Educational Psychology in Practice

theory, research and practice in educational psychology

ISSN: 0266-7363 (Print) 1469-5839 (Online) Journal homepage: https://www.tandfonline.com/loi/cepp20

Experiences of parents whose children with

autism spectrum disorder (ASD) are starting
primary school

Micaela Connolly & Irvine Gersch

To cite this article: Micaela Connolly & Irvine Gersch (2016) Experiences of parents whose
children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) are starting primary school, Educational Psychology
in Practice, 32:3, 245-261, DOI: 10.1080/02667363.2016.1169512

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/02667363.2016.1169512

Published online: 18 Apr 2016.

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Educational Psychology in Practice, 2016
VOL. 32, NO. 3, 245–261
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02667363.2016.1169512

Experiences of parents whose children with autism spectrum

disorder (ASD) are starting primary school
Micaela Connollya and Irvine Gerschb
a
Autism Services (South Lee), Brothers of Charity Southern Services, Cork, Ireland; bSchool of Psychology,
University of East London, London, UK

ABSTRACT KEYWORDS
Starting school is a critical event in a child’s life and successful transitions Autism spectrum disorder;
to school have been posited as key indicators for future academic autism spectrum condition;
parents’ experiences;
achievement. For children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD), the
transitions; starting school
process is complicated by difficulties in social communication and
social interaction. Parents of children with ASD can experience their
child’s transition to school as a stressful and challenging time. In this
study a qualitative methodology, Interpretative Phenomenological
Analysis (IPA), was used to elicit the experiences and perceptions of
six parents whose children with ASD were starting school in Ireland.
Semi-structured interviews were carried out and a cross-case analysis
was conducted. Three common overarching themes were identified
which reflected participants’ experiences of the transition process;
these were (a) “I think they need to believe, believe what we’re telling
them”, (b) “Experience of ASD/it’s a very labelling thing”, and (c)
“Preparing for school and feelings about the future”. Implications
from the research are discussed with reference to the role of the
educational psychologist (EP) in supporting parents of children with
ASD in the transition process.

Introduction
Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a complex and pervasive developmental disorder which
is typified by deficits in social communication and social interaction in the presence of ste-
reotypical and repetitive behaviours (American Psychological Association [APA], 2013). It is
conceptualised as a spectrum disorder in an attempt to capture the heterogeneity in the
presentation of affected individuals. The common symptoms have been described as a triad
of impairments to reflect a cluster of distinctive deficits in three core areas of functioning;
social communication, social interaction, and social imagination (Wing & Gould, 1979). In
addition to these impairments, an individual may present with motor coordination difficulties
(Fournier, Hass, Naik, Lodha, & Cauraugh, 2010); sensory issues; emotional and behavioural
issues (Maskey, Warnell, Parr, Le Couteur, & McConachie, 2013); issues with attention and
impulsivity (Sturm, Fernell, & Gillberg, 2004); psychiatric disorders (Simonoff et al., 2008),
and intellectual disability. ASD is a lifelong condition and developmental outcomes are

CONTACT  Micaela Connolly  micaelacon@yahoo.ie

© 2016 Association of Educational Psychologists
246    M. Connolly and I. Gersch

variable; while some adults with ASD achieve independence, many need lifelong support
and care (Howlin, Goode, Hutton, & Rutter, 2004). Recent estimates suggest a prevalence
rate of 14.7 per thousand in the general population (Centres for Disease Control and
Prevention [CDC], 2014).

Context of study
The present study took place in the Repubic of Ireland within a voluntary agency which is
grant-aided by the Irish Department of Health (DoH) to provide multidisciplinary therapeutic
team (MDT) services to children with ASD and their families. This service provides support
to children in home and school settings.

Rationale for the current study

Times of transition are viewed as key times for intervention for children in the service in
which this study took place. The idea for the research arose when the first author, an edu-
cational psychologist (EP), explored ways of supporting parents in the transition process;
parents had identified the child’s transition to school as a difficult time and it was felt that
acknowledging and understanding their perspectives would result in benefits for parents.
Conn-Powers, Ross-Allen, and Holburn (1990) suggested that studies into reducing parent
concerns during transition to school would address a large gap in the empirical literature,
while Kourkoutas, Langher, Caldin, and Fountoulaki (2012) recommended that parents’ expe-
riences should be taken into consideration when designing and implementing educational
and health services. Weiss and Pearson (2012) advised professionals in education to look
through a family lens to ensure smooth transitions and maximise children’s success in school.
Therefore, it was decided to ask parents directly about their experiences.

Literature search
An in-depth literature search of experiences of parents whose children with ASD were start-
ing school was undertaken, the focus of which was narrowed to include research over the
10 years from 2004 to 2014. An electronic search was conducted using the online research
database, EBSCO, as the host database. Selected databases included PsycARTICLES and
PsychINFO, amongst others. The online database Google Scholar was used to ensure thor-
oughness in identifying key literature and the UK’s national doctoral thesis service, eThos,
was consulted. Key search words and terms such as “children with autism/ASD starting pri-
mary school”, “children with autism/ASD transitioning to primary school”, “parents’ experi-
ences of transitions and children with autism/ASD”, and “parents’ experiences of children
with autism/ASD starting school” were used.
Inclusion criteria for research literature were based on the National Institute for Health
and Care Excellence (NICE) methodology checklist for qualitative studies (NICE, 2012) as a
means of assaying relevance and rigour to decide what should be included in the literature
review. Policy documents and legislation were consulted to provide a background to health
and education services for children with ASD. The following sections provide an overview
of what the search revealed in relation to transitions generally and to the research topic
more specifically.
 Educational Psychology in Practice   247

Review of the literature on children starting school

Starting school has been described as a key period in a child’s development (Entwisle &
Alexander, 1989). Research suggests that a positive start is critical to children’s long-term
well-being (Entwisle & Alexander, 1993). The literature on children starting school frequently
relates to the concept of “transition” (Conn-Powers et al., 1990; Dockett & Perry, 2001; Kagan
& Neuman, 1998). Kagan and Neuman (1998) defined transitions as the continuity of expe-
riences that children have between periods and between spheres of their lives. They noted
that children need support when making what they defined as “vertical” and “horizontal”
transitions; vertical transitions occur when a child moves from one level or agency to another,
as in the transition to school. Horizontal transitions are daily movements between different
settings and situations.
Much of the original research into children starting school focused on the notion of school
readiness, a concept thought to be inherent to the child (Carlton & Winsler, 1999). More
recently, there has been a shift in emphasis to a bioecological formulation, reflecting the
impact of the child’s context, and the changes and relationships within that context, on the
child’s adjustment to the formal school setting (Bronfenbrenner & Morris, 2006; Cowan,
Cowan, Ablow, Kahen Johnson, & Measelle, 2013; Hanson, 2005; Rimm-Kaufman & Pianta,
2000). Children from low income families and ethnic minorities and children with disabilities
are considered to be more vulnerable in the transition process (Alexander & Entwisle, 1988;
Entwisle & Alexander, 1993; Hanson, 2005; McIntyre, Blacher, & Baker, 2006).

Literature on children with ASD starting school

Transitions pose particular challenges to children with ASD. Difficulties with social interaction
and communication, and difficulties generalising skills learned from one setting to another,
make children with ASD more vulnerable when transitioning (Forest, Horner, Lewis-Palmer,
and Todd, 2004).
While vertical transitions can be challenging experiences for all children, many children
with ASD find horizontal transitions difficult; indeed horizontal transitions are reported to
be of more concern to parents (Stoner, Angell, House, & Jones Bock, 2007).
The Autism Education Trust (AET) has recommended that parents be involved in the
transition planning process (Stobart, 2012).

Literature on parents’ experiences of their children with ASD starting school

The family has been the basis for much of the research into children with ASD transitioning
to school. Starting school represents a major event which brings new demands and chal-
lenges for children with ASD and their families (Parsons, Lewis, & Ellins, 2009; Quintero &
McIntyre, 2011; Weiss & Pearson, 2012). From a series of interviews with mothers of children
with ASD in Australia, Lilley (2012, 2014) reported that parents experienced stigma and
efforts by school professionals to exclude their children because of the ASD diagnosis. The
literature review found a dearth of studies that explicitly examined parental perspectives
and perceptions around their children with ASD starting school. The present study intends
to address this gap in the literature.
248    M. Connolly and I. Gersch

Figure 1.  Parents and child within the bioecological mesosystem, informed by Bronfenbrenner (1979).

Theoretical links
For the purposes of this study, the most relevant theory for the exploration of parents’
experiences of their children starting school was considered to be the bioecological
theory developed by Bronfenbrenner (Bronfenbrenner & Morris, 2006). In the bioeco-
logical model, the individual is seen to be situated within multiple inter-related contexts,
viewed as a dynamic nested system of relationships; the microsystem, mesosystem,
exosystem, macrosystem, and chronosystem (Bronfenbrenner, 1986). Bioecological the-
ory captures the complexity of the process of the interactions between the individual
and their environment, such as in the child’s transition to school. Bronfenbrenner (1986)
distinguished between normative (usual) and non-normative (unexpected) transitions.
The child’s diagnosis with ASD is a non-normative event. Parents of preschool children
with ASD face a number of challenges, including understanding and accepting their
child’s diagnosis, dealing with the emotions and life changes that a diagnosis brings,
searching for appropriate support services and interventions, and choosing optimal
educational placements for their child (Cassidy, McConkey, Truesdale-Kennedy, & Slevin,
2008; Keenan, Dillenburger, Doherty, Byrne, & Gallagher, 2010; McConkey & Cassidy,
2010; Murphy & Tierney, 2006).
Transition models which were developed to conceptualise the transitions to school of
children with special needs (Rous, Hallam, Harbin, McCormick, & Jung, 2005) place emphasis
on the role of the family as a unit rather than on the individual parental role in the process.
For the purposes of the present study, an alternative lens was used as a way of viewing the
parents’ position in the transition process. The bioecological model was used to position
parents at the centre of the family microsystem to highlight their position. Figure 1 illustrates
this perspective.
 Educational Psychology in Practice   249

Epistemological stance
The present study aimed to elicit participants’ unique and lived experiences. Two paradig-
matic frameworks informed the study. These were phenomenology (Laverty, 2003; Mertens,
2010; Smith, Flowers, & Larkin, 2009) and critical realism (Bhaskar, 2008). Phenomenology
has its roots in the philosophical inquiry into the nature of the individual’s understanding
of reality; specifically, their perceptions of phenomena (experiences, objects, events).
Phenomenological approaches focus on the individual’s meaning-making and interpretation
of events in their own lives (Mertens, 2009). A critical realist stance provided the underlying
epistemological framework for the study; critical realism acknowledges the part real, part
constructed nature of the perceived world (Mertens, 2010).

Method
The present study was exploratory and concerned itself with the examination of the person’s
life world. Therefore, a qualitative approach was considered the most appropriate. A method
that fits the purpose of this study, the exploration of meaning-making, was Interpretative
Phenomenological Analysis (IPA).

Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis (IPA)

“IPA is a qualitative research approach committed to the examination of how people make
sense of their major life experiences” (Smith et al., 2009, p. 1). The underlying methodological
stance is interpretative and idiographic, emphasising an in-depth exploration of each indi-
vidual’s experience (Smith & Eatough, 2006). The researcher can also look for areas of con-
vergence or divergence across cases to explore how meaning is constructed for both
individuals and groups. IPA has been used to explore such topics as the meaning that raising
a child with ASD has for parents (Jardine, 2008). The method can link “existential-phenom-
enological research with the wider research literature in psychology” (Shinebourne, 2011,
p. 17) and fits in with the critical realist epistemological framework (Fade, 2004). IPA studies
typically involve conducting semi-structured individual interviews with small sample sizes
or single cases.

Data collection
Ethical approval was sought and gained from the agencies involved and from the ethics
committee of University of East London (UEL). The research fully complied with ethical guide-
lines from the Psychological Society of Ireland’s (PSI) Code of Professional Ethics (PSI, 2011a),
the PSI’s Guidelines on Confidentiality and Record-Keeping in Practice (PSI, 2011b), the British
Psychological Society’s (BPS) Code of Human Research Ethics (BPS, 2010), and the UEL Code
of Good Practice in Research (UEL, 2010).

Participants
Participants, five mothers and a father, were parents of children with ASD who were accessing
MDT support services from publicly-funded voluntary agencies in two counties in the
Republic of Ireland. Their children were five years of age and were due to start school the
250    M. Connolly and I. Gersch

following September. A sample size of six participants was considered optimal in line with
IPA methodology. Participants were selected by purposive sampling. Samples in IPA are
typically homogeneous to ensure that research questions, via the interview questions, are
meaningful to participants (Smith et al., 2009) and that the data yielded are relevant to the
phenomena under review. It could be argued that the inclusion of a father in the sample
would reduce homogeneity; however, the father’s perspective was considered an essential
contribution to the topic, of parental experiences. IPA allows for analysis of convergent and
divergent themes and so, where perspectives are sufficiently different amongst participants,
this can be explored in the cross-case analysis.
Participants signed consent forms agreeing to participate in the study. Written and verbal
information was given to participants detailing what was involved for them and their data.

Interview script
A semi-structured interview script was devised (see Appendix) as recommended by Smith
and Osborn (2003). Questions were open and expansive (Smith et al., 2009). An expert panel
of four psychologists was asked to review the interview script and the schedule was amended
accordingly. A pilot interview was conducted to check the feasibility of the script. This con-
firmed that the interview schedule was viable and that no further amendments were
required.

Individual interviews
The first author conducted four individual interviews and a double interview with two par-
ents together in line with their wishes. Audio recordings were made of the interviews using
digital recording equipment. These were transcribed verbatim using a word processor.

Analysis
Procedural guidelines for analysis proposed by Smith et al. (2009) and Kvale and Brinkmann
(2009) were followed in this study. Given that IPA is idiographic, each case was analysed in
detail before moving on to the next case. The following steps were undertaken in each
analysis:

(1) reading and re-reading of each interview to become familiar with the data;
(2) initial noting, which involved the examination and recording of the semantic and
prosodic features of language use;
(3) development of emergent themes, where attempts were made to reduce the
amount of detail in the text and focus on initial notes. Relationships, patterns and
connections between initial notes were mapped in this stage and themes (recurring
patterns of meaning) were identified;
(4) search for connections across emergent themes, where similarities and differences
between themes were mapped;
(5) moving to the next participant’s transcript and repetition of steps 1 to 4;
(6) cross-case analysis, where patterns of similarity and difference across cases were
identified.

The findings from the cross-case analysis in the study are presented in the following
section.
 Educational Psychology in Practice   251

Figure 2.  Overarching, superordinate and subordinate themes.

Findings
Three overarching themes were identified as outlined in Figure 2. These were:
(a) “I think they need to believe, believe what we’re telling them”,
(b) “Experience of ASD/it’s a very labelling thing” and
(c) “Preparing for school and feelings about the future”.
Superordinate and subordinate themes are presented in the middle and right columns
respectively in Figure 2.

“I think they need to believe, believe what we’re telling them”

In this overarching theme, participants talked about their struggle with the educational
system and with professionals as they tried to find the right educational placement for their
children, to have their children understood, and to secure the supports the children needed.
Maria (in all cases pseudonyms are used) described what it was like for her to deal with staff
in school:
252    M. Connolly and I. Gersch

They can be quite intimidating (schools) and teachers from the school … that can be very hard
to deal with when you’re trying to … essentially fight for your child.
Olivia elaborated on the sense of having to fight for her child’s educational rights. She
described having to change how she was with other people:
… It’s like fighting for your rights kind of thing; You have to push … and get a bit of a thick skin
as much as you mightn’t be that person … it’s like a different persona you have to almost be
… to fight your corner.
There was a sense from participants of not being heard and believed by professionals and
extended family members about the extent of their children’s difficulties, and in some cases,
their strengths. In the following extract, Maeve talks about feeling judged by others; because
of her children’s behaviour, her parenting skills were called into question. She felt that even
parents with poor parenting skills would not have the difficult experiences with their children
that she had:
I think they need to believe, believe what we’re telling them, not look at us as if that we’re making
this up on them. They make us feel as if we’re bad parents, do you know, and we could be the
worst parents in the world and we still wouldn’t be going through this.

“Experience of ASD/it’s a very labelling thing”

In this overarching theme participants talked about the experience of being told their chil-
dren’s diagnoses and how the timing of the diagnosis impacted on their experience of finding
a school placement for the children. Being told that their children had ASD signified a
life-changing event for some participants, introducing them suddenly to a new world of
special needs and special education. This was compounded by the timing of the diagnosis,
which in some cases left little time to find an appropriate school placement. Catherine
describes the shock of hearing about Chloe’s diagnosis:
When they actually tell you … it still comes as a bit of a blow … it’s like “Oh God” … you’re like:
“What am I going to do?” You kind of see things slipping away and little things … you know,
it’s hard to explain because I think you think the worst … because we knew nothing about it,
you know, and they just started talking about special classes and … that comes as a bit of a …
shock going “Oh my God” … you start thinking all these horrible things that will happen which
might never happen.
Participants talked about what ASD meant to them and to other people and how differently
their children could be perceived by others:
It’s hard for us sometimes when people are telling us that she is not that far advanced or … she
should be doing this and she should be doing that because a lot of the time we just don’t see
anything … there’s nothing wrong with her to us … . (Tony)
Other people in participants’ lives often discounted the child’s diagnosis, maintaining that
either the child needed to be disciplined or did not have ASD because they did not fit a
certain profile. Maeve spoke about having to grapple with other people’s constructions of
the condition:
And I thought “Not all autistic children are like that”. They’re not, they’re very different. That’s
why they’ve got a spectrum.
Stigma arose as a significant concern for some participants in relation to the child’s diagnosis.
Hannah talked about a need for secrecy around the diagnosis and her fear that her child
would be socially excluded because of the stigma around ASD:
 Educational Psychology in Practice   253

Because he’s so … high functioning I really want him to fit in … we told our neighbours … and
we’d have family; no one else really knows because I … don’t want the stigma of they … won’t
invite him to playdates now or he could be excluded.

“Preparing for school and feelings about the future”

This overarching theme reflected the participants’ attempts to find the right school place-
ment for their children. For some, there appeared to be an immediate pressure to look for
a suitable school placement following the child’s diagnosis; this gave little time to process
the news of the diagnosis. Olivia described how life changed with the news of Cormac’s
diagnosis:
We went from thinking he just had sensory processing disorder then to going: “Do we have to
send him to a special school?” within a week … we didn’t even have time for it to sit to go “Right”.
For some participants delays in receiving the child’s diagnosis resulted in missed educational
opportunities. Participants put a lot of thought into where their children would go to school,
their choices being impacted upon by the information they had and the availability of suit-
able placements. Participants valued support from professionals. It was notable that in all
cases, participants were satisfied with the final choice of placement despite their difficulties
in sourcing places:
So I think this is perfect for him, you know, the small school, it’s just what he needs. You can
even see in everything – he’s just so confident now since he’s starting and he’s talking with his
friends. (Hannah)
Participants commented on their desire to communicate with teaching staff, as Hannah
describes in the following extract:
I’m dying to go in and talk to the teacher but I’m saying just leave him settle, you know, just take
a step back a while and if there’s a problem, they come to you. (Hannah)
In her interview, it was evident that Hannah did not want to be perceived as a pushy
parent.
Participants hoped their children would fit in wherever they went to school as Olivia
described in the following extract:
In the end I suppose a big thing for me is that … yeah, he’ll learn, but that he’ll cope around
people and make friends. And, I suppose just be able to be a typical little boy as much as he
can be. (Olivia)
It was notable that, in this study, participants listed the following qualities that they looked
for in school staff, most notably that they would be “nice”, “gentle” and “kind”.

Discussion
The aim of the present study was to explore the experiences of parents whose children with
ASD were starting primary school. The research literature suggested that this is a difficult
time for children with ASD and their families as they negotiate the educational system, try
to adjust to the changes starting school brings, and get to know new people and systems
(Forest et al., 2004; Lilley, 2012; Miles, 2012; Parsons et al., 2009; Quintero & McIntyre, 2011;
Weiss & Pearson, 2012). Much of the research into transitions for children with ASD takes a
broad look at the child or family’s experience of transitions and has not focused exclusively
254    M. Connolly and I. Gersch

on the individual parent’s experience of the transition process. The present study represents
a departure from much of the previous research by yielding an in-depth insight into the
experiences and perceptions of parents.
Findings in this study corroborated and added to findings from previous studies; for
example, participants voiced their concern about stigma. Lilley (2012), in her exploration of
the experiences of mothers of children with autism in Australia, found that stigma from
professionals towards their children was a common experience for participants in her study.
Stigma of this kind was experienced by some, but not all, parents in the present study.
Participants described the experience of stigma from family members and they spoke of
their fears that their children would be stigmatised by peers and other parents leading to
social exclusion. Negative views of ASD led extended family members and professionals to
deny the existence of ASD in the cases of some of the children in this study. Participants
feared that the label had the power to change how people saw their children even though
the children had not changed by virtue of being diagnosed. Participants talked about the
tendency of some professionals to either overestimate the coping abilities of intellectually
able children or to underestimate the potential of less verbal children.
Participants in the present study talked about preparing for school and feelings about
the future. For a number of participants, finding the right place for their children was a source
of effort and anxiety. The impact of the timing of the diagnosis impacted on the child’s access
to appropriate places in the Irish context. Lilley talked of a “highly fractured educational
field” (2012, p. 518) where participants were conflicted and bewildered by contradictory
educational policies and practices. There is a sense of a similar situation for participants in
the present study, where support was not guaranteed for children with ASD who did not
have significant care needs and where parents worried about a lack of appropriate school
places. In the event, despite the timing of diagnoses, the apparent lack of appropriate places,
fears about lack of supports, and the seemingly ad hoc manner in which places became
available, all participants at the time of their interviews had found places for their children
which they felt were suitable. This echoed findings in the study by Parsons et al. (2009) in
which the majority of participants were positive about school placement.
Stoner et al. (2007) emphasised the importance of a child-centred focus on transitions.
Parsons et al. (2009) found that parents of children with ASD were significantly more likely
to report concern that staff had expertise and knowledge of ASD than parents of children
with other disabilities. In the current study, the child-centred nature of the transition was
bound up with the parents feeling understood themselves. As advocates for their children,
it was important that aspects of the transition were also parent-centred and that parents
felt heard.
Stoner et al. (2007) found that participants focused on horizontal transitions as these have
a significant impact on the lives of children with ASD. Horizontal transitions were not explic-
itly mentioned in the current study but participants did talk about their children’s difficulties
with horizontal transitions such as the children’s difficulties coping with change. Olivia found
that she had to support school staff by preparing and giving them information and materials
to support Cormac starting school and help him cope with horizontal transitions. Transition
practices discussed in the current study by all participants included visiting schools, provid-
ing information for the new school, and trying to prepare the children for the transition.
Participants in studies conducted by Stoner et al. (2007) and Miles (2012) identified com-
munication with school professionals as a vital link which facilitated preparation for the
 Educational Psychology in Practice   255

transition. Communication between preschool and kindergarten/school teachers was noted

to be an important element of the transition process (Forest et al., 2004; Quintero & McIntyre,
2011), though meetings involving teachers did not always materialise. Communication
between parents and professionals was a theme which was also identified in this study.
Maria and Olivia spoke of feeling that school staff listened to professionals more than they
listened to parents. There was a sense of needing to fight for their children’s rights at times,
whether to get understanding for the children, to get the right supports, or to get the right
school placement. Lilley (2014) spoke of the power differentials that participants experienced
in their interactions with professionals. Professionals in the present study had some power
over decisions made in relation to resource provision and access to school placements,
factors which seemed to be outside parental influence or control.
Participants spoke of their significant concerns about safety, social inclusion and bullying
which impacted on school choice. For some participants, getting the right school was bound
up with feelings that the child would manage and would get on better in future life.
Participants described the impact of their children’s diagnosis and behaviour on their lives
and, for a number of participants, life was difficult and stressful.
The bioecological model (Bronfenbrenner, 1986; Bronfenbrenner & Morris, 2006) has been
used as a theoretical framework in research on children’s transitions to school. Studies have
usually placed the child at the centre of the model within the microsystem of the family.
Russell (2005) used the ecological model to frame findings at four of the levels of interaction
(micro, meso, exo and macro), acknowledging the participants’ engagement in the different
contexts and processes of transition. In the present study, a different focus placed the parent
at the centre of the bioecological framework; parents were viewed as developing beings in
their own right. The bioecological model suited the purposes of the current study as phe-
nomenological considerations and the context in which people develop are both important
features of the model (Bronfenbrenner & Morris, 2006). The conceptualisation of a dynamic
interplay between subjective and objective experiences allowed participants’ concerns to
be put to the fore in this research; this facilitated an in-depth examination of participants’
experiences, feelings, and perceptions during the process of their children’s transitions to
school and their engagement with professionals and other people in their lives.
An example of how the bioecological model encompassed the interactions between
participants and their context is depicted in the participants’ experience of stigma and the
feelings it engendered. These experiences could be said to relate to the proximal processes
of Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological model (Bronfenbrenner & Morris, 2006); proximal pro-
cesses being interactions between the individual and activities or others in the immediate
environment. Participants were concerned about stigma and other people’s perceptions of
ASD. Stigma could be seen to impact on the relationships that some participants had with
family members and with others in the community, occurring at the level of the microsystem
(within their own family of origin) and the mesosystem (in their relationships with profes-
sionals and others). Stigma was explored at the macrosystemic level by Lilley (2012) who
maintained there was an ongoing debate in society about whether or not people with
disabilities were still subject to stigma.
This research shows some of the effects of the transition process on parents, the child’s
primary carers and advocates. It endorses existing practices that support children with ASD
and their families around the transition to primary school. In the Republic of Ireland, the
Special Education Support Service (SESS) which operates under the Department of Education
256    M. Connolly and I. Gersch

and Skills (DES), acknowledges the importance of including parents in the transition process
in their continuing professional development programme for teachers to support children
with autism as they transition through education. The transition toolkit developed by Stobart
(2012) offers practical strategies to parents and professionals to support children with ASD
starting school. The Inclusion Development Programme (AET, 2009), an interactive resource
for educational professionals, advocates working closely with parents to ensure successful
inclusion for children with ASD. In 2012, the All Party Parliamentary Group on Autism pub-
lished a report, Reforming the System for Children with Autism (National Autistic Society
[NAS], 2012), which found that fewer than half of parents and young people interviewed
thought they had enough involvement in shaping the support the child got at school; 30%
of teachers agreed; 94% of parents thought they should be more involved in school. This
survey shows that more needs to be done from the parental perspective to include parents
in their children’s education.

Limitations
This study was conducted on a small scale with a purposively selected, homogeneous sam-
ple. The method used, IPA, is necessarily subjective and therefore claims cannot be made to
generalisability or applicability to other populations. Nevertheless, IPA is considered a valid
psychological research method, accessing individual experiences with the aim of building
up a case by case analysis of particular psychological phenomena. The authors attempted
to minimise subjectivity by adopting a rigorous approach to reflexivity, the process by which
the researcher attempts to acknowledge their own role in data collection and interpretation.
Participants’ accounts were transcribed verbatim and attempts were made to stay close to
the intended meaning of the text in analysis and reporting.

Further research questions identified

An interesting finding from this study was the gap revealed in the literature around what is
known about the experiences of parents of typically developing children who are starting
school. Finding out about the experiences of these parents would be a suitable topic for
further research. Further studies could usefully explore the experiences of parents of children
with other disabilities who are starting school. A direct comparison between the experiences
of parents of children with ASD and parents of children who do not have ASD would be
worthy of investigation.

Relevance to the work of an EP

An exploration of parents’ perceptions and feelings around their child with ASD starting
primary school is an area that merits analysis as it is important for professionals, service
providers, and policy-makers to be aware of the views and experiences of this distinct
population.
It has been established that the start of school is a time of major importance for all chil-
dren, including children with ASD. The findings in this study are relevant to EPs as they have
a potentially key role in supporting children with ASD starting school. Conn-Powers et al.
(1990) viewed the school psychologist as an important team leader in supporting
 Educational Psychology in Practice   257

kindergarten transition for children with special needs. They saw a need for a school transi-
tion facilitator who would support children and their families during transition, liaise between
early education and formal school settings, coordinate transition planning, and ensure the
goals and priorities of the family were included in the process. While EPs are ideally placed
to incorporate the perspectives of parents in the transition process, constraints on their time
mean that they may not be able to perform such roles. EPs could, however, disseminate
research findings, such as those in the present study, that illustrate the perceptions of parents
and could be involved in facilitating other professionals in performing the role of keyworker
for parents in the transition process.

Implications for EPs, other professionals and relevant agencies

A number of implications arise from the findings in this study:

1. Transitions to school for children with ASD should be parent and child-centred

Parents should be central in the transition process. They are key informants and advocates;
their intimate knowledge and views should be valued.

2. Professionals should be aware of the feelings parents have about their children start-
ing school

Parents may be experiencing a multitude of feelings, for example, worry, uncertainty, fear,
relief and hope.

3. Professionals should be aware of the difficulty and uncertainty parents face in choos-
ing and finding appropriate school placements for their children

The child’s diagnosis with ASD may entail a sudden entry into an unfamiliar world of
special education. Parents need information relating to the school system, available
support and placement options. Parents may not have told many others about the child’s
diagnosis so telling school staff may be a big step for them. The impact of stigma and
fear of bullying and exclusion can cause worry and can impact on parents’ choice of
school placement.

4. Professionals should be sensitive to the parents’ considerations in choosing school

placements
Parents worry about their children’s social skills and their ability to fit in with other children
Social achievement may be more of a concern than academic achievement.

5. Professionals should be aware of power differentials with parents

Parents can find the experience of dealing with professionals intimidating and unnerving.
School staff members who are “nice”, “gentle”, and “kind” inspire parents with confidence and
hope.

6. School staff should consider meeting with parents before and after the transition

It would be useful for school staff to meet with parents before and after the transition to
school to discuss concerns and strategies, for example, around horizontal transitions and to
put support in place to ease the vertical transition.
258    M. Connolly and I. Gersch

7. Key liaison person

Parents value access to, and communication with, educational staff. A key person should
have the role of making sure parents are consulted and included in transition planning and
process.

8. Professionals should understand the complexity of the lives of parents of children

with ASD

In this study, three of the participants had older children with ASD. Having more than
one child with a disability can increase the challenges parents face. It would be useful for
professionals to be aware of the unseen difficulties that many parents experience.

Concluding comments
Given that a literature search on the children with ASD starting school revealed a dearth of
information on parents’ unique perspectives on the topic, it is hoped that the findings from
this study will highlight the experiences and perceptions of parents, thereby informing prac-
tice to improve their experiences of their children’s transition to school and foster smoother
transitions.

Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank the participants without whom this study would not have been pos-
sible. They have generously shared key insights into their world and the authors hope they have done
their stories justice. The authors would like to thank all their colleagues who supported the study and
gave their advice. Thanks are also due to management and staff in the Brothers of Charity (BOC) and
the other services who supported and enabled this research.

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Appendix
Interview schedule
I’d like to hear about your experiences, as a parent of a small child with ASD. I’m interested your expe-
riences and feelings about your child starting school.

1. Can you tell me something about your little one with ASD?
What kind of things does (s)he like to do?
Is (s)he in preschool?
How is (s)he getting on there?
2. Have you chosen a primary school for her/him?
What was choosing a place like?
What kind of place is it?
Will (s)he be getting supports in school when (s)he starts?
3. What things are important for you around her/his education?
What would you like her/ him to get out of school?
4. What do you think (s)he feels about starting school?
5. What are your feelings about her/him starting school?
6. Do you feel the experience is different for parents of children who have ASD and parents of
children who don’t?
7. What advice would you give to other parents in this situation?
8. What would you like the teachers and others involved to know?
9. Have I missed anything important?