Introduction To Microbiology

Introduction to microbiology
by: zena sahile ( BSc., MSc. In medical microbiology)

What is Microbiology ?
• The study of very small living organisms (microscopic size).
• The term was introduced by the French chemist Louis Pasteur
• The microbes of medical importance include protozoa, fungi,
bacteria and viruses.
• Micro organisms can be found nearly every where as normal
inhabitants of the earth and with few exceptions, they
contribute to the well fare of humans.
• The indigenous micro flora that live on and within our bodies
actually inhibit the growth of disease causing organisms
• Other non-pathogens make it possible to produce yogurt,
cheese, raised bread, beer wine and many other foods and
drinks.
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• Branches of microbiology
– Basic Microbiology:-study fundamental nature of
microorganisms includes bacteriology, mycology, protozology,
parasitology, phycology and virology
– Applied Microbiology: Information learned from basic

microbiology was employed to control and use microorganism
in beneficiary way.
 Medical Microbiology
 Industrial Microbiology
 Agricultural Microbiology
 Environmental Microbiology
Medical Microbiology:
• It involves the study of:
– Pathogens
– The disease caused by them and
– The body’s defenses against disease
• It is also concerned with:
– Epidemiology
– Transmission of pathogens
– Disease prevention measures
– Treatment of infectious diseases
– The production of vaccines to protect against infectious disease.

Microbes can be classified in four general groups:
Bacteria:
• Prokaryotic organisms with no nuclear membrane,
mitochondria, Golgi bodies, or endoplasmic reticulum.
Fungi:
• Eukaryotic organisms that contain a well-defined nucleus,
mitochondria, Golgi bodies, and endoplasmic reticulum
Virus:
• Viruses are the smallest infectious particles, ranging in diameter
from 18 to 600 nm (mostly <200 nm)
Protozoa:
• Protozoa are the smallest parasites 1-2 µm in diameter (the size
of many bacteria)

Basic differences between Bacteria &Fungi
Feature Bacteria Fungi
Size 1-10µl Up to 150µl
Classification Prokaryotes Eukaryotes
Reproduction Binary fission Mitosis &meiosis
Cell wall Peptidoglycan Chitin &mannans
Cell association Unicellular, independent Multicellular with

function interdependent function
Spores Not reproductive, one Truly reproductive

cell one spore
Basic differences b/n Bacteria &Virus
Feature Bacteria Virus
Size Seen under ordinary Ultramicroscopic
microscope
Cellular organization Present Absent

Genetic material DNA &RNA Either DNA or RNA
Multiplication Binary fission Replication
Growth on artificial media Mostly yes No
Antibiotic Sensitive Not sensitive

Definitions of common terminologies in
Microbiology
• Micro-organism or microbe: is a microscopic organism that
comprises either single cell (unicellular), cell clusters
(multicellular) or no cell at all (acellular)
• Pathogen: is an organism with the potential to cause disease

• Pathogenicity: the ability of a pathogen to damage host cell
or tissue
• Virulence factor: a factor which contributes for the
pathogenicity of the microbes

History of Microbiology
1. Discovery era
2. Transition era (spontaneous generation and

biogenesis)
3. Golden age of microbiology

1. Discovery era
• Antony Van Leeuwenhoek (1632-1723 G.C.)
– observe and accurately discribe microorganisms “animalcules”
using simple microscope
– Discover major classes of bacteria (spheres, rod and spirals)
protozoa , algae and yeast.
2. Transition era
• Spontaneous generation ( abiogenesis):
– Animalcules were formed spontaneously from non living matter.
• Aristotle (384-322 BC): observed spontaneous existence of fishes
from dried ponds.
• Decaying meat Maggots and flies
• Biogenesis: - living cell can arise only from preexisting cell.

Experimental proof for spontaneous generation and biogenesis
1. Francesco Redi (1626-1697): field six jars with decaying meat

– 3 jars covered with fine net ….. No maggots
– 3 opened jars ………………….Maggots appeared
He showed worms found on decaying meat were the larvae from
eggs of flies.
2. John Needham (1713-1781):
– briefly boiled mutton broth and then tightly stoppered the flask.
– The flask become cloudy and contained Mos
Result: he conclude that organic matter contained a vital force that
could give the properties of life on nonliving matter.
An advocate for SG

3. Golden age of microbiology (1857- 20th century)
•Begun with the work of Louis Pasteur (“why wine turned
sour?”)
•Experiments:
• grape juice with out yeast ---- no fermentation
• grape juice + yeast ---- fermentation only
• Grape juice + Yeast + Bacteria---- fermentation & sour
•Pasture suggested heating the grape juice to destroy all
evidence of life which is known as pasteurization.

Next experiment, pasteur`s S-shaped flask kept microps out but let
air in.
These experiments form the basis of aseptic technique

Therefore, Pasteur proved that microorganisms entered to the
broth with the air and micro organisms did not evolve
spontaneously
Germ theory of disease
• Microorganisms are responsible for infectious disease "Pasture
said.“
• limitation??
• A definite proof of the germ theory of disease was offered by

Robert Koch.
• Koch tried to prove that a particular microorganism is the cause

of a particular disease
see next experiment!!!!

.
• Koch’s Postulate:
– The same microbes always associated with specific disease
– The microbe can be recovered and grown in pure culture
– The pure culture must Couse disease in an experimental

animals.
– The original microbes must be re-isolated from the

experimental animal
Limitation????

HOST PARASITE RELATIONSHIP
General Concepts
Host Susceptibility
 Resistance to bacterial infections is enhanced by phagocytic cells
and an intact immune system.
 Initial resistance is due to nonspecific mechanisms.
 Specific immunity develops over time.
 Susceptibility to some infections is higher in the very young and
the very old and in immunosuppressed patients.

Bacterial Infectivity
 Bacterial infectivity results from a disturbance in the balance
between bacterial virulence and host resistance.
 The "objective" of bacteria is to multiply rather than to cause
disease; it is in the best interest of the bacteria not to kill the
host.

Host Resistance
• Numerous physical and chemical attributes of the host protect
against bacterial infection.
• These defenses include the antibacterial factors in secretions
covering mucosal surfaces and rapid rate of replacement of
skin and mucosal epithelial cells.
• Once the surface of the body is penetrated, bacteria
encounter an environment virtually devoid of free iron
needed for growth, which requires many of them to scavenge
for this essential element.

Host-Mediated Pathogenesis
• In certain infections (e.g., tuberculosis), tissue damage results
from the toxic mediators released by lymphoid cells rather
than from bacterial toxins.

FIGURE: Generalized mechanisms of bacterial pathogenesis: bacteria-induced
toxicity or host-mediated damage.

• Intracellular Growth
Some bacteria (e.g., Rickettsia species) can grow only within
eukaryotic cells, whereas others (e.g., Salmonella species)
invade cells but do not require them for growth. Most
pathogenic bacteria multiply in tissue fluids and not in host
cells.
• Virulence Factors
Virulence factors help bacteria to
 invade the host
 Adherence Factors
 cause disease
 evade host defenses.

NORMAL FLORA
The term "normal microbial flora"
 denotes the population of microorganisms that inhabit the skin and
mucous membranes of healthy normal persons
 The skin and mucous membranes always harbor a variety of
microorganisms

They can be arranged into two groups:
1. The resident flora
 consists of relatively fixed types of microorganisms regularly
found in a given area at a given age
 if disturbed, it promptly reestablishes itself.
2. The transient flora
 consists of nonpathogenic
 potentially pathogenic microorganisms that inhabit the skin
mucous membranes for hours, days, or weeks
 it is derived from the environment,
 does not produce disease, and does not establish itself
permanently on the surface.

Significance of the Normal Flora
• Can cause infection
 misplaced, e.g., fecal flora to urinary tract or abdominal cavity, or
skin flora to catheter
 or, if person becomes compromised, normal flora may overgrow
(oral thrush) .
• Contributes to health
 protective host defense by maintaining conditions such as pH so
other organisms may not grow
 Produce antimicrobial substances against pathogens
 Compete for attachment and nutrient with pathogenic bacteria
 serve nutritional function by synthesizing: vitamin K and B
vitamins

Normal Flora of the Skin
• Because of its constant exposure to and contact with the
environment, the skin is particularly to contain transient
microorganisms.
• Nevertheless, there is a constant and well-defined resident
flora, modified in different anatomic areas by secretions,
habitual wearing of clothing, or proximity to mucous
membranes (mouth, nose, and perineal areas).

• The predominant resident microorganisms of the skin are:
- aerobic and anaerobic diphtheroid bacilli (eg,
corynebacterium,propionibacterium);
- Nonhemolytic aerobic and anaerobic staphylococci
(Staphylococcus epidermidis and other coagulase-
negative staphylococci, occasionally S aureus, and
Peptostreptococcus species);

 Among the factors that may be important in eliminating
nonresident microorganisms from the skin are
 the low pH
 the fatty acids in sebaceous secretions
 the presence of lysozyme.
 Neither profuse sweating nor washing and bathing can
eliminate or significantly modify the normal resident flora.
 Placement of an occlusive dressing on skin tends to result in a
large increase in the total microbial population and may also
produce qualitative alterations in the flora.

Normal Flora of the Mouth & Upper
Respiratory Tract
 The flora of the nose consists of prominent corynebacteria,
staphylococci (S epidermidis, S aureus), and streptococci.
 The mucous membranes of the mouth and pharynx are often
sterile at birth but may be contaminated by passage through
the birth canal.
 Within 4–12 hours after birth, viridans streptococci become
established as the most prominent members of the resident
flora and remain so for life.
 They probably originate in the respiratory tracts of the mother
and attendants.

Normal Flora of the Urethra
• The anterior urethra of both sexes contains small numbers of

the same types of organisms found on the skin and perineum.
• These organisms regularly appear in normal voided urine in
numbers of 102–104/mL.

Normal Flora of the Vagina
 Soon after birth, aerobic lactobacilli appear in the vagina and persist
as long as the pH remains acid (several weeks).
 When the pH becomes neutral (remaining so until puberty), a mixed
flora of cocci and bacilli is present.
 At puberty, aerobic and anaerobic lactobacilli reappear in large
numbers and contribute to the maintenance of acid pH through the
production of acid from carbohydrates, particularly glycogen.
 This appears to be an important mechanism in preventing the establishment of
other, possibly harmful microorganisms in the vagina.

Reservoirs of infectious diseases of humans
• Sites where pathogens are maintained as a source of infection --- reservoir of
infection
– Animal Reservoirs (sylvatic or domestic)
– Human Carriers (active, asymptomatic, infective)
– Nonliving Reservoirs (soil, water, food)
Portals of Entry
• skin, mucous membrane, placenta, parenteral route etc.

The Nature of Infectious Disease
• Parasites -----injure hosts---- interfere with the normal functioning
of the body---disease (morbidity)

Portals of Exit

Introduction to bacteriology
Course objectives
• To understand Bacterial taxonomy, nomenclature and
classification
• To appreciate the role of laboratory in diagnosis of
infectious diseases.
• To illustrate mechanism of action of anti-microbial agents
• To appreciate mechanisms antimicrobial resistance
• To demonstrate basic laboratory testes

General Bacteriology
Bacterial taxonomy, nomenclature and
classification:
• Taxonomy can be viewed as three separate but
interrelated area.
1. Identification: the process of characterizing organism to
determine its classification.
2. Classification: the process of arranging organism into
similar groups to provide easy identification and study.
3. Nomenclature: the system of assigning names to
organisms.

Bacterial structure, classification &replication
• Typical prokaryotic cell
• Contain both DNA and RNA
• Most grow in artificial media
• Replication is by binary fission
• Contain rigid cell wall (exceptions)
• Sensitive to antimicrobial agent unlike virus
• resistant to interferon unlike virus

• Taxonomic hierarchy
Phylum/Division—Class—Order—Family—Genus--Species
Species further subdivided into sub-species called strains.
• Rule of nomenclature
– Only one name of an organism
– Genus and species name always are italicized/ underlined
– The first name of the genus name is always capitalized

and the species name never capitalized
Eg. Staphylococcus aureus or Staphylococcus aureus

Cont…

Cont…
• Major characteristics of Eukaryotes &Prokaryotes

The structure of bacterial cell
Considered at three levels.
Cell envelope proper: Cell wall and cell membrane
Cellular elements enclosed with in the cell envelope:
• Mesosomes, ribosome, nuclear apparatus, polyamies
and cytoplasmic granules.
Cellular element external to the cell envelope:
• Flagellum, Pilus, Glycocalyx (Capsule or slime layer)
and spore.

Bacterial classification
Why classify organisms?
• To bring a sense of order and organization to the variety
and diversity of living things
• To enhance communication
• To make predictions about the structure and function of

similar organisms
• To realize and understand potential evolutionary

connections

What types of classification of bacteria do you know?
• Phenotypic classification
– Microscopic morphology
– Macroscopic morphology
– Biotyping (Biochemical markers )
– Serotyping (Antigens)
– Antibiogram (Susceptibility to antibiotics)
– Phagetyping (susceptibility to virus)
• Analytical classification
– Cell wall fatty acid analysis
– Whole cell lipid analysis
– Whole cell protein analysis
– Cellular enzymes
• Genotypic classification
– Guanine plus cytosine ratio
– DNA hybridization
– Nucleic acid sequence analysis
– Plasmid analysis
– Ribotyping
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– Chromosomal DNAemail
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Bacterial metabolism
• Sub-divided in to
1. Anabolic (synthetic rxns): Consume energy
– The energy requirement is consumed in the form of light
photosynthetic bacteria
– The energy requirement is consumed in the form of
chemical energy chemosynthetic bacteria
2. Catabolic reactions that supply energy
– Supply both energy and the basic structural elements
– For synthesis of specific bacterial molecules.
– Bacteria that feed on inorganic nutrients lithotrophic
– Those that feed on organic nutrients organotrophic.
• Human pathogenic bacteria are always chemosynthetic,
organotrophic bacteria (chemo-organotrophs)

Bacterial Growth
• The term bacterial culture refers to proliferation of bacteria
with a suitable nutrient substrate
• Culture Media: media containing the required nutrient for
bacterial growth
– Organic energy sources (H2 donors) and H2 acceptors
– Sources of carbon and nitrogen
– Growth factors, oxygen, carbon dioxide etc.
• Common ingredients of culture media include: Agar,
Peptone, Meat extract, Mineral salt, Carbohydrate, Water
• Special elements such as K, Ca, Fe, Mn, Mg, Co, Cu, Z, Ur are
needed by certain bacteria
What is the need for Culture?
• For isolation and identification of microorganism
• To perform anti microbial sensitivity test
• Vaccine productionemail : zenasahle@gmail.com
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Cont…

Bacterial growth curve
• Four major phases
1) The Lag Phase
• Short duration (few min to many hours) in which bacteria
adapt themselves to new environment
• Period of active macro molecular synthesis like DNA, RNA,
etc.
• Preparation time for reproduction
• No increase in cell number occurs
• Varies with the species, nature of culture medium,
temperature of incubation etc
2)The log (logarithmic, or exponential ) phase
• The population can double approximately every 30
minutes with fast growing bacteria
• It has limited duration:
– Exhaustion of nutrients
– Accumulation of toxic metabolic end products
– Rise in cell density
– Change in pH
– Decrease in oxygen tension (in case of aerobic

organisms)
3) Stationary Phase
• Nutrients depletion or toxic products cause growth to slow
• New cells balances to die
• a steady state
4) The death/decline phase

• Depletion of nutrients and accumulation of toxic end
products
• Bacteria dying is much more than those dividing
• There is drastic decline in viable cells

Fig. Bacterial growth curve
Cont…
Factors that affect bacterial growth in vitro
• Nutrition: for optimum growth, bacteria should be provide
with Carbon source, Nitrogen source, Mineral (Sulfur and
phosphorus), growth factor., Amino acids, purine vitamins
• Temperature:
– Psychrophilic bacteria: growth with in temp. less than 20oc
– Mesophiles: grow with temperature b/n 20oc to 45oc.
– Thermopiles: bacteria that grow b/n 50-60oc.
• Oxygen
– Aerobic bacteria :- growth only when oxygen is available
– Anaerobic bacteria:- growth with out oxygen
– Facultative anaerobes:- growth in the absence or
presences of oxygen
– Microairophiles:- requires oxygen but show maximum
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growth at reduces oxygen concentration.
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Cont…
PH
– Neutrophilic: Bacteria grow best at neutral PH (PH=7)
• Most pathogenic microorganisms?
– Acidophilic: Bacterial grow best at acid PH (PH<7)
– Alkalophilic: Bacterial grow best at Alkaline PH (PH>7)
Salinity: In most case bacteria need small amount of salt
concentration to grow.
– Halophiles: bacteria need high concentration of salt for growth.
E.g. staphylococcus epidermis
Pressure
– Osmotolerant bacteria can grow in solution with high solution
concentration.
– Osmophilic bacteria grow best at high hydrostatic pressure.
Light Radiation: photosynthetic bacteria require light
Identification of bacteria
• Morphology
• Culture
• Biochemical
• Serological
• Molecular

1) Morphological characteristics
• Form (sphere, rod, spiral)
• Size; pseudogroupings (clusters, chains, diplococci)
• Staining (Gram-positive, Gram-negative); flagella

(presence, arrangement);
• Capsule (yes, no); spores (form, within cell formation)

STAINING CHARACTERSTICS
• Stains (Dyes)
– Coloured chemical compounds that are used to
selectively give colour to the colourless structures of
bacteria or other cells
• Bacterial staining
– The process of imparting colour to the colourless
structures (cell wall, spore, etc) of the bacteria in order
to make it visible under the microscope

Uses of stains
1) To observe the morphology, size and arrangement of

bacteria
2) To differentiate one group of bacteria from the other group
Types of staining methods
 Simple Staining
 Differential staining and
 Special staining

Simple Staining:
• It is a type of staining method in which only a single dye is
used. Two types :
1. Positive staining- stain the organism
Eg. Methylene blue , Wright, Giemsa stain
2. Negative staining- stain the background and the bacteria

remain unstained
Eg. India ink, nigrosin and eosin

 Differential Staining- Dyes stain different portion of
the bacteria differently
– Gram stain
– Acid fast staining
• Gram staining
• Bacteria differ from one another chemically and physically
and may react differently to a given staining procedures.
• Is the most useful and widely employed in bacteriology
• It divides bacteria into two groups— gram -ve and +ve

Cont…

A: gram positive bacterium, B: gram negative bacterium
Membrane characteristics of gram positive &gram negatives

Bacterial genetics
• Most of the genetic information in a bacterial cell is
contained with in chromosome a single molecule of DNA
arranged as a double in closed loop.
• Bacterial inherited characteristics are encoded in DNA
(Chromosome or Extra chromosome (Plasmid))
• Chromosome: Bacterial chromosome is circular double
stranded DNA attached to bacterial cell membrane
• Plasmids: are self replication extra chromosomal DNA
molecules.
• Plasmids are not essential to the life of the cell but they may
have selective advantage:
– Virulence plasmids: carry virulence determining genes
– Resistance plasmids (R factor): code for drug resistance genes

Cont…
• DNA replication: The identical duplication process occurs in
a Semiconservative way.
• Transcription: Genetic nucleotide sequence is transcribed
“colinearly” into mRNA
– Evolves three phases: promoter recognition, elongation and
termination
• Translation: Transformation of the nucleotide sequence
carried by the mRNA into the polypeptide amino acid
sequence at the 70S ribosomes
– Similar with eukaryotic translation but???
• Gene regulation (read)

Cont…
Intercellular Mechanisms of Genetic variability
• Gene transfer: there are three types of gene transfer that
alter the DNA gene content of bacteria
 Transformation, Transduction and Conjugation
• Transformation: occurs when fragment of exogenous DNA is
absorbed in to recipients bacterial cells
• Transduction: Transfer of DNA from a donor to a receptor
with the help of transport bacteriophages
• Conjugation: occurs when plasmid DNA is transferred form
donor to recipient bacterium by direct contact via sex pills
 Therefore this gene transfer can result change in virulence
antimicrobial resistance of the recipient bacterial cell.

Cont…
• Transduction of chromosomal
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DNA (A) and Plasmid (B)
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Cont…
• A: connection b/n two bacterial by sex pili; B: formation of specific

conjugal bridge; C: Plasmid mobilization &transfer; D: Synthesis of DNA
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Antimicrobial Agents & Susceptibility
Testing
• Antimicrobial agent:
 A general term for drugs, chemicals, or other substances that either kill or
slow the growth of microbes.
 Among the antimicrobial agents are
 antibacterial drugs
 antiviral agents
 antifungal agents
 antiparisitic drugs.

• Most microbiologist distinguish two groups of antimicrobial
agents used in the treatment of infectious disease:
 Antibiotics, which are natural substances produced by certain
groups of microorganisms, and
 Chemotherapeutic agents, which are chemically synthesized.
 Antibiotics may have a cidal (killing) effect or a static
(inhibitory) effect on a range of microbes.

 The range of bacteria or other microorganisms that are affected
by a certain antibiotic is expressed as its spectrum of action.
 Antibiotics effective against prokaryotes which kill or inhibit a
wide range of Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria are said
to be broad spectrum.
 If effective mainly against Gram-positive or Gram-negative
bacteria, they are called narrow spectrum.
 If effective against a single organism or disease, they are referred

to as limited spectrum.

 A clinically-useful antibiotic should have as many of these
characteristics as possible.
 It should have a wide spectrum of activity with the ability to
destroy or inhibit many different species of pathogenic organisms.
 It should be nontoxic to the host and without undesirable side
effects.
 It should not eliminate the normal flora of the host.

Antimicrobial Modes of action
• The following are antimicrobial agents based on their mode of
action in bacterial cells.
Cell wall synthesis inhibitors
• Cell wall synthesis inhibitors generally inhibit some step in the
synthesis of bacterial peptidoglycan.
• Generally they exert their selective toxicity against bacteria
because human cells lack cell walls.

Beta lactam antibiotics
• They are the products of two groups of fungi, Penicillium and
Cephalosporium molds and are correspondingly represented
by the penicillins and cephalosporins.
• Semi synthetic -Amoxycillin and Ampicillin have broadened
spectra against Gram-negatives and are effective orally;
Methicillin is penicillinase-resistant.

E.g.
• Penicillin’s
- Benzyl penicillin (penicillin G) - Ticarcillin
- Ampicillin - Azlocillin
- Amoxicillin - Pipecacillin etc
- Cloxacillin
- Carbenicillin
• Cephalosporins
- Cepharadine
- Cefuroxime
- Ceftazidime etc.
• Glycopeptides
-Vancomycine
-Teicoplanin

Cell membrane inhibitors
• These antibiotics disorganize the structure or inhibit the
function of bacterial membranes.
• The integrity of the cytoplasmic and outer membranes is vital
to bacteria, and compounds that disorganize the membranes
rapidly kill the cells.
– Eg. polymyxin, produced by Bacillus polymyxis

Protein synthesis inhibitors
• Many therapeutically useful antibiotics owe their action to
inhibition of some step in the complex process of protein
synthesis.
• The most important antibiotics with this mode of action are
the tetracyclines, chloramphenicol, the macrolides
– (e.g. erythromycin) and the aminoglycosides (e.g. streptomycin).

Drugs which act on Nucleic Acids
• Some antibiotics and chemotherapeutic agents affect the
synthesis of DNA or RNA
• can bind to DNA or RNA so that their messages cannot be
read.
• Either case, of course, can block the growth of cells.
• Two nucleic acid synthesis inhibitors which have selective
activity against procaryotes and some medical utility are the
quinolones and rifamycins.

Table:Target sites for antimicrobial action (Summery)

Antimicrobial Resistance
 Most of the antimicrobial resistance which is now making it
difficult to treat some infectious diseases is due to :
 the extensive use
 misuse of antimicrobial drugs which have favored the emergence
 survival of resistant strains of micro– organisms.
 Bacteria become resistant to antimicrobial agents by a
number of mechanisms, the commonest are:
 Production of enzymes which inactivate or modify antibiotics
 Changes in the bacterial cell membrane, preventing the up take of
antimicrobial agent
 Modification of the target so that it no longer interacts with the antimicrobial
agent
ANTIMICROBIAL SENSITIVITY (SUSCEPTIBILITY) TESTING
• The test is used to measure the ability of the drug to inhibit or

kill pathogens in vitro. I.e. it is used to select effective
antimicrobial drugs.
• Sensitivity test is performed:
 For organisms with variable antibiotic sensitivity (un
predictable sensitivity) e.g. Shigella
 For non responding patients after taking adequate therapy.
 For patients whose immune system is depressed
 For relapsing cases (reappearance of disease)

Figure: Removing colonies from a primary culture Figure: Checking the turbidity of the test suspension
plate to make a suspension of the test organism. against the turbidity of a chemical standard.
Figure: Swabbing the surface of the susceptibility

Figure: Avoiding using too much inoculum by
testing agar. The plate is swabbed in three directions,
pressing and rotating the swab against the side of the
tube rotating the plate approximately 60° to ensure even
distribution.
Figure: Placing antimicrobial discs on the Figure: Measuring the zones of inhibition in mm. The
inoculated plate. end of inhibition is where growth starts.

Any questions?

Introduction To Microbiology

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Introduction To Microbiology

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Introduction to microbiology

by: zena sahile ( BSc., MSc. In medical microbiology)

3/1/2023 email : zenasahle@gmail.com 2

– Applied Microbiology: Information learned from basic

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Size 1-10µl Up to 150µl

Classification Prokaryotes Eukaryotes

Reproduction Binary fission Mitosis &meiosis

Cell wall Peptidoglycan Chitin &mannans

Cell association Unicellular, independent Multicellular with

Spores Not reproductive, one Truly reproductive

Cellular organization Present Absent

Multiplication Binary fission Replication

Growth on artificial media Mostly yes No

Antibiotic Sensitive Not sensitive

• Pathogen: is an organism with the potential to cause disease

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2. Transition era (spontaneous generation and

3. Golden age of microbiology

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• Biogenesis: - living cell can arise only from preexisting cell.

1. Francesco Redi (1626-1697): field six jars with decaying meat

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These experiments form the basis of aseptic technique

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• A definite proof of the germ theory of disease was offered by

• Koch tried to prove that a particular microorganism is the cause

see next experiment!!!!

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– The microbe can be recovered and grown in pure culture

– The pure culture must Couse disease in an experimental

– The original microbes must be re-isolated from the

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• The anterior urethra of both sexes contains small numbers of

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– Animal Reservoirs (sylvatic or domestic)

– Human Carriers (active, asymptomatic, infective)

– Nonliving Reservoirs (soil, water, food)

• skin, mucous membrane, placenta, parenteral route etc.

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Species further subdivided into sub-species called strains.