Mechanics of Composites

‰Because of the inherent heterogeneous nature of composite

materials, they are conveniently studied from two points of view:
micromechanics, and macromechanics.
‰Micromechanics: It is the study of composite material behavior
wherein the interaction of the constituent materials is examined on a
microscopic scale. In particular, it is the study of mechanical
properties of unidirectional composites in terms of those of
constituent materials.
‰Macromechanics: It is the study of composite material behavior
wherein the material is presumed homogeneous and the effects of the
constituent materials are detected only as averaged apparent properties
of the composite.
‰Orthotropic materials: An orthotropic material has matrial properties
that are different in three mutually perpendicular directions at a point
in the body an , further, have three mutually perperdicular planes of
material symmetry.
 Mechanics of Composites
‰In general, a three-dimensional stressed body is acted upon by
nine stress components σxx, σyy σzz, σxz, σxy σyx, σyz, σzx, and σzy
as shown below.
y

σxy
σxz
σxz
σxx σxx
σxy x

‰ From the condition of moment equilibrium, it can be shown that

σ xy = σ yx , σ xz = σ zx , σ yz = σ zy
 Mechanics of Composites
‰Thus, nine stress components reduce to only six stress components.

‰ In 2-D cases, a stressed element is usually studied under plane

stress condition or Plane strain condition.

Plane stress condition:

σ zz = 0, σ zx = σ zy = 0

Nonzero stress components are 0

σ xx , σ yy , σ xy σ zx = γ zx Gzx = 0
σ zx = σ zy = 0
Plane strain condition:
ε zz = 0, γ zx (ε zx ) = γ zy (ε zy ) = 0
Nonzero stress components are
σ xx , σ yy , σ xy , σ zz
 Mechanics of Composites
‰The state of stress in a ply or ply group is predominantly plane stress
‰In the field of composite materials, contracted notations are used
for the components of stress and strain.
Conventional/Tensorial notations Contracted notation
σ xx or σ 11 σ x or σ 1
σ yy or σ 22 σ y or σ 2
σ xy ( = τ xy ) or σ 12 ( = τ 12 ) σ xy ( = τ xy ) or σ 12 ( = τ 12 )
ε xx or ε 11 ε x or ε 1
ε yy or ε 22 ε y or ε 2
γ xy (= 2 ε xy ) or γ 12 (= 2 ε 12 ) γ xy (= 2 ε xy ) or γ 12 (= 2 ε 12 )

‰ γxy or γ12 is the engineering shear strain that consider the total
change in angle, whereas tensorial shear strain εxy or ε12
consider the half of the total change in angle.
 Mechanics of Composites

⎛ ∂u ∂v ⎞ 1 ⎛ ∂u ∂v ⎞
γ xy = ⎜⎜ + ⎟⎟, ε xy = ⎜⎜ + ⎟⎟
⎝ ∂y ∂x ⎠ 2 ⎝ ∂y ∂x ⎠

Thus, γ xy = 2ε xy
 Stress-Strain Relations
Assumptions:
ⅰ) Composite materials are assumed to be linearly elastic.
By “linearity” we mean,
‰The response of materials under stress or strain follows a straight
line up to failure.
‰With assumed linearity, we can use superposition which is a very
powerful tool. For example, the net result of combining two states of
stress is precisely the sum of the two states:- no more and no less.
The sequence of stress application is immaterial.
By “elasticity” we mean,
‰ Full reversibility, we can load, unload, and reload a material
without incurring any permanent strain or hysteresis.
‰ Elasticity also means that the material’s response is instantaneous.
There is no time lag, no time or rate dependency.
‰ Experimentally observed behavior of composites follows closer to
linear elasticity than nearly all metals and nonreinforced plastics.
 Stress-Strain Relations
(a) Uniaxial longitudinal test

‰We consider an element subjected to a uniaxial loading as below

σ
σ1

σ1 σ1 E1
1
−ε2 ε1 ε
‰Stress-strain relations are
σ1
ε1 = (1a)
E1
ε2
ν1 = −
ε1
ν1
ε 2 = − σ1 (1b)
E1
 Stress-Strain Relations
Here,
E1 = Longitudinal Young’s modulus
ν1= Longitudinal Poisson’s ratio. This is also called the
major Poisson’s ratio, and designated by ν12 or νLT

(b) Uniaxial transverse test σ

σ2

σ2 σ2 E2
1
− ε1 ε2 ε
σ2
ε2 = (2a)
E2
− ε1 ν2
ν2 = ⇒ ε 1 = −ν 2ε 2 = − σ2
ε2 E2
ν2
ε1 = − σ2 (2b)
E2
 Stress-Strain Relations
where
E2 = Transverse Young’s modulus
ν2 = Transverse Poisson’s ratio. This is also called
minor Poisson’s ratio, and designated by ν21 or νTL
σ
(c) Shear test
τ 12
τ 12
G12
1
τ 12 γ 12 ε
τ 12
γ 12 = (3)
G12

G12 = Longitudinal shear modulus. This is also called

longitudinal-transverse shear modulus and designated
by GLT.
 Stress-Strain Relations

‰Now by principle of superposition, we can sum up the

contribution of each stress component in Eqs. (1), (2), and (3) to
the resulting strain components. The final stress-strain relation
for our unidirectional composite is
σ1 ν 2
ε1 = − σ2 (4a)
E1 E2
ν1 σ2
ε2 = − σ1 + (4b)
E1 E2
τ 12
γ 12 = (4c)
G12

‰ The relations in Eq. (4) are the on-axis stress-strain relations of

a unidirectional composite.
 y Stress-Strain Relations
2

1 x

On-axis orientation
‰1-2: Principal material direction
2 y
1
‰x – y: Loading direction

Off-axis orientation
 Stress-Strain Relations
‰ Equation (4) can be written in the matrix form as below:

⎡ 1 ν2 ⎤
⎢ E − 0 ⎥
E2
⎡ ε 1 ⎤ ⎢ ν1 1
⎥ ⎡σ 1 ⎤
⎢ ε 2 ⎥ = ⎢− 1 0 ⎥ ⎢σ 2 ⎥ (5)
⎢γ ⎥ ⎢ E1 E2 ⎥ ⎢τ ⎥
⎣ 12 ⎦ ⎢ ⎣ 12 ⎦
1 ⎥
⎢ 0 0 ⎥
⎣ G12 ⎦

‰ All the material constants of the stress-strain relation in Eq. (5)

are called Engineering constants.
‰ Use of engineering constants is not convenient for the design of
composites. Thus, these are replaced by the components of
compliance and stiffness.
 Stress-Strain Relations
⎡ ε 1 ⎤ ⎡ s11 s12 0 ⎤ ⎡σ 1 ⎤
⎢ ε 2 ⎥ = ⎢ s21 s22 0 ⎥ ⎢σ 2 ⎥ (6)
⎢γ ⎥ ⎢ 0 s66 ⎥⎦ ⎣⎢τ 12 ⎥⎦
⎣ 12 ⎦ ⎣ 0

‰ In short form, it can be written as [ε ] = [s ][σ ]

‰ Or in tensor form as ε i = sijσ i
‰ The relation between these two sets of elastic constants are:
1 ν2
s11 = , s12 = −
E1 E2
ν1 1
s21 = − , s22 = (7)
E1 E2
1
s66 =
G12
‰ Equation (6) is the on-axis stress-strain relation for
unidirectional composites in terms of compliance.
 Stiffness Components
‰ From Eq. (4), one can write,
σ1 ν 2 σ1 ν 2
ε1 = − σ2 ε1 = − σ2
E1 E2 E1 E2
⇒
σ 2 ν1 σ 2 ν 1ν 2
ε2 = − σ1 ν 2ε 2 = ν 2 − σ1
E2 E1 E2 E1
τ 12 σ1
γ 12 = ⇒ ε 1 + ν 2ε 2 = [1 −ν ν ]
1 2
G12 E1
⇒ σ 1 = mE1 (ε 1 + ν 2ε 2 )
Similarly, σ 2 = mE2 (ε 2 +ν 1ε 1 ) (8)

and τ 12 = G12γ 12

m = (1 −ν 1ν 2 )
−1
where (9)
 Stiffness Components
‰ Equation (8) can be written in matrix form as

⎡σ 1 ⎤ ⎡ mE1 mE 1ν 2 0 ⎤ ⎡ ε1 ⎤
⎢σ 2 ⎥ = ⎢mE 2 ν 1 mE2 0 ⎥⎢ε 2 ⎥ (10)
⎢τ ⎥ ⎢ 0
⎣ 12 ⎦ ⎣ 0 G12 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣γ 12 ⎥⎦

‰ To eliminate the clumsiness of engineering constants, we

introduce the components of stiffness as
⎡σ 1 ⎤ ⎡Q11 Q12 0 ⎤ ⎡ ε 1 ⎤
⎢σ 2 ⎥ = ⎢Q21 Q22 0 ⎥ ⎢ ε 2 ⎥ (11)
⎢τ ⎥ ⎢ 0
⎣ 12 ⎦ ⎣ 0 Q66 ⎥⎦ ⎣⎢γ 12 ⎥⎦

or [σ ] = [Q ][ε ]
Q11 = mE1 , Q12 = mE1ν 2 , Q22 = mE2 (12)
where
Q21 = mE2ν 1 , Q66 = G12
‰ Qij in Eq. (11) is called the Reduced Stiffness.
 Stiffness Components
‰ Conversely, Q11 Q22
E1 = , E2 =
m m
Q Q (13)
ν 1 = 21 , ν 2 = 12
Q22 Q11
G12 = Q66
−1
⎡ Q21Q12 ⎤
where m = ⎢1 − ⎥ (14)
⎣ Q22 11 ⎦
Q

Conclusions
‰ Three sets of material constants: Engineering constants,
Stiffness, and Compliance.
‰ Stiffness is used to calculate stress from strain. This is the basic
set needed for the stiffness of multidirectional laminates.
 Stiffness Components
Conclusions
‰ Compliance is used to calculate the strain from stress. This is
the set needed for the calculation of engineering constants. This
is not needed for the stiffness of multidirectional laminates.
‰ Engineering constants are the carryover from the conventional
materials. Old engineers feel more comfortable working with
the engineering constants.
‰ There is a direct relationship between the stiffness and
compliance, one is the inverse of the other, i.e.,
[Q] = [s ]
−1