these
restrictions.

On February 8, 1935, the convention approved the

Constitution. President Franklin D. Roosevelt, after reading the
Constitution and seeing that there were no objectionable provisions
included, approved it on March 23, 1935. On May14, 1935, the Filipino
people approved the constitution in a plebiscite. On June 16 the same
ticket won as president and vice president, respectively. On November
15, 1935 the Commonwealth was inaugurated in front of the Legislative
Building in Manila.

Women Suffrage

The courage and heroism of Gabriela Silang, the women of Malolos,

the women of the Katipunan and the 1896 Revolution like Gregoria de
Jesus, Teresa Magbanua, Tandang Sora, Trinidad Tecson, and many
more, persisted till the American period. In 1902, Clemencia Lopez
appealed for Philippine independence while studying in the United
States. Filipino women, despite the American attempts to convert the
outwardly feminine and modest Maria Claras into carnival queens,
qualified as U.S scholars or pensionadas. Thus, by the 1920s and
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1930s a number of women had become teachers, doctors, nurses,
social workers, lawyer, and other professionals. Much earlier in 1905,
led by Concepcion Felix, they formed La Gota de Leche to help bring
down infant mortality. That same year, they formed La Asociacion
Feminista Filipina with Concepcion Felix, Paz Mendoza Guazon, Rosa
Sevilla Alvero, Sofia de Veyra, Natividad de Almada, Pilar Hidalgo, to
name a few, as members.

In 1906, La Asociacion Feminista Ilonga by Pura Villanueva kalaw was

established to fight for women’s right to vote and to run for public office.
During the same period, they also founded and managed schools that
were exclusively for women like de Murjeres (1900), Centro Escolar de
Senorita (1907), and Philippine Women’s College (1919). Educated
and efficient organizers, the suffragettes won seats in the municipal
and provincial boards of education (1920s) and the right to own and
dispose their paraphernal property (1933).

A sad note in this vibrant and successful era for women was the
postponement of women suffrage which was a provision in the 1935
Constitution. They had to wait after the establishment of the
Commonwealth government and a plebiscite thereafter before it’s
effectively. The women once again who displayed the vigor and
nationalist spirit of old, garnered more than the required votes in a
plebiscite with nearly half million votes. The women suffrage law was
finally signed by President Quezon on September 15, 1937, after three
decades of steadfast struggle with substantial gains.

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Study Guide

1. Why was the Wood-Forbes Mission sent to the Philippines?

2. What was the report of the Wood-Forbes Mission? What was the
reaction of the Filipino leaders to the report of the Mission?
3. In what way did Wood antagonize the Filipino political leaders? In
your opinion, was Wood right in exercising his powers? Why?
4. Discuss the conflict between Osmena and Quezon. What was the
issue of the conflict? Compare the leadership of Osmena and
Quezon.
5. What is meant by unipersonalista and colectivista? What was the
significance of the conflict? Do you agree with the conflict as real
or simply personal rivalry?
6. What was the Cabinet crisis? How did it come about? Do you
think Governor Wood was fair in ordering the reinstatement of
Conley to his position? Why?
7. What was Secretary Jose P. Laurel’s reaction to Governor
Wood’s order to have Conley reinstated? Why do you think Laurel
resigned as Secretary of the Interior? What trait did he show in
resigning from his position?
8. What was the effect of the Conley case on the Filipino members
of the Cabinet and the Council of State? How did they show their
reaction to the case? Do you think they were justified in doing so?
Why?
9. Aside from the Conley case, name other cases in which Wood
and the Filipino leaders collided. What was the significance of the
conflict between Wood and the Filipino leaders?
10. Why were independence missions sent to the United States?
What did they achieve?
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 11. What was the Os-Rox mission? What did it accomplish?
12. What factors favored Philippine independence in the 1930s?

Suggested Activities

1. Hold a discussion in class on this subject:

b. Quezon was justified in opposing the Hare-Hawes-Cutting
Law.
2. Write a 200 - word essay about Harrison and Wood. Include in
your essay something about the achievements of Harrison in
advancing self-government for the Filipinos and on the other
hand, what Wood did to neutralize what Harrison had achieved in
this area.
3. Go to the library and read about the 1935 Constitution. Read the
present constitution and make a comparison between the two.
Start with the Preamble; discuss the provisions in both
constitutions regarding civil liberties. Which constitution provides
for wider civil liberties? Why or why not?
4. From hindsight, would you consider the provision in the Tydings-
McDuffie Act, on whether or not to allow U.S military bases or just
naval stations for repairs and fueling in the Philippines even after
independence, as “little change” or “minor change”? Explain your
answer.
5. Compare the officials and political leaders’ character and
principles during the period with those of today.
6. Surf the Internet or research in the library on the women
professionals during the American period and their role during the
time. Find out who were the suffragettes in your locality (town,
city, or province). For this, the elders and prominent women in
307
 your place are good sources of information. Interview at least one
of them and prepare a transcript or your interview.

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 CHAPTER 19

THE IMPACT OF AMERICAN RULE

(1898-1935)

Whatever were the effects of American colonial rule in the Philippines?

Were they beneficial to the Filipinos, to the Americans, or both? What is
the impact of American rule on the Filipinos—on their economy,
politics, society and culture? Most accounts point to an overall positive
benefits of American rule to the Filipinos.

Compared with the impact of Spanish colonial rule, most analysts

would say that the United States improved the economy and system of
government, where the Filipinos had greater political participation and
more economic gains. Most Filipinos would also agree that public
health and sanitation, transportation and communication, education and
literacy greatly improved under American rule. It is in the realm of
values and culture that more negative effects appear to be strong and
more evident. The American rule caused great marks of “colonial
mentality” and the materialistic and individualistic ways among many
Filipinos.

EDUCATION AND THE SCHOOL SYSTEM

America’s greatest achievement in the Philippines was the introduction

of the public school system. In contrast to the Spanish system of
education, it was open to all. The public schools were also secular
orientation. It was not a system based on the idea of life after death, but
based on life here on earth. It emphasizes honesty, civic
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consciousness, cooperation with the government in its work of
advancing the welfare people, mutual help, love of labor, and
advancement of learning. The Church had nothing to do with the public
school system because the American made sure that the Church and
the State were separated. This meant that the State had no right to
interfere in religious affair and similarly, the Church had no right to
interfere in purely governmental or secular affairs.

As mentioned earlier, the first American teachers were American

soldiers. They treated the pupils kindly and gave the pupils free books,
pencils and writing papers. Due to abnormal condition of fighting, these
efforts did not immediately succeed. After the Philippine-American War,
the American teachers called the Thomasites were more successful in
the campaign to educate the Filipino. Boys and girls of school age, and
even adults who wanted to learn English, enrolled in the day and night
classes. The result was that within a few years, many Filipinos learned
the English language and were qualified to take civil service
examinations. By 1904, the American colonial government in the
Philippines was able to send the first group of Filipinos pensionados
and scholar to the United States. These Filipinos studied law, medicine,
engineering, education, and other professions.

Overall, the public school system increased the number of Filipinos

who knew how to read and write. In 1903, when the first census was
taken, the literacy rate was 44.2%. This rose to 49.2% in 1918, when a
second census was taken. The number of schools under the Americans
increased. Aside from schools and colleges and the University of Santo
Tomas, which continued to operate during the American regime, more
schools, colleges and universities were founded. The oldest university
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founded during the Americans was Silliman University in Dumaguete
City, followed by Central Philippine University in Iloilo City. The
University of the Philippines was founded in 1908 in Manila. Education
under the Americans advanced rapidly and was not equalled by any
other colonizing power. Perhaps, their zeal and impact could only be
compared to those of the Spanish missionaries who preceded them
with equal ethiusiasm and effect.

PUBLIC HEALTH AND WELFARE

Next to education as America’s greatest achievement in the Philippines

was the improvement of public health and welfare. Before 1990, the
Filipinos suffered from ravages of smallpox, dysentery, tuberculosis,
cholera, malaria, and other deadly diseases which killed thousands of
people every year. Public health and sanitation were every poor during
the Spanish regime. They became worse during the revolution and the
Philippine-American war. The American authorities immediately set to
work to control the spread of deadly disease. In 1901, the Americans
created the Board of Public Health, which later on became a bureau. Its
duties were to instruct the people in hygiene and sanitation and to
combat the people ignorance and superstitions which were the greatest
enemy of medicine and public health.

Hospitals, leprosaria, and dispensaries were established so that sick

people could be taken care properly. The steps taken by the Americans
towards minimizing the deaths of people arising from poor hygienic
condition resulted in the decrease of mortally rate. For example, in
1898, when the Americans came to the Philippines, the death rate per
1,000 persons was 30.5%. In 1907, it decreased to 21.29%. In the
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succeeding years, the death rate per thousand persons progressively
decreased.

At the same time that the Americans, with the help of Filipino
physicians, were fighting the ravages of disease, `they also improve the
Filipino diet. The Americans taught the Filipinos nutrition. Balanced
diet, consisting of large amount of all known vitamins and minerals was
introduced. As a result, the Filipinos became healthier and taller. It is
estimated that the height of an average Filipino in 1900 was five feet
and three or four inches. By 1920, the average height may be
estimated at five feet and six inches.

IMPROVEMENT OF TRADE AND INDUSTRY

The free trade relations between the Philippines and the United States
led to artificial prosperity. Free trade relations meant that Filipino
products entering the United States were not taxed, and American
products entering the Philippines were likewise, free of duty. As a result
of this free trade relation, Philippines exports to the United States
increased. In 1909, Philippines exports amounted to 60.9 million pesos.
In 1910-1914, it rose to 94.7 million pesos. In 1914-1918, the amount of
exports further increased to 177.3 million pesos, and in 1925-1930, the
exports amounted to 297.9 million pesos. Except during the World War
I, from 1914 to 1918, Philippines foreign trade enjoyed a favourable
balance of trade. This meant that Philippine exports were bigger than
imports.

In industry, the Philippines also prospered under the Americans.

Coconut oil mills, cigar and cigarette factories, rope factories, fishing
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and fish canning, alcohol distilleries, and sugar centrals were
established throughout the Philippines. More labourers were
employed and Filipino capital, although small and timid, began to be
invested in industries. Mining, which the Spaniards did not improve and
exploit, was encouraged and became an important industry. In 1929,
gold mining produced almost seven million pesos worth of gold. In
1935, the year of the Commonwealth, it produced almost thirty-two
million pesos worth of gold.

TRANSPORTATION AND COMMUNICATION

Alongside the improvements in health and sanitation, the Americans

also improved the various means of transportation and communication.
In 1898, when Spain was ousted from the Philippines by the Filipinos,
the Philippines has less than 2,000 kilometres road. The length was
increased more than 20,000 kilometres when the Commonwealth was
inaugurated. During the Spanish period, bridges and culverts number
less than 3,000. In 1935, this number rose to more than 8,000
kilometres.

The railway line was likewise extended. In 1903, there were less than
200 kilometres of railway. In 1935, it rose to more than 1,000
kilometres. The Manila-Dagupan Railway, founded during the Spanish
period, was acquired by the government and became the Manila
Railroad Company. The railway line was extended to the provinces of
Northern and Southern Luzon, thereby bring them closer than before.

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DEMOCRACY AND CIVIL LIBERTIES

President McKinley’s principles of American policy toward the

Philippines were rooted in the recognition of human rights as the
foundation of any democratic system. In contrast, the Spanish regime
did not recognize in practice in the value of equality and freedom. The
American regime recognized the equality of men before the law and the
right of every man to all the freedoms—freedom of religion, freedom of
speech, freedom of the press, freedom of complain, and freedom to
change one’s domicile. The Americans, however, did not introduced
democracy in the Philippines, for the Filipinos already knew what
democracy was before the coming of the Americans and even before
the Spaniards came. The numerous revolts and uprising against the
Spain and the war against the U.S. occupation—all signify the people’s
desire to be free from foreign control. The Malolos Constituent provided
for a bill of rights which recognized the human dignity and freedom.

Political Parties

When the Americans colonized the Philippines, they introduced many

American institutions. One of this was the system of political parties
and election. The municipal election, the provincial election and finally
the national elections, first held in 1907 to elect the delegates to the
Philippine Assembly, resulted in the formation of political parties among
the Filipinos. It is true that there were two factions during the Tejeros
election of 1897, but they were not political parties with definite political
platforms. It was after the American occupation that real political parties
came into existence in the Philippines. The parties then had a political
platform, which the Filipinos learned from the Americans.
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Thus, the Federal Party had a definite platform, which was to work for
the integration if the Philippines into the American Union. On the other
hand, the Nacionalista Party had a platform opposite that of the Federal
Party, namely, immediately and absolutely independence for the
Philippines. It was on the basis of political platform that the Filipinos
came to know about the party system as practice in the United States.

In time, the good as well as the bad characteristics of the political party
system in the United States were adopted by the Filipinos. The result of
this system of political party was the increase in the knowledge of
government machinery and government affairs by the wealth and
educated Filipinos. This type of politics, ironically was deepened during
the time of Governor-General Harrison, when more Filipinos came to
control the lawmaking body and government bureaucracy.

LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE

One of the most lasting influences of the Americans in the Philippines

was the teaching of English language and literature to the Filipinos.
McKinley ordered that the English language be made as the medium of
instruction in all public schools. Within ten years of the American
occupation, some Filipinos began to write IN English. Some of the
Filipinos who wrote in English during the first ten years of of American
rule were Juan F. Salazar, Maximo M. Kalaw, Francisco M. Africa,
Justo Juliano, and Bernardo P. Garcia.

They wrote poems, essays and stories. With the teaching of the English
language to the Filipinos, American culture will became popular in the
Philippines. Filipino students learned the works of American writers as
315
Longfellow, Bryant, Poe, Whitman, Lanier and many others, more than
Filipino literary works. By 1935, many Filipino writers in English had
distinguished themselves in poetry, short stories, and essays. A few
wrote dramas and novels. Some of the poems and the short stories of
the Filipino writers in English were published in the United States.

The contact between Filipino and the English language resulted in the
adoption of English words and phrases in the major Philippine
languages. In Tagalog, in particular, hundreds of English words and
phrases have been adopted and are now part of the language. Words
like putbol (football), basketbol (basketball), pawl (foul), boksing
(boxing), bistik (beefsteak), kendi (candy), and many others are now
part of the Tagalog vocabulary. Up to this day, many English words and
phrases are still being incorporated into Tagalog. Hence the rise of
what is called “Taglish” or a combination of Tagalog and English, or
“Engalog,” which is a combination of English and Tagalog has been
significant.

NEGATIVE RESULTS OF AMERICAN RULE

The American occupation of the Philippines was far from heavenly.

There were negative outcomes of the colonization which are still seen
today. While it is true that the free trade relations between the
Philippines and the United States resulted in the development of
commerce, trade, industry, transportation, and communication, the
Philippines became dependent exclusively on the United States to
continue to prosper economically. This was not favourable because
instead of developing exports for trade in other countries outside the
United States, the Philippines relied too heavily on the American
316
market. This made the Filipino helpless economically. Being the only
major trading partner, the Americans had the upper hand in dictating
the prices of Philippine commodities. The American authorities in
Washington, D.C., in effect, told the Filipinos what to do and what not to
do. There was no real industrialization in the hands of Filipino capital.
The trend was towards industries controlled by Americans, British, and
other nationals.

Another ill effect of the American occupation was the “brainwashing” of

the Filipinos through the educational system. Because the Americans
dictated the educational policies of the Filipinos, the subjects that were
taken in the schools laid more emphasis on American culture and
history than the Philippine culture and history. Thus, the Filipino pupils
and students under the Americans learned more about Washington,
Lincoln, Santa Clause, snow, and the other American heroes, subjects,
and objects. Learning about Filipino heroes and heroines like Rizal,
Bonifacio, Tandang Sora, Del Pilar, Aguinaldo, and others took a back
seat. This kind of education influenced many Filipino students to admire
everything coming from the United States. Consequently, many they
preferred everything “stateside.” This is what referred to as colonial
mentality.

The Filipino attitude of placing material things above spiritual things

was definitely an American mindset. Capitalist values have entered
Philippine culture. Thus, today, one is judged not according to whether
or not one is rich; or has a beautiful house; owns the latest model of a
car, refrigerator, television set, mobile phone, or any other object of
material wealth. An honest, hardworking individual who does not have
all these is often considered unfortunate. This attitude has been
317
absorbed by Filipinos. Unfortunately, such a materialistic view of life
has weakened the Filipino’s communal spirit towards an individualistic
and consumerist way of life.

STUDY GUIDE

1. Explain what “democratic relationship” means. What is its

principal characteristic as it was put into practice in the
Philippines?
2. What is the most important American achievement in the
Philippines? Explain your answer and, if possible, give concrete
examples to prove your point.
3. What was the effect of the introduction of the public school
system on the student’s ability to read and write and on the
student’s appreciation of American heroes and greatness?
4. What was the achievement of the Americans in the field of
sanitation and public health? What steps did they take to
minimize the incident of disease like tuberculosis, dysentery, and
others?
5. What was the effect of the proper or balanced diet introduced by
the Americans? Show this effect by citing examples to prove your
point. Compare this with the eventual introduction of the American
diet.
6. Discuss how the Americans improve trade, commerce and
industry. Who actually benefitted from these?
7. Show how the American improves the means of transportation
and communication. How do you compare the improvements they
made by the Spaniards in 333 years of stay in the Philippines?

318
 8. Enumerate some of the individual freedoms. Which of these
freedoms do you value most? Explain your choice.
9. What American institutions were introduced in the Philippines
which led to political practices and exercises? Name some of the
bad effects of political parties and election practices on the
Filipino voters.
10. In what way did the Americans perpetuate their culture in
the Philippines? Do you think that the inclusion of English words
in the Philippine languages was beneficial or not? Give your
reason.
11. Name some of the bad results of the American occupation
of the Philippines. Which of these results do you consider the
worst? Why?

SUGGESTED ACTIVITIES

1. Make a list of words in your own language or dialect which are

derived (1) from Spanish and (2) from English. Share in class
your output.
2. Make a comparative study of the good and bad results of
American occupation. Make a chart in your notebook; in one
column, list all the good results, in another column, and list the
bad results. Study them and report this in class. Which of the
results in your list do you think has the worst effect on the
Filipinos? How would you go about correcting these negative
effects of American rule?
3. Make a short essay of not more than 200 words comparing the
Spanish and the American rule. Make lists of the good and the
bad results of their occupation of the Philippines. In your opinion,
319
 which country contributes the most to the welfare and culture of
the Filipinos?
4. Divide the class into two groups. Have one group take the
affirmative and another group, the negative side. Conduct a
debate on the issue:
The American did more harm than good to the Filipinos.

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 CHAPTER 20

THE COMMONWEALTH AND WORLD WAR II

(1935-1945)

The government established by the Americans in the Philippines was

democratic and republican in form; a government that was patterned
after the United States. In this democratic government, the Filipinos
began to govern themselves, though not completely. Nevertheless, this
short period of apprenticeship in governance was a testimony not only
to the American liberal tradition and tolerance, but also to the Filipino
talent in learning the complex processes of running a government.

It was for this reason that when the war broke out in the Pacific and the
Japanese occupied the Philippines for three years, the Filipinos
remained loyal to the Americans as they suffered hunger, atrocities,
and death in the hands of the Japanese.

As President of Commonwealth, Manuel L. Quezon ably steered a

country that was beseiged by internal problems while it tried to survive
a government in transition to independence. World War II brought out
only the capacity of such leaders as Quezon, Osmeña, and Laurel to
oversee a government amidst war, but also the courage and capacity of
the Filipino people to defend themselves against aggression from the
outside. In this war, the cooperation between the Filipinos and their
colonizer, the Americans, was perhaps unrivaled and not easy to
explain.

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PROBLEMS OF THE COMMONWEALTH

In his inaugural speech as the first President of the Commonwealth,

Manuel L. Quezon said in part:

….We shall build a government that will be just, honest, efficient

and strong so that the foundations of the coming Republic may be
firm and enduring – a government, indeed, that must satisfy not
only the passing needs of the hour but also the exacting demands
of the future.

The commonwealth government was a transition government

preparatory to granting of independence. It was a period of adjustment,
of solving the many problems that confronted from foreign rule. The
problems it faced were on national security, social stability, and
economic self-sufficiency. Quezon faced these problems with courage
and optimism.

NATIONAL SECURITY

Soon after the American occupation of the Philippines, some American

statesmen felt that the Philippines was difficult to defend. When
WORLD WAR II broke out, the United States which was hesitant
about joining it at first, was not prepared to defend the Philippines as
their colony. Japan’s expansionist goal on the region would certainly
include the Philippines as an object of conquest and the United States
would not be able to do anything about it. President Franklin D.
Roosevelt, for example, believed that to avoid war with Japan, the
United States should give the Philippines its independence.
322
Japan then was a rising power and had defeated china and Russia in
separate wars. In the succeeding years, Japan invaded Korea,
Manchuria, and finally, China. It was this thought of expanding Japan
that hounded Quezon. Consequently, the first law he recommended to
be passed by the National assembly was the National Defense LAW.
This law provided for citizen army composed of trainees who belonged
to the 21-year old group. To put the law into operation, Quezon
appointed General Douglas MacArthur as field marshal of the
Philippine army. MacArthur estimated that at the end of commonwealth
period, the Philippines would have an army of about 400,000 able-
bodied citizens.

Because there was not enough money to finance the construction of

costly battleships, cruiser, and destroyers, MacArthur thought of the so
– called “mosquito fleet”. This was composed of small, fast, and well-
armed boats. Filipino pilots were trained in air warfare and prepared for
possible war. These were the preparations made by Quezon to secure
the military defense of the country against any foreign invader.

SOCIAL PROBLEMS

The agrarian problems that Quezon faced during the commonwealth

period could be traced to Spanish period. The Filipino masses,
particular the peasants, had been exploited on the issue of friar estates
by the few influential people in the community. Amidst poverty and
ignorance the masses toiled day after without any hope of deliverance.
This dire condition of the masses led many to rise in revolt, as noted in
the various agrarian uprisings under Spanish rule. In the 1930s, the so-
called Colorums took up arms against the authorities in Mindanao to
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show their displeasure over existing conditions. In Central and
Southern Luzon and in the Visayas, the peasants also rose in revolt in
the 1920s and the 1930s.

In particular, the uprising in Tayug, Pangasinan in 1931 was a reaction

to the oppression of some landlords. But the social discontent was well-
illustrated by the Sakdal Uprising in 1935. Founded by Benigno R.
Ramos, tagalong poet, the Sakdal organization identified itself with the
peasants. It attacked graft and corruption in the government. It fought
for immediate independence and therefore, against the Tydings –
Mcduffie Act. On May 23, 1935, the Sakdalistas or members of Sakdal
organization revolted against the government. The government
suppressed the uprising and punished those who participated in it.
Ramos, then, fled to Japan.

The period saw the rise of socialism and communism among the lower
classes: peasant and workers. Through unions and associations, they
worked for reforms beneficial to their class. Just like the Sakdalistas,
they were met with state violence and were outlawed.

Quezon, in response, announced his policy of emancipating the

masses from social injustices. The problem, he said, was how to
‘’harmonize property rights with the right to live – and the right to live is
paramount and above every other right’’. He initiated the policy of social
justice for everyone. But because the government did not have enough
money with which to purchase landed estates, Quezon tried to
implement laws to improve the welfare of rural population. However,
the big and powerful landlords and Quezon’s private circle of friends

324
and supporters resisted these social justice legislations. Thus,
Quezon’s social justice failed.

ECONOMIC PROBLEMS

Other economic problems occupied Quezon’s attention, since the

Spanish period, the Chinese had been dominating the retail trade
industry in the country. On the other hand, Philippine foreign trade was
dominating by foreigners: the Americans, the Chinese and the
Japanese. When free trade between the Philippines and the United
states began in 1909, Philippine products like sugar, coconut oil, abaca
fiber, copra, and others, entered the American markets free of duty.
This led to was quite poor relative to the succeeding years. Statistical
data reported that in 1933, the Philippine foreign trade amounted to
only ₱346,000,000, but rose to ₱520,000,000 in 1936, the first year of
the commonwealth period. Foreign trade was made possible through
the ports of Manila, Mindanao, and Southern Luzon.

Quezon improved the country’s transportation and communication

Facilities. Inter-island shipping was encouraged and the railway lines
were improved and extended to La Union and Legazpi, Albay. The
number of buses, cars, vessels, and taxicabs increased a great deal,
thus making transportation and communication accessible at relatively
cheap fares. Airfields were constructed to bring the cities and principal
towns of the country closer together. Telephone and wireless services
were improved and radio broadcasting was inaugurated in Manila. By
1940, the number of families owning radio sets was more than 60,000.

325
The national Assembly, upon the recommendation of Quezon, created
the National Economic Council whose primary duty was to ‘advise the
government on economic matters’’. In accordance with this policy, the
National Development Company was reorganized to make it more
efficient and responsive to needs of the people. It also established
government companies such as the National Food Products
Corporation, the National Rice and Corn Corporation, and others,
whose main duty was to protect the people from being exploited by
unscrupulous producers or merchants.

Public welfare was given priority as the government strengthened

certain agencies like the Bureau of Public Welfare, the Associated
Charities, and the National Relief Administration in order to improve
and extend the scope of service to the people, especially to the poor.
People with mental illnesses, the children of poor families, and
delinquent children were taken care of by agencies such as the
Welfareville, the settlement house, and the Child Welfare Division.
Likewise, the jobless were given full or part time jobs by National Relief
Administration, which also distributed food to victims of natural
calamities like floods, earthquakes, fires, and the like. Women’s
suffrage, a mentioned earlier was passed in 1937. The arts and
literature were encouraged by the government through contest and
competitions for artist and writers.

A contest in painting was held under government auspices in 1936. A

national contest on writing the biography of Rizal was conducted by the
government in 1938. In 1939, Quezon, acting through the
recommendation of the Philippine Writers League, established the
Commonwealth Literary Contest in Tagalog, English, and Spanish. The
326
contest included writings for biographies; history, poetry, short stories,
novels, dramas, and essay. Because of these contests, literary
activities increased and many talented writers were encouraged in the
three languages.

THE WAR IN THE PACIFIC

The preparations of the Commonwealth for an independent Philippines

was interrupted when war in the Pacific broke out in 1941. The fear of
Filipino political leaders, especially Claro M. Recto, that Japan as a
menace to the security of the Philippines, came true. On December 7,
1941, Hawaiian time, Japanese bombers attacked the American fleet in
Pearl Harbor, Hawaii. Provoked by the attack, President Franklin D.
Roosevelt spoke before the joint session of the American Congress
and urged it to declare war against Japan. “Yesterday,’’ Roosevelt said,
“December 7, 194…the United States was suddenly and deliberately
attacked by naval and air forces of the empire of Japan.’’ Immediately,
the Congress declared war against Japan. On December 8, British
time, England also declared war against Japan and the war in Pacific
was on.

THE OCCUPATION OF MANILA

The Japanese naval, military, and air forces took the offensive against
the United States, Britain, and Holland. Their colonies in Asia were
attacked – the Philippines, Malaya, and Indonesia. On December 8 and
the succeeding days, the Japanese bombed many places, including
Manila and the suburbs. In order to save Manila from destruction,
General Douglas MacArthur declared it an open city. All guns and other
327
defenses were withdrawn from Manila. But the Japanese did not honor
the declaration of the open city. They continued bombing it, resulting in
the destruction of properties and buildings like the old Santo Domingo
Church, San Juan de Letran College, Santa Catalina College, and the
offices of the newspapers, El Debate, Mabuhay, Philippines Herald,
and Monday Mail. Meanwhile, Japanese forces landed simultaneously
in Northern and Southern Luzon. Both forces knifed through the Filipino
– American defenses, and on January 2 the Japanese forces entered
and occupied Manila.

THE FALL OF BATAAN AND CORREGIDOR

Quezon was very sick when the war broke out. His illness became
serious when he learned that thousands of Filipinos died as result of
Japanese bombing in Bataan and other places. In order to save him
from the Japanese who were driving toward manila, MacArthur
suggested that Quezon, his family, to together with Vice President
Osmeña and his family, as well as few others, should go to Corregidor.
In Corregidor, on December 30, Quezon took his oath of office to mark
the beginning of his second term as President of the commonwealth.
With Manila and other parts of Luzon in the hands of Japanese, Bataan
and Corregidor, under the command of General MacArthur, began to
take heavy beating from the enemy.

The help that MacArthur and the Filipinos were expecting from the
United States did not come. Food was scare in Bataan and as a result,
Filipino and American soldiers suffered from hunger and diseases.
Realizing that Bataan would soon fall, President Roosevelt ordered
Quezon to be transferred to Australia. In March, he also ordered
328
MacArthur to fly Australia, from were he would direct military operations
against Japan.

Having suffered not only from hunger and diseases but also from
enemy bombs and cannon fire, the American commander in Bataan
surrendered on April 9, 1942. Hundreds were killed during the transit of
Filipino and few American prisoners of war to Capas, Tarlac. This
atrocious event was referred to as the “Death March”. The Japanese
were now free to devote their entire offensive against Corregidor. This
tiny island suffered from the almost ceaseless bombing attacks of the
enemy and on May 6, General Jonathan Wainwright surrendered the
Philippines to the Japanese.

GOVERNMENT REORGANIZATION

Shortly after the occupation of Manila by the Japanese forces, General

Masaharu Homma, the Japanese commander – in – chief, ordered the
reorganization of the central government. This was renamed Central
Administrative Organization composed of six executive departments –
Interior, Finance, Justice, Agriculture and Commerce, Education,
Health and public Welfare, and Public Works and Communications. In
each department, Japanese “advisers” were installed.

The advisers were actually spies or agents of the Japanese military. All
appointments to headship of department had to be approved by the
Japanese military authorities. On the provincial and municipal levels,
however, nothing was changed.

329
Educational Policy of the Japanese

To gain the sympathy of the Filipinos, the Japanese military authorities

declared that Japanese educational policy would be based on the
spiritual rejuvenation of the Filipinos; the propagation of Filipino culture;
the propagation of the Japanese language and culture; the
encouragement of vocational and elementary education; and the
promotion of love of labor. To implement this policy, the Japanese
military authorities ordered the opening of schools, especially those
giving courses in agriculture, fisheries, medicine, and engineering. In
spite of attempts to encourage Filipinos to go to school, many school
children remained in their homes or on their farms. Enrollment in the
schools throughout the Philippines did not exceed 300,000. The
uncertainly of war conditions discouraged schooling and other
activities.

The Second Republic

To win the trust of the Filipinos, the Japanese authorities in Japan

decided that the Philippines should be given its independence. The real
intention of the Japanese was to show the Filipinos that they were
better than Americans, such that, in just a very short period of more
than a year, they offered independence to the Filipinos. Consequently,
a commission created for the purpose of framing a constitution was
headed by Jose P. Laurel as president. On September 4, 1943, the
constitution prepared by the Commission was approved by convention.
On September 25, the National Assembly elected Jose P. Laurel as
President of the second Republic. This was inaugurated on October 14,
1943. In his inaugural speech, Laurel said:
330
 …I am sure our people will rise as one to meet the
challenge… We shall encounter difficulties greater than we have
ever faced in our national history… God helping us, we shall
march with steady, resolute steps forward, without doubt,
vacillation, or fear.

In spite of great efforts exerted by Laurel and other government

officials, the prices of commodities, especially foodstuff, increased daily
until it was impossible for most Filipinos to eat three times a day. At
such times, the Filipinos ate substitutes. Thus, mango or avocado
leaves were boiled as substitute for tea. Papaya leaves were dried, cut,
and used as substitutes for tobacco. Corn was boiled and sprinkled
with salt to be eaten. The lowly kangkong was cultivated for food. Most
Filipinos lived on these substitutes. Rice was very scarce. The
Japanese army either bought all the rice or confiscated it. Thousands
died of hunger in Manila and in other centers of population where food
was scarce. Brutalities and rapes were also recorded.

Guerrilla Warfare

The Filipinos, with very few exceptions, were anti- Japanese. Many of
the soldiers who escaped Bataan and Corregidor joined or founded
guerrilla organizations. Throughout the entire Philippines, guerrilla
outfits sprang like mushrooms. Patriotism was at its height. The
guerrilla harassed Japanese army units, ambushed, and killed them.
Filipino spies in the employ of the Japanese sent reports to their
guerrilla units. These in turn sent the reports to General MacArthur in
Australia. Among the most famous guerrilla leaders were Governor
Tomas Confesor of Iloilo; Colonel Macario Peralta, of panay; colonel
331
Ruperto Kangleon of leyte; Tomas Cabili, Salipada Pendatun, and
Wendell Fertig of Mindanao; Wenceslao Q. Vinzons of Camarines
norte; Miguel Ver and Eleuterio Adevoso, who headed the hunters
R.O.T.C. Guerrillas; Marcos Agustin or Marking, who headed the
Marking’s Guerrilla; and Luis Taruc, who led the Hukbalahap. Their
guerrilla warfare tactics made the Japanese conquest of the Philippines
very difficult. Because of the Filipino guerrillas, MacArthur’s return to
the Philippines was facilitated. When MacArthur and his forces
returned, the ground was ready for clearing operations.

The Government -in- Exile

Quezon and his party left Corregidor in February 1942. They were
brought to Australia and from there they took a boat to San Francisco,
and then by train, reached Washington, D.C. it was in the U.S. that
Quezon reorganized the commonwealth government. His Cabinet
included General Basilio Valdes, Secretary of National Defense;
Manuel Nieto, Secretary of agriculture and Commerce; Joaquin
Elizalde, Resident Commissioner; Dr. Artuto B. Rotor, Executive
Secretary ; and Jaime Hernandez, Secretary of Finance. Because of
war conditions, the Commonwealth government thought it wise to
extend the presidency of Quezon beyond his term of office. However
Quezon was very sick, and on August 1, 1944 he died at Saranac
Lake, New York. He was succeeded by Vice President Sergio Osmeña.

The Return of MacArthur

In 1944, the United States began its offensive against Japan. Island
after island in the Pacific, which the Japanese had captured early in the
332
war, fell into the hands of the Americans. In several naval battles, the
American navy won over the Japanese navy. MacArthur, feeling that it
was time to return to the Philippines, ordered all his navy, marine, and
air forces to begin the attack on the Japanese in the Philippines who
had for the most part been defeated by the Filipino Guerrillas. Manila
and other places were heavily bombed by American airplanes. On
October 20, the American air and naval forces bombarded the
Japanese positions in Leyte.

On the same day, the Americans landed on Leyte and the battle for
Philippine liberation began. In several encounters, the Japanese navy
was defeated by elements of the American Navy which guarded Leyte.
As the Japanese military forces weakened, MacArthur landed in
Lingayen, Pangasinan on January 9, 1945. From Lingayen, the
American army sliced through Central Luzon and reached Manila at
twilight of February 3, 1945. The American and allied prisoners of war
at the University of Santo Tomas were freed.

The Commonwealth Re-established

When Leyte was liberated from the Japanese, MacArthur re-

established the Commonwealth on October 23, 1944, with Tacloban as
the temporary capital. MacArthur was the military administrator; but on
February 27, 1945, he turned over the reins of government to President
Osmeña. Then on July 4, MacArthur proclaimed the liberation of the
Philippines from the Japanese.

333
The End of the War

With the Japanese defeated in the Philippines, MacArthur now

proposed to carry the war to Japan itself. Hundreds of huge bombers,
called Superfotresses, bombed Japan, particularly Tokyo, Nagoya,
Osaka, and other Japanese cities. President Harry S. Truman, who had
succeeded Roosevelt after his death, and Prime Minister Winston
Churchill of England demanded for Japan to surrender unconditionally.

Japan refused to surrender. The Americans then dropped the atomic

bombs on the cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Faced with threats of
annihilation, Japan surrendered unconditionally. On September 2,
1945, Japan signed the terms of surrender on board the battleship USS
Missouri at Tokyo Bay. The war in the Pacific was finally over.

STUDY GUIDE

1. Enumerate and discuss the problems of the Commonwealth. In

your opinion, which of these problems was the most serious?
Why?
2. Discuss national security as a problem. How did Quezon try to
solve the problem?
3. What is meant by citizen army? Who composed it? Do you think
MacArthur was right in establishing such kind of army? Explain
your answer.
4. What social problems did Quezon face? Which of these social
problems was the most serious? How did he try to solve it?
5. What is meant by ‘‘social justice?” How did Quezon implement it?
Did he succeed in completely implement it? Why?
334
 6. How did Quezon meet the problems of rural and labor unrest of
the period?
7. Discuss the achievements of the Commonwealth government.
Which of these achievements appear to be most important for
you? Explain your answer.
8. Why and how did the war in the Pacific break out? Was Japan
justified in bombing Pearl Harbor without a declaration of war?
9. What is meant by “open city?” Why did MacArthur declare Manila
an open city? Was he right in declaring Manila as an open city?
Give your reason or reasons.
10. Why, in your opinion, did the Japanese ignore the
declaration of Manila as an open city?
11. Explain why Bataan and Corregidor fell in the hands of
Japanese.
12. Why did the Japanese military authorities place “advisers”
every department of government?
13. Discuss the educational policy of the Japanese. Why was
enrollment very small during the Japanese occupation of the
Philippines?
14. Explain why prices of all commodities, especially foodstuff,
were very high during the Japanese occupation. What did the
Filipinos do to survive during those days?
15. What was Filipino reaction to Japanese rule? How did they
show this reaction? Who were the foremost guerrilla leaders? In
what way did they help the Americans?
16. What happened to the government-in-exile? Why was
Quezon’s term as president extended? Do you think this was wise
move? Why?

335
 17. Recount how MacArthur and the Americans returned to the
Philippines. Was their return vital to the liberation of the
Philippines from the Japanese? Explain your answer.
18. Why did the Japanese surrender unconditionally to the
Allies(united States, Great Britain, and Union of Soviet Socialist
Republics, and other countries)?

SUGGESTED ACTIVITIES

1. Write an essay of 50 to 100 words on why the Americans like

President Franklin D. Roosevelt wanted the Philippines to be
independent.
2. Make a map of Luzon showing the principal towns from Aparri to
Legazpi. With a red pencil, trace the route taken by the Japanese
army. Begin with Aparri and Legazpi and work your way toward
Manila.
3. Discuss this topic:
a. If the Philippines were not occupied by the Americans, the
Japanese would not have attacked it during war in the
Pacific.
4. Make a critique of the “Landing at Leyte” monument. Is this an
accurate representation of the Filipino – American cooperation in
World War II? Why? If not, how would you make it more
representative of what actually happened?
5. If possible, organize a LAKBAY-aral to Corregidor or other World
War II memorial site in your locality. Write an essay on your
observations and lesson learned from the tour.

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 CHAPTER 21

THE THIRD REPLUBLIC

(1946-1969)

The First Republic (the Malolos Republic) and the Second Republic
(during the Japanese period) were both born amidst the turmoil’s of a
revolution and harsh enemy occupation. The birth of the Third Republic
in 1946 was no less turbulent. Established right after a world war that
left behind a physically-devastated country and a deeply-wounded
people-psychologically and emotionally-the young Republic was weak
and vulnerable to undue pressures from the United States, its former
colonizer and wartime ally.

Impoverished and without the capacity to reconstruct itself after World

War II, the Philippines had to accept U.S. aid-financial help with a lot of
strings attached. Among the conditions tied to American aid to the
Philippines were (1) the parity rights to Americans to exploit the
country’s natural resources; (2) U.S. military and naval bases on
Philippine territory; and (3) a number of defense and trade
arrangements favorable to Americans. How could the country be called
sovereign or independent with all these economic and political
strangleholds?

This became a recurring problem of all presidents from President

Roxas to Quirino, Magsaysay, Macapagal, and Marcos. Likewise,
poverty caused by unproductive agriculture (due to lack of genuine land
reform and backward technology), the absence of real industrialization,
dependence on foreign loans and exports-plagued every
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administration. Graft and corruption, rural and urban unrest, crimes,
and violent elections characterized every presidency. Conflicts caused
by the Cold War (rivalry for world power between the U.S. and
communist country) escalated conflicts from within Philippine society.
Meanwhile, the elite continued to dominate both the economy and
politics of the country, with slow progress for a fast-growing population.

CONDITIONS AFTER THE WAR

The end of World War II left the Philippines devastated. The Japanese
had fought savagely, inch by inch, and this led to bitter fighting and the
destruction of farms, work animals, machinery, buildings, roads,
bridges, and more importantly, thousands upon thousands of Filipino
lives. The heavy bombing of Manila by the Americans to clear the city
of Japanese hideouts destroyed infrastructures needed for economic
recovery. For many months there was no production. There was
widespread unemployment. Food was scarce and thousands died of
various disease. The total picture was discouraging and desperate. The
problems that confronted the Commonwealth were a challenge to the
statesmanship of President Sergio Osmeña who took over after
Quezon’s death. The courage and spirit of cooperation among the
people were again put to the test.

American Aid

Could a country so devastated rehabilitate itself and be ready for

independence? The American Army in the Philippines created an
agency to extend immediate aid to the Filipinos. The Philippine Civil
Affairs Unit (PCAU) was set up to help the military commanders in
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extending relief aid to the suffering people. Municipal officials and
teachers were paid their salaries by the PCAU. The American
Government gave money to the Philippine Government for the
purchase of foodstuff, medicine, and clothing for the Filipinos. However,
this money was to be paid back by the Philippine Government in due
time.

Distributing centers in Manila and the provinces were established. Rice,

corn, sardines, salmon, and other American goods were distributed to
the people. PCAU also employed Filipino laborers in American military
projects and thus, provided money for circulation. Little by little, many
people began to be preoccupied by selling American goods, cigarettes,
and even military clothing.

THE GOVERNMENT REORGANIZED

In order to make the government responsive to the immediate needs of

the people, President Osmeña, in March 1945, reorganized the
government. The executive departments, as they existed immediately
before the war, were restored and a new department, the Department
of Information was created. After his oath-taking, Osmeña spoke of
what lay ahead. He said in part:

We shall reestablish in our country a social and political

system… in which government officials and employees are not
the masters of the people but their servants …
We stand for individual liberties, guaranteed by our
Constitution, for the right of every man and woman to enjoy life,
liberty, and the pursuit of happiness.
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 We stand for a new world free from want and fear, provided
with greater safeguards for lasting peace …
We are ready to take part, in close association with the
United States, in … the organization and preservation of peace in
the world.

On the insistent suggestion of General MacArthur, Osmeña called

Congress to session to pass laws designed to help solver the serious
problems of the country.

American Financial Aid

The recently concluded war was an American was, but the Filipinos
suffered much more that Americans. As such, the American
Government decided to extend financial aid to the Philippines. After
conducting Survey of the damage done by the Japanese and by the
Americans themselves, the Congress of the United States appropriated
one hundred million dollars to be used by the Philippine Government
for its operating expenses and for the redemption of guerrilla notes
issued during the war. Moreover, American Army surplus materials with
a sale value of one hundred million pesos were given to the Philippine
Government. The Philippines was given loan of sixty million dollars for
purposes of construction.

Parity Rights to Americans

Moreover, on October 1945, the American Congress passed a bill into

law, known as the Bell Trade Relations Act, which provided that the
free trade relation between the Philippines and the United States
340
should be continued beyond the Commonwealth period or up to 1954.
After that year, Philippine products entering the United States would be
taxed 5% each year until the full 100% was reached in 1974. The law,
however had a questionable provision that required the Filipinos to
amend the Constitution in order to grant the Americans parity rights in
the Philippines. This meant that the Americans, like the Filipinos, would
be given the right to dispose, exploit, develop, and utilize “all
agricultural, timber, and mineral lands” in the Philippines. The violated
the Constitution of 1935 which 60% was owned by Filipinos were
allowed to exploit, develop, dispose, and utilize the natural resources of
the country. Many patriotic Filipinos objected to this unjust provision of
the Bell Trade Relation Law, but the majority of the people were hungry
and sick and, therefore, helpless. In order to get the financial aid from
the United States, an amendment to the constitution was passed, to
allow for parity rights.

THE THIRD REPUBLIC PROCLAIMED

When Congress was convened by Osmeña, it proceeded to elect

Manuel A. Roxas to the presidency of the Senate. Roxas wanted to
become President of the Philippines, and Osmeña, who was not in
good health, wanted to retire. He was, however, persuaded by men
around him to run for the presidency. In the election of April 23, 1946,
Roxas was elected President of the Commonwealth and, at the same
time, the first President of the Third Republic.

On July 4, 1946, a date chosen by the American Government, the

proclamation of the Philippine independence by U.S. President Harry S.
Truman was read by Paul V. McNutt, The last American High
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Commissioner to the Philippines. In the Proclamation, President
Truman said that he United States was withdrawing and surrendering
“all rights of possession, supervision, jurisdiction, control or sovereignty
now existing and exercised by the United States of America in and over
the territory and people of the Philippines” At the same time, Truman
also said that the United States, Though him, was recognizing the
“independence of the Philippines as a separate and self-governing
nation”.

Roxas took his oath of the office as first president of the Third Republic
of the Philippines. But Roxas stayed in office for only two years. He
died on April 15, 1948 after delivering a speech at Clark Air Base,
Pampanga, in which he promised Filipino cooperation with the United
States in case of another war. He was referring to the looming Korean
War. Conscious of the problem of national security, President Roxas
granted the U.S. control of the military and naval bases at Clark Air
Base and Subic Bay Naval Base, in exchange for military aid. The
country at this time was also faced with a Communist unrest in the rural
areas.

The Hukbalahap Problem

The Roxas administration and that of his successor, Elpidio Quirino,

were faced with the Hukbalahap problem. The Hukbalahap (short for
Hukbo ng Bayan Laban sa Hapon) was founded early 1942 as an anti-
japanese organization of peasant leader in Central Luzon. These
peasants were led by intellectuals like Pedro Abad Santos and the
Lava brothers, Vicente, Jose, and Jesus. Their supremo was Luis
Taruc, a peasant leader. The Huks (short for members of the
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Hukbalahap) won many skirmishes with the enemy and made Central
Luzon practically independent of the Japanese. The Huks had become
so powerful that the greedy among the landlords of Central Luzon
feared them. After the surrender of the Filipino-American troops in
Bataan and Corregidor, the Huks succeeded in getting many firearms
from Bataan.

These weapons were used against the Japanese. After the war, they
refused to surrender their arms because they feared that their landlords
might hire armed men to kill them. Roxas failed to win over the Huks to
his side. He, therefore, declare the Huks a band of outlaws. In March
1948, he declared the Hukbalahap and its peasant organization, the
Pambansang Kaisahan ng mga Magbubukid (PKM) as illegal. Violent
encounters between the government forces and the Huks took place
and Central Luzon became no man’s land. As the second President of
a young and shaky Republic, Elpidio Quirino, an economist, believed
that a country could not be truly independent unless it had achieved
economic stability.

Thus, this program focused on agricultural productivity and

industrialization. He also stabilized Philippine currency by setting up the
Central Bank of the Philippines. He signed into the law the Magna
Carta of Labor and the Minimum Wage Law. He opened diplomatic
and trade relations with neighboring countries such as Thailand, South
Korea, Nationalist China, India, Indonesia, and Australia. However, the
Huk rebellion persisted and continued to disrupt development.

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As president, he tried to win over the Huks to the Government side by
sending his younger brother, a former judge, Antonio Quirino, to meet
with the Huk supremo, Luis Taruc. In the talks, asked for the following:

1. scrapping of the Bell Trade Act;

2. no trade with Japan;
3. redistribution of large estates to the peasants/tenants;
4. industrialization; and
5. Removal of U.S. bases in the country

As a result of the Taruc-Quirino meetings, President Quirino proclaimed

amnesty to all the Huks and the PKM members. The Huks, for their
part, promised to surrender their arms to government authorities. Judge
Quirino, however, denied ever agreeing to implement Taruc’s
demands.
The amnesty failed and the peace that reigned in Central Luzon, known
as Huklandia, lasted only for short duration. The government accused
the Huks of not surrendering all their arms. On the other hand, the
Huks accused the government of bad faith. The campaign against the
Huks was renewed and Central Luzon once more became a war zone.

Magsaysay and the Huks

Because of the peace and the order problem, the high prices of
commodities, and graft and corruption in and outside the government,
the people became disillusioned with the administration of president
Quirino. Ramon Magsaysay, who was Quirino’s Secretary of National
Defense, worked hard to solve the Huk problem. Magsaysay adopted
strict measures which included organized and simultaneous raids by
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the Armed Forces and the police to arrest Huk leaders and supporters.
On October 18, 1950, the Huk Politburo fell into the hands of the
military and police authorities. In the court, members of the Politburo
were charged with rebellion, complexed with murder and arson and
were sentenced to life imprisonment, that was later reduced to ten
years.

With the help of American money, Magsaysay won the Presidency in

1953, receiving a great majority votes. He became popular with the
common people. He shook hands with them, kissed old men, women,
and children of the poor, and walked in wooden clogs. In 1954, he
caused the surrender of Luis Taruc, the Huk supremo. Taruc
“unreservedly recognized the authority of President Magsaysay and the
sovereignty of the Republic of the Philippines” The Huk movement
slowed down. Its members were demoralized. In 1964, Dr. Jesus Lava,
Taruc’s successor as Huk chieftain, was captured in Manila. The
backbone of the Huk movement was finally broken.

Magsaysay, besides his successful campaign against the Huks, is

remembered for his policy of honest government. During his term, no
friends or relative ever benefitted from his position as president. He
also created extensive irrigation systems, introduced modern
agricultural methods, and approved the Agricultural Tenancy Act.

Garcia and the “Filipino First” Policy

President Magsaysay died in Cebu in an airplane accident on March

17, 1957. He was succeeded by his vice president, Carlos P. Garcia. In
the election of November of the same year, Garcia was elected
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President. He anchored his program of government on austerity. He
said in a speech:

Austerity as a policy means temperate spending. It signifies

work, more thrift, more productive investment, and more
efficiency. It means less imports and less extravagant
consumption. It is a challenge to our resiliency as a people to
change our past habits and make thrift and economy our
everyday way of living. Imposed on us by harsh realities, the
exercise of austerity in our everyday life is a desirable end in
itself.

Garcia also proclaimed the “Filipino first” policy. It means that the
Filipinos would masters in their own land. This policy was adopted
because Garcia realized that the Philippines had been the paradise of
foreigners who had been in control of the Philippine business, trade,
and commerce. Henceforth, according to Garcia, the Filipinos would be
given all the chances to improve the economy of the country. While not
anti-alien, the “Filipino first” policy was pro –Filipino first and above all.
His national policies included, for the first time, the revival of the
Philippine culture through the arts and historical researches.

Macapagal and Land Reform

Because the Garcia administration could not solve the problem of rising
prices and graft and corruption, Diosdado P. Macapagal, candidate of
the Liberal Party for president, won the election of 1961. President
Macapagal promised to solve the problem of unemployment and
promote self-sufficiency in food production. He promised to set an
346
example of honesty, uprightness, and simple living. All these were good
on paper, for while Macapagal was honest, many men around him were
not.

Macapagal’s presidency was known for two things; the land reform
code and the change of Independence Day celebration from July 4 to
June 12. It was said that Macapagal came from very poor family; as
such he understood their plight, as well as the need to improve the
status of the peasants.

Consequently, he asked Congress to approve his Agricultural Land

Reform Code whose main provision were (1) to establish and
encourage the formation of family-sized farms as the basis of the
Philippine agriculture; (2) to improve the status of the poor farmers by
freeing them from pernicious practices such as exorbitant rates of
interest for loans; (3) to encourage bigger productivity to increase the
income of small farmers; (4) to apply all labors laws to all irrespective of
their status in life; (5) to provide a land settlement program and a
distribution of land ; and (6) to make poor farmers independent, self-
reliant, and responsible citizens in order to strengthen the Philippine
democratic society. To partially implement this policy, Macapagal
declared twelve towns in Central Luzon as land reform areas. In these
areas, the old kasama system was substituted by the leasehold
system. In this system, the tenant-farmer, now leaseholder, will pay
25% of the harvest to the owner land. In theory, at least, the
leaseholder is freed from the control of his former landlord. Macapagal
was the first president to adopt the decontrol policy imposed by foreign
banks. The free floating policy of dollar exchange to the peso was
supposed to be good for the economy.
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In a show of nationalist spirits, Macapagal, through an executive order,
changed the celebration of Independence Day from July 4 to June 12
of every year. The nationalist praised Macapagal’s move, for the truth,
Philippine independence was proclaimed by Aguinaldo on June 12,
1962, therefore, Philippine Independence Day has been celebrated on
June 12. The fourth of July was change to Philippine-American
Friendship Day and Republic Day. Today, however, it is customary to
call July 4 as Philippine-American Friendship Day. President
Macapagal also proposed an organization uniting Malay-based
countries though MAPHILINDO (Malaysia, Philippines, and Indonesia).
This is considered as a precursor of the ASEAN (Association of
Southeast Asian Nations).

The Election of Marcos

Ferdinand E. Marcos wanted to run for Presidency in 1961. But

Macapagal, the Liberal Party Vice President asked him to defer his
political plan. Marcos agreed provided that Macapagal would serve only
for one term. But when Macapagal’s term was over and he refused to
keep the agreement, Marcos left the Liberal Party and ran under the
Nacionalista Party. In the election 1965, Senator Ferdinand E. Marcos,
a Liberal, was endorsed as the presidential candidate for the
Nacionalista Party. Marcos became a Nacionalista with the help of his
wife, Emelda Romualdez, a niece of Norberto Romualdez of the
Nacionalista Party. Marcos easily won the election with Fernando
Lopez as his Vice President. His program of government included (1)
production of more rice and the diversification of crops to attain self-
sufficiency in food; (2) implementation of a land reform program; and
(3) community development to “strengthen further our social, economic,
348
and political base.” Marcos worked hard to realize his program of
government, but the period was rocked by the turbulent events inside
and outside the country.

The government’s budget was inadequate to meet basis needs

(education, health, social welfare, defense, and infrastructure). To
augment income from taxes, Marcos secured foreign loans through the
World Bank and the International Monetary Fund. To link the
country’s islands of more than 7,000, Marcos embarked on an
unprecedented infrastructure program by constructing roads and
bridges. He tried to increase agricultural production through a new
strain of cereal called “miracle rice” and through modern irrigation
systems. Due to rising agrarian unrest in the countrysides, he
intensified the counterinsurgency drive against the renewed Communist
Party by Jose Maria Sision and the New People’s Army (NPA). In the
cities, he strengthened the police force to deal with crime syndicates.

Outside, in the foreign affairs, the period was caught in an intensifying

“cold war”- the contest for world supremacy between the United States
and the Soviet Union. In Asia and Southeast Asia, in particular, the
communists (in China, Vietnam, North Korea) were engage in fierce
fighting drawing mass support from students, workers, and peasants.
The Philippines, as a member of the SEATO (Southeast Asia Treaty
Organization) sent a civic action group to the war in Vietnam. Record
would show that from 1966 to 1968, the peace and order situation in
the country had deteriorated. The massacre of peasants in Conception
Tarlac, the killing in cold blood of 30 members of Lapiang Malaya in
Manila, the killing of Muslim trainees in the infamous Jabidah massacre
in Corregidor Island, sent shock waves across the population. The
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Huks repression, graft and corruption, carabao rustling, unresolved
crimes involving agents of the law, disillusioned the peasants. Thus,
when Marcos ran for reelection in 1969 for second term, events did not
augur well for him and the nation.

STUDY GUIDE

1. Describe the condition in the Philippines immediately after the

war. Do you think that the Filipinos would have suffered much had
they collaborate with the Japanese? Give your reasons.
2. What did the Americans do to help the Filipinos immediately after
their return to Manila? In what way did the PCAU help the
people?
3. What other aid did the United States extend to the Philippines?
Did the Filipinos deserve much aid? Explain your answer.
4. Summarize in your own words what President Osmeña said after
taking his oath as President of the Commonwealth. What trait did
he show by making this pronouncement?
5. What is meant by “parity rights?” In your opinion, why did the
Americans impose it on the Filipinos? Was it fair for them to have
done so? Why? What trait did this action show?
6. Why did the Filipino people as a whole approve parity rights?
What was the effect of parity rights on the Filipinos?
7. Why, in your opinion, did the Americans make July 4 the date of
the proclamation of the third republic? Who proclaimed it? In what
way does it differ from the proclamation of June 12, 1898
8. What was the Hukbalahap problem? How did Roxas meet this
problem? How did Quirino handle the problem? Why did the
amnesty fail? What do you think was the reason for the failure?
350
 9. How did Magsaysay try to solve the Huk problem? Was he
successful? Why?
10. What catapulted Magsaysay to popularity? Why, In your
Opinion, did the Americans like him and supported him in the
presidential election of 1953?
11. Why did President Garcia proclaim the “Filipino first” policy?
What was this policy? Was he justified in adopting this policy?
Why? Was it effective or not? Explain your answer.
12. How did President Magsaysay answer the agrarian
problem? Was he justified having land reform code passed by
Congress?
13. State in your own words the main provisions of the land
reform code. How did Macapagal implement his policy of
improving the status of the peasants?
14. Explain the program of government of President Marcos.
15. Describe the internal and external events that characterized
the first term of Marcos as president

SUGGESTED ACTIVITIES

1. Write a short essay consisting of 200 to 300 words, on the first,

second, and third Philippine Republics. Include in your essay your
reasons for preferring one over the other two.
2. Hold a discussion in class on this subject:
a. American financial aid to the Philippines after the last war
was insignificant compared to the sacrifices of the Filipinos
during the Japanese occupation.

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 b. In your discussion don’t forget to touch on the point whether
the Filipinos owe the Americans a debt of gratitude for the
aid and why.
3. Invite two prominent people who can speak on the subject of
Filipino nationalism and American aid. After the talks, hold an
open forum and ask them questions regarding the topic they
discussed.
4. List down and assess the “preconditions” for the grant of the
Philippine Independence or dependency?

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 CHAPTER 22

FROM THE FIRST QUARTER STORM TO THE DECLARATION OF

MARTIAL LAW

Two years 1965 to 1972 witnessed the holding of massive student

rallies; transport strikes; farmers, workers and urban poor
demonstrations; as well as protest marches by teachers, doctors,
lawyers and other professionals. All of them were compelling those in
authority, in particular, President Marcos (now on his second term) to
give in to their legitimate demands. What were these demands? How
did the government respond to these demands?

These were the causes behind the violent and chaotic situation called
“The first quarter storm” and the grim and bloody events that followed.

The political, economic, social, educational, military and moral

conditions in the country have reached their critical level. Philippine
society at this time was a “social volcano” that was ready to erupt
Marcos declared martial law, which according to him, would prevent
further chaos and give him the extended term of office to reform
Philippine society.

Crisis in Society

What were the conditions in the country that caused so much cynicism
and hopelessness that forced primarily, the youth, to march to the
streets in violent protest? Makibaka, huwag matakot, (Dare to fight, do
not fear) went the famous student battle cry. Students protested the
353
unprecedented government overspending during Marcos’s reelection
campaign. The infusion of so much money into an unproductive
electoral activity caused inflation. Prices of commodities, including the
cost of tuition fees, rose way beyond the ordinary people’s means.
Because of slow industrialization characterized mainly by packaging
factories and low wages received by workers, unemployment reached
to millions in the late 60s and early 70s. The overseas employment
phenomenon was not yet institutionalized during this period.

Militant unions led discontented workers into strikes, and joined in by

jeepney drivers who protested the high cost of fuel. Big businesses
were in the hands of aliens like the Americans and Japanese. Parity
rights had been favored foreign business interest at the expense of the
Filipino capital. Marcos’s cronies and businessmen enjoying huge loans
and other economic privileges because of their close links with the
Administration disadvantaged other businesses, whose poor
performance led to closures of their firms. This led to greater labor
unrest.

Agriculture was in a similar state. Rice importation in the hands of

cartels enriched government cronies and even their relatives. Small
and medium scale rice farmers suffered. In spite of some grains to
reduce tenancy under the Marcos land reform program, peasants in the
majority remained poor and discontented. During this time, the radical
leftist New People’s Army (NPA) claimed its biggest number of recruits
from the countryside. Due to the increasing poverty in many provinces,
people, by the families, flocked to the cities (mainly Metro Manila) to
eke out a living in sub human conditions. Urban poor demolitions to
give way to beautifications projects and massive infrastructure building
354
pushed those in “squatter colonies” to join the protest movement. Even
the middle class people were beginning to be alarmed. Their libertarian
sensibility for fair dissent and fairness was disturbed by the growing
police brutality and violent dispersals of rallies.

The pro-American stance of the government vis-à-vis American abuses

in the military and naval bases further fueled nationwide protests.
Sexual abuse, brawls involving U.S. servicemen, the shooting of
scavengers on mistaken identity in the periphery of the bases, and
many more, went on without any reprisal or credible investigation. In
the end, Marcos earned the ire of the broad protest movement, calling
him Hitler, Diktador, Tuta! And a protector of U.S. imperialist interests
and its local allies.

The First Quarter Storm:

The term “First Quarter Storm” refers to the first three months of 1970,
which was a tumultuous tear in the country. Waves of massive student
protests occurred in Metro Manila and nearby provinces. On January
26, 1970, hundreds of students gathered before the Legislative building
to protest President Marcos’s plan to convene a Constitutional
Convention that would extend his term beyond what was allowed by
the 1935 constitution. 1935 ph consti was only for 4 years

While on his way out of the building after delivering his address to
Congress, Marcos was suddenly blocked in his path by an object
hurled at him. Confusion ensued like a bolt of lightning. Gun shots
reverberated in the air. Hundreds were hurt in the melee. Liza
Balando, the young labor leader, was hit by a stray bullet and fell dead.
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Groups of students were arrested and hurled into the waiting police
vans like pigs. People who witnessed the incident could not recall what
object was thrown at the President. Was it a cardboard coffin,
symbolizing the death of democracy; or a papier mache crocodile,
representing the corrupt and power-hungry bureaucrats and politicians
of the time? In any case, what stunned the nation was the overkill, the
brutal response to the incident by the platoons of police and Metrocom
soldiers. Four days after, on January 30, a more militant demonstration
took place, joined in by people from all walks of life. The rally ended
violently in front of the malacañang gates, following a furious
confrontation called the “Battle of Mendiola.”

Since then the march to Mendiola would mean the people’s demand for
serious reforms and disillusionment over the government capacity to
deal with the vital issues of the day. The rest of the year would witness
more protests. Teachers who were frustrated over delayed salary
increases went on mass leave. Students at the militant University of the
Philippines took control of the campus in a siege lasting twelve days,
known as the “Diliman Commune.” Violence escalated into the regions
and provinces, from Baguio, Davao, and Cagayan de Oro to the
Mindanao State University in Lanao del Sur. Students demanded
educational reforms and jobs upon graduation.

They clamored for honest officials and pro-people laws and policies,
since they awakened daily to rampant graft and corruption, criminality,
and repressive measures to control their right to dissent. Critics of the
protest movement, however, wrote that the naked force that was used
against them was provoked by the students lobbing Molotov cocktails
at the police, “a clear case of misuse of freedom.” Sympathetic and
356
oppositionist officials like Sen. Eva Estrada Kalaw, on the other hand,
denounced the unwarranted use of police force as “this breach of
human freedom” that belied the President’s fine words “not to
slaughter, the innocents for the students’ demands were legitimate and
timely”

The 1971 Constitutional Convention and the 1973 Constitution

Meanwhile, academics, professionals, businessmen, including nun,

seminarians, and priests who were all formerly disinterested in politics.
Joined forces. They wanted a new Constitution to replace the 1935
Constitution which they described as “colonial” being a product of U.S.
dictation. Groups of nationalist and liberal politicians supported their
call. In the election for delegates to the convention, their coalition won
one third of the seats.

The rest were won by Marcos allies and sympathizers. In June 1971,
the constitutional Convention opened, electing former President Carlos
Garcia as its President. Garcia who died several days later was
succeeded by Diosdado Macapagal, President Marcos’s Predecessor.
The debated in the Convention focused mainly on the issue of shifting
the form of government from presidential to a semi-parliamentary or
parliamentary system. In the debate, it became evident that the pro-
Marcos delegates mandated a parliamentary form.

Under the 1935 Constitution, the tenure of the President was limited to
two terms or a maximum of eight years. Marcos who was on his second
term was barred from running for a third term. As newspaper accounts
of the day wrote: “There were signs that Marcos was trying to influence
357
the shape of the new constitution favoring a change in government”
and that Marcos intended to run as congressman in his district in Ilocos
Norte, under a parliamentary form of government, to become the Prime
Minister.

This would extend his stay in power after his second term in office.
While the debates were going on, student demonstrations near the
convention area continued. As historian Rosario Mendoza Cortes put it:
“demonstrations fitted well into the secret plans of Ferdinand Marcos.”
Citing Primitivo Mijares, a Marcos confidant who later defected, as her
source, Mendoza Cortes Wrote: “Marcos closely monitored the
revolutionary drama of the early seventies. Secret agents in fact egged
on the demonstrators. Military psywar (psychological warfare) experts
staged or instigated demonstrators with slight variations in time. A
pattern of early demonstrations in the downtown area alternating
between five o’clock in the afternoon and nine o’clock in the evening
was established. Marcos issued statements on a supposed
contingency plan to deal with a supposedly deteriorating situation.”

On August 21, 1971, the Liberal Party’s miting de avance was held in
Plaza Miranda in Quiapo, Manila. Being in the opposition, the audience
expected to hear from them exposes about the excesses of the Marcos
government such as overpricing of the government purchases; millions
of pesos worth of reparations; goods just rotting away; millions of funds
unaccounted for from the Philippine Charity Sweepstakes; diversion of
calamity funds to the Armed Forces and the Navy; the unexplained
delay of a quarter of a million pesos for the teachers’ salary increase.
Added to these were the golden Buddha incident, the administration’s
plan to cheat in the upcoming election candidates delivered speeches.
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Eva Estrada Kalaw, a senatorial candidate, eyewitness, and victim of
the horrifying carnage narrated:

There was pandemonium as the crowd began to disperse

from the scene. Salonga was pulled out from under the upturned
chairs, his eye bulging, his hand and feet contorted. Osmeña’s leg
and spinal column were hit so he could neither stand nor walk.
Judy Roxas’s knees were hit and had to be operated on. Eddie
Ilarde was hit on the leg as well. Below the stage, a photographer
and another person were directly hit by the fragments of the
grenades and died instantly.

Marcos quickly blamed the communists for the plaza Miranda bombing.
He suspended the Writ of habeas corpus “to enable the government to
frustrate communist design to wage destructive guerrilla warfare in the
greater Manila area and in other areas of the countryside. The
bombing, according to him, was part of the Communist July-August
Plan to topple the government.

At the same time, Marcos accused Ninoy Aquino of the Liberal Party
who was late for the miting de avance, of being a “Huk coddler” and
provider of aid and comfort to some of the subversives. The President
declared that the nation was in crisis. The threat of martial law filled the
airwaves and newspapers. However, General Manuel T. Yan, who was
AFP Chief of Staff, declared that there was no crisis to justify the
declaration of martial law, to which independent observers agreed.
There was nothing in the Philippine situation that would constitute
“invasion, insurrection or rebellion” and thus, justify martial rule

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Declaration of Martial Law

Proclamation 1081 dated September 21, 1972 was actually signed four
days earlier. Prior to its signing a series of mysterious bombing
incidents took place. All of these were blamed on the activist
organizations in the urban centers with links to the countryside rebels
such as the communists. But former allies of Marcos would later say
these incidents were part of Marcos’s plan to sow anarchy, terror, fear,
and despair as preconditions for the imposition of martial law. The fake
ambush of then Secretary of National Defence, Juan Ponce Enrile,
served as the signal for its formal declaration on the 23rd of September.

First on the list of those to be arrested was Sen. Benigno Aquino, Jr.,
who had plans of running for President in the 1973 elections. The rest
included outspoken journalists and writers, oppositionist, politicians,
labor union leaders, student activists, and radical delegates to the
constitutional convention, who were against the extension of Marcos’s
term under a new Constitution and form of government. With P.D.
1081, Marcos assumed all powers of government-executive, legislative
and judicial. Military courts took the place of the regular courts, except
for civil cases. Surprisingly, the nation received the proclamation in
silence and with calmness.

To allay the fears of the people, Marcos went on air to give this
message, I assure you, I am utilizing the power vested in me by the
Constitution to save the Republic and reform our society.” With the
persisting negative political, economic, and social problems, the
declaration of martial law appeared to be justified for the majority. He
also announced that martial law, which suspended constitutional rights,
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was only for a limited period. He said he needed time and the force of
arms to crush the communists, as well as the Muslim secessionist
revels in the south. His critics, however, were quick to rebut Marcos’s
justifications. They argued that martial law was declared to save
Marcos and not the republic.

Marcos wasted no time. Within the next few months, he tried to restore
peace and order; cleaned up the government of its corrupt and
inefficient personnel cut down criminality; and set up as a systematic
plan to develop the economy. But to the many activists who were
detained, tortured, and even killed upon the declaration of martial law,
Marcos’s words and plans amounted to nothing but empty premises
and pure rhetorics. On the surface, martial rule, seemed to have
restored order. In time, as the months turned into years, the Marcos’s
regime, backed by the military, would reveall that more than reforming
a society, the intent was to crush dissent and hostility to his plan to stay
in power for an indefinite length of time.

Study Guide:

1. Describe the conditions in the Philippines before the declaration

of martial law. Why was the country compared to a “social
volcano just waiting to erupt?”
2. How broad was the people’s participation in the pre-martial law
protest movement? What were their respective demands?
3. If you were already a student or an adult during those days of the
First Quarter Storm, would you have joined the rallies and other
protest actions? Explain your answer.

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 4. Interview people who participated in the events of the 1960s to
the early 1970s. Find out the specific names of the groups that led
the protest movement. List down the famous slogans or chants
they used to mobilize people to action. You may also research in
the library or surf the internet.
5. Visit a museum in your town or city and find out if the First
Quarter Storm, the 1971 Constitutional Convention, and the
declaration of Martial Law are part of their exhibit and historical
narrative. Comment on their display or exhibit.
6. What kinds of people and institutions are referred to as “middle
class” during this time?
7. Why do you think the political and economic crises of the time
were expected to cause so much dissent and violence?
8. Was Marcos justified in declaring Martial Law? Hold a debate on
this issue.

Suggested Activities:

1. Go to the library or surf the Internet. Research on who were the

political personalities arrested and detained during Martial Law.
Why were they imprisoned?
2. In your province, who were the leaders of the opposition
movement against Marcos? Who were those in favor of Martial
Law? Make a list and compare their viewpoints or perspectives
about Marcos and Martial Law.
3. Interview your parents and grandparents. How old were they
during this period? How were they affected by the events of the
day?

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 4. Search for songs and poems that were famous among the First
Quarter Storm activists and other protest groups. Sing or recite
these in class.
5. ‘Chapter 23

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 CHAPTER 23

FROM MARTIAL LAW TO PEOPLE POWER

(1972-1986)

The Philippines until 1972, held elections regularly; every four years for
the president. Vice president, and congressmen; every two years for a
third of the senate. The president was allowed to run for second term
and thus, stay in power for maximum of eight years. In 1972, then Pres.
Ferdinand E. Marcos, who was on his second and last term was able to
extend his stay in office in third term. He was able to do this through the
1935 constitution which provided for martial rule, as long as condition
justifying its declaration existed. Such conditions were “invasion,
insurrection or rebellion or imminent danger thereof where the public
safety requires it…”

President Marcos, through what he called “Constitutional

Authoritarianism,” extended his presidency that lasted twenty years or
two decades-the longest in Philippine history. With martial rule, the
1971 constitution that provided for a transitory form of government.
Under it, the term of office of all officials, starting with the president,
was extended. To effectively silence the opposition, the congress was
padlocked, media was shut down, and Marco’s critics and rivals were
arrested and detained. Marcos promise of a new society that would
solve insurgency, Criminality, and poverty helped to quiet down dissent
from the majority of the population. The repressive measures of Martial
Law, however, forced the activist (leftists, as well as rightists) to go
underground, where they converge into a force called people power,

364
triggered by Ninoy Aquino’s assassination and fueled by many heroic
acts for the restoration of democracy by the broad sectors of society.

MARCOS’S NEW SOCIETY

Marcos envisioned a “revolution from the center.” The “center” referred

to the silent majority who were neither leftists or pro-radical change like
a socialist or communist society nor rightist who were pro-status qou
dominated by the few landed rich or the oligarchy. The center, through
a strong executive, would bring about a “New Society” (Ang Bagong
Lipunan) that was self-disciplined, self-reliant, prosperous, and
peaceful. The New Society would be created without resorting to
bloody revolution. The state, under the authority vested in Marcos by
the constitution, would implement socioeconomic, political, educational,
and cultural reforms.

Thus, Marcos, through several Presedential Decrees, reorganized the

bureaucracy; formed the National Economic and Development
Authority or NEDA to plan and supervise the national development
program; and instituted the National Grains Authority or NGA to
stabilize grain supply and pricing. He regionalized the provinces to
improve the administration and delivery of social services throughout
the country. To balance population growth which economic growth, he
set up the Population Commission.

Marcos placed the whole country under land reform and issued, at
same time, a complementary proclamation freeing the tenant farmer
from his landlord, and enabling him to own and expand the size of the
land he tilled. Using tax money, and foreign loans, Marcos built more
365
schools, marketplaces, hospitals, roads, bridges, and ports. He also
developed energy sources such as geothermal plants, oil fields,
including a nuclear plant in Bataan. In foreign affairs, the government
entered a diplomatic relations with socialist and communist countries,
particularly the people’s Republic of China and the Soviet Union, while
maintaining friendly relations with the United States and Japan. By
joining the Association of South East Asian Nation or ASEAN in 1976,
the Philippines drew closer to neighbors and the third World countries
as a whole. The one-sided RP-US trade relations ended with the
termination of the Laurel-Langley Agreement in 1974. The U.S naval
base in Subic Bay closed in September 1971, while the U.S military
agreement, which was amended the previous year (1970), reduced the
original 99-year lease to 25 years. For the first time also, security for
the military bases, where the Filipino flag flew alongside the American
flag.

Worsening Economic and Political Crises

The initial effects of martial law on peace and order and the lowering of
prices for basic goods, kept the general public hopeful and cooperative.
For the common people, the promise of economic prosperity at the
expense of political freedom was better than the chaos and uncertainty
of the 1970s. But Marco’s massive infrastructure projects led to
massive foreign loans, particularly from the International Monetary
Fund and World Bank (IMF-WB). The policy of devaluating the peso by
the IMF-WB resulted in huge foreign debts which forced the
government to raise and collect more taxes that were largely used to
pay off these debts. Land reform proved slow and inadequate due to
lack of funds. Dependence on foreign exports contributed to low
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productivity, inflation, and budget cuts on education and other social
services. At the same time, more money was being allotted to the
military. And the first Family appeared to have prospered as the
economy began to slide down. As one writer put it:

With polls cancelled, the press censored, congress abolished, and the
courts tamed, restraints on Marco’s accumulation of wealth were
removed. There are no independent newspapers or congressional
committees to expose corruption, or independent courts to punish it.
Without elections, Marcos could allocate patronage as he wished
during campaigns. Marco’s family and friends enjoyed the privillages of
power.

It was also during the period of Martial Law that the poor farmers began
to deprived of their leasehold arrangements to give way to the forest,
mining, and marine reserves arrangements by the rich, as well as
foreign corporations. To prevent the further deterioration of the
Economy, the government sent out 1.3 million overseas contract
workers and domestic helper. But this could not stop the continued rise
in prices of commodities and poor salaries. By the early 1980’s, talks of
Marco’s hidden wealth and those of this associates in the tobacco,
sugar, and coconut industries, had spread. Unemployment ballooned
from 6.73% in 1985. The people’s disillusionment with the “smiling”
Marcos and his “benelovent” martial law had set in.

The opposition, led by Nationalista Party and the Liberal Party, was not
decieved by Marco’s attempt to clothe with ligitimacy his declaration of
martial law rule and its extension. To them, the different referenda to
approve the 1973 Constitution and to amend it on several occasion,
367
were all intended to extend Marco’s term and concentrate power in his
hand. Bribed by positions or business projects and harassed by threats
of jail terms for the most resistant and vocal among them, the
opposition was virtually crushed. While incarcerated and being tried by
military court, Ninoy Aquino bitterly and sadly commented.”

Many of our leaders had chosen to be more cautions than courageous,

more realistic and practical rather than idealistic, refusing to believe
that right defeated was mightier than evil triumphant.” The appointment
of first lady , Imelda Romualdez Marcos as governor of metro Manila,
and concurrently, head ministry of human settlements and Ecology
gave rise to charges of “ conjugal dictatorship’” by holding both
positions, Mrs. Marcos had access to funds and resources of the
government and even ambassadorial powers to represent the
Philippines in sensitive diplomatic talks.

In 1978, six years beyond his last term in 1972 and thirteen years in
power since 1965, Marco’s called for the elections to be held under
martial rule. The opposition’s party LABAN (Laban ng bayan) versus
Marco’s KBL (Kilusang Bagong Lipunan) completed for victory. While
Ninoy Aquino campaigned behind bars, his fellow partymates were
divided by favored boycott campaign. As a result, they lost KBL who
dominated the IBP (Interim Batasang Pambansa). The same defeat
happened to the opposition in the 1981 local elections. KBL candidates
won with the support of government funds and machinery.

That same year, President Marcos lifted the media and travel ban and
surprised the nation with the announcement of the lifting of martial law.
However, the writ of habeas corpus continued to be suspended. Also,
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Marco’s power to issue presidential decrees remained. As his staunch
critic, Jose W. Diokno, remarked, “Marcos did not lift martial law, he
merely titled it,” in preparation for the pope’s visit that year. Moreover,
amendments, once again, to the 1973 constitution were proposed and
ratified in the same year.

One amendment excluded those charged with high crimes from running
for president, thus excluding Benigno “Ninoy Aquino” with “trumped-up
charges of murder, illegal possession of fire arms and subversion.”
Another amendment guaranteed immunity from suit for Marcos and his
cabinet officials after he had finished his term. By then, it had become
clear why all these amendments were adopted. Marcos announced the
holding of presidential elections on June 16, 1981. The opposition
decided to participate under united party called UNIDO (United
Nationalist Democratic Organization). They asked for electoral reforms,
such as, purging of voters’ lists, equal media space and time, and a
reorganized COMELEC (Commission on Elections). Marcos refused
the call for reforms and hence, UNIDO boycotted the election Marcos
was left competing with an unknown, former defense secretary, Alejo
Santos, As expected, Marcos won with 88% majority votes. The Fourth
Republic was finally inaugurated on June 30, 1981

MASS MOVEMENT TO END MARTIAL RULE

The declaration of martial law effectively silenced the protest movement

of the first quarter storm. From 1972 to 1973 hundreds were detained.
These included leaders of “leftist” organization such as Kabataang
Makabayan, Samahan ng Demokratikong Kababaihan, Panulat para sa
Kaunlaran ng Sambayanan, among others; leaders of the traditional
369
political parties such as the Liberal Party and the Nacionalista party;
and progressive writers, journalist, and broadcasters. It took many
years before those who spoke and wrote about what was really
happening under martial law, could be heard. Protest to the exercise of
absolute control by Marcos took the form of hunger strikes by political
prisoners inside their cells. During the 1978 local elections, the
opposition candidates had no access to pro-administration media,
which were owned by Marcos cronies and relatives.

With the restriction on rallies and public for a, the opposition discovered
the power of “noise barrage” as a means of mass tin cans, pieces of
wood, or steel to signify their protest against Marcos and the KBL.
Many also wore T-shirt with the word. “No” (to the administration
candidates) printed across the front, which indicated disapproval of
administration. For the first time, the Catholic Church through the
Archbishop of Manila, Jaime Cardinal sin, issued a strongly-worded
Pastoral letter asking parishioner to vote according to their conscience
and guard their votes. Other church leaders followed suit. The church
protest was triggered by the rise in “salvaging” or summary executions
and desaparecidos or disappearances and kidnappings of suspected
“subversives,” which included priest, pastors, nuns, lay church workers,
tribal minorities, and urban poor.

Between 1978 to 1981, Amnesty International recorded 8, 000 cases of

salvaging; and 50,000 people arrested and detained in at least 20 main
detention centers, 80 provincial detention centers, and an
undetermined number of “safe houses” throughout the country. Safe
houses were secret places for the torture killing of anti-Marcos activists,
communists, and other rebels, whose right to trial and human dignity
370
were totally disregarded. It was during this period that underground
publications by the communist party of the Philippines or (CPP), Ang
Bayan and National Democratic Front (NDF), Liberation, along with the
alternative public dailies like Malaya and We Forum, attracted wide
readership. Xerox journalism also prospered, where in photocopies of
articles and readings with subversive content profilerated.

The boycott campaign drew large crowds. This emboldened the

coalition of students, labor unions, and peasants to march again in
large numbers. They were joined by the religious sector, women’s
organization, even employees and teachers in the government service.
They charged Marcos of massive vilation of human rights,
acquiescence to IMF-WB onerous loans and debt payments, further
devaluation of the peso, and imposition of more taxes. All these caused
unbearable hardship to the people. Anti-Marcos rallies and marches
were visible again. By 1982, Marcos was obviously very sick. His
regime began to be threatened by a series of mysterious bombings,
especially in Metro Manila. Claiming responsibility was group called
“Movement for a Free Philippines” led by Raul Manglapus, who was
self-exiled in the United States. The group accused Marcos of
dictatorship, graft and corruption that caused capital flight and
unproductivity,

Excessive taxes, and the further deterioration of the economy. Soon

after, rumors of coup d’ etats to topple the Marcos government spread.
This time, the group called “April 6 Liberation Movement,” an alliance of
the elite and the big business community was accused of trying to end
Marco’s martial rule even through violent means.

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THE ASSASSINATION OF NINOY

If Marco’s did not declare martial law 1972, former senator Benigno
“Ninoy” Aquino jr. might have become the next president. Instead, he
was imprisoned and later, allowed to go to the U.S for medical
treatment when he got very ill while in detention. In 1973, Marcos,
stricken with lupus, was very sick and lack of vice president to succeed
him posed a big problem in leadership.

Imelda R. Marcos, as his possible successor was definitely

unacceptable to the people, especially to the opposition which had
been deprived of any fair electoral process for more than a decade
already. On august 21, 1983, Ninoy Aquino decided to return to the
Philippines using an assumed name, Marcial Bonifacio. He believed
that he could be more useful to the opposition in the Philippines than in
the U.S “Increased repression will only hasten the communist victory,”
he wrote his cousin, Sen. Eva Estrada Kalaw, who was also a staunch
Marcos critic and oppositionist. “We must therefore exert every effort to
convince Marcos that genuine return to democracy is the only sure path
out of the enveloping red tide,” he concluded.

What happened to Ninoy Aquino upon his arrival shocked the whole
nation and the rest of the countries that were closely monitoring the
events in the Philippines. Ninoy was gunned down and fell on the
airport tarmac. The assassin, allegedy a lone gunman hired by the
communist, also lay dead after being gunned down by the soldiers
belonging to the airport security command.

372
The double-murder at the Manila International Airport was later tried by
a supposedly independent Agrava Commission. The result pointed to
Marco’s chief of staff, general Fabian ver, General proper Olivas,
Brigadier General Luther Custudio, and other commissioned and non-
commissioned officers of the armed forces of the Philippines (AFP).
Later, to the nation’s dismay, they were all acquitted by the
Sandiganbayan, which was presided over by Justice Manuel Pamaran,
for lack of conclusive evidence.

Ninoy Aquino’s funeral procession took eleven hours from Quezon City
to the Memorial park in Paranaque. Hundreds of thousands attended
the procession, which observes described as more of a protest march
than a funeral procession. In the following months, rallies and mass
actions were held, brazenly challenging Marcos to step down.

Demonstrators bravely faced the police who were armed with water
canons, tears gas, and other crowd-dispersal weapons. The opposition
led the mass protest joined by the Catholic Church, the emboldened
middle class elements, the business sector, members of the military,
and eased-out members of the Marcos administration.

For the first time, the anti-Marcos movement was characterized by

people across socioeconomic classes, dominated by moderates.
Before 1983, the protest movement was dominated by left or left-
leaning sectors, mostly from the basic sectors of society like the
workers, peasant, urban poor, and lower middle class. With this
development the stage for Marco’s exit had been set.

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THE 1986 SNAP ELECTIONS

From 1983, a new wave of protest rallies called “Parliament of the

streets” rocked Manila and other cities like cebu , Davao and Iloilo.
Although Marcos’s term was yet to end in June 1987, the protesters
asked him to resign and hold an early election, as it was rumored that
he had just undergone a kidney transplant. As the call of the people
grew louder each day, young officers within the AFP it self began airing
their complaints. The U.S with its interest in the Philippines, especially
in its military facilities, was also disturbed; and with accused assassins
getting out of prisons, the U.S began pressuring Marcos for an early
election date.

Thus, quite suddenly, Marcos announced that he was ready for “snap”
presidential election on February 7, 1986. His action surprised his
enemies. Corazon “Cory Aquino, widow of Ninoy Aquino was the
opposition’s candidate for president with Salvador H. Laurel as her
vice president. To ensure a clean and fair counting of votes, concerned
businessmen and others cause-oriented groups organized the National
Movement for free Elections (NAMREL). People fiercely and bravely
protected their ballots. Initial count by the COMELEC showed Marcos
leading 1.2 million votes, which was contrary to the overall NAMFREL
tally that gave Cory and Doy a consistent lead. Finally, on the second
day after the election, thirty-eight computer programmers of the
COMELEC walked out in the protest of the COMELEC’s attempt to
manipulate the result shown in the rally board.”

These further enraged the people causing massive rallies to be held in

Makati. On February 20, 1986, Marcos was declared President-elect,
374
along with Arturo Tolentino as vice president. On the same day Cory in
a “people’s victory rally” at Rizal park called for civil disobedience.
According to NAMFREL’s tally Aquino’s final votes numbered
7,835,070 over Marcos 7,053,068. She asked her supporters to boycott
crony banks, newspapers, beer, and other businesses affiliated with the
Marcoses; and to even stop paying taxes if necessary

PEOPLE POWER AT EDSA

The event on February 22, 1986 triggered the downfall of the Marcos
government in an unsuspected move by Juan Ponce Enrile, then
Secretary of National Defense and Fidel V. Ramos (Vice chief of staff)
who defected and severed their ties with Marcos. As later events
revealed, the planned coup d’ etat by the Reformed Armed Forces
Movement (RAM organized by officers under Secretary Enrile was
discovered.

That day, they were held up inside Camp Aguinaldo ready to fight to
the end. General Ramos, joining them, strengthened their morale.
General Ver’s forces were ready to deal with the “rebel soldiers and
officers “when Cardinal Sin appealed over the radio to help protect the
soldiers at Camp Aguinaldo from sure annihilation. To the people
answered and in the next two days the whole nation: and perhaps the
whole world, was astonished with what they saw: the civilians
protecting the military instead of the other way around. Prayers,
flowers, bread, and drinks offered by the people stopped the attacking
Marcos soldiers who were aboard trucks and tanks. Every inch of
Epifanio de los Santos Avenue (EDSA) was occupied by people from
all walks of life. They could have been dispersed but it would entail
375
“tanks and vehicles trampling or running over warm bodies,” which by
then numbered over a million.

The climax of the event came when crowds, and instead, landed the
helicopter to join the people power revolution at EDSA. On the morning
of February 23, 1986, the oath-taking of Marcos as newly-elected
president was hastily stopped. Radio stations were captured by the
rebel soldiers who were on their way to Malacanang. The U.S
government offered to help Marcos and his family, along with the crony,
Danding Cojuangco, to flee to Hawaii “to escape the wrath of the
evenging horde.”

STUDY GUIDE

1. Evaluate Marcos’s New Society in theory and practice. Use a

graphic organizer
2. What factors caused the Marcos martial rule to succeed initially ?
3. Do you agree with the constitutional steps taken by marcos to
legitimize his stay in power ? Explain your answer.
4. How would you differentiate between the protest movement befor
Nino Aquino’s assassination and the “Parliament of the streets”
after the assassination?
5. What makes People Power 1 at EDSA, a unique phenomenon in
the history of topplling down dictatorships?

376
SUGGESTED ACTIVITIES

1. Collect cartoons published by the Alternative press during the

anti-Marcos, rallies Ninoy’s assassination. Share your comments
on these in class.
2. If you live in Manila or nearby provinces of Manila, visit the
Bantayog ng mga Bayani Museum. Share insight and lessons you
learned about the Martial law tears and the people’s struggle to
regain or restore democracy based on exhibit.
3. Why do you think, the “moderates” among the broad sectors of
Philippines society preferred Ninoy’s restoration of democracy to
the leftist radical call for a transformed society
4. Was Marcos’s vision of “revolution from the center” a sound and
viable idea or concept? Explain you answer and discuss it with a
classmate.

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 CHAPTER 24

POST-EDSA TO THE PRESENT

(1986-2010)

President Ferdinand E. Marcos was the last president under the Third
Republic and the only president under the Fourth Republic. The
installation of Corazon C. Aquino through People Power as president of
the Revolutionary Government in 1986 was met by a lot of
constitutional questions. How did she clarify the basis of her
ascendancy to power and stabilize the new government? What where
her priorities and program of government? How did her successors,
President Fidel V. Ramos, President Joseph Ejercito Estrada, and
President Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo assume the presidency? What
were their respective priorities and development plans for the country,
as heads of the Fight Republic?

Each president of the Fifth Republic from Corazon C. Aquino to the

present administration of Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo had specific
program of government. However, there is no attempt here to evaluate
their actual impact only their vision and perspective of national
development for the country are presented. Such a task (evaluation or
assessment) is something historians are reluctant to do. To most
historians and other social scientists, contemporary history is better
analyzed and evaluate after sufficient time he elapsed. Recent event,
after all, are too close for judgment that is informed by hindsight. Also,
how these events will turn out and reach their resolution is difficult for
any historian to predict. Thus, only highlights of governance or priorities
in the administration by each president are discussed in this chapter.
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This seems to be the more instructive thing to do, considering that
many of the political, social, economic, and cultural problems of the
Republic remain substantially unsolved to the present.

THE AQUINO PRESIDENCY

Since People Power repudiated Marco’s authority to rule (under the

Constitution of 1973), the question arose as to which Constitution
should Mrs. Corazon Aquino govern the Philippines. After taking her
oath of office as President in the club Filipino, San Juan, Metro Manila,
her first official act was to appoint Salvador H. Laurel as Vice President,
Juan Ponce Enrile as Secretary of National Defense, Fidel V. Ramos
as Chief of Staff of the Armed Forces of the Philippines, Claudio
teehankee and Vicente Abad Santos as justices to the Supreme Court.
On March 25, 1986, President Corazon Aquino proclaimed a Freedom
Constitution, which defined her powers as such:

The new government was installed through a direct exercise of

the power of the Filipino people assisted by units of the New
Armed Force of the Philippines… the heroic action of the people
was done in defiance of the 1973 Constitution… the direct
mandate of the people as manifested by their extraordinary
action, demands the complete reorganization of the government.

President Aquino, though vested with unlimited powers, had no desire

to become a dictator. The Provincial Constitution contained a Bill of
Rights which obliged her to call a Constitutional Commissions (Con
Com) within two months. Various sectors such as the professionals,
business, lawyers, farmers, labor, women, Muslim community,
379
landowners, and even those from the radical leftist groups were
represented. The delegates also covered the major geographical
regions of the country. Former Supreme Court Justice Cecilia Munoz
Palma was Con Com President with former Senator Ambrosio Padilla
as vice president. The result of this convention was the Constitution of
1987, ratified in a plebiscite on February 2, 1987. With this its
ratification, the Fifth Republic was born.

The 1987 Constitution preserved many of the provisions of the 1935

Constitution. Among its important and new provision include the
following:

 A single fixed term of six years for the President;

 The President’s power to appoint cabinet members, ambassadors
and consuls, the Armed Forces (from the rank of colonel and up)
subject to confirmation by the Commission on Appointments in
Congress;
 The power of the President to declare martial law that needs the
approval of congress and that the President reports on his/her
action within forty-eight hours;
 The Senator’s term is limited to two terms; the Representatives to
three terms; and
 Members of the judiciary, although to be appointed by the
President, should be recommended by a judicial and bar Council.

Moreover; the 1987 Constitution provides for people empowerment ;

the recall of elected officials; the appointment of sectoral
representatives from labor, peasants, urban poor, indigenous cultural
communities, women, youth, the disable; and the recognition of the
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role of people’s organizations. Also, the declaration of a nuclear-
free Philippines would prohibit and acts of the Aquino government
were the following;

 The lifting of the suspension of the privilege of the writ of habeas

corpus;
 The grant of amnesty to all political prisoners, which set free
about 459 detainees;
 Restoration of elections and important democratic institutions like
an independent COMELEC, judiciary and legislature; free press;
mechanisms for conflict resolution in the Muslim South, the
Cordillera, and elsewhere;
 A restricting of the inherited foreign debt;
 The creation of the Philippines Commission on Good Government
(PSGG) head by Jovito Salonga, to run after the priorities owned
by Marcos cronies and those of the Marcos family on suspicion
that they were ill-gotten or corruptly-acquired; and
 Approval into law of the Local Government Code, towards
strengthening a decentralized government machinery.

The first half of the Aquino government was precarious. There were
several coup attempts by the RAM and high-ranking military officers
loyal to Pres. Marcos. But these attempts failed to get popular support.
Apparently, there were elements in the AFP, like those loyal to Marcos,
who where remove from their military posts and wanted to grab power
for themselves. The rest of Cory Aquino’s term was focused on turning
the economy around and improving the peace and order situation,
especially with regard to human rights and freedom of the citizenry.

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THE RAMOS PRESIDENCY

Former general Fidel V. Ramos became president through the normal

constitutional process. President Aquino refused to run despite the
claim of her supporters that as a revolutionary president, who was
placed in power before the Constitution of 1987 took effect, she could
seek for another term.

There were seven presidentiables who were vying for the presidency in
the 1992 elections. They were Miriam Defensor-Santiago, Fidel V.
Ramos, Eduardo Cojuangco Jr., Ramon Mitra Jr., Imelda R. Marcos,
Jovito R. Salonga, and Salvador H. Laurel. It was Fidel V. Ramos who
won. The multi-party system and six rival candidates, however,
fragmented the national votes. For the first time, the country had a
president with less than a quarter of total votes. But this proved no
hindrance to the new President’s skill in running the weak Fifth
Republic, which was only six years old.

Through consultation, dialogue, and consensus-building, President

Ramos sought the cooperation of Congress, the Senate, and the whole
bureaucracy for the implementation of his program of government.
Among the first acts of Ramos Presidency were the following:

1. The creation of the Legislative-Executive Development Council

(LEDA) to facilitate the passage of priority legislations;
2. Negotiations with military rebels, communist rebels, and
Muslims secessionists;
3. The creation of the special zone of peace and development in
southern Philippines (ZOPAD);
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 4. Institution of anti-crime bodies to deal with the crime
syndicates, private armies, and terrorists;
5. Enlistment of the support and participation of the AFP in civil
works project (building roads and bridges, schoolhouses, and
mega dikes), disaster preparedness (including rescue, and
rehabilitation), environmental protection and conservation and
human resource development; and
6. Institution of electoral reforms through the COMELEC.

In the economy, President Ramos favored the exercise of free market

forces with the least intervention from the government went for a
policy of sustainable development, strengthening the national
economy for global competitiveness; support for small to medium scale
enterprises and local community enterprises. Instead of government
subsidies and corporations, the Ramos government preferred trade
and investment liberalization, deregulations, and privatization. Through
the BOT (build, operate, transfer) law, greater private sector
participation was encouraged in infrastructure projects such as
telecommunications, oil and aviations, banking, insurance, and energy
resources.

The Ramos government supported and signed into law the following;

1. R.A 7432, which grants special privileged to senior citizens;

2. R.A. 8353,which reclassified rape from private offense to public
offense such that it was no longer a crime against chastity, but
a crime against a person;
3. R.A. 8369 know as the family courts Act of 1997,which
established courts to handle cases of domestic violence and
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 women’s desks in the police agencies to attend to women
victims of violence; and
4. The Women in Nation Buildings Law, which gives women
equal economics opportunities in national development efforts,
budgets for gender and development in government agencies,
and credits or lending windows for women at the Land Bank
and development Bank of the Philippines.

In foreign relations President Ramos emphasized diplomacy for

economic development, political corporation, and national security.
Under his term, diplomatic ties with European countries received much
attention. Bilateral labor relations with Middle East countries, where
many of the Filipino overseas workers are deployed, were also
strengthened. To ease the anxiety of OFWs over the education of their
children while abroad, Filipino-run schools mostly in the Middle East
were set up.

THE ESTRADA ADMINISTRATION AND PEOPLE POWER II

The transfer of power from President Ramos to President Ejercito

Estrada was peaceful and orderly, despite fears of a failure of election.
A few months before election, a group of Ramos admirers initiated a
move for Charter Change (cha cha movement) to allow a second term
for President Ramos. Formers President Aquino and Cardinal Sin led a
rally in Luneta to denounce the ChaCha move. According to the critics
of Ramos, opposition to ChaCha proved too strong which caused the
President to back out.

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In any case, President Ramos proved himself a true democrat and
constitutionalist. He unequivocally declared that he had no intention of
pursuing a charter change and of seeking a second term. Estrada
despite charges of being” a womanizer, drinker, and gambler “won
almost 40% of the votes, with Gloria Macapagal –arroyo as has vice
president. The speedy canvassing and senate proclamation of Estrada
as President-elect and Macapagal Arroyo as vice president attested to
the democratic processes that were restored by the EDSA People
Power and the statesmanship of President Ramos.

A former movie actor, turned politician, who served as mayor of San

Juan City, senator, vice president and finally as president, Estrada’s
administration was viewed as “a potential disaster” by the elite and
business sectors of Philippine society. But this what not true for the
poor masses who believe that administration will be committed to their
welfare. And to prove this commitment, among President Estrada’s first
acts include:

1. The suspension of the release of the PHP 37 billion in “pork

barrel” allocations for pet projects of the congressman;
2. The organization of the PAOCTF (Presidential Anti-Organized
Crime Task Force) with General Panfilo Lacson as head as
head ;
3. The reduction of debt servicing or payment to IMF-WB; and
4. Redirection of Land Bank and DBP funds to small- and
medium scale enterprises.

In his first Report to the Nation President Estrada laid down his
priorities below:
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 1. Provision of opportunities for employment and income
generation;
2. Provision of food, shelter, and basic utilities;
3. Improvement of the economy through the acceleration of
infrastructure programs and privatization; and
4. Promotion of participatory leadership that is free from graft and
corruption and political patronage.

Within two years and seven months in office, President Estrada

faced threats to his stay in power. Scandals involving both but his
personal and official life hugged the news. Among these were:

1. His alleged involvement in number games as king of jueteng

lords:
2. His rumored mistresses and gift of mansions;
3. His much-criticized drinking sprees and midnight cabinet
sessions; and
4. His huge bank account under a false name.

Governor Chavit Singon’sexposé on President Estrada’s link to

jueteng triggered the series of events that led to his exit from
Malacaňang. These included, among others, the resignation of Vise
President Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo; these issuance of a statement
by the catholic bishops conference of the Philippines (CBCP),
condemning President Estrada’s jueteng involvement as “morally
reprehensible”; the Makati business Club expressing its loss of
confidence in his ability to govern and their call for his resignation.
Mass action followed and an impeachment complaint was filed
against him.
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 He blamed all his woes on former President Estrada, whom he said
was persecuting him for his investigations of the Ramos
administration’s scandalous and unexplained multi-billion projects.
Not long after the impeachment proceedings, President Estrada was
implicated as the owner of a signature under a false name and a
questionable bank account.

This was made possible by the testimony of main witness, Clarissa

Ocampo a bank executive. As defense lawyer of President Estrada,
Atty. Estelito Mendoza remarked, “while the senator-judges will yet
make their final already making a judgment”. What followed was the
execution of what appeared to be a concerted effort to oust
President Estrada by the parliament of the Street.” The sudden
resignation of General Angelo Reyes, Estrada’s AFP Chief of Staff,
emboldened the people’s protests at EDSA shrine. The President
left Malacaňang to prevent bloodshed as throngs of angry people
tried to climb the walls of Malacaňang while helicopters hovered
above the palace. On January 20, 2001, Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo,
took her oath of the office as the fourth president of the Fifth
Republic.

THE MACAPAGAL-ARROYO GOVERNMENT

The government targets listed by President Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo

in her first State of the Nation
Address (SONA) on July 23, 2001 were to:

 Reduce poverty incidence;

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  Fifth poverty by creating jobs, not destroying them;
 Address the complaint of the masses about high price and
inadequate wages;
 Reduce excessive friction in labor and management relation,
working for industrial peace;
 Control the budget deficit by collecting taxes vigorously and
spending money prudently;
 Balance the economic plan to nurture the disadvantaged
members of society and those left by progress;
 Increase the chances of Filipino children finishing schools;
 Create a million new jobs within the year in agriculture and
fisheries;
 Strive to achieve self-sufficiency in rice production;
 Produce cheap rice and increase the number of prosperous
farmers;
 Annually distribute 200,000 hectares of land for agrarian reform
100,000 hectares of private land and 100,000 hectares of
public land, including 100 ancestral domain titles for indigenous
people;
 Develop information and communication technology to leapfrog
the economy into the new millennia;
 Stop the increase in prices of basic necessities of workers,
monitor oil prices;
 Increase the number of categories of workers who need not
pay taxes;
 Reduce corruption in the executive branch… investigate and
prosecute corruption in highest places… reduce corruption
among elective officials… no one is above the law; and

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  Enhance relations with the United States whose economic and
military power to continue to make it an important factor in the
affairs of the region and the nation.

Unlike President Corazon Aquino who declined to run for a second

term, although she came to power through People Power I,
President Macapagal-Arroyo sought a second term on the basis of
being brought to the Presidency by People Power II. Critics say,
People Power I was a much broader protest movement and
spontaneous on the part of the participants. In the case of people
power II, political analysts say, it was anelite-dominated plot to our
President Estrada whose pro-masa (Pro-people Agenda) and “low
moral lifestyle” disqualified him to continue as president. in any case,
GMA’s governance has not been as peaceful and as popular as she
would have wanted. Chargers after charges of corruption and
destroying the democratic institutions by influence peddling
(COMELEC, House of Representatives, the Supreme Court and
judicial system, NEDA, the AFP, and many more) have been lodged
against her. At least three impeachment cases were filled to no avail
in Congress (the house being packaged with pro-GMA members).

And as her second term is about to end in May 2010, with elections
just around the corner, rumors of charter change or a possible
“failure of election” scenario have been floated around. The nation
awaits the coming events with the great hopes for a peaceful
transition to the next presidency, amidst cry for bagong politika
transformative politics.

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STUDY GUIDE

1. How did Cory Aquino justify her ascendency in power considering

that the 1973 Constitution had been repudiated? Explain your
answer.
2. In your opinion, what was the most important contribution of each
president of the Fifth Republic? Why do you consider it as
important?
3. Who among this four (4) president of the Fifth Republic would
consider as the most democratic? Explain your answer.

SUGGESTED ACTIVITIES

1. Research in the library on the different presidential candidates in

the national elections of 1992, 1998, and 2004. Use old issue of
newspapers.
2. Research on the different political parties that emerge during the
elections in the first activity.
3. Using a graphic organizer, compare the presidencies of Corazon
C. Aquino, Fidel V. Ramos, Joseph Ejercito Estrada, and Gloria
Macapagal-Arroyo in terms of the following;
(a) Basis of ascendancy to the presidency
(b) Focus of economic program
(c) Peace and order initiatives
(d) Legislative agenda
(e) Electoral reforms
4. Research in the library for a short biography of each president of
the Fifth Republic.

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