IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER SYSTEMS, VOL. 29, NO.

1, JANUARY 2014 221

Electric Vehicle Battery Charging/Swap Stations

in Distribution Systems: Comparison Study
and Optimal Planning
Yu Zheng, Student Member, IEEE, Zhao Yang Dong, Senior Member, IEEE, Yan Xu, Member, IEEE,
Ke Meng, Member, IEEE, Jun Hua Zhao, Member, IEEE, and Jing Qiu, Student Member, IEEE

Abstract—Electric vehicle (EV) is a promising technology for re- One-time investment of charging station ($).
ducing environmental impacts of road transport. In this paper, a
framework for optimal design of battery charging/swap stations Investment of reinforce equipment ($)
in distribution systems based on life cycle cost (LCC) is presented.
The battery charging/swap station models are developed to com- Operation cost of the distribution networks.
pare the impacts of rapid-charging stations and battery swap sta- Operation cost of the charging station.
tions. Meanwhile, in order to meet the requirements of increased
power provided during the charging period, the distribution net- Investment costs.
work should be reinforced. In order to control this reinforcement
cost, stations should be placed at appropriate places and be scaled Operation costs.
correctly. For optimal cost-benefit analysis and safety operation, Maintenance costs.
the LCC criterion is used to assess the project and a modified dif-
ferential evolution algorithm is adopted to solve the problem. The Failure costs.
proposed method has been verified on the modified IEEE 15-bus
and 43-bus radial distribution systems. The results show that bat- Disposal costs.
tery swap station is more suitable for public transportation in dis-
tribution systems.
Discount rate (%/year).

Index Terms—Battery charging/swap station, differential evolu- Hour.

tion (DE), electric vehicle (EV), life cycle cost (LCC), radial distri- Current magnitude through line .
bution system.
The capacity limit of line .

NOMENCLATURE: Energy cost ($/kWh).

Load growth rate.
Node incidence matrix. Power demand at node (kW).
Annual saving due to capacitor application ($). Power demand at node after charging station
Net annual profit ($). construction (kW).
Adaption cost. Matrix of the load demand.
Design cost ($). Life cycle cost in year ($).
Equipment investment ($). Set of charging station.
Number of charging station .
Manuscript received January 16, 2013; revised May 31, 2013; accepted July Number of reinforce equipment .
30, 2013. Date of publication September 06, 2013; date of current version
December 16, 2013. This work was supported in part by an ARC Grant Set of reinforce equipment.
LP110200957 and the National Natural Science Foundation of China under
Grant 51107114. Paper no. TPWRS-00057-2013. Net present value ($).
Y. Zheng, Y. Xu, J. Qiu, and K. Meng, are with the Center for Intelligent Elec-
tricity Networks, The University of Newcastle, Callaghan, NSW 2308, Australia Charging power at the charging/swap station.
(e-mails: zhy9639@hotmail.com; eeyanxu@gmail.com; qiujing0322@gmail.
com; ke.meng@newcastle.edu.au). Rated charging power of the battery.
Z. Y. Dong is with the School of Electrical and Information Engineering, Uni-
versity of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia (e-mail: zydong@ieee.org).
Charging power of battery p at node i.
J. H. Zhao is with the Center for Intelligent Electricity Networks, The
Total power loss of the distribution network
University of Newcastle, Callaghan, NSW 2308, Australia, and also with
the School of Electrical Engineering, Zhejiang University, China (e-mail: (kW).
andy.zhao@newcastle.edu.au).
Color versions of one or more of the figures in this paper are available online Active power demand of node (kw).
at http://ieeexplore.ieee.org.
Power flow of the distribution network.
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/TPWRS.2013.2278852

0885-8950 © 2013 IEEE

Authorized licensed use limited to: TONGJI UNIVERSITY. Downloaded on June 27,2022 at 18:43:14 UTC from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.
222
Reactive power demand of node (kvar).
Stage.
The sum of the power distributed from the
substation (kVA).
The rating power of the distribution station
(kVA).
Year.
Project’s expected life (year).
Minimum voltage magnitude limit.
Maximum voltage magnitude limit.
Power factor angle (degree).
Project’s planning stage.
Amount of electric vehicles in the planning area.
I. INTRODUCTION
A LONG with increasing environmental concerns, novel
battery technologies have facilitated the rapid develop-
ment of electric vehicles (EVs) in the past decade. Large-scale
utilization of EVs has the potential to reduce greenhouse gases
emission, save fuel cost for EV drivers, enhance power system
security, and increase penetration of renewable energy [1],
[2] Moreover, the development of EVs is also as an effec-
tive way for creating job opportunities and stimulating auto-
motive industry. Although EV advocates have spent decades
tackling all kinds of challenges, EV charging control strate-
gies which can affect the impacts and benefits significantly
are still under discussion. Therefore, a great deal of interest
has been directed towards charging/discharging control tech-
nologies. In [3]–[5], different EV charging control methods
for vehicle-to-grid (V2G) functionality were developed; hy-
brid electric vehicle (HEV) control strategies were analyzed in
[6]–[8]; the concept of an EV aggregator which acts as an agent
between grids and EVs was proposed to address the plug-in
charging problems [9]–[11]. These studies provide some di-
rections for EV manufacturers to participate in grid-support
services.
Most of the previous research focused on developing plug-in
charging strategies, where two major challenges are encoun-
tered. First, EV consumers expect a short charging time just
like refuelling their current vehicles. This requirement makes
rapid charging stations more preferred. Second, it is very
difficult to implement centralized charging/discharging control
under the plug-in mode due to the stochastic charging profile
of EV users. Some incentive strategies are required to avoid
uncontrolled charging, which may significantly increase the
peak load and endanger power system security. Considering
these aforementioned challenges, an alternative strategy based
on a battery swap station (BSS) has been proposed and received
increasing concerns in recent years [12]–[14]. Under this mode,
batteries are leased to EV users. The most outstanding feature
of this strategy is that EV batteries can be replaced within
a short time and can be charged during off-peak periods in
swap stations, through which the challenges discussed above
Authorized licensed use limited to: TONGJI UNIVERSITY. Downloaded on June 27,2022 at 18:43:14 UTC from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER SYSTEMS, VOL. 29, NO. 1, JANUARY 2014
could be solved correspondingly. Other salient features of BSS
include the following.
• The charging of batteries is centralized during the night
when the charging cost is low.
• The provision of grid-support service in a centralized
charging and discharging manner.
• The ability for drivers to resume their journeys in minutes
with a full-capacity battery.
• The charging of batteries in slow-charging mode to extend
their lifetime.
• The savings in cost of EVs by providing batteries by
operators.
Due to the listed distinguished features, a number of coun-
tries have launched BSS projects. For example, China is leading
some pilot BSS demonstration projects nationwide. As reported
recently, the largest BSS in the world was officially put into op-
eration in Beijing, China, in 2012.1 The company Better Place
has opened the world’s first BSS for taxis in Tokyo.2
This paper proposes a method for locating and sizing BSSs
in distribution systems, which are the two key determinants in
the take-up of EVs. The problem is modelled as maximizing
the net present value (NPV) of the BSS project, where the BSS
model, load type, network reinforcement, and reliability are
taken into consideration. To evaluate the cost/benefit of a BSS
project over multiple stages, the life cycle cost (LCC) criterion
is employed [15]–[17]. The LCC concept was first proposed
and applied to the power system in 1933 and 1997, respectively
[18], [19]. LCC is a classic approach for the economic evalua-
tion of project, and it covers all the direct, indirect, derivative,
or nonderivative costs within the life circle or expected life of
a project. Based on the LCC criterion, the costs of investment,
operation, maintenance, failure, and disposal can be quantified.
It can reflect the losses incurred in each stage during the life
cycle of the project and help assess if the expenditures of
the project are necessary. In the BSS planning problem, the
maintenance and the recycling cost of batteries should not be
ignored. If the recycle process is well used, the disposal cost
may be considered as a benefit. Hence, through the LCC calcu-
lation, we could quantify the value of new technology adopted
in the project. The benefit is the total electricity sold by the
BSS during the life cycle period. In the EV market, there exist
many uncertainties, and the planners and operators have limited
information about the penetration of EVs which is affected by
customers and government. To consider the uncertainties such
as EVs’ growth rate and user charging habits, the adaption cost
[20], [21] is also included in the objective.
The proposed objective function is a mixed-integer nonlinear
and nonconvex programming problem, which is difficult to be
solved by conventional mathematical programming methods. In
recent years, the heuristic optimization techniques have shown
satisfactory performance in solving such problems [22]–[25].
In this paper, a differential evolution (DE) enhanced by fitness
sharing [26] is used for solving the proposed model. Compared
with other evolution algorithm (EAs), DE is faster, simpler, and
more robust [24], [28]. With the fitness sharing technique, the
1[Online]. Available: http://www.sgcc.com.cn/shouye/tbxw/269108.shtml
2[Online]. Available: http://www.betterplace.com.au/
ZHENG et al.: EV BATTERY CHARGING/SWAP STATIONS IN DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS: COMPARISON STUDY AND OPTIMAL PLANNING 223

DE can search the global optimum more effectively [26]. The The aging and damage of the chargers and corresponding
proposed method is demonstrated on IEEE 15-bus and 43-bus equipment can cause loss to the stations’ owner. The failure
distribution networks, where BSS is also compared with a fast costs can be calculated by
charging station. The results show that BSS can provide more
benefits for the operators of EV ancillary facilities. (5a)
This paper is organized as follows. After the Introduction, the
overview of the concept of the BSS, explicit calculation formula
of costs/benefits, and the operational control of battery charging (5b)
are presented. After that, two benchmark systems, the modi-
fied IEEE 15-bus and 43-bus distribution systems, are used to where is the expected failure times each year related to
demonstrate the performance of the proposed method. Conclu- the types of charging stations and is the failure cost each
sions and further developments are discussed in the last section. time of the types of charging stations.
It is widely accepted that lithium-based batteries are more
II. COST-BENEFIT ANALYSIS environmentally friendly and recyclable compared with other
traditional batteries. The hydrometallurgical and pyrometallur-
A. Life Cycle Cost gical processes are applied for current recycling [27]. The dis-
The traditional system planning problems only aim at mini- posal costs can be calculated by
mizing capital cost and operational cost, which do not take into
full account the maintenance, restructuring, and recycling ex- (6)
penditures. Consequently, it cannot guarantee that the optimal
planning result is obtained. However, in some planning projects
which involve polluting materials, the disposal cost as well as where and are the treatment costs of the charging sta-
cycling cost should not be omitted. Therefore, in this paper, the tion and the expansion device, respectively, and and are
batteries are considered to be recycled or reused after its whole the recycle benefits. Due to the development of recycling tech-
life cycle or planning period. The overall objective is to opti- nology, CD can be regarded as benefit instead of cost when it is
mize the economic profit during the station life cycle, therefore a negative number.
the key is to calculate the annual LCC of BSS project, which B. Benefits
can be expressed as follows:
In this paper, the benefits of charging/swap station projects
(1) come from the revenue of stored electricity in batteries. It can
be computed as follows:
The investment costs can be calculated by
(7)
(2)

where is the price of electricity sold to EV users, is the

where is the expansion cost of the distribution network
amount of energy sold per day in the charging/swap station ,
due to demand growth.
is the charging price during the period in charging station
The operational costs can be calculated by
, and is the amount of energy charged during the period.

(3a) III. PROPOSED MODEL

A. Topology of BSS
where, is the operation cost of distribution system power
electronic devices, is the operational cost of charging In the context of a smart grid, the BSS with advanced infor-
stations per year. Due to load fluctuations and different charging mation and communication technologies plays an import role
rules throughout a day, the power loss is calculated hourly, in intellectualizing the distribution system. To model a BSS, the
characteristic and the key technologies were analyzed briefly as
follows and are depicted in Fig. 1.
(3b)
• Standardization of battery. Besides the cost of batteries, the
standard is another restriction to the operation of BSS. In
The maintenance costs can be calculated by the current market, lithium ion battery is the main stream
technology, while the size and capacity still vary between
manufacturers. Due to lacking of the uniform standard,
(4)
the charger should be smarter to identify the battery type.
Meanwhile, the industrial standard of EV batteries should
where is the average maintenance time every year related to also provide universal hardware and software interfaces for
the types of charging stations and is the average mainte- charging/discharging, so that battery swap can be applied
nance cost of the types of charging stations each time. to electric cars.

Authorized licensed use limited to: TONGJI UNIVERSITY. Downloaded on June 27,2022 at 18:43:14 UTC from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.
224 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER SYSTEMS, VOL. 29, NO. 1, JANUARY 2014

Fig. 1. Topology of a BSS.

TABLE I TABLE II
PARAMETERS OF BATTERY FOR ELECTRIC BUS PER SET MODELS OF CHARGE STATION
(HIGH LEVEL BATTERY CAPACITY)

• Optimal charging technology. Charging technology is the

most important part of the BSS. A large number of elec-
tronic devices are applied to realize the charging strategy.
Common strategies include constant current, constant
voltage, assigned power charging and etc.
• Battery and BSS management. The BSS management
system allows the operator to monitor the states of each
battery and vehicle in the station, the real-time data
communication is mandatory to ensure the accuracy of
charging power and the safety of the charging process.

B. Models and Parameters of Charging Station

The size and price of battery are the major challenges in
commercializing EVs. In China, EVs are first used for public
transportation, where a relatively uniform standard (e.g., rated
power, voltage, capacity, and size) for batteries is formulated.
Therefore, in this paper, the electric bus is modeled and the
high-performance energy storage batteries are chosen for the
electric bus. Along with the popularity of EVs and the devel-
opment of battery standards, the models investigated in this
paper can be easily extended to other types of EVs. The pa-
rameters of batteries are shown in Table I. The cost of a battery
is estimated at 500$/kWh including the received subsidies. The
bus is charged three times every other day and the charging is
under deep cycling of state-of-charge (SOC). The details of the
charging station are given in Table II.
Fig. 2. Profiles of different loads during one day.
Normally, in distribution network planning problems, the
peak load is considered. In this paper, the load of the charging
station is added to the original load feeder. Thus, the type of
the load will affect the peak load level and charging strategies.
The profiles of three types of loads are illustrated in Fig. 2.
In time-of-use pricing mode, the electricity price fluctuates
throughout the day. The charging strategies should therefore be
adjusted based on the price in order to make more profit. In this
paper, three-rate time-of-use (TOU) tariffs (peak, mid-peak, and
off-peak), for the first year are set as shown in Table III, and the
electricity stored in the battery is sold at 0.6$/kWh. According

Authorized licensed use limited to: TONGJI UNIVERSITY. Downloaded on June 27,2022 at 18:43:14 UTC from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.
ZHENG et al.: EV BATTERY CHARGING/SWAP STATIONS IN DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS: COMPARISON STUDY AND OPTIMAL PLANNING
TABLE III
POWER PRICE DURING A DAY
to a long-term electricity price forecast, the peak prices will in-
crease rapidly, but mid peak and off peak prices rise slightly.
Due to the price variations throughout a day, the charging
strategy will affect the cost. In order to maximize the benefit
of battery swap stations, the charging strategy is set as follows.
Charging control strategy for BSS:
1) During off peak time, if
2) During shoulder time, if
3) During peak time, if
, then
Charging control strategy for fast-charge station:
where , , , is the electricity
charged in station during a day, and is the constructed twin
peaks function.
Because of the centralized smart charging facility in the swap
station, the strategy can be adjusted according to the demand in
order to maximize the grid efficiency.
C. Flexibility Assessment for EV Growth Rate
There are several crucial points influencing the uptake of
EVs in the markets, namely, the purchase price, driving range,
battery capacity, maximum speed, charging infrastructure, and
government decisions, to name a few. Therefore, it is important
to take the uncertainty of EVs’ penetration into account. Similar
to the load modeling in [21], the growth rate of EVs could be
modeled by geometric Brownian motion (GBM) as follows:
(8a)
(8b)
Equation (8) can be transformed to discrete form
(9a)
(9b)
where the model parameters should be determined based on
a number of factors, such as the economic growth rate, the
Authorized licensed use limited to: TONGJI UNIVERSITY. Downloaded on June 27,2022 at 18:43:14 UTC from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.
225
development of charging facilities, and the government policy.
The uncertainty of EV users can cause risks in planning. We
construct possible scenarios based on (2), and the adaption cost
[20] is introduced to evaluate the risks of underestimation or
overestimation in the planning process caused by the difference
between forecasted and real EV growth rates. The scenarios
should be formulated based on forecast results. In this paper, a
Monte Carlo-based approach is used to simulate this uncertain
growth rate and construct the scenarios randomly [20]. For each
candidate plan, Monte Carlo simulation is applied to produce
several scenarios of EV growth rates. The adaption cost in the
objective function is calculated according the construction cost
of a fast charger which can cover the insufficiencies of the plan.
D. Net Present Value (NPV) of the Project
To evaluate the economic feasibility of charging station
projects during the entire life cycle, the NPV criterion is
adopted for evaluating the life cycle benefit. The NPV converts
each year’s cash flow back to the present value, which measures
the earnings of a project in today’s dollars. The project can be
accepted when the NPV is positive [29].
For the charging station project, the NPV is calculated as
(10)
where is the annual net cash flow in year and
is the adaption cost defined in Section IV-C.
The objective is to maximize the NPV so as to optimize the
economic benefit. The planning problem can be formulated as a
multistage planning problem, given as follows.
Maximize
(11)
subject to the following conditions.
• For rapid charge station
• For battery swap station
• Other constraints:
1) .
2) .
3) .
4) .
5) The operation mode of radial network.
In the above, is the power consumption of station k
at time , is the maximum power of the rapid charge
station, is the demand, is the node voltage, and is
the branch current.
IV. OPTIMIZER
The proposed planning model is a multistage, discrete, non-
linear, constrained mixed-integer programming problem which
226
Fig. 3. IEEE-15 distribution system with load classification.
Fig. 4. Optimization results of proposed algorithm.
is difficult to solve by using classical mathematical program-
ming techniques. Evolutionary algorithms (EAs) such as the
DE algorithm are capable to solve such problems [24], [28]. In
this paper, a modified DE with fitness sharing [26] is adopted to
solve the proposed model.
The candidate solution, i.e., the location and size of the charge
station, can be coded in two bits. The first number represents
the stage of the station construction while the second number
represents the type and size of the station. 0 means the node is
not selected, the others mean the node is selected and represent
the size of the battery replacement station. In this paper, each
vector is a matrix with fixed-size , where is the number
of loads and is the number of planning stages, the coding rules
of the vector are shown in Fig. 4. Through mutation process, the
fitness sharing scheme is combined into the program.
During the process of calculating the fitness, the benefit in
the objective function is affected by the number of EV users. At
present, battery swap stations are mainly targeted at the EVs for
public transportation. In this paper, our study also focuses on
electric buses whose amount and model are easy to forecast and
calculate. We assume that the electricity sold in the charging sta-
tion is proportional to the size of the station. And the total energy
sold is equal to the usage of the buses. The fitness value is set
large enough to eliminate the unfeasible solutions if constrains
(2)–(5) are violated during optimization process. If current and
power violate their limits, new equipment should be invested as
a component of CI in the function.
Authorized licensed use limited to: TONGJI UNIVERSITY. Downloaded on June 27,2022 at 18:43:14 UTC from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER SYSTEMS, VOL. 29, NO. 1, JANUARY 2014
TABLE IV
PARAMETERS OF LINE SECTIONS OF THE FEEDER
TABLE V
PARAMETERS OF LOAD
V. CASE STUDIES
The proposed methodology has been tested on IEEE 15-bus
and 43-bus distribution systems. The results have verified the
effectiveness of the proposed planning methodology. Optimal
battery swap station construction plans are compared with fast
charging station plans. In addition, solutions to the problem
are obtained with both deterministic and stochastic planning
methods.
A. 15-Bus System
A single-line distribution network is shown in Fig. 3. The
voltage level of the benchmark system is from 11 kV of
33/11-kV transformer to the 400-V side at 11-kV distribution
transformer. In this study, three types of loads are considered.
Through the questionnaire, field study, and data collection, ten
out of 15 possible construction sites are selected. These sites
should have the following characteristics, to name a few: suf-
ficient space, proximity to bus lines, and support from nearby
residents. Parameters of the system are given in Tables IV and
V. The data in tables are in p.u. with a base of 1 MVA.
In the case study, the discount rate was set to 5% and the
forecasted growth number of the electric bus is 25/year within
ZHENG et al.: EV BATTERY CHARGING/SWAP STATIONS IN DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS: COMPARISON STUDY AND OPTIMAL PLANNING
Fig. 5. Cost and benefits comparison between three optimal plans.
Fig. 6. Adaption cost results of Monte Carlo simulation.
the study area. The other simulation parameters were selected
according to the latest battery technology.
First, we test the proposed planning method under the ex-
pected EV growth rate and acquired an optimize result which
is plan 1. The results can reflect the economic benefits of this
project. Adaption cost is then employed to evaluate the flexi-
bility of plans considering future uncertainties where the growth
number is and . The best plan con-
sidered the uncertainties is obviously plan 2; the supplemen-
tary charger is not shown in the result. Fig. 4 shows the conver-
gence process of the algorithm. The best result is found quickly
in the deterministic optimization process while the best result
is still improved in the feasible optimization process. To in-
sure the convergence of the searching process, we use 100 and
200 iterations, respectively. The two optimal plans are shown in
Table VI. From the table, we can find that the types of stations
in the optimal plans are all BSSs. For comparison purposes, we
considered plan 3 with a fast charging station only. Fig. 5 com-
pares each part of the LCC and benefits of the three plans. The
adaption costs calculated through Monte Carlo simulation are
given in Fig. 6.
It can be observed that the location and type of the charging
station are affected by the load profiles of the candidate sites.
Due to the charging characteristics of the BSS which can smooth
the load profile, greater fluctuation of power consumption indi-
cates more preference to BSSs. Therefore, the residential and
light industrial areas where peak and off-peak loads are signifi-
cantly different are suitable for building BSSs.
Authorized licensed use limited to: TONGJI UNIVERSITY. Downloaded on June 27,2022 at 18:43:14 UTC from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.
227
TABLE VI
OPTIMIZATION RESULTS FOR 15-BUS SYSTEM
TABLE VII
OPTIMAL ALLOCATION PLAN FOR 43-BUS SYSTEM
B. 43-Bus System
In the second case, a 43-bus distribution system is used to
verify the proposed model. Similarly, the load is classified and
the candidate nodes are chosen according to the investigation.
The adaption cost is calculated in this case to evaluate the flex-
ibility of a plan under uncertainties. In this system, electric ve-
hicles will gain more market shares, the stimulating policy will
lead to about 500 electric buses within ten years in this area. The
optimal planning results for battery swap stations are shown in
Table VII. An economic evaluation of the results is performed.
The impacts of charging stations on the distribution system are
also discussed.
In this 43-bus system case, the proposed planning method
achieves at least 63.76 million dollars profit when the flexibility
is taken into account. If the real EV growth rate is close to the
expected one, the profit of the project can reach 82.05 million
dollars. Considering that the total investment cost is 193.04 mil-
lion dollars, the internal rate of return (IRR) is 4.25% and the
payback period is 23.5 years. It can be observed that, although
the economic index of the BSS project is not very superior, the
project is still profitable through optimization and can yield sig-
nificant social benefits. The current battery has achieved signifi-
cant progress in the aspects of life cycle, stored energy, and rated
power. In the near future, new technologies and larger market
shares will reduce the costs of battery and other components
which are the key factors of the EV project. If the cost of the
EV project is reduced and other benefits of EVs can be quanti-
fied, the commercialization of BSSs can be predicted, and the
optimal allocation approach should be promising.
On the other hand, optimal allocation of BSS can smooth the
load profile with only a small investment on the reinforcement
of the distribution network. Fig. 7 compares the load profile of
bus 4 after the construction of a BSS or fast charging station.
It is obvious that the profile of loads with a BSS is relatively
228
Fig. 7. Load profiles after the construction of charge station.
smooth compared with the other two scenarios, while the fast
charging station brings serious peak load to the system. Since
the serious peak load requires high investments on transformer
and line expansion, the BSS is more economically attractive.
VI. CONCLUSION
The large-scale construction of charging facilities for EVs is a
trend to promote the development of EVs. This paper proposed
a model and efficient method for the optimal planning of charge
stations, especially BSSs, in the distribution level of the power
system, including locations, sizes, and charging strategies of
the BSS. The problem has been formulated as the maximiza-
tion of NPV during the life cycle of the project. The effective-
ness of the proposed method has been tested with comprehen-
sive case studies, which demonstrate that the optimal control of
charging and discharging processes can help balance the supply
and demand of the grid. From the case study results, although
not very obvious, the operator still can reap benefits through op-
timal planning. Along with the battery technology development
and introduction of more stimulus policies, the costs of battery
and other ancillary facilities will decrease, which makes the bat-
tery station more feasible.
REFERENCES
[1] A. G. Boulanger, A. C. Chu, S. Maxx, and D. L. Waltz, “Vehicle electri-
fication: Status and issues,” Proc. IEEE, vol. 99, no. 6, pp. 1116–1138,
Jun. 2011.
[2] M. A. Ortega-Vazquez, F. Bouffard, and V. Silva, “Electric vehicle
aggregator/system operator coordination for charging scheduling and
services procurement,” IEEE Trans. Power Syst., vol. PP, no. 99, pp.
1–1, 2012.
[3] C. Y. Wu, H. Mohsenian-Rad, and J. W. Huang, “Vehicle-to-aggre-
gator interaction game,” IEEE Trans. Smart Grid, vol. 3, no. 1, pp.
434–442, Mar. 2012.
[4] M. Singh, P. Kumar, and I. Kar, “Implementation of vehicle to grid
infrastructure using fuzzy logic controller,” IEEE Trans. Smart Grid,
vol. 3, no. 1, pp. 565–577, Mar. 2012.
[5] Y. Cao, S. Tang, C. B. Li, P. Zhang, Y. Tan, Z. K. Zhang, and
J. X. Lian, “Optimized EV charging model considering TOU price
and SOC curve,” IEEE Trans. Smart Grid, vol. 3, no. 1, pp. 388–393,
Mar. 2012.
[6] S. S. Raghavan and A. Khaligh, “Electrification potential factor: En-
ergy-based value proposition analysis of plug-in hybrid electric vehi-
cles,” IEEE Trans. Veh. Technol., vol. 61, no. 3, pp. 1052–1059, Mar.
2012.
Authorized licensed use limited to: TONGJI UNIVERSITY. Downloaded on June 27,2022 at 18:43:14 UTC from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER SYSTEMS, VOL. 29, NO. 1, JANUARY 2014
[7] G. Li and X. P. Zhang, “Modelling of plug-in hybrid electric vehicle
charging demand in probabilistic power flow calculations,” IEEE
Trans. Smart Grid, vol. 3, no. 1, pp. 492–499, Mar. 2012.
[8] C. Quinn, D. Zimmerle, and T. H. Bradley, “An evaluation of state-of-
charge limitations and actuation signal energy content on plug-in hy-
brid electric vehicle, vehicle-to-grid reliability, and economics,” IEEE
Trans. Smart Grid, vol. 3, no. 1, pp. 483–491, Mar. 2012.
[9] S. Han, S. Han, and K. Sezaki, “Development of an optimal vehicle-to-
grid aggregator for frequency regulation,” IEEE Trans. Smart Grid,
vol. 1, no. 1, pp. 65–72, Jun. 2010.
[10] J. A. P. Lopes, F. J. Soares, and P. M. R. Almeida, “Integration of
electric vehicles in the electric power system,” Proc. IEEE, vol. 99,
no. 1, pp. 168–183, Jan. 2011.
[11] S. Han, S. Han, and K. Sezaki, “Development of an optimal vehicle-to-
Grid aggregator for frequency regulation,” IEEE Trans. Smart Grid,
vol. 2, no. 1, pp. 181–189, Mar. 2011.
[12] F. Q. Zhou, Z. W. Lian, X. L. Wan, X. H. Yang, and Y. S. Xu, “Discus-
sion on operation mode to the electric vehicle charging station,” Power
Syst. Protection and Control, vol. 1, no. 1, pp. 65–72, Jun. 2010.
[13] Y. X. Liu, F. H. Hui, R. L. Xu, T. Chen, X. Xu, and J. Li, “Investigation
on the construction mode of charging and battery-exchange station,” in
Proc. Power Energy Eng. Conf, Mar. 2011, pp. 1–2.
[14] P. Lombardi, M. Heuer, and Z. Styczynski, “Battery switch station as
storage system in an autonomous power system: optimization issue,”
in Proc. IEEE PES General Meeting, Jul. 2010, pp. 1–6.
[15] J. Nilsson and L. Bertling, “Maintenance management of wind power
systems using condition monitoring systems-life cycle cost analysis
for two case studies,” IEEE Trans. Power Conv., vol. 22, no. 1, pp.
223–229, Jul. 2007.
[16] W. L. Hsieh, C. S. Chen, C. T. Hsu, and T. T. Ku, “Optimization of
photovoltaic penetration in distribution systems considering annual du-
ration curve of solar irradiation,” IEEE Trans. Power Syst, vol. 27, no.
2, pp. 1090–1097, May 2012.
[17] J. A. Martinez and J. Martin-Arnedo, “Tools for analysis and design of
distributed resources-part I: tools for feasibility studies,” IEEE Trans.
Power Del., vol. 26, no. 3, pp. 1643–1652, Jul. 2011.
[18] M. Hinow and M. Mevissen, “Substation maintenance strategy adapta-
tion for life-cycle cost reduction using genetic algorithm,” IEEE Trans.
Power Del., vol. 26, no. 1, pp. 197–204, Jan. 2011.
[19] D. Karlsson and H. Olovsson, “Reliability and life cycle cost estimates
of 400 kV substation layouts,” IEEE Trans. Power Del., vol. 12, no. 4,
pp. 1486–1492, Oct. 1997.
[20] J. H. Zhao, Z. Y. Dong, P. Lindsay, and K. P. Wong, “Flexible transmis-
sion expansion planning with uncertainties in an electricity market,”
IEEE Trans. Power Syst., vol. 24, no. 1, pp. 479–488, Feb. 2009.
[21] J. H. Zhao, J. Foster, Z. Y. Dong, and K. P. Wong, “Flexible
transmission expansion planning considering distributed generation
impacts,” IEEE Trans. Power Syst., vol. 26, no. 3, pp. 1434–1443,
Aug. 2011.
[22] K. Meng, H. G. Wang, Z. Y. Dong, and K. P. Wong, “Quantum-inspired
particle swarm optimization for valve-point economic load dispatch,”
IEEE Trans. Power Syst., vol. 25, no. 1, pp. 215–222, Feb. 2010.
[23] K. Meng, Z. Y. Dong, D. H. Wang, and K. P. Wong, “A self-adap-
tive rbf neural network classifier for transformer fault analysis,” IEEE
Trans. Power Syst., vol. 25, no. 3, pp. 1350–1360, Aug. 2010.
[24] Y. Xu, Z. Y. Dong, K. Meng, J. H. Zhao, and K. P. Wong, “A hybrid
method for transient stability constrained optimal power flow compu-
tation,” IEEE Trans. Power Syst., vol. 27, no. 4, pp. 1769–1777, Nov.
2012.
[25] S. Y. Su, C. N. Lu, R. F. Chang, and G. Gutié-Alcaraz, “Distributed
generation interconnection planning: A wind power case study,” IEEE
Trans. Smart Grid, vol. 2, no. 1, pp. 181–189, Mar. 2011.
[26] G. Y. Yang, Z. Y. Dong, and K. P. Wong, “A modified differential
evolution algorithm with fitness sharing for power system planning,”
IEEE Trans. Power Syst., vol. 23, no. 2, pp. 514–522, May 2008.
[27] A. M. Bernardes, D. C. R. Espinosa, and J. A. S. Tenorio, “Recycling
of batteries: a review of current processes and technologies,” J. Power
Sources, vol. 130, no. 1-2, pp. 291–298, May 2004.
[28] K. P. Wong and Z. Y. Dong, “Differential evolution, an alternative ap-
proach to evolutionary algorithm,” in Modern Heuristic Optimization
Techniques: Theory and Applications to Power Systems, K. Y. Lee and
M. A. El-Sharkawi, Eds. New York, NY, USA: IEEE/Wiley, 2008,
pp. 171–187.
[29] Y. Xu, Z. Y. Dong, K. P. Wong, E. Liu, and B. Yue, “Optimal capac-
itor placement to distribution transformers for power loss reduction in
radial distribution systems,” IEEE Trans. Power Syst.., vol. PP, no. 99,
2013.
ZHENG et al.: EV BATTERY CHARGING/SWAP STATIONS IN DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS: COMPARISON STUDY AND OPTIMAL PLANNING
Yu Zheng (S’12) received the B.E degree from Shanghai Jiao Tong University,
Shanghai, China. He is currently working toward the Ph.D. degree at the Centre
for Intelligent Electricity Networks, The University of Newcastle, Callaghan,
Australia.
He was previously with the Department of Electrical Engineering, The Hong
Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong. His research interests include power
electronics applied in power systems, power system planning, smart grid, and
intelligent system applications to power engineering.
Zhao Yang Dong (M’99–SM’06) received the Ph.D. degree from the University
of Sydney, Sydney, Australia, in 1999.
He is currently a Professor and Head of the School of Electrical and Informa-
tion Engineering, University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia. He was previously
Ausgrid Chair and Director of the Centre for Intelligent Electricity Networks
(CIEN), University of Newcastle, Callaghan, Australia. His research interests
includes smart grid, power system planning, power system security, load mod-
eling, renewable energy systems, electricity market, and computational intelli-
gence and its application in power engineering.
Prof. Dong is an associate editor for the IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON SMART
GRID and the IEEE PES Letters.
Yan Xu (S’10–M’13) received the Ph.D. degree from the University of New-
castle, Callaghan, Australia, in 2013.
He is currently a Research Fellow with the Centre for Intelligent Electricity
Networks, The University of Newcastle, Callaghan, Australia. His research in-
terests include power system stability and control, power system planning, and
smart grid.
Authorized licensed use limited to: TONGJI UNIVERSITY. Downloaded on June 27,2022 at 18:43:14 UTC from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.
229
Ke Meng (M’10) received the Ph.D. degree from the University of Queensland,
Brisbane, Australia in 2009.
He is currently a Research Academic with the Centre for Intelligent Elec-
tricity Networks, The University of Newcastle, Callaghan, Australia. His re-
search interests include pattern recognition, power system stability analysis,
wind power, and energy storage.
Jun Hua Zhao (M’07) received the B.E. degree from Xi’an Jiaotong University,
Xi’an, China, in 2003, and the Ph.D. degrees from The University of Queens-
land, Brisbane, Australia, in 2007.
He is now a Senior Lecturer with the Centre for Intelligent Electricity Net-
works, The University of Newcastle, Callaghan, Australia. He is also with the
College of Electrical Engineering, Zhejiang University, China. His research in-
terests include power system analysis and computation, smart grid, energy eco-
nomics, data mining, computational intelligence, and their applications in power
engineering.
Jing Qiu (S’13) photograph and biography not available at the time of
publication.