Week 4 Lecture - Sensors and Principles - Slides Only

BMEG201 –Biomedical
Instrumentation and
Design
Spring 2022
Week 4 –
Biomedical
Sensors
What we will cover today
Biomedical Sensors
• Definition of sensors, actuators and transducers
• Ways to measure displacement
• Ways to measure temperature
• Ways to use optical sensing in the body
Learning Outcomes
THESE WILL BE IN ALL MY LECTURES – UGLY COLOUR SCHEME TO
HELP YOU REMEMBER!!
USE THEM TO REVISE!
• Define and differentiate between sensors, transducers and actuators

• Understand and apply principles of measurement for the following sensor
types:
• Displacement sensors
• Temperature sensors
• Optical Sensors
This lecture is based on: Chapter 2 from the Textbook: Medical Instrumentation Application and Design by John G. Webster.
Learning Outcomes
• I will also upload a post lecture exercises document after each

lecture with some practice questions/revision exercises for you.
• They will appear in the same folder as the lecture notes
Why do we care about biomedical
sensors?
Image: https://www.embs.org/wbss/
Measurement characteristics of
instrumentation
Simple instrument model
Observable
physical Signal
measurement Measurement
Sensor Variable
variable
S M
X
Display
Measurand –
physical process
to be measured
What is the difference between a
sensor, actuator and transducer?
VERY VERY SERIOUS QUIZ TIME!!
Kahoot – Go to www.kahoot.it
I will give you a pass code to access the quiz
Give yourself a creative name and play

What is the difference between a
sensor, actuator and transducer?
A sensor: converts a physical parameter to
an electric output
An actuator: converts an electric signal to a
physical output
A transducer: converts energy from one
form to another
Transducers
Transducers are made up of a sensor and a

converter.
Static and dynamic characteristics determine
behavior – need to be specific to your experimental
needs.
Image: Button, Vera, and Eduardo Costa. Principles of Measurement and Transduction of Biomedical Variables, Elsevier Science
& Technology, 2015. ProQuest Ebook Central, https://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/uow/detail.action?docID=2009774.
1. Measuring Displacement
• Displacement sensors measure parameters like:
• Size
• Shape
• Position
We want to be able to detect if:

• Something has moved where it shouldn’t
• Something that should be moving is not moving properly
• Differentiate normal and abnormal function
Displacement is also a common indirect

measurement for pressure and force also
Images: http://www.nexgenergo.com/ergonomics/biosensors.html, https://kids.wng.org/node/4550

1. Measuring Displacement
• We will cover 4 types of displacement sensor today:
• 1. Resistive
• a) Potentiometers
• b) Strain Gauges
• c) Bridge Circuits
• 2. Inductive
• 3. Capacitive
• 4. Piezoelectric
1a. Resistive sensors - potentiometers
• Electrical part includes resistive element, track
or coil
• Mechanical part includes wiper or contact point
• Potentiometers can measure translational or
rotational displacement
• They produce a linear output as a function of
the displacement provided that the
potentiometer is not electrically loaded
• Different constructions can be used to get
different behaviour
• For low resistance values (up to 10Ω) a straight piece
of wire may be used
• For higher variations in resistance, up to megaohms,
coils of wire are used
Image: Measurement Systems: Application and Design, be E. O. Doebelin, 1990

• Three electrical contacts. Terminals A and B (1 and 3) have
fixed resistance, terminal C (2) (the wiper) has variable
resistance that can be adjusted by moving the wiper turning
the knob.
• Input voltage is measured across A and B (1 and 3)
• Output voltage is measured between A and C (1 and 2) or B
and C (2 and 3)
• Example:
Two resistors of 100 Ohms (R1) and 700 Ohms (R2) are
connected in series. R1 is connected to a 12V power supply.
R2 is connected to ground (0V)
a) Calculate total series resistance
b) Calculate the voltage drop across R2
c) Plot R2 vs output voltage for a range of 0-700 Ohms
d) Plot percentage position of a wiper vs output voltage for a
theoretical potentiometer shown in the figure below
Figures from: https://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/resistor/potentiometer.html

1b. Resistive sensors – strain gauges
• A solid with cross sectional area A and length
L submitted to an external force F will result
in a deformation per unit length.
• For small displacements within the elastic
limit, strain is directly proportional to stress
• Resistance of a wire that is strained within its elastic limit will vary.
• Start with the equation that describes resistance in a wire
𝜌𝐿
𝑅=
𝐴
R= resistance of wire (Ω), ρ = resistivity of wire (Ωm), L= length (m), A = cross sectional area (m2)
Then the differential of resistance in the wire is given by:
𝜌𝑑𝐿 𝑑𝜌
𝑑𝑅 = − 𝜌𝐴−2 𝐿𝑑𝐴 + 𝐿
𝐴 𝐴
R= resistance of wire (Ω), ρ = resistivity of wire (Ωm), L= length (m), A = cross sectional area (m2)
This equation is referring to a finite change in each of the components that we can describe. So if we divide
each element in the equation above by the equation on the previous slide we can write it as:
Δ𝑅 Δ𝐿 Δ𝐴 Δ𝜌
= − +
𝑅 𝐿 𝐴 𝜌
Poisson’s ratio (μ) relates change in length to change in diameter in a round wire:
Δ𝐷 Δ𝐿
= −𝜇
𝐷 𝐿
We can use this relationship to replace the area term in the equation below
Δ𝑅 Δ𝐿 Δ𝐴 Δ𝜌
= − +
𝑅 𝐿 𝐴 𝜌
We end up with:
Δ𝐿 Δ𝜌
Δ𝑅 = (1 + 2𝜇) +
𝐿 𝜌
• The Length terms are referred to as ‘dimensional effects’ and the resistivity term is referred to as the
piezoresistive effect.
• A commonly reported parameter for strain gauges is the Gauge Factor (G). This allows us to
compare different gauges and materials.
Δ𝐿
• This is calculated by dividing this whole equation by which, if we remember back is strain (ε)
𝐿
Δ𝑅 Δ𝜌
𝜌
𝐺 = 𝑅 = (1 + 2𝜇)
Δ𝐿 Δ𝐿
𝐿 𝐿
• Metallic Strain Gauges

• Resistance varies proportionally to variation of length.
• Must be coupled to the specimen
• Can be bonded or unbonded
Image from: Huang L, Korhonen RK, Turunen MJ, Finnilä MAJ. 2019. Experimental mechanical strain measurement of
tissues. PeerJ 7:e6545 https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj.6545
• Strain gauges can be bonded or unbonded
• Bonded strain gauges:
• Gauge element is bonded to the strained surface
• Temperature compensation can occur by using a
second gauge in the same environment that is
not subject to the displacement.
• A Wheatstone bridge should be used where
possible (we will cover these shortly)
• When the main direction of deformation is
known, uniaxial set ups can be used
• They must be adequately bonded to the test
specimen along the direction of deformation
• If deformation occurs in 2 directions, a biaxial
rosette can be used
• If the main deformation direction is unknown,
multiple direction rosettes can be used and
resolved into principle directions.
• Unbonded:
• Wires mounted under stress between the frame
and a movable armature
• Flow of blood in contact with a piston which
moves backand forth varying resistanct of wires
wrapped between frame and movable armature
• Some points to remember:
• Semiconductors have much higher gauge factors
• Metal strain gauges are subject to mostly dimensional effects
• Semiconductor strain gauges are subject to mostly piezoresistive effects
• Higher gauge factors are usually desirable but semiconductors are more sensitive to
temperature fluctuations and so need temperature compensation
• You need to select a gauge that is appropriate for your application, one size will not fit all!
• Elastic Strain Gauges

• If the conductive fluid inside the elastic tube is assumed
incompressible, a tensile force applied between the extremities of
the tube stretches it (as blood enters the limb) and reduces the tube
diameter, with the volume remaining constant.
• Resistance can be described as:
• Elastic Strain Gauges

• And variation in mercury resistance with
variation in length of the gauge can be
approximated as:
Images: https://www.nature.com/articles/micronano201643/tables/1
1c. Resistive sensors – bridge circuits
• Wheatstone bridge circuits are ideal for measuring small changes in resistance
• Four strain sensitive wires can be connected to form a Wheatstone bridge
• Vi is the applied DC voltage c
• ΔVo is output reading
• Ri is internal resistance
• If we think back to our electrical engineering equations we can show:
Vi a b
𝑅1 𝑅
• ΔVo = 0 (no current flows from a to b, bridge is balanced) when 𝑅2
= 𝑅4
3
d
• We can then connect resistance sensors to arms of the bridge and we can measure ΔVo
Let’s prove that this relationship is true for a balanced bridge

Wheatstone bridge with four active elements
• Assume:
• All values of resistance in the bridge are equal to R0
• R0 << R1
• If all resistances increase by ΔR then the bridge stays
balanced
• But, if R1 and R3 increase by ΔR and R2 and R4 decrease
by ΔR or vice versa then we end up with:
∆𝑅
∆𝑉0 = 𝑉𝑖
𝑅0
• Commonly resistor Ry and potentiometer Rx are used to
balance the circuit by changing initial resistance of one or more
arms so that zero output voltage corresponds to baseline input
of the parameter.
10 MINUTES
Come and have a chat/ask me any questions

Let’s have a look at an example:
A displacement measurement setup is instrumented with a Wheatstone bridge with

12V voltage input which is at balance initially. Resistors R1, R2 and R3 are 10kΩ,
20kΩ and 30kΩ, respectively. Calculate the resistance of the strain-gage (R4) when C
at rest. If 1% strain is applied due to displacement, what would V0 be?
(Gage factor of the sensor is 1.8 and μ= 0.3)
+ ∆𝑅
Have a go!
D
A) We have a couple of ways to solve this – lets look at both as
C
they help us understand the circuit.
• Method 1: If we think about the current in the circuit we can
see it will travel from the terminal to C and then split. The + ∆𝑅
current that R1 and R2 receive will be the same (series). The
current R4 and R3 receive will be the same (series).
Ohms Law states V=IR
We can rearrange this and consider I=V/R for the
interval from C to A D
∆𝑉𝐴−𝐶
Then, I= 𝑅1
• Method 1 continued…
C
Now consider the interval from C to D
12
Then, I=𝑅 + ∆𝑅
1 +𝑅2
Since we have said the current is the same for R1 and R2, we
can equate these and solve for the voltage drop from C to A
𝑅1 10𝑘Ω
D
For R1 ∆𝑉 = 12𝑉 𝑅 +𝑅 = 12𝑉 10𝑘Ω+20𝑘Ω = 4𝑉
1 2
Method 1 continued…
Now if we know that Vo = 0 initially, then, ∆𝑉𝐶−𝐵 must also C
be equal to 4V.
+ ∆𝑅
We can then follow the process for R1 and R2 for R4 and
R3 to solve for R4:
𝑅4 𝑅
∆𝑉 = 12𝑉 𝑅 = 12𝑉 30𝑘Ω4+𝑅 = 4𝑉
3 +𝑅4 4
D
𝑅4 = 15𝑘Ω #
C
A displacement measurement setup is instrumented with a Wheatstone
bridge with 12V voltage input which is at balance initially. Resistors R1, R2 + ∆𝑅
and R3 are 10kΩ, 20kΩ and 30kΩ, respectively. A) Calculate resistor of the
strain-gage (R4) when at rest. B) If 1% strain is applied due to displacement,
what would V0 be ?
D
• Method 2
𝑅 𝑅
We know that when the circuit is balanced: ΔVo = 0 when 𝑅1 = 𝑅4,
2 3
we are given values for R1, R2 and R3 in the question, so can
solve for R4.
R4 = 15kΩ #
A displacement measurement setup is instrumented with a Wheatstone
bridge with 12V voltage input which is at balance initially. Resistors R1, R2
and R3 are 10kΩ, 20kΩ and 30kΩ, respectively. A) Calculate resistor of the
strain-gage (R4) when at rest. B) If 1% strain is applied due to displacement,
what would V0 be ? C
+ ∆𝑅
B) When 1% strain is applied, V0 will no longer be zero because R4 will have
changed.
From the question we know, G=1.8, ε= 0.001
∆𝑅ൗ ∆𝑅4 ∆𝑅4 D

𝐺= 𝑅 𝐺𝜀 = 1.8 × 0.01 =
𝜀 𝑅4 15
∆𝑅4 = 0.27kΩ, so R4 becomes 15.27kΩ

C
+ ∆𝑅
Now to calculate Vo, we need to reapply the method 1 in part A
with the new value for R4
For new R4
D
𝑅4′ 15.27𝑘Ω
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑝 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝐶 𝑡𝑜 𝐵: ∆𝑉 = 12𝑉 30𝑘Ω+𝑅′ = 12𝑉 30𝑘Ω+15.27𝑘Ω = 4.047𝑉
4
𝑉𝐵 = 12𝑉 − 4.047𝑉 = 7.95𝑉

Bridge circuits provide
𝑉𝑜 = 𝑉𝐴 − 𝑉𝐵 = 8𝑉 − 7.95𝑉 = 0.05𝑉 # improved accuracy for strain
gauge components!
2. Inductive sensors
• Inductive sensors work on the basis of
coils
• An inductance L can be used to measure
displacement by varying any three of the
coil parameters:
• 𝐿 = 𝑛2 𝐺𝜇
• n= number of turns of coil
• G=geometric form factor
• μ=effective permeability of the medium
• Inductive sensors are not affected by the
dielectric (electrically insulative)
properties of their environment, but may
be affected by magnetic fields close to it
• Main types are:
• Self-inductance
• Mutual inductance
• Differential transformer
• Self-inductance
• Changing the geometric form factor or the movement of a magnetic
core within the coil
• The change in inductance is not linearly related to displacement.
• These devices have low power requirements and produce large
variations in inductance makes them attractive for radiotelemetry
applications.
• Mutual inductance
• Employs two separate coils and uses the variation in their mutual
magnetic coupling to measure displacement.
• Examples: cardiac dimensions, monitoring infant respiration, and
ascertaining arterial diameters, changes in dimension of internal organs
(kidney, major blood vessels, and left ventricle).
• Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT)
• Widely used in physiological research and clinical medicine to measure
pressure, displacement and force
• Composed of a primary coil (terminals a-b) and two secondary coils (c-
e and d-e) connected in series.
• The two secondary coils are connected in opposition in order to
achieve a wider region of linearity.
• The primary coil is sinusoidally excited, with a frequency between 60
Hz and 20 kHz.
Magnetic flux
Image: Textbook
• Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT)
3. Capacitive sensors
 The capacitance between two parallel plates of area A separated by distance x is:
𝐴
𝐶 = 𝜀0 𝜀𝑟
𝑥
𝜀0 : electric constant of free space – 8.85x10-12 F/m
𝜀𝑟 : dielectric constant of the insulator (material between plates)
𝐴 : area (in metres)
𝑥 : distance (in metres)
Fringing effects can occur at sensor edges where electric field is less dense
Images: https://www.ti.com/lit/an/snoa927a/snoa927a.pdf?ts=1658190550009&ref_url=https%253A%252F%252Fwww.ti.com%252Fsitesearch%252Fen-
us%252Fdocs%252Funiversalsearch.tsp%253FlangPref%253Den-US%2526searchTerm%253Dcapacitive%2Bsensor%2526nr%253D51290
3. Capacitive sensors
In principle it is possible to monitor displacement by changing any of the three
parameters. Most common method is to change x.
 The sensitivity K of a capacitive sensor to changes in plate separation Δx is found by

differentiating
 Note that the sensitivity (K) increases as the plate separation decreases.
∆𝐶 𝐴
𝐾= = −𝜀0 𝜀𝑟 2
∆𝑥 𝑥
4. Piezoelectric sensors
 Piezoelectric materials generate an electric potential when mechanically strained, and
conversely an electric potential can cause physical deformation of the material.
 Surface charge can be determined by measuring the difference in voltage between
electrodes attached to the surfaces.
 Examples: Small physiological displacements and recording heart sounds
4. Piezoelectric sensors
3. Temperature Sensors
• Temperature SensorsPrinciples of operation:
• Temperature sensors detect and quantify heat energy emitted or
absorbed by an object or environment.
• They can be based on various principles, such as thermocouples or
thermistors.
• Applications:
• Temperature sensors are widely used for monitoring body temperature,
aiding in the diagnosis and management of fever and hypothermia.
• They find applications in thermal imaging for identifying abnormalities,
injuries, or inflammations in medical diagnostics and research.
2. Measuring Temperature
• Body temperature is one of

the most commonly
measured physiological
parameters
• Changes in temperature can
be used to identify infection,
injury and other parameters
• Normal body temperature is:
37°C
2. Measuring Temperature
• We will look at 4 types of temperature sensor:

• a) Thermoexpansion transducers
• b) Thermocouples
• c) Thermistor
• d) Radiation Thermometry
• e) Fibre-Optic Temperature Sensors
1a. Thermoexpansion transducers
• Uses the expansion of fluid with increased temperature
• Think of the classic mercury thermometer (rarely used now)
1b. Thermocouples
• Electromotive force (emf) exists across a junction of two dissimilar metals which
is related to the temperatures and properties of the two metals
• In the practical situation, one junction is held at a constant known temperature
(by an ice bath or controlled oven or an electronic cold junction)
• Effects:
• An emf due solely to the contact of two unlike metals and the junction temperature. The net
Peltier emf is roughly proportional to the difference between the temperatures of the two
junctions.
• An emf due to the temperature gradients along each single conductor. The net Thomson emf is
proportional to the difference between the squares of the absolute junction temperatures.
1b. Thermocouples
• Advantages: Disadvantages:
 fast response time (time  Small output voltage
constant as small as 1 ms)  Low sensitivity
 small size (down to 12 μm
 The need for a reference
diameter)
temperature.
 Ease of fabrication
 Long-term stability.
1c. Thermistors
• Thermistors are semiconductors made of ceramic materials that are thermal
resistors with a high negative temperature coefficient.
• That is opposite to the way metals react to such changes.
• The resistivity of thermistor semiconductors used for biomedical applications is
between 0.1 and 100 Ωm.
• Model: The empirical relationship between the thermistor resistance Rt and
absolute temperature T in Kelvin [K] is: Bead
𝛽(𝑇0 −𝑇 /𝑇𝑇0 ]
𝑅𝑡 = 𝑅0 𝑒
• β is material constant for thermistor (K) Chip
• 𝑇0 is standard reference temperature (K)

1c. Thermistors
• Advantages: Disadvantages:
• Small (they can be made less  Time delays from
than 0.5 mm in diameter) milliseconds to several
• Have a relatively large minutes are possible with
sensitivity to temperature thermistor circuits.
changes  Nonlinear characteristic
• Excellent long-term stability (Various circuit schemes for
characteristics (±0.2% of linearizing the resistance vs.
nominal resistance value per temperature characteristics
year). of thermistors are
necessary)
2. Thermocouple vs Thermistor
• How do you know which type of sensor to select? You need to consider:
• Range
• Accuracy
• Stability
• Size
• Exposure to noise
2c. Radiation Thermometry
• The known relationship between the surface temperature of an object and its
radiant power is used in this type of sensing.
• This principle makes it possible to measure the temperature of a surface of a
body without physical contact.
• Medical thermography is a technique whereby the temperature distribution of
the body is mapped with a sensitivity of a few tenths of a degree Kelvin
2d. Fibre Optic Temperature Sensor
• One fibre transmits light from a light-emitting diode source to the sensor, where it is passed
through the GaAs (Gallium arsenide) and collected by the other fibre for detection.
• A small prism-shaped sample of single-crystal GaAs is
• Epoxied at the ends of two side-by-side optical fibers
• These can be quite small, compatible with biological implantation after being sheathed.
• Non-metallic, so great for use in magnetic fields eg: heating of tumours for therapy
3. Optical Sensors
• Principles of operation:
• Optical sensors utilize light-based techniques to capture and analyze
physiological data.
• They measure parameters such as light absorption, reflection, or transmission.
• Applications:
• Pulse oximetry is a commonly used optical sensor that measures oxygen
saturation in the blood non-invasively.
• Optical sensors are also employed in non-invasive blood glucose monitoring
for diabetic patients.
• These sensors find applications in continuous monitoring of vital signs, such as
heart rate and respiratory rate, in critical care settings.
3. Optical Sensors
• Non-invasive medical technique used to measure the oxygen
saturation level in the blood
• Contain an electronic processor and pair small LEDs facing a
photodiode
• The LED’s emit different wavelengths of light.
• Absorption of light at these wavelengths differs significantly
between blood loaded with oxygen (Hb02) and blood lacking
oxygen (Hb).
• The Beer-Lambert law :
𝐴 = 𝜀𝑙𝑐
where A is the absorbance
ε is the molar absorptivity (a constant specific to the absorbing
substance and wavelength),
l is the path length
c is the concentration of the absorbing substance.
3. Optical Sensors
• The pulse oximeter computes the ratio R of the red
and infrared light absorbance using R = (ACR /
ACIR),
• The calculated oxygen saturation level is typically
displayed as a percentage on the pulse oximeter's
screen
3. Optical Sensors
3. Optical Sensors
Interpretation Tips
• Calibration is very important
• This measurement allows clinicians to determine
whether a patient is able to transfer oxygen into the
bloodstream, however 100% saturation on the oximeter
does not guarantee that tissues are sufficiently
oxygenated. (see example)
• If a patient has abnormal hemoglobin molecules, pulse
oximetry is a poor measure of hypoxemia and may lead
to over diagnosis and over treatment.
• Pulse oximeters are often applied to areas of thin skin
such as an ear lobe or finger tip.
• Fingernail polish and even different types of skin
pigmentation may skew pulse oximeter results.
3. Optical Sensors
Summary
• A very valuable and commonly used tool
• Awareness of the value, nuances, and
shortcomings of pulse oximetry will allow a
clinician to better understand the true tissue
oxygenation status of a patient and be better
prepared for making treatment decisions.
• In patients with abnormal hemoglobin
structure, abnormal hemoglobin levels, or
hemoglobin abnormally bound to other molecules
such as CO, pulse oximetry is not an accurate
representation of oxygenation.
Other sensing
• Note that we have only touched on a few types of sensors for
biomedical applications.
• Other common sensing applications include:
• Force
• Pressure
• Velocity
• Acceleration
• Flow of fluids
• Chemical
Remember for your projects
Physical Measurement
Variable Signal
Variable Measurement
Measurand Sensor
X S M
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BMEG201 –Biomedical

• Define and differentiate between sensors, transducers and actuators

• I will also upload a post lecture exercises document after each

VERY VERY SERIOUS QUIZ TIME!!

I will give you a pass code to access the quiz

Give yourself a creative name and play

Transducers are made up of a sensor and a

We want to be able to detect if:

Displacement is also a common indirect

Images: http://www.nexgenergo.com/ergonomics/biosensors.html, https://kids.wng.org/node/4550

• We will cover 4 types of displacement sensor today:

Image: Measurement Systems: Application and Design, be E. O. Doebelin, 1990

Figures from: https://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/resistor/potentiometer.html

• Metallic Strain Gauges

• Elastic Strain Gauges

• Elastic Strain Gauges

Let’s prove that this relationship is true for a balanced bridge

Come and have a chat/ask me any questions

A displacement measurement setup is instrumented with a Wheatstone bridge with

∆𝑅ൗ ∆𝑅4 ∆𝑅4 D

∆𝑅4 = 0.27kΩ, so R4 becomes 15.27kΩ

𝑉𝐵 = 12𝑉 − 4.047𝑉 = 7.95𝑉

 The sensitivity K of a capacitive sensor to changes in plate separation Δx is found by

• Body temperature is one of

• We will look at 4 types of temperature sensor:

• 𝑇0 is standard reference temperature (K)

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