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 INTRODUCTION
CQ WORLD! CQ WORLD! CQ WORLD! ... This is W----; W----; W----; ... Over!

If you've read this far, you may have already started on the road toward making that "call"
a reality for yourself!

Yes! Amateur radio is fascinating! You can talk to the world from your "hamshack". You
will meet new friends in Radio Clubs and in "Amateur Radio Nets". You will "handle
traffic" and relay messages via the magic of radio. You may sometime be involved in
saving lives by providing emergency communications during a natural disaster, or after an
accident. In addition, it is almost a "sure-fire" thing that once you have your Ham ticket,
you'll frequently enjoy the art of "rag -chewing" (just talking with other amateur operators
from all over, on the air). Perhaps you'll be the type who enjoys the aspect of experimen-
tation and building your own electronic equipment. Whatever "your thing" you'll
. . .

find that Amateur Radio is truly fun! fascinating! and a fantastic hobby.
In this PROGRAMMED STYLE book, you will find that learning is easy! We don't want to
imply that learning comes without effort but we know that you'll find that learning
. . .

in "digestible bits" and getting virtually "instant feedback" as to whether you are grasping
the key ideas, will be very helpful to your learning process.

The basic philosophy of the book is to have you UNDERSTAND CONCEPTS RATHER THAN
MEMORIZE A GROCERY LIST OF FACTS! Wherever it is possible to have you learn to
understand key principles and concepts, rather than have you simply memorize a fact .. .

we will do it!

Before we show you "how to use" the book ...

take a look at the pictures below of just
a few of the many available Amateur Radio activities that you will be able to participate
in after you've studied this book. We hope these will inspire you to jump into the learning
experiences of this book ...
get your Amateur Radio license ...
and truly travel the road
"from 5 watts ... to ...

,
1000 watts!
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®Copyright 1974, Radio Shack, A Tandy Corporation Company, Fort Worth, Texas 76109 PRINTED IN U.S.A.

2
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ien;ae aq ueo sasioJaxa ay; jo Auew awos arnowd o; yspM Jo ;uawdpnba pue sued
opuoi;oala opseq aney noA ;p 'Janannoy 'uopyse; ipouad pue Jaded e up sasiomaxa ay; ~pad
ueo noA aigeipene sp ;uawdpnba ou ;i sAeM oM; 40 Jay;pa up 6upApn;s Jo; pasn aq
ueo swaigoJd pue saspoJaxa aoi;oeJd ay; ley; sp nooq ay; 40 anneal 6up;saJa;up AJan Jay;ouy
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Jo; Jeadde o;a 'sweJ6eip 'slmeyo 'sain;opd yopyM up uwnloo uoi;ewJo;up leuop;pppe
ue sp Z uwnio0 'Alie;uappoui ;p MOura ;,uppp pue alayMawos ;no passpw noA asneoaq
iepialew;o s;uaw6as a6ny Apn;sap o; paau noAley; wea4suMop AeM ;no 6uppup; saieu
-iwiia spyl 6uppaaooud alo;aq papaau 6uppue;sJapun ay; lab op noA ley; ainsse o; Iepalew
ay; up pieMraoeg ;unowe a;eudojdde ue ;iasinoA aloAoal Ala;eppawwp ueo noA 'ieua;ew
;o awei; Jeinopmed e pue;sJapun ;ou ppp noA ;p ley; sp anbpuyoa; raoegpaa;
lue;sup
ay; 40 A;neag a 4 ti abed aas 'aoinap spy; asn o; Moy uo suojloanp pa;ensnllp mod
leua;ew 6upuJeai ay; y6noJy; ssai6oid noA se nooq ay; 40 suwnloo pe;upid ay; uMop arms
noA;ey; aopnap Janoo ai13pl e sp sp41 ..1:13nO0 SS31:1901:id 433ININV:t1OOFId., algenow e
6upsn Aq asuodsai JnoA >payo Ala;eppawwp ueo noA £ uwnioo up ;up0draoayo e sueaw
Aq AeM ieop;oeid e up ip iieoaa o; Jo 'uopiewio;up spy; asn o; parase uay; L uwnioo up
uopletwo;up 40 (dais ai6ups) aweJ; e uani6 ame noA s;pg aigp;saópp news olup uaraoJq
si leua;ew 341 ley; sp
mooq spy; up uop;e;uasaJd ay; ;noge aop;ou IlonoA 6uiy; ;sn; 041
;e~; 6upop pue 6upuJeai pue 6upwJo;Jad pue
6upApn;s e o;w lp paia;ie "am aseo spy; up ;nq eapp awes a4; ;eyMawos a;eJod
-looup o; pa;dwane "am mooq spy; up Mapnaa 'e;poad 'peaa :ame 6upuJeal;o sal-£ 041
)IOOB 3H1 1fO8d
 USING THE "PROGRAMMED PROGRESS COVER"
Below is a sample of the "three -column" approach used in this book. An example is given
of how the "cover" is used to "hide the answer" for a checkpoint until you've had time
to give your answer ... then, of course, you would simply move the cover downward to
reveal the correct answer . . . and to check yourself. To make a Programmed
Progress Cover, just cut a thin piece of cardboard, about 11" wide by 2-4" high;
then use it as illustrated.

INFORMATION REFERENCE CHECKPOINTS

Ohm's Law states that electrical current is I)Illl:(:'I'I,Y related

to Voltage. 'Phis means that if the applied voltage In a given
electrical circuit is doubled . Ihen, the circuit current will
. .

double.
VOLTAGE CHECKPOINT:
SOURCE

If the voltage input In the circuit shown

in column 2 were tripled ... what would
happen Io the circuit current.?

ANSWERS:
"PROGRAMMED PROGRESS COVER" ll would triple!
Note: "increase" would also be a good
answer, but "triple" is a more precise
answer.

MOVE COVER DOWN

AS YOU PROGRESS!

s
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 Chapter 1

LEARNING THE INTERNATIONAL MORSE CODE

A NEW LANGUAGE
Radiotelegraph code is different language ... but it's a universal language! Fortunately, code
a
is not as as other languages. Thank goodness, there's no parts of speech,
difficult to learn
idioms, or conjugation of verbs to worry about. It really boils down to simply learning some
"sound patterns."

Because it is necessary to learn to identify "sound patterns" ...

THE ONLY WAY TO PROP-
ERLY LEARN CODE IS BY SOUND . . . AND BY SOUND ONLY! DON'T MEMORIZE
WRITTEN CODE CHARTS!

For this reason we highly recommend that you practice the sounds AT EVERY OPPOR-
TUNITY by ...

INFORMATION

SIMULATING THE SOUNDS OF CODE

Before we begin to show you these "patterns in sound" mentioned
earlier-let's look at a simple method of simulating code -like sounds.
Incidentally, we want to emphasize that you should learn sound pat-
terns ... that is, complete character sounds, rather than individual
dots or dashes. In fact it is very interesting to note that as one becomes
more and more proficient in code, he not only hears complete
characters (letters, numbers or punctuation marks), hut, whole -word
sound patterns. Really expert code men can hear patterns far in ex-
cess of single words. This last level of proficiency is really not needed
for passing Amateur License exams, but many hams do like code so
much that they achieve this by on -the -air experience.

For the time being, let's learn how we simulate dots and dashes.

A series of dots can be simulated by voice by a rapid repetition of

the syllable "di" ... pronounced like the first part of the word did.
This series of "di's" should all be run together in a staccato string.
Try saying "di-di-di-dit." Notice that the last syllable has a "t"
attached, denoting the end of the series. Try a string of 10, and
keep trying until you can say them smoothly run together with
a staccato, even repetition of each syllable. Don't get discouraged,
you'll have a "trained tongue" with just a little practice.
Try some more "di's" -"di-di-di-di-di-di-drt". Don't worry about
sounding silly-this is one of the best ways to get used to the
"sound of code". Practice some more-OUT LOUD!
6
 L
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 INFORMATION REFERENCE & DATA CHECKPOINTS
To help you gel started. here are some code exercises for you. Initial Exercise: (sound it . . . then say the
Try lo accent the dahs ...
allow 3 units of time between characters leper-out loud.)
... and 7 units of lime between "groups''.
dah T; dah T; dah T; dah T; dah T;
dah 'I'; dah T; dah T: dah T; dah T.

di-di-di-dit H; di-di-di-dit H;
di-di-di-dit H; di-di-di-dit H;
di-di-di-dit H; di-di-di-dit I -I;
di-di-di-dit -I; I di-di-di-dit H:
di-di-di-dit II; di-di-di-dil I -I. CHECKPOINT
dit E; dit E: dit E; dit E; dit
dit E: dit E; dit I?; dit I?; dit E.
Letter Groups Exercise:
di-dah-dii N; di-dah-dit R: Say the sound you read for each character
di-dah-dii R; di-dah-dit N: . . then, write down the letter you think
.

di-dah-dit R: di-dah-dil N: it is, and when you've finished writing down

di-dah-dit R: di-dah-dil It; the groups of letters check yourself
. . .

di-dah-dit R: di-dah-dil R. using the "Instant Feedback Cover" as

appropriate.
dah-dah-dah O: dah-dah-dah O:
dah-dah-dah O; dah-dah-dah O; 1st: dit dab di-dah-dit
dah-dah-dah O: dah-dah-dah O; dah-dah-dah dil
dah-dah-dah O; dah-dah-dah O: 2nd: di-di-di-dit di-di-di-dit dil
dah-dah-dah O; dah-dah-dah O. dah dah-dah-dah
3rd: dit di-dah-dit dah-dah-dah
Second Exercise: (say the sound . . . then dab di-di-di-dil
the letter. etc.) 4th: dah-dah-dah di-dah-dit dit
di-di-di-dit dab
dah dah 'I': di-dah-dil N: 5th: dit dab di-dah-dit di-dah-dit
di-dah-dil R: dit I?; dil E: dah
If you can gel a frien(I \alto can "wart'. these letters anti groups
di-dah-dil R; dab T; di-dah-dit R; 6th: dah-dah-dah dit di-di-di-dit
to you; either by the di-dah method. or with a code practice oscillator,
dil E: dah 'I'; dil E: dit E: di-di-di-dit dab
after you have thoroughly learned the letters by "didahing'' to 7th: dab dab dah-dah-dah
yourself. you will find it quite helpful as receiving practice. dah-dah-dah O: dah-dah-dah O:
di-di-di-dii
H: di-di-di-dii -I; I
dah-dah-dah dit
dah-dah-dah O; di-di-di-dil II; 8th: di-dah-dit dah di-di-di-dit
For most people. receiving code takes much more initial practice
dah T; di-di-di-dil 1-I; dan-dah-dah O: dah-dah-dah di-dah-dit
than sending code. We'll teach you to send ;i little later. Right 9th: dah di-di-di-dit dit
now. concentrate on learning Io hear the sound patterns for each di-dah-dil N; di-dah-dii N:
di-di-di-dii II; (lit I;: dil E; di-dah-dit dah-dah-dah
character so no matter xvhere it "appears" in a group of
. . .

di-dah-dit R; dab 'I': di-dah-dil N: 1uth: di-di-di-dit di-dah-dii

code characters .you automatically say
. or write down
.
dah-dah-dah dii dit
dah-dah-dah O; di-di-di-dil H; dit
.

K.
the correct letter when you hear its sound pattern.
ANSWERS:
1s1: ETROE 6th: OEHHT
2nd: HHETO 7th: TTOOF.
3rd: ERO')'H 8th: RTHOR
4th: OREHT 9th: THERO
5th: ETRRT 10th: HROEE

8
 6
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O uu!I;1u!p.luoa s11!ys anilelncl!ur.w put! anliu1)l .111.1 'aria Itouli n1)<
1!P an!I oI ¡Ono auo sou ¡MoM uo os pue '.1aI)e.tey) Ixau ayI gum
paa)oad uayl Allaa.t.toa I! papunos noA 1! aas o1 ySnoua .tel Isnl
yep u."up ..1a.\(r,) 1a11(Ipa):1 1ll11suI.. a111 :1A0111 u)tll .1o1a11.n:ya
.1a1)e.leya :ull nori .
1
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N .1s!a.1.1" .1n.1
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1,11011 nori I11111 .ía11)(1 si! lulucl sn(1 111 T1'1 u1 -Á.1>I e litlisn ua\a
lnntll1.11 .1s1a.1.1\) a(Ll-,Yulpuas 11 no, amtY, pm: pu(11)du a)u)nllos
1NIOd)133H3 sttll u.1nl sasmdaxa .u1.<1-1fu!n!))a.1 e s! tulue.nu si! Limo!)
Iu11!.1.\i u,(11l ptinns at11 Iu1.i11.n1 s1t11 ltassan a.\ 1a1 ñ11u1 nori sv
s1u.lsa.t(la.1 pinos .ull
.1.(Ia11.ietl) ,(yl lo yu!tIl ñ11r.)!Ieulolne nuri . .1a1)11.letla 1! .lo punus all
Y,ui.n!a11 u,(y.tt 1111. WO 1:11!.111 01 51 ;tu1t11 1.111:t0 .111 31a . 1a111
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no. II i.(s1a.1a.1 sclno.l,) dal l('I.. I5.111 .inu, uu up nori in!) A1oII
 INFORMATION REFERENCE & DATA CHECKPOINTS
Another practice hint (if you are fortunate enough to own a shortwave
receiver) is to listen to a "code station" and see if you can pick
out the first group characters you have learned. If you are careful
to choose a station that is sending good "clean" code (proper
spacing and timing), you will find this great sport and excellent
practice. Incidentally, if you are considering buying a SW receiver,
you might go down to the nearest Radio Shack store anti look
SECOND GROUP OF
over the variety they have. Generally you will find that they have RANDOM CHARACTERS
an economical receiver that will be excellent for learning code
and as a first ham station receiver'. If this is not practical at dah-dah = M
this time, perhaps you can find a friend who has a receiver that dah-dit = N
you can listen to. di-dah-di-dit = I.
di-di-dah-dit = F
We'll say it again . . the secret of learning code is practice, di-dah = A
practice, practice. di-dit = I
dah-di-dah-dit = C
If you've got the first group of letters clown so there is no difficulty
Note: Remember lo practice each character
recognizing their sound patterns-then proceed with the next group
over and over saying the sound first, then
we'll introduce you to now. If you still need practice on the first writing and/or pronouncing the letter until
group-then "recycle" yourself as required.
you know its sound pattern then move
. . .

on to the next one. To refresh your memory

on how this is done, refer back to the initial
exercise for the "FIRST CROUP OF RANDOM
CHARAC'T'ERS" on page 7. CHECKPOINT
All right! Let's try a "letter groups" exercise for this second group
of characters.
Say the sound you read for each character
. .then write down the letter you think
it is. When yuu'\e finished writing down
the groups of letters . check yourself
. .

by using the "Instant Feedback Cover" as

appropriate.

LETTER GROUPS EXERCISE

1st: dah-dah dah-dah dah-dit
dah-dit di-dah-di-dit
2nd: di-di-dah-dit di-di-dah-dit
di-dah-di-dit di-dah di-dit
3rd: dah-di-dah-dit dah-di-dah-dit
di-dah di-dah di-dit
4th: di-dah-di-dit di-dah-di-dit
dah-dit di-dah dah-dit
5th: dah-di-dah-dit dah-di-dah-dit
dah-di-dah-dit dah-di-dah-dit
dah-di-dah-dit
6th: di-dit di-dit di-di-dah-dit
di-dah-di-dit dah-dit
7th: dah-dah di-dah dah-di-dah-dit
di-dit di-dah-di-dit

10
 11
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1
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l
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 INFORMATION REFERENCE & DATA CHECKPOINTS
9th: di-di-dah-dit di-dah di-dit dah
di-di-di-dit
dah-di-dah-dit di-dah-di-dit dit
di-dah di-dah-dit
di-dah-dit di-dah dah dit
10th: dah-dah dit di-dah dah-dit
di-dah-di-dit di-dah dah dit di-dah-dit
dah-di-dah-dit di-dah-dit dit di-dah
dah dit
ANSWERS:
1st: THE FAT MAN
2nd: CAN CAM RAT
3rd: MAT LATE HIT
How did your first encounter with "real words" go? As you can 4th: ROME THERE FEEL
see, with a little ingenuity, you can develop other word lists using 5th: HOME TALL NAME
the letters from the first two groups you've learned for further 6th: THEIR OR MOON
practice. 7th: MOTHER FATHER HEAT
8th: THREE FEAR ROLL
Let's move on to our third group of random letters now. 9th: FAITH CLEAR RATE
10th: MEAN LATER CREATE

Time to try a "letter groups" exercise for this third group of THIRD GROUP OF
characters. CHECKPOINT
RANDOM CHARACTERS
di-di-dit = S
di-dah-dah = W Use the usual procedure here! That is: say
dah-di-di-dit = 13 the sound . . . then write clown the letter
dah-di-dit = I) you think it is. After completing the exercise.
dah-dah-dit = G check yourself with the "Instant Feedback
dah-di-dah-dah = Y Cover".
dah-dah-di-dah = Q
THIRD LETTER GROUPS
Note: Remember to say the sound (out loud), EXERCISE
then the letter-until you know its sound
pattern . then move on to the next
. .
1st: di-di-dit di-dah-dah di-di-dit
dah-dah-dit di-di-dit
. .

and so on.
2nd: di-dah-dah dah-dah-dit
di-dah-dah di-di-dit
dah-di-di-dit
3rd: dah-di-di-dit dah-di-dit
dah-di-di-dit dah-di-dit
dah-di-di-dit
4th: dah-di-dit dah-di-di-dit
dah-di-dah-dah dah-dah-di-dah
dah-di-dah-dah
51 h: di-dah-dah dah-dah-dit
dah-dah-dit di-dah-dah
dah-dah-di-dah
12
 Cl
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.
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 INFORMATION REFERENCE & DATA CHECKPOINTS
CHECKPOINT
FOURTH LETTER GROUPS
EXERCISE
1st: di-dah-dah-dah di-dah-dah-dit
di-dah-dah-dit di-dah-dah-dah
dah-di-dah
2nd: dah-di-dah di-dah-dah-dit
dah-di-di-dah dah-di-di-dah
di-dah-dah-dit
3rd: di-dah-dah-dah di-dah-dah-dit
dah-di-dah dah-di-di-dah
dah-di-dah
4th: di-di-dah di-di-di-dah di-di-dah
di-di-di-dah di-di-dah
5th: di-di-di-dah di-dah-dah-dit
dah-di-dah di-dah-dah-dah
di-di-dah
6th: di-di-di-dah di-di-dah
dah-dah-di-dit dah-dah-di-dit
dah-dah-di-dit
7th: dah-dah-di-dit dah-di-di-dah
dah-di-di-dah dah-dah-di-dit
di-dah-dah-dah
8th: di-dah-dah-dit dah-di-dah
di-di-di-dah di-dah-dah-dit
dah-di-dah
9th: di-dah-dah-dit dah-dah-di-dit
di-di-dah di-di-dah
di-dah-dah-dah
10th: dah-di-dah di-dah-dah-dit
di-di-dah di-di-di-dah
dah-di-di-dah
ANSWERS:
1st: JPPJK 6th: VUZZZ
2nd: KPXXP 7th: ZXXZJ
3rd: JPKXK 8th: PKVPK
4th: UVUVU 9th: PZUUJ
5th: VPKJU 10th: KPUVX

Ilope you did well on this exercise. You have now learned the
twenty six letters in the alphabet. just for good measure, we suggest
that you try the sending and receiving practice using the "Instant
Feedback Cover" technique on letter groups 3 and 4, just as you
did for groups 1 and 2. After you are sure you have all twenty
six letter sound patterns pretty svell in mind, we want you to
try the "mixed code groups" practice in the exercise shown in
the third column. When you're ready ... give it a try.

14
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9PP-4°P-!P 4eP1P-!P
1!P -!p -!P
35Hl03 9:111Wf)38 3003 bVlM1VNN31N1. v> >r
4eP-!P-4eP-11eP 4eP-4eP-4eP ~
4e13-4eP 4eP-!P-4eP :puZ
l!P-!P 1!P-4eP-4eP
1!P 1!P-4e13-!P-4eP 4eP1P :1st
3SI31:13X3 Sdf1O1:19 3a03
a3XI1A1 138VHd1V 1t11O1
 INFORMATION
How did it go? You should have detected from this exercise the
letters you are weak on. You should, of course, work on your
weak ones until you have them as well as the others. Let's say
again, the secret is PRAC'T'ICE! PRAC'T'ICE! PRAC'T'ICE! "Off the
air" practice in receiving is really the best providing you
. .
listen to a station sending "clean" code. The best vvay Io do this
at this point in your learning process is to listen to some of station
W1AW's code practice transmissions.
If you don't have a receiver that will receive these frequencies
you might want to run down to your nearest Radio Shack and
look over their selection. As we said before .the hest practice
. .
in the world is listening to the sounds . and listening to
. .
them being well sent . . so get a receiver, or the use of one
. Wednesday. and Friday and 9:30 P.M. on
if al all possible. Take advantage of the premium practice available
from W IAW. You'll find that you will progress much faster in
code if you'll do this. Good luck!
As you listen to radio stations sending code, you will discover
that they send other characters than just the 26 letters in the
alphabet. Pur that reason, let's move into the area of learning
the numbers and important punctuation. By the time you learn
these if you have been faithfully practicing you should
be ready In take the Novice Class License Code lest.
Here's the numbers study list. See if you can determine the unique
pattern of sounds that were developed for communicating the
numbers via code.
Did you catch the logical pattern that was developed for the num-
bers? WATCH OUT 't'I-IOl1Gl-l! The temptation is going to be to
"count" the dits or dabs .then try and think out which of
. .
the numbers it is. You must learn to hear the TO'T'AL CHARAC'I'I;R
SOUND as one unique sound you recognize, and do no start counting
the elements which make up a character.
16
REFERENCE & DATA CHECKPOINTS
W1AW CODE PRACTICE
. SCHEDULE
Practice is transmitted three times a day
during the weekdays and twice a day on
the weekends. On weekdays, the times are
9:00 A.M. NS'I', 7:30 P.M. EST and 9:30 P.M.
EST, and on weekends the P.M. schedules
are maintained. For the beginner, the best
times for listening are: 9:00 A.M. Monday.
Sundays, Tuesdays, Thursdays, and Satur-
days. At these times W1AW sends practice
at speeds of 5, 7'/2, 10, 13, 20 and 25 WPM
(words per minute). As you progress you
will find that the 7:30 schedule EVERY night
is a good one as they send al 10. 13 and
15 WPM for practice purposes. All these
transmissions are made simultaneously on
the following frequencies: 1805, 3580, 7080,
14,080, 21,080, 28,080, 50,080 and 145,588
kHz. (If your receiver dial is calibrated in
Megacycles, Mc., or Megahertz, MHz., simply
put the decimal point in the above named
. . . frequencies BACK three places from the right.
Poi' example 14,080 kHz = 14.08 Mc. or MHz.)
NUMBERS
di-dah-dah-dah-dah = 1
di-di-dah-dah-dah = 2
di-di-di-dah-dah = 3
di-di-di-di-dah = 4
di-di-di-di-dil = 5
dah-di-di-di-dit = 6
dah-dah-di-di-dit = 7
dah-dah-dah-di-dit = 8
dah-dah-dah-dah-dit = 9
dah-dah-dah-dah-dah = (this is the way
we write zero tu avoid confusion with the
letter 0)
 Ll
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-enl:lund puas
u011nniutind anlaaa.l
01 paJIl1I)aJ
al if nu! noif ',1.1111
pa.I!nbaJ al IOU 01

'
II!M nOrf Isal iiU!n!aDa.I awn) asuaall SSV IJ
íIJI!\ON 1)41 Un into JanaMOy 'iftlJOMaloti
SI IfeM Il:nsn ayI asayl a:l!oaeJd :aloN
II
OI.IeUI 'tints
leuolie!p) 2IV11
NOI,I.3V21.4 = I!P-IIPP-!P'!1)-4PP
UnISSIwSUnJ1
JO) >INOM
:IO (IN:I = 4eP1P-IIPP-!P1P1P
)2IV Sl'. t1:)Il1.IM
-SOW !I:111105)
:)VSS:I
:10 (IN;1 = I!P-4eP-!P-4PP-!1)
),LÚ SP. UaIIIJM
MU] I iaUlI1S)
I I5V(I
:I'I1t110(1 = 4eP-!P-!P-!P-4PP
>2IVIN
NOI.LS:11 = I!3-!P-4eP-40P-!P-!1)
VW1N0J =
vOI oenlaund
4PP-4eP-!P-!P-4PP-4PP
(I0I21:IcI = 4PP1P-40P-!13-4PIP-!P
pasn flluanhe.IJ aiow ayo JO awns 1ulurnal 'sI ono puny
in (1uI lxau ayI Uo paaaoJd '(IN(lOS A8 ,,.Ialndwo:) le:)!Woloty
!u0/< Ui p.)liotr.Ie:) Ham sJagwnu ay' aney n0Á a.lns ale noñ uatM
S3Jt/SS3W 3003 NI a3Sf1
JIINOWW00 N011vfllONfld weyl .IuJ punos ale!JdOJdde
ayI atos!yM JO 'tes 'Uo!ysei wopueJ e UI s.laywnu ato lP Wu!)lool
al!y.nn pun=. Jann,) )iiegpaaa oueosul ayl y1!M spunos ayl ñu!Jan03
ñy a:)!i:n'Jd ,liwpuas 01 paa:)uJd uayl sueaw I! noonuMop
a1iJM uayo ')unos at Ifes aI Ilann sJa1:)eJey:) ayo Ile Mou)i
nnA t!Iun 'IsJ!J a:)!o:)eJd xuinla:)a.I,. Jo a.Inpa:w.ui lensn ayl asf1
 Code Receiving Checkout-Conglomerate of Straight Text, Mixed Ciphers, Numbers and Punctuation
Line 1-dah di-di-di-dit di-dit Line 19-di-di-di-dit di-dah Line 36-di-di-dah di-dah-dit di-di-dit Line 56-dah-di-dah-dit dah-dah-di-dah
di-di-dit di-dit di-di-dit di-di-di-dah dit di-dah-dah-dit dit dit dah-dah di-dah dah-di-dit
Line 2-di-dah di-di-dah dah-dit Line 20-dah-di-dit dah-dah-dah dah-di-dit dit
di-dit dah-dah-di-dah dah-dit dit di-dah dah-dit Line 37-di-dah-di-dah-di-dah Line 57-dah-dah-dah-dah-dit
di-di-dah dit Line 21-dit dah-di-di-dah dah-dah-di-dah dah-dah-dah-di-dit
Line 3-dah-di-dah-dit dah-dah-dah dah-di-dah-dit dit di-di-dah-dah-dah dah-dah-di-di-dit
dah-dit dah-dah-dit di-dah-di-dit di-dah-di-dit Line 38-di-di-di-di-dit Line 58-dah-dah-dah di-di-dah dah
di-dah-di-dit Line 22-dit dah-dit dah dah-dah-dah-dah-dah di-dah-dah dit di-dah-di-dit
Line 4-dah-dah-dah dah-dah dit di-dah-dah-dah dah-dah-dah dah-di-di-dit dab Line 59-di-dah-di-dit dah-dah-dah
di-dah-dit di-dah dah dah-di-di-dit Line 39-dah-dah di-dah-dah-dit dah-dit dah di-di-di-dit
di-dit Line 23-dah-dah-dah di-di-dah-dit di-di-dit di-di-di-dah-dah di-dit
Line 5-dah-dah-dah dah-dit di-dah-di-dit dit di-dah dah-dah Line 60-di-di-dit dah-di-dah-dit
dah-dah-dah di-di-dah-dit di-dah-dit Line 40-dah-di-di-di-dit di-di-di-dit dit
Line 6-di-dah-dah dah-dah-dah Line 24-dah-dit di-dit dah-dit di-dah-dah-dah dah-di-di-di-dah dah-di-dah-dit
di-dah-dit dah-di-dit dah-dah-dit dah di-di-di-dit Line 41-di-dah-di-dah-dit dah dah-dit Line 61-dah-di-dah dah-dah-dah
di-di-dit dit dah-di-di-dah di-di-dah dah
Line 7-dah-dah-di-di-dah-dah Line 25-dah-di-dah-dit dah-dah-dah Line 42-di-di-dah-dit dit di-dah-dit di-dah-di-dah-di-dah
dah-dah di-dit dah-di-di-dah dah-di-dit dit dab di-di-di-dit dit Line 62-di-dit di-di-dah-dit
Line 8-dit dah-di-dit dah-di-dah-dit di-dah-di-dah-di-dah Line 43-dah-dah-di-dah di-di-dit dah-di-dah-dah dah-dah-dah
di-dit di-dah-dah-dit Line 26-dah-dit dah-dah-dah dah-dah-dah dah-dah-dah di-di-dah
Line 9-di-di-di-dit dit di-dah-dit di-dah-dah dah-dah Line 63-dah-dah di-dah dah-di-dit
di-di-dit dah-dah-di-di-dah-dah dah-dah-di-di-dah-dah Line 44-di-dah-di-dah-di-dah dah-dah dit dah-dah-dah-dah-dit
Line 10-dah-dit di-di-dah dah-dah Line 27-di-dah di-dah-di-dit dah-di-dah-dah dah-dah-dah-dah-dah
dah-di-di-dit dit di-dah-dit di-dah-di-dit dah-di-dah-dah Line 45-di-di-dit di-dit dah-dah-dit Line 64-di-dah-dah-dit dit di-dah-dit
di-di-dit dah-dah-dah di-di-dit dah-di-dah-dit dit
Line 11-di-dah dah-dit dah-di-dit Line 28-di-di-dah dah-dit dit dit Line 46-di-dah-dah dit di-dah-dit dah-dit dah
di-dah-dah-dit dah-di-dit dah dit dah-dit dah-dah-dah dah Line 65-dah-dah-dah di-dah-dit
Line 12-di-di-dab dah-dit dah-dah-dah Line 47-di-dah-dah-dah-dah di-dah-di-dit dit di-di-dit
dah-di-dah-dit dah Line 29-dah-di-dit dah-dah-dah dah-di-di-dah-dit di-di-dit
di-dit di-di-dit di-di-dah-dah-dah Line 66-dah-dah-di-di-dah-dah
di-di-dah di-dah dah-di-dah-dah dah-dah-dah
Line 13-dah di-dit dah-dah-dah dah-di-dah-dit Line 48-di-dah di-di-dit dah-dah-dit
dah-dah-dah dah-dah-dah di-di-dah
dah-dit di-dah-di-dah-di-dah Line 30-dah-dah-dah dah-dit dah Line 67-di-dah-dah-dit di-dah-dit
Line 14-di-dit di-di-dah-dit di-dit dah-dit di-di-dah dah-di-dit
dit Line 49-di-dah di-di-dit dah-dah-dah dah-di-di-dit
dah-di-dah-dah dah-dah-dah di-dah
di-di-dah Line 31-di-dah-dah-dit di-dah-dit dah-di-dah-dah dah-dah-dah
di-di-dah Line 68-dah-di-di-dit di-dah-di-dit
Line 15-dah-dah-dit dit dah di-dah dah-di-dah-dit dah-di-dah-dah
dah di-dit
Line 50-di-dah-dit di-di-dil
dah-di-dah-dit dah-di-dah-dit dah-dah-di-di-dah-dah Line 69-dah-dit dit dit dah-di-dit
dah-dah-dit Line 32-dah-di-dah-dit di-dit dah-dah dah-dah-dah
dah-dit dah-dah-dit di-dit Line 51-di-dah-dah dit di-dah-dit
Line 16-dit dah di-dah-dah-dah-dah dit dah di-di-di-dit dit di-dah-dit dit
dah-dah-dah-dah-dah da h -di t Line 70-dah-di-di-di-dah di-dah-dah-dit
Line 52-dah-di-dah-dah
dah-dah-dah-dah-dah Line 33-dah-dah-dah di-dah-dit di-di-dah-dah-di-dit di-dah-dit di-dah
Line 17-di-dah-dah-dit dit di-dah-dit dah-di-dit dit di-dah-dit Line 53-di-di-di-dit dah-dah-dah Line 71-dah-di-dah-dit dah di-dit
dah-di-dah-dit dit dah-dit Line 34-dah dah-dah-dah di-dit di-dah-dah-dit dit dah-di-dah-dit dit
dah dah-dit dah-di-dah-dit Line 54-dah-di-dah-dah dah-dah-dah Line 72-dah-di-di-di-dah
Line 18-dah-dah-di-di-dah-dah di-dah-dit di-di-dah dah-dah-di-di-dah-dah
dah-di-dah-dah dah-dah-dah Line 35-dit dí-dah di-di.-dít dit Line 55-dah-di-dah-dit dah-dah-di-dah Line 73-dah-di-di-dah-dit
di-di-dah dah-di-dah-dah dah-dah-dah dah-di-dah-dit dah-dah-di-dah di-di-di-dah-di-dah

18
 6-
jalseJ ynnw 'Llanto leox jnoA ol
1a1 norf sdlay a:!l:tt:.id ut-pa.yeaus snll Ieyl pasi.td.ins atl II,nuA
ñliunl.tuddo /liana pue Aun le aailae.td paapul (Al.ladojd
pallslynt .tu papunos jaylla) spunus apta olul pea.l noA sults ayI
üutlelsue.tl Ay ;tupllem .lo jea e ut üulpl.t a.t nnA uaym 301.1.7H21d
1!P-4eP-4BP-!P
yep -yep -yep
yep
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i331.L3H21d s! apoa .loJ p.luM ,ssed
jnu .laywautaN loll JO SulAdoa aje nnA ]l llal AllejattaY Upa noA
jantaaa.l e o! Yulualsll uaynn uan3 Jlas.lnoA >laaya ue:t noA
ley sl 'janannuy 'a.tay aSeluenpe ay" .tanlaaat e U() .11e ayl .IJo..
1iutAdoa pue apta 000D01 xulualsll se pool se Anead l.usl Inonlnayn
sly! asjnun .10 ¿op noA mi) nnoH ilnon:tay:t autos SeM ley,l ¡MOM
sj
=09 aun apoa =SZ aun
(mom jo pua '.lo) no/1 se =617 aun ayl Sulu =17z aun
(uolsslwsuejl Jo pua) xS /=EL aun pooS se =917 aun .leal Jo =£Z aun
Z/1 =Lt' aun gol lua =zz aun
.LH =ZL aun
aala =LL aun lou ajaM =9t' aun ilaaxa =LZ aun
ejd ,lg =0L aun s8!s =St aun ue auop =OZ aun
a.low paau =69 aun Ayv =bb aul3 aney =61 aun
AIg =89 aun ¡NO OSb =E6 aun noA =91 aun
egojd =G9 aun ayl jaj =Zt aun Iuaa jad =LL aun
noA ' =g9 aun XN.L aun
21V =C6 00113 =91 aun
ssal jo =Sg aun 1,819 aun
=017 IaS =SL aun
luan jad =179 aun ¡NE SdW =6E aun 9 33
noA J1 =iiL aun
06 apptu =E9 auto .L13 OS =g£ auto uoll =EL aun
noA J1 =Zg aun -
Zb =L£ aun enloun =ZL aun
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saya S =09 aun oil asea =ge aun s.lagwnu =0L aun
.loul ol =b£ aun 's.tay =6 aug
lyl uo l =6S aun =g aun
lana )no =g! aun apio =E£ aun dta pa
ul Sula =Z£ aun xitu ' =L aun
L96 =LS aun
apew b3 =99 aun llpejd =Le aun sp.lo.M =9 aun
anulluo =0£ aun Jo uo =S aun
b3 b:) =SS aun Ile.lauto =17 aun
noA =179 aun a sl op =6Z aun
adoH =ES aun ol paau n =9Z aun =E aun
¿A =ZS aun oil !le =zz aun anblunlSuoa
e =Z aulrl
ay! ajan =LS aun 'moN =9Z aun sl sltu, =L aun
Sli3MSNV
 INFORMATION REFERENCE & DATA CHECKPOINTS
Now we want lo give you some ...
HINTS FOR SENDING CODE WITH A KEY
We have delayed until now getting you involved with a code key
because it is an absolute necessity that you KNOW "1'11E SOUND
OF CORRECTLY SENT CODE before you can "mimic." these sounds
with your own sending. SIDE CIRCUIT SCREWS
ADJUSTMENT
Three things are of paramount importance in regard to the "me- PIVOTS
chanics" of using a code key well. These are:
1. Proper adjustment of the key action. (spring tension, side play
and up and down movement, i.e., how far the key knob moves
from the unpressecl position to the fully depressed position).

2. Proper body posture and position.

3. A comfortable "fluid" movement of the wrist and hand while SPRING
TENSION
sending, rather than a tense and tiring use of he muscles SCREW SHORTING
involved. LEVER

Let's look at these items one al a time.

Note: Adjust side adjustment pivots for good contact alignment and
so the key does not hind; but no so loose that the key can have
"slop" sideways. Generally. the best way to do this is to tighten GAP SPRING
pivots until "snug", then back off just a "tad". Adjust the Spring ADJUSTMENT
tension adjustment for a moderately heavy tension. In other words SCREW
. don't have "hair trigger" action when pushing the key knob
. .

. but don't have tension so hard it will tire you quickly when
. .

repeatedly depressing the key. SPRING

TENSION

CONTACTS

Note: Generally. when beginning to learn use of the key, it is best

to have a wider spacing between the contacts than later un, when
you become more proficient. A good rule of thumb for a beginner
might be about 1/16" contact gap. As you increase in proficiency.
you can decrease this gap slightly.

20
 z
I48!J laaJ
sluatulsnlpe ml alp pul asn nnÁ untllsod ay) uayM aSpnl uea
nnÁ Álu(i asunl nuI I! uoisual liut.uls ayI agÁew 'utalgotd e st
riut.t.tnls II I
10!(oI Si Áayl .tyl uo uo!sua) ;iul.Ids alp a.ie sa:tueya
,iddny:t, aq n) ,f:tuapual e aney n()Á JI Jaylallol SJal:te.teyo ay)
,.riut.(.ntls Jo JaylaBo) sluautala ay) ául.i.tnls, lo a.teMaq 'nslt/
,..cdntl:t.. (Lisp') pue Inpl Jal:Ie.n:ya e ui ui)leui plony
;)uawala au,ll .iadn.id ayl ;iulSn ,ilylooms way) puas ue:t noif
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1J11.0 ayI op puey pue IsIJM ayI Jo uollotu u.xtop pue do Iy8lls
I la! pup utn.t:tlnJ ay) se tu.waJul .non aSn ssai Jo aJoiN uIJe
alot:M .nutÁ Y,uISn uMop alp tlsnd I,uup pue ISIJM pue
ut.nra.tnl nyI ut asual aq l,unp s! :may uolluatu nl IueM aM liunll 'tg.L
.ta!lJt:a
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a;
.lo lu.twaAnw ..{'lnlJ., ay) Su!p,wáa.t lulod pJ!yI Jinn wog)? MoN
¡way) JO auo aq noÁ I,uoQ
nIu! pip ,Cllen)Je aldoad awos sdl.18 atutOa asayl Jo autos le Tool
e aye) )ng uotliSod l'JJJJOJ ayI noÁ uMoyS tfpeaJle an,aM
l!
inoqe aq pinoys uMoys uolllsod ay,L 'f10A O.L 3113H.L21Od
-1AIo3 Si .LHH.L uolllsod e la8 oI s! way (eon algel alp uo 8u!
au
-isad s! wdeaJoJ alp pue 'gaJe iy8tls 'lednieu e two.' IS[JM pue pueq
'sJa8ulJ alp Imp aalloN ÁeM at{i Jo Ino Álasool palJna Ja8ulJ alill
pue glJnoJ JnoÁ pue low! aq! Jo a8pa wadi ayi pJeMoI rflgelJo}woa
SulisaJ Ja8ulJ alppiw pue xaput JnoÁ 'Áan ayi jo a8pa pal ayi uo
qwnyi JnoÁ mum qoun ifan ay! dseJO algei alp uo mow Jno/f !sal
oI wood aney noÁ os noÁ jo IuoJJ u! y8noua JeJ Áa>¡ ay! uo!ISod
algei 8uliedado ayi yIlM adenbs pue Jleya JnoÁ u! iysiJdn I!S
uoli!sod pue adnlsod Ápog Jadodd seM is!! Jno uo ixaN
 INFORMATION REFERENCE & DATA CHECKPOINTS
After you practice series of (fits and (lahs until you think they Group 1: E, I. S, I -I and 5.
sound right, and you don't lire because of the wrong position
or wrist action, then you are ready to move on to some specific Group 2: T, M, O and 0 (remember
character practice. this is the way we write zero)

The ARRL booklet entitled. "Learning the Radiotelegraph Code" Group 3: A, R, I., W, I, I and P
gives some good hints along these lines. In fact. you will find Group 4: U, F, 2, V. 3 and 4
that many useful ideas are given in this booklet for both receiving
and sending. Group 5: N, D, B, 6, 8, 9 and X
Group 6: G. Q, Z, 7, K, C and Y
This booklet suggests the following groups for sending practice.
The reason they are grouped as shown is obvious when you analyze
the relationships of the character sounds included in each group.

Try these exercises until you can comfortably send all the characters.

Relieve it or not saving the sounds for signs along the road,
. . .

etc., can help you in learning to send. Make a habit of translating

on sight, any letters ,you see, into code sounds. Even though this 211ARCt1E#
will not help you with the mechanics of "pushing the key down" TAPE CASSETTE
. . it will help develop a proper sense of rhythm and timing
.

which is imperative for good sending of code.

Again NOTHING WILL TAKE THE PLACE OF PRACTICE!
. .

Practice with the key until it is second nature to translate written

letters, words and sentences into natural wrist, hand ant! arm
movements to produce the appropriate sounds. Look at some of
, tir. 1
r.1
the sending practice aids shown in the next column. Get sonic J
of these aids and use them! Use them! Use them!

WHAT THIS CHAPTER SAYS .. .

IN "CAPSULE" FORM
1 You can only learn code by sound, if you want to learn it
properly.
2. You can only learn code by practice, practice, practice! , KytRw
3. Learn to receive code and recognize good code before trying
to use a code key.
4. If at all possible listen to good code (copy it) "off the
. . .

air." Note some of the "receiving" system equipment Radio

Shack carries shown in the next column. Also, refer back to
page 16 for practice schedules from W IAW.
EqL15 //C OrII
5. Practice at everN opportunity-translating signs. etc., into code
sounds.
6. When sending code with key. observe.: I. Proper key adjustment,
as

2. Proper body position and posture, 3. Comfortable gripping

and moving of the key for a fluid sending movement.
7. Don't gel impatient and give. up! Code conies easier to some
than others. but it will come to everyone who will continue
to practice.

22
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 INFORMATION REFERENCE & DATA CHECKPOINTS
Radio Frequency voltage and current complete many many cycles
in one second. In fact we designate the frequency of a radio
wave as being so many cycles per second. If you rode your bicycle
so that the wheel rotated 2 times in 1 second, we might say that
frequency of rotation was 2 cycles per second.

Now, since Mr. Hertz, a German scientist, was instrumental in

early knowledge about radio waves and their propagation, the
scientific world has honored him by naming the "cycle" of electrical
energy in his name. Nowadays it is correct to say our house current RF VOLTAGE AND
has a frequency of 60 Hertz, rather than saying 60 cycles per CURRENT "WAVEFORM"
second ... and it means the same thing.

All right, if an RF wave has a frequency of 1 million Hertz; how

long do you think one cycle takes? If you figured millionth 1

of a second you were right! Since you were so smart on

. . .

that one . try this one in your "biological computer". If Radio

. .

energy travels at a rate of speed of 300,000,000 meters per second

. . how far would our 1,000,000 Hertz signal gel in the lime
.

it takes for one cycle? You should be thinking to yourself If one ...
cycle takes one millionth of a second and the energy travels
. . .

at a rate of 300 million meters per second, then, in one millionth

of a second the RF "signal" should have traveled one millionth BETTMANN ARCHIVE. INC.
of 30t) million meters or 300 meters. This signal then might
. . .
HEINRICH HERTZ
be called a 300 meter signal.

Formula

Now, hack to our 80 meter, 40 meter, etc. signals. When we say Distance = Speed x Time
that the Novice Band frequencies between 3700-3750 thousand Hertz
(kHz for kilo -Hertz) are in the 80 meter band it is just an
. . .
Example:
approximation of how far that frequency signal will travel in the Distance RF energy of 1,000,000 Hertz fre-
time it takes for one cycle of that signal, traveling at the speed quency travels during time for Hertz I

of light (300,000,000 meters/second) of course, this is not an exact (Speed) x (Time)

statement, because one, and only one precise frequency will Irakel I I-Iz = 300,000,000 Meters/Sec x 0.000,001
that exact distance during the time of one cycle (or Hertz) of Second
itself. Anyway, you get the idea. The "40 meter band" are frequen- = 300 Meters
cies whose RF energy will travel about 40 meters in the time
it takes for one cycle (or Hertz) of that energy.

This brings us to another new term ...

wavelength. A wavelength Formula
is also the distance a wave will travel during the time of one
cycle. Look at the formula in the next column which shows the Wavelength = 300.000,000
relationship of frequency and wavelength. Frequency in Hertz

Now, what this says to us is that the higher the frequency. the
shorter the wavelength, and vice -versa. Try the problem in the
third column to see if you have the idea.
24
AS "F" (frequency)
A (wavelength) 4.
Note: This type of relationship is often re-
ferred to as an inverse relationship; that is,
if one factor increases, the other decreases,
and vice -versa. Remember this term: inverse.
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 INFORMATION REFERENCE & DATA CHECKPOINTS
Try this last practice exercise to see if you have the idea. CHECKPOINT
Convert the following as required:

2 MHz = kHz
1000 kHz= MHz.
1000 kHz = Hz
1,540,000 Hz = MHz
1,540,000 Hz = kHz
2.546 MHz = kHz
1.65 kHz = Hertz (Hz)

ANSWERS:
2 MHz = 2,000 kHz
1000 kHz = 1 MHz
1000 kHz = 1,000,000 Hz
1,540,000 Hz = 1.54 MHz
1,540,000 Hz = 1,540 kHz
2.546 MHz = 2,546 kHz
1.65 kHz = 1,650 Hz
Did you make out all right? May we suggest that you don't memorize
the conversion chart, but rather UNDERSTAND what is happening
when you convert. In fact, let's make a general statement here
regarding all the "theory" and formulas you'll be learning as you
go through this book. It is always better to study a formula,
or point of theory until you UNDERSTAND THE CONCEPT . . .

rather than using "rote memory" methods and depending upon

your ability to recall needed information. If you really do understand
the concept ... you can then "figure out" the formula, or conversion
factor, etc., as required. If you understand that a Megahertz is
1000 times greater than a Kilohertz, you can figure out that 1
MHz must equal 1000 kHz, and so on.

Now that we have gotten some preliminary information out of the

way, and you have a general idea what the Novice Bands mean snc
in terms of frequency and wavelength, and know the general re-
quirements for, and privileges of being a Novice let's get
. . $
to the "nitty gritty", and begin learning some Electronic theory.
I

First, let's find out "what in the world the matter is"! By this
poor bit of humor I simply want to say, let's lake a quick look
at the atom . . of which all matter is composed. The chair
.

you are sitting on, the book you are reading, etc., are all made
up of tiny particles called atoms. Now the atom is a little galaxy Reminder . . working on your code?
.

all its own. In the center is the greatest mass, called the nucleus. Don't forget it. A Code Practice Oscil-
The nucleus is composed of particles called protons which . . . lator like the one illustrated above is a
have a positive electrical charge, and neutrons which are neutral great aid to learn code. Available at
electrically. your Radio Shack store.

26
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 INFORMATION REFERENCE & DATA CHECKPOINTS
The fact Ihat we can by various forms of energy cause Ihis electric.:íl CHECKPOINT
unbalance allows the production of electricity and various electrical
phenomena. To "separate these charges in an atom (or group Several forms of energy that can be used
of atoms) requires work and that is why we mentioned Ihr
to "move electrons" and produce electricity
. . .

use of various forms of energy. The battery or cell utilizes chemical

are:
energy to separate charges and produce an excess of electrons energy.
and
¿it its negative terminal and an excess of protons al its positive
terminal. The generator. or alternator in our automobile uses mechan-
ical energy to perform this tvork of "generating electricity' by
moving charges. Other devices may use heal, or light energy.
and so on.
ANSWERS:
Several forms of energy that can be used
to "move electrons" and produce electricity
are: (chemical), (mechanical), (heat) or (Ther-
mal) and (light) energy.

(),I<.. lo \v dues all This relate to electricity and electronics! Let's

start by seeing what causes some materials to be good electrical
conductors, while others are poor conductors. but good insulators:
and still others are not real good conductors or insulators. lint
are classified as "semiconductors

You may have noticed in our previous sketches of atoms. Ihe

orbiting electrons \very not all in one ring. or shell (orbiting path).
It is beyond the scope of this book to go into the chemical or
atomic reasons for this, but we do want to touch on a couple
of important farts regarding this.

The "electrical stability" of an atom is determined by this orbital

..layout" of electrons. The most intporl:ant group of electrons. for
our consideration. are the Ines in Ihe. "ring" farthest from the
nucleus . . or the 'outer shell". For any :atom
. . . Ihe "magic:
.

number" of electrons that will cause complete electrical "stability..

is 8 in this outermost ring. All alums also have the stipulation
Ihat no more than 2 electrons can appear in Ihe "innermost ring.
--0--
Thus, the carbon atom we showed Nino is nil completely stable.
or inert". since it has only 4 outer ring electrons. OI course,
Ihe other 2 electrons appear in the inner ring. If a material has
4 electrons in its outer ring. it is categorized as a senticontluctur.
If the material's atomic structure is such that there are fewer
than 4 electrons in its puler ring. it is usually classed as a conductor:
and if more than 4 electrons are in its muter shell, it is generally
an insulator, or nun -conductor.

Look at the diagram of the copper atom. Notice that is has 29

protons in its nucleus: therefore must normally have 29 orbiting
electrons. I)ue to the laws of nature, we find that the innermost
ring is considered "filled" when it has two electrons. the next
ring out takes 8 electrons to he "filled", the next ring 18, and
the outer ring of any atom is filled when it has 8 electrons. COPPER ATOM
no
 aoleinsui al) a)¡ij 't)BTg lea.) 63
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palle:) sawi)awos aje aanlanals swole ui suojl:tala g jo uoilipuo:) _amen; aadns, ley) anaiyne al luia
ue jo luia jamo ay) ui aae yaigM suoapaig .rtlno ayl o) pappe sum pala b ue1)l ssai ayei PInoM II !e4) Si
saopnpuu:t jood ao sjolelnsut aq oI pul!! suoalaala )jays aalno
INIOdN103H0 ueyl motu aney 4ant1M swole yliM sleijaleui I91 uoseaa a4.1.
 REFERENCE & DATA CHECKPOINTS
INFORMATION
Now, let's amplify and explain the terms resistance and current,
and at the same time throw in one more important electrical
term, electromotive force, abbreviated emf.
We have already stated that an electrical current is an organized,
progressive movement or "flow" of electrons. As you might guess.
in an electrical circuit it is possible to cause "electron
flow". or
current to flow through the circuit by applying force, or energy (FORCE)
(RESISTANCE)
which can cause the ''free" electrons to move from atomtheto lower atom WATER
through the material. Also, as you might suspect will he moved
. . PIPE :FAUCET
the resistance of the circuit, the more electrons
by a given force in this case, electromotive force (emf.)
These three electrical quantities or parameters are of utmost import-
ance in discussing electrical circuits. YOU MUST LEARN
THESE,
and the laws of electrical circuits related to them in orderlet's
to
obtain meaningful knowledge of electronics and Ham Radio. so
discuss these terms. a little more fully.
EMF might be considered similar to pressure in a water system.
Notice in the diagram. the source of water pressure is thepressure
pump.
CONTAINER
CHECKPOINT
In the electrical circuit we'll discuss, the source of electrical
will be the battery. (ust as water pressure has units of measure
"pounds of pressure", electrical pressure, or emf has a unit WATER "CIRCUIT"
of measure called the volt, just as the amount of water "moved" Electrical pressure is called
by the pressure can be measured in gallons per minute, the amount , abbreviated
of electrical current through the electrical circuit can be measured The unit of measure for this
in amperes (number of electrons moved past a given point in RESISTANCE electrical quantity is the
a unit of time). (An ampere = 6.28 x 10'" electrons
past a given (FORCE)
point in one second). Electrical current consists of the flow of
In the "water circuit", the smaller the water pipes, the more resist- through an electrical circuit.
ance they offer to the flow of water, and therefore, the less
water
The amount of current is determined by
will flow, per unit time, with any given water pressure. In the
the number of flowing past
electrical circuit, the higher the resistance (that is, electrical resist- circuit in a unit of
ance) of the circuit . . the less the current (in amperes) that a given point in the
time. The basic unit of measure of electri-
.

will flow for any given emf (or voltage). This relationship of current
(electron flow), voltage (emf) and resistance was studied by a
scientist named George. Simon Ohm and he set forth these relation-
ships in the now fatuous OHM'S LAW, which we will discuss
shortly. First, though, review the concepts we've been talking about
by carefully studying the illustrations in the adjacent column.
Try this checkpoint to make sure you're getting the idea.
cal current flow is the
(FLOW) A current of 1 indicates a
flow of 6.28 x 10'" electrons flowing past
BATTERY a given point in the circuit in a time of
ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT
ANSWERS:
Electrical pressure is called (electromotive
force), abbreviated (emf). The unit of meas-
ure for this electrical quantity is the (volt).
Electrical current consists of the flow of (elec-
trons) through an electrical circuit. The
amount of current is determined by the num-
ber of (electrons) flowing past a given point
in the circuit in a unit of time. The basic
unit of measure of electrical current flow
is the (ampere). A current of 1 (ampere) indi-
cates a flow of 6.28 x 10'" electrons flowing
past a given point in the circuit in a time of
(one second).

30
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 INFORMATION REFERENCE & DATA CHECKPOINTS
ANSWERS:
1. The resistance of a conductor is: low.
2. The resistance of an insulator is: high.
3. The unit of resistance is called the (ohm).
4. All fixed resistors used the same elec-
trical symbol. (true).
5 Potential difference between two points
is measured in (volts).
6. The terminal of a "voltage source"
where there is an excess of electrons
would be called the (negative) termi-
nal of the source.
7. One ohm of resistance will limit the cur-
rent through an electrical circuit to one
ampere of current when one (volt) of
emf is applied.
8. The unit of current is the (ampere).
9. The unit of emf is the (volt).
10. The ohm is the unit of (resistance).

How did you fare? (.earn these terms well, for Ihey are important!
O.K. Let's begin to see how these three important electrical param-
eters are related by learning OilTS LAW!
By experimentation in his laboratory, hlr. Ohm was able to define
the interrelationships of the three electrical quantities we have
been talking about.
As logic would tell us, he discovered that the amount of current
through an electrical circuit was directly related to voltage . .

which means, for a given resistance circuit, the higher the applied
emf, or voltage ... the higher the current, in amperes.
He also noted that current in an electrical circuit is inversely
related to the resistance . . which means, for a given emf
.

applied to the circuit, the higher the resistance the lower

. . .

the current. This certainly makes sense, for when you think of
emf as a force which is trying to move electrons (current) through
a circuit against some electrical resistance . it is obvious
. . . . .
Voltage (volts)
the higher the resistance . the less the number of electrons
. .
Current (in amps)
moved with a given force applied. Stating the above in formula Resistance (ohms)
form, we have the relationships shown in the next column.
Let's restate that formula using the standard abbreviations . . . or
"shorthand" letters used to represent these terms.
The shorthand way of writing emf is E
The short hand way of 1vriting current is I
The shorthand way of writing resistance is R I (in amperes) = E (in volts) divided by R
If it will help . . think of E for emf; for intensity of electron
. I (in ohms)
flow (or current) ... and R for resistance. Using these abbreviations, or
the basic statement showing the relationships of I, E and R is E
shown in the next column. I R

32
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 INFORMATION REFERENCE & DATA CHECKPOINTS
O.K. You've used all three forms of the Ohm's Law formula now
... but we want you to begin learning how to apply this knowledge
in a practical way by giving you some problems using circuit
"schematic diagrams" to convey information to you.

Before we do that, however, let's talk for just a minute about

what "instruments" are used to measure the three important electri-
cal parameters we've been discussing. The instruments used are
really quite obvious:
To measure emf in volts use a voltmeter. For our purposes we will
use the following symbol to represent a voltmeter "schematically":

To measure current in amperes, use an ammeter. For our purposes.

we will use the following symbol to represent an ammeter
"schematically":
Incidentally . many times we will be dealing in thousandths
. .

of an ampere rather than amperes. As we mentioned earlier . . .

the metric "prefix" for one thousandth of a unit is "milli". Therefore.

we use the term milliampere to indicate one thousandth of an
ampere ... and we abbreviate this mA.

The symbol we'll use to show a millammeter ín a schematic diagram

is:

To measure resistance, an ohmmeter is used. We'll use the symbol:

While we're on the subject of resistance and ohms we should

NOTE: The Greek letter omega, 11, is often
. . .

point out that in many electronic circuits, we'll be dealing with used to symbolize the word ohm (or ohms).
thousands of ohms, and sometimes millions of ohms; and, again,
you will find the metric prefixes come in handy. Remember that
the term kilo means 1000. Our earlier example was that a kilometer
is 1000 meters. Therefore, a kilohm is 1000 ohms. The common RESISTOR
letter symbol, or abbreviation for kilo is K. 'Thus, if I am talking
about a resistor which has 10,000 ohms of resistance, it would
be general practice to say a 10K ohm resistor. For designating
millions, we use the prefix Mega. Hence, a 10 Meg (we leave off the AMMETER
a) resistor has 10 million ohms of resistance.

Now, let's get "down to brass tacks" in becoming familiar with

schematic diagrams and using Ohm's Law to analyze these. circuits.
a circuit as being a voltage source and a
BATTERY
Initially, let's define
complete path for electron flow from one terminal of the source
to the other. Observe the diagram in the next column.
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 INFORMATION REFERENCE & DATA CHECKPOINTS

Do you have those formulas well in mind? I hope so. You will
use them the rest of your life as an Amateur or technician.

We've been speaking of moving electrons through a resistance

by applying an electromotive force. As you can imagine when
. . .

this work is clone, heal is generated. Even though we are talking

about moving things as microscopic as electrons, heal is generated.
In fact, a measure of how much work has liven clone in a given
unit of time is called power. Electrical power is measured in units
called watts . named in honor of the scientist who studied
.
CHECKPOINT
work, power and energy. For your purposes at this time, it is
only necessary that you learn that the amount of power dissipated
by a circuit (like we've been studying) is related to the three If a transmitter circuit has an applied voltage
electrical quantities-E, I and R. For the lime being, you'll only of 100 volts and a circuit current of 0.75
use one form of the power formulas, namely: amperes . . what is the power "input"
.

P(power in watts) = E x I, to the stage?

where E is in volts and is in amperes.
I
P = waits.
Try the checkpoint!
ANSWER:
P=ExI
P = 100 x 0.75
P = (75) watts

We have been dealing with some "pretty heavy" electronics funda-

mentals so far in this chapter. We felt that it was important to
begin to lay the "ground -work" and give you a good "foundation"
upon which to build in later chapters. Because the Novice Class
theory knowledge,
License test sloes not require "in depth" electronic
we'll just introduce you to terms and rules and regulations which
you may encounter in the Novice Class examination. In other words,
we will not go into detailed explanation at this lime, but simply
will familiarize you with them for "exam" purposes. Later in the
book, many of these topics will be taken up in detail.

Most all electronic circuits are made op of a combination of some,

if not all, of the following six basic electronic components: Resistors,
Capacitors, Inductors, Tubes, 'I ransistors and Semiconductor Diodes.

You should learn the symbols for these, and some of their basic
functions. Let's go through the list, one at a time.

The resistor is used to limit current, and in some cases to provide

a desired voltage drop across itself. You have already seen pictures
of resistors and the proper schematic symbol, so let's move on
to the Capacitor.

The symbol for a Capacitor is:

36
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 INFORMATION REFERENCE & DATA CHECKPOINTS
The next component on our list is the Inductor, sometimes called
a coil. The capacitor stores electrical energy in its "electric" field
between plates of the capacitor. The inductor also stores energy
in a field but the inductor stores energy in the form of
. . .

a "magnetic field", which we'll learn more about later.

Whereas the capacitor has the characteristic of "blocking" DC,

and "passing" AC with little opposition .the inductor, or coil
. .

does just about the opposite. This means the coil allows DC to
pass with little opposition, but tends to offer opposition to the
passage of AC. In fact, the higher the "frequency" of the alternating
current .the more the opposition to its passage through the
. .

inductor. You do remember our "old friend" frequency don't you?

Recall that "house current" is probably at a frequency of 60 Hertz
. .and it is, of course, alternating current
. abbreviated AC.
. . .

There are two basic types of coils that you need to know the
symbols for: namely, the "air core" type a coil wrapped
. . .

around a form with nothing but air in the middle and the . . .

iron -core type. Note the pictures of these in the next column.
CHECKPOINT
The symbol for the air -core coil is:

1. A capacitor tends to block but

to pass signals.
2. An inductor tends to allow
to pass with little opposition, but to
The symbol for the iron -core coil is: impede signals.
The higher the frequency of signal, the
(greater, smaller)
will be the inductor's opposition to its
passage.
3. The unit of capacitance is the
4. The unit of inductance is the
The unit of inductance is the henry, named in honor of another 5. The schematic symbol for a capacitor
scientist. is:

Iron -core inductors are used in circuits which are operating at

relatively low AC frequencies. For example, at power line frequency
(60 Hz) up through what is called "audio" frequencies (from about 6. The schematic symbol for an air -core
20 Hz - 20 kHz). inductor is:
Air -core inductors are used at higher frequencies often called ...
RF (radio frequency). Many circuits in your TV set may use
these RF coils. Almost all electronic equipment requires power
supplies of various sorts, where Iron -core inductors are used fre- 7. The schematic symbol for an iron -core
quently. So, you see, inductors are very important electronics inductor is:
component.
Verify your learning by doing the checkpoint.

38
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 INFORMATION REFERENCE & DATA CHECKPOINTS
Now, what do those terms mean? For the time being, let's give
you a brief definition of each function.

A rectifier changes AC voltages or currents to DC voltage or current.

One example of the need for "rectification" is your radio or TV.
If there weren't a rectifier and filter circuit In the power supply,
you'd hear terrible 60 Hertz hum all the time. In a very simple
statement ... a rectifier changes AC to DC.

To amplify means to make larger or build up. A tube used to

amplify simply builds up an input signal to a larger output signal.
For example, one might put in a signal to an amplifier that is
only 1 volt but the "amplified" output voltage could be 100
. . .

volts... etc.

When a tube is used to generate an AC signal, it is often called

an Oscillator. The tube's function here can simply be stated as
changing the DC voltages into an AC signal of desired frequency-this
becomes the output.
Most vacuum tubes have a filament called a heater. The
. . .

heater is used to heat up a tube element called the cathode. The

job of the cathode is to "emit" electrons when it is heated. These
electrons are then available to he "collected" by the tube's plate.
The plate is the tube element which attracts the electrons which
have been emitted by the cathode. The tube we have just described PLATE
is called the Diode tube, because it has two active elements . . .

the cathode which emits electrons, and the plate

. . . .which . .

collects them. The prefix "di" means two. For example when
. . .

you "disect" something, you cut it into two parts.

HEATER] IICATHODE
Look at the schematic symbol for the tube we have described
is in the next column. DIODE TUBE
We've mentioned several functions of vacuum tubes as being rectifi-
cation, amplification and their use as oscillators. The diode tube
we just discussed often finds application as a rectifier. We will
discuss how this is accomplished later in the book.
A tremendous "giant -step" forward was made in the world of
electronics when Dr. Lee DeForest introduced a third major element
in the vacuum tube. This element was physically placed between
the cathode and the plate, and this third element was called
the control -grid. Instead of being a solid piece of metal, such
as the cathode or plate, the control grid has evolved to be a . . .
thin "spiral" of wire.
Because the tube now had three active elements, it became known .
,
as the-Triode-tube. The prefix-tri-means 3. Many examples of this
prefix being used to designate 3 are available, but perhaps a very Dr. Lee DeForest
common one would be the common toy the "tricycle", which has
three wheels.
40
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 INFORMATION REFERENCE & DATA CHECKPOINTS
3. Triode
4. Three
5.
PLATE
CONTROL -TUBE ENVELOPE,
GRID GLASS OR METAL

HEATER) IICATHODE

6. To emit electrons
7. To control how many of the emitted elec-
trons reach the plate.
8. To "collect" the emitted electrons.

You may have noticed that we have changed our style in giving
the answers. This is to conserve space and allow us to give you
more teaching in a given space.

Now that you have had a chance to get used to the format of the
book, you can see how to easily refer hack to the CHECKPOINTS
when checking your Answers.

In the General Class section, we will expand on the vacuum tube,

and discuss some other tubes that have been derived from the
basic diodes and triodes. For now, we need to move ahead and
briefly mention the device which has revolutionized the electronics
industry ... the transistor. 171

One of the tremendous advantages of the transistor is its small

size. Also, because it doesn't need "heater" power, the associated
circuitry is less bulky. Because of the low power requirements to
operate transistors, most all the associated components have also
been "miniaturized".

Transistors are frequently referred to as semiconductors, and as

solid-state devices. They are called semiconductors because they
are made of materials that "atomically" fall into the semiconductor
category. The two most popular semiconductor materials for transis-
tors are: germanium and silicon.
Transistors vs Tube
Both of these semiconductor materials have four "valence" electrons. (size comparison)
(Remember our discussion of conductors, insulators, and semicon-
ductors?) They are called solid-state devices because the various BASE
materials that make the active part of the transistor are all in
one solid piece, as opposed to vacuum tubes, where the various EMITTERO COLLECTOR
elements are separated by space. etc.
For now, you should learn the symbols for the two basic types Pictorial Concept of
of transistors, and briefly, what is meant by "N" type material, Transistor Materials
and "P" type material. "Sandwich" for "NPN" Transistor
42
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 INFORMATION REFERENCE & DATA CHECKPOINTS
Two other transistor terms you ought to know (but don't need
to know the "theory"): Alpha and Beta. Transistors have the capability
of amplification, as many tubes do. These terms Alpha and Beta
are used to indicate the amount of "gain" a transistor has. Alpha
is simply the comparison of the "collector" current to the "emitter"
current. The value of alpha for most transistors ranges between
0.95 and 0.99.

Beta, on the other hand, is the relationship of the collector current

to the base current. The value of beta for transistors can range CHECKPOINT
from 10 or 20 up to many hundreds. Beta is a very meaningful
term for the design engineer, and is term that you ought to at 1. The ratio of collector current to emitter
least have heard. current is called the transistor's

Checkpoint!
2. The ratio of the collector current to the
base current is called the transistor's

ANSWERS:
1. Alpha
2. Beta
While we are on the subject of semiconductors, we should mention
that semiconductor diodes have replaced many vacuum tube diodes
in application. Just as you learned the symbol for the plate of
the tube (collector of electrons emitted by the cathode), and the
cathode (emitter of electrons), you should learn the symbol for
the semiconductor diode. The anode does the same job for this
diode that the plate does in the tube . and the cathode basically
. .

performs the function of the cathode in the vacuum tube diode. CATHODE ANODE
Diodes, either semiconductor, or tube, perform quite a number
of useful electronic functions. We've already mentioned rectification
(changing alternating current to direct current). Diodes also are
used in receivers as detectors. You've heard the term AM radio. SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE
This refers to the method whereby the "intelligence" (sound) is
put on the transmitted radio signal. A detector is often called
a "demodulator", because the detector circuit (diode and several
associated filter components) recovers the audio intelligence from
the complex "modulated RF" signal, and sends this audio signal
on to the audio amplifier circuitry in the receiver (to be built
up to a level to drive a speaker or earphones).
Another function that diodes are sometimes used for is to help
"modulate" an RF wave . in other words
. . as a "modulator". . . .

Just learn the term for now.

Still other functions are electronic switching and limiting or clipping.
(Limiting the amplitude of a signal . or clipping off part of
. .

the signal).
44
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 INFORMATION REFERENCE & DATA CHECKPOINTS
O.K., let's move on to some other terms that might appear on
the FCC test. It is not neccessary at this time to know all the
detailed theory for each term, but you should be aware of the
basic concepts of each term.
In Amateur Radio and in Commercial Radio, many transmitters
have stages referred to as frequency multipliers or simply . . .

multipliers. The function of a multiplier stage is to produce some V V

multiple of the input signal frequency at its output. (See the illustra-
tion). In a practical sense, multipliers may produce useable output FREQUENCY
at 2, 3, or 4 times the input signal frequency. Efficiency factors MULTIPLIER
prevent a single stage of "multiplication of frequency" to go much
above 4 times. If more multiplication is needed, the output of
one multiplier stage is fed to another multiplier stage as required.
a multiple of any given frequency is called a harmonic.
Incidentally,
For example, the 2nd harmonic of 100 Hz is 200 Hz; the 4th
harmonic of 300 Hz is 1200 Hz ...
and so on.
ri'
INPUT
INPUT
01

MULTIPLIER
r OUTPUT

MULTIPLIER
rl.11l-VV

OUTPUT
Another term related to transmitters is parasitics. You are probably
familiar with the word parasite ... referring to the animal kingdom.
Generally, this refers to something attached to "whatever" and
drains off part of the resources of the main object to sustain
itself. In the transmitter . . a parasitic oscillation is one which
.

is not at the desired frequency and is often far removed

. . .

in frequency. To sustain this "undesired" parasitic some of . . .

the stage's useful energy is used.

Still another transmitter term is the word overmodulation.

Think back a little and you will remember that we mentioned

the term modulation. Transmitters accomplish the feat of putting
the audio "intelligence" on the transmitted wave by one of several
methods. AM signals are those using Amplitude changes for doing
this . . hence, AM = Amplitude Modulation. 1'M signals use
.

either frequency changes or phase changes to perform this

function. In any case, overmodulation refers to a transmitter signal
in which the audio signal modulates the radio frequency signal
MORE THAN 100%. When this happens "spurious" (unwanted) ...
new frequencies are generated and the FCC frowns on this.
. . .

While on the subject of transmitters, let's quickly discuss what

A-1 transmission means. This is the type transmission you will
be using as a Novice Class operator. In essence it is "amplitude - ... -11111111111
modulated telegraphy" without use of audio in other words
RF BURSTS (Keyed RF)
. . .

"on -off" keying of an RF carrier. The "A" shows that it is Amplitude WITHOUT KEY CLICK FILTER
modulation; whereas the 1 inciates telegraphy by "on -off" keying.

Another term you might see, which is related to keying, is the

term key -click filter. The purpose of the key -click filter is to reduce
radiation of undesired, or spurious frequencies, which can be caused
when the RF signal is turned "on and off" abruptly. The filler,
in essence, smooths the beginning and ending of each "pulse"
to reduce this effect. i
46 KEYED RF WITH FILTERING
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 INFORMATION REFERENCE & DATA CHECKPOINTS
O.K., let's move on now and talk about some fairly common problems
related to Amateur transmitters . and what precautions can
. .

be used to reduce or prevent them.

First, let's mention the term chirp as it related to c.w. (telegraph)

transmissions. Chirp is a quick change in transmitter frequency
which can occur as the transmission is keyed on and off. II is
due usually to the oscillator being keyed, and sounds to the person
at the receiving end of the transmission like a bird's chirping . . .

hence the term "chirp". Common preventative measures include:

Don't use a circuit which will key the oscillator (key a stage after
the oscillator); use an oscillator with good frequency stability; use
a stage between the oscillator and final transmitter stage (called
a buffer stage).

Another problem in some transmitters is the radiation of harmonic

frequencies (undesired). To hell) reduce this possibility, the following
measures should be used: 1. Be sure final stage is being operated
with proper electrical parameters. 2. The transmitter should lw
designed with tuned circuits which are selective. 3. Ilse a good
coupling circuit between the final amplifier stage and the antenna.
(One which has good frequency selectivity).

A third problem in transmitters for which YOU should be very

aware is SHOCK HAZARD. Most transmitters use voltages and
currents which can be lethal. It behooves any user of a transmitter
to know SAFETY PRECAUTIONS you should use ANY TIME you
operate or work on a transmitter. In fact, these precautions should
be used when working with ANY type electrical equipment. Some
of these precaution are:
I. Keep your body away from open electronic circuitry which is
on. (Usually, good equipment has enclosures for this purpose).
2. Be sure equipment is properly grounded.
3. Be sure antenna lead-in wires, etc., are kept away from power -

lines.
4. Use equipment which has good design (Such as power supply
bleeder resistors to discharge capacitors when equipment is turned
off ...etc.)
5. COMMON SENSE
When an Amateur "puts" a transmitter "on the air", he must
he sure he knows what the transmitter output frequency is-lo
he sure he is "legal".

There are several methods of determining the operating frequency

of a transmitter . .hut, basically they all involve comparing
.

indirectly the transmitter frequency with broadcasts of the National

Bureau of Standards stations. (WWV, WWVH, WWVI3, etc).

48
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INIOdN133H3
 INFORMATION REFERENCE & DATA CHECKPOINTS
Just before we leave the electronics portion of this chapter and
proceed into the "Rules & Regulations" part . . we need to
.

teach you how to calculate the "input power" to a transmitter's

final stage (the stage which sends the signal to the antenna).
Since a Novice is limited to a maximum of 75 watts of input
power to the "final stage"; you need to know how to determine
what the input power is to YOUR transmitter's final stage.

Here's the simple procedure:

Power input = DC plate voltage (to the final tube/s) times the
final stage plate current.
CHECKPOINT
For example, if a transmitter final stage consists of two tubes
in parallel, and: Their plate voltage = 450 volts, and each tube An amateur transmitter utilizes a B+ value
current is 50 mA . .this means the total final plate current
. of 500 volts which is fed to the plate of
is 100 mA ... therefore: Pin = 450 x 0.1 = 45 watts. the final amplifier stage. The final stage is
(Note: 100 mA = 0.1 amperes ...
remember the units and milliunits being operated at a plate current of 120
study earlier in the chapter?) mA. What is the input power to the final
stage of the transmitter? Use column 2 space
Now, you try one! Solve the checkpoint problem. for your calculations.
Pin = E (plate) x I (plate)
Did you do alright? In most transmitters, the plate voltage to
the final stage is virtually the same as the transmitters's high
voltage B+ supply ... so don't let the term "B+" throw you.

O.K. Let's proceed to a section of the chapter where we will

go somewhat against our basic philosophy of NOT MEMORIZING
BUT UNDERSTANDING.
ANSWER:
Pin = E (plate) x I (plate)
Pin = 500 (volts) x 0.12 (amps)
Pinput = 60 watts

F.C.C. RULES AND REGULATIONS

When learning the F.C.C. "Rules and Regulations" regarding Amateur
Radio . . it is just about impossible to do it in any other way
.

than "rote memory". So for this reason, we have "lumped" the

rote memory learning necessary for the Novice test into this one
section. The FCC test is sure to have many of these items included
... so study them well.
Let's deal first with information regarding the transmitter and
transmissions from a Novice station.

As mentioned earlier, the maximum input power permitted to the

final stage of a transmitter operated by a Novice is 75 watts.
In other words, the product of the final plate voltage and the
final plate current must not exceed 75 watts.
50
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 INFORMATION REFERENCE & DATA CHECKPOINTS
OPERATIONAL PROCEDURES
Moving ahead . . . let's consider some operational rules and
regulations.
You should know that the maximum penalty for a violation of
FCC rules and regulations is a fine of up to $500 for each day
of the offense, suspension of operator license and revocation of
the station license.
One of the infringements of rules and regulations would be the
transmission of obsene or profane language. Also, transmission
of false signals, or malicious interference are prohibited.

In regard to who may operate a transmitter licensed by a holder

of the Novice Class license, the FCC says that any U.S. Amateur
operator may do so. (Licensed operator, that is). There is a stipulation,
however, if the operator operates other than within the limitation
of the Novice Class license (let's say he's a General Class operator)
. . Both your station call letters and HIS must be used for
.

identification purposes on the air.

A very important document to all amateur operators is the Station
Log. The "log" is the station's written record of transmissions, O.. D.11..
and should contain the following basic information:
1. Callsign of station and written signature of the licensee.
2. Signature of the control operator (and his callsign, if not the S-

licensee).
1/
3. Location of station. (If a "mobile" station operated within 100 .
miles of station address, use the term "local" .otherwise
. .

enter location for first and last transmission of the day.)

4. Input power
5. Type of emission (A-1 for Novice Class)
6. Frequency band used
7. Dates of operation
8. Information regarding any "3rd party" messages.
9. Time of starting and ending each given series of transmissions.

A Novice Class license is valid for two (2) years, and normally Ridiethaek
MAY NOT BE RENEWED. The exceptions are certain military service-
men cases, and one may take a new test and obtain a new Novice fum
heel Ha
license 12 months after expiration of any FCC amateur license. hoar
Hopefully .. you won't let your license expire, and you won't
.

take two years before obtaining a higher than Novice Class license.
When operating an amateur radio station (of any Class), the FCC
requires that you identify your station (by giving the call letters)
a minimum of once each ten minutes. Also, when ending a transmis- Your Radio Shack store has a fine Log Book,
sion or series of transmissions, the callsign shall l given for especially designed for multiple use. It has
the station with which you have been in contact. some useful information at the beginning.

52
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 INFORMATION REFERENCE & DATA CHECKPOINTS
When you want to operate an amateur station in the "portable",
or "mobile" operation modes, you don't have to give written notice
to the FCC "Engineer -in -charge" in your inspection district-unless
you intend to operate in this manner for more than 15 days.
In this case, you must give notification in writing to him.

There are antenna height restrictions on amateur stations, however,

we will not go into detail on these at this time. You just need
to know that height restrictions are to prevent the antenna from
becoming a hazard to air navigation.

There are only certain specific situations where "one-way" amateur

communication is allowed. These are:
1. emergency communications.
2. information bulletins consisting of subject matter of direct
interest to amateurs . such as code practice transmissions,
. .

or "round -table" discussions involving more than two stations.

however, normally 2 -way communications is expected by FCC.

Regarding the proper procedure for calling or answering other

amateur stations, the following is an example:

1. Give callsign of station being called.

2. Follow this by word "de" (meaning "from")
3. Then give call sign of station transmitting.

Here's an example:

"W2XYZ W2XYZ de W4ABC AR."

Whereupon W2XYZ. answers ...

"W4ABC de W2XYZ K."

This example means:

"W2XYZ W2XYZ from W4A13C

W4ABC end of transmission (AR)"

Whereupon W2XYZ answered:

"W4ABC from W2XYZ invitation to transmit (K)"

As you get on the air after getting your license, you will find
that many abbreviations are used by telegraphy stations in order
to conserve time. As a result, a series of "Q" signals has been
developed which are commonly used by Amateurs. A few of the
more common ones are listed below, and may be found on the
FCC exam.

54
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INIOdM03H0 ¿motels JnoÁ Jo aweu ay! s! IeyM-sueaw ¿dab
 INFORMATION
Also, to help you, we are now going to summarize in "distilled"
form most of the important terms and formulas. This will make
a good study of the electronics part of the Novice lest in "Capsule
form".

The rules and regulations will not be repeated here. . . so recycle

yourself as required to get them down. Good luck!

REFERENCE & DATA REFERENCE & DATA REFERENCE & DATA

IMPORTANT TERMS:
EMF = electromotive force Ion = atom which has lost or gained elec- Amplifier = device to enlarge signals elec-
Unit of measure is volt trons tronically
Conductor = material with many "free" elec- Oscillator = electronic device which generates
I = current
Unit of measure is ampere
trons ...
and consequently has low electri- an AC signal (when supplied with appro-
cal resistance to current flow. priate DC element voltages)
R resistance
=
Insulator = material with few "free" electrons Triode = tube with three active elements
Unit of measure is ohm .. high resistance. Transistor = three element "solid state" device
Semiconductor = material with 4 valence Emitter = element of transistor roughly simi-
P = power electrons per atom. lar to cathode
Unit of measure is watt Resistor = component designed to limit cur- Base = element of transistor which helps
rent flow control electron flow
Hertz = cycle Capacitor = component that stores electrical Collector = element in transistor somewhat
kHz = kilohertz (1000 cycles) energy in form of an electric field similar to plate in tube.
MHz = megahertz (1,000,000 cycles) Inductor = component that stores electrical NPN = transistor where emitter and collec-
J1= lamda (greek letter) meaning energy in form of an electromagnetic field tor are made of "N" type semiconductor
"wavelength" (in meters) Milliammeter = electrical measuring device material and base is "P" type material.
for F = frequency (number of hertz per that measures "thousandths" of an ampere PNP = transistor where emitter and collector
second) of current. are made of "P" type semiconductor ma-
C.W. continuous wave (or code type trans-
= Ohmmeter = measuring device for measuring terial and base is "N" type material.
mission) resistance Alpha = ratio of collector current to emitter
RF = radio frequency signal Voltmeter = measuring device for measuring current in a transistor
DC = direct current emf Beta = ratio of collector current to base cur-
AC = alternating current Henry = the unit of measure of inductance rent in a transistor ("current gain" of
Cycle = one completed chain of events out of Farad = the unit of measure of capacitance transistor)
a series of repetitive recurring events Rectifier = device that changes AC to pulsat- Frequency Multiplier = Stage that amplifies
Wavelength = distance an electrical wave can ing DC a signal and produces harmonics in its
travel during the time of one cycle (or Filter= device (circuit) that changes pulsat- output, from which it selects a desired
Hertz). ing DC to smooth DC multiple of the input signal as its output.
Atom = smallest particle of matter which Diode = a vacuum tube or semiconductor with Sky wave = RF transmission "bounced" off
contains the characteristics of the element two active elements of ionosphere
Electron = smallest particle of negative Cathode = emitter of electrons Skip = distance between origination of sky
charge (revolving about nucleus) Anode or Plate = collector of electrons wave signal and its reception point.
Proton = a positively charged particle (con- Control Grid = element in tube that controls Harmonic = multiple of a given frequency
tained in nucleus of an atom) flow of electrons from cathode to plate Log = document in which Amateur's keep
Neutron = neutral (electrically) particle Filament or Heater = part of a tube that heats record of transmissions, etc., of their
Valence Electrons = those in outer ring of the cathode to a temperature that will radio station
at om cause "emission" of electrons
56
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 SAMPLE NOVICE TEST
1. The schematic symbol for an NPN trans- 6. An insulator is a: 12. A sky wave:
istor is:
a. Good conductor of electricity a. Is an RF signal that never returns
a. b. Poor conductor of electricity to earth.
c. Material with many free electrons b. Is an RF signal that is reflected
d. Material with no electrons off the Ionosphere
b. -1E- e. None of the above c. Is an audio signal used to modulate
d. Is a DC wave
7. An "amplifier" e. None of the above

c. a. Changes AC to pulsating DC 13. A-1 Transmission means:

b. Changes DC to AC
c. Increases the amplitude of a signal a. Radiotelephone
d. d. Changes the frequency of a signal I). FM
e. Changes pulsating DC to smooth DC c. Continuous wave telegraphy
d. TV
8. An oscillator: e. None of the above
e. -141- a. Changes AC to pulsating DC 14. A modulator:
b. Changes DC to AC
2. A conductor has: c. Increases the amplitude of a a. Generates the transmitter RF
signal b. Varies the frequency, amplitude, or
a. 8 outer ring electrons per atom d. Changes the frequency of a phase of a transmitter in accordance
b. 4 outer ring electrons per atom signal with the intelligence.
c. 0outer ring electrons per atom e. Changes pulsating DC to c. Varies the height of the antenna
d. Many free electrons smooth DC d. Filters the pulsating DC
e. High resistance e. None of the above
9. A rectifier:
3. Ohm's Law states that: 15. A key -click filter:
a. Changes AC to pulsating DC
a.I=ExR b. Changes DC to AC a. Helps prevent spurious radiation
b. R = I/E c. Increases the amplitude of a signal b. Softens the key action mechanically
c. I = E/R d. Changes the frequency of a signal c. Isolates the oscillator from the load
d. R=IxE e. Changes pulsating DC to smooth DC d. Injects the intelligence
e. I = E + R e. None of the above
10. A filter:
4. To measure current, use a/an: 16. A detector is sometimes called:
a. Changes AC to pulsating DC
a. Voltmeter b. Changes DC to AC a. A modulator
b. Wattmeter c. Increases the amplitude of a signal b. A demodulator
c. Ohmmeter d. Changes the frequency of a signal c. A harmonic
d. Watt-hour meter e. Changes pulsating DC to smooth DC d. A plainclothesman
e. Ammeter e. None of the above
11. A multiplier:
5. The unit of capacitance is the: 17. The symbol for a triode is:

a. Ohm a. Changes AC to pulsating DC a.

h. Henry b. Changes DC to AC
c. Farad c. Increases the amplitude of a signal b.
d. Beta d. Changes the frequency of a signal
e. Hertz e. Changes pulsating DC to smooth DC

PC?
 69
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 SAMPLE NOVICE TEST(Cont.)
32. One-way communications from an ama- 33. Thefrequency of a Novice transmitter 35. When checked against NBS broadcast
teur station are allowed: may be controlled: station(s), the following may be used
to measure your transmitted signal
a. Never a. By crystal only frequency:
b. Anytime b. By VFO only
c. For music broadcasts c. By either crystal or VFO a. wave -meter
d. For code practice d. By the National Bureau of Standards b. frequency meter
e. None of the above e. None of the above c. receiver
d. All of the above
34. A novice station may be operated by: e. None of the above
a. Only Novices
b. Any U.S. Licensed amateur
c. Any foreign licensed amateur
d. Relatives of the Novice only
e. None of the above
INFORMATION FCC DISTRICT OFFICES

Hope you made out well on the 'Sample Novice Test'. It is very Dist. No. 1 Dist. No. 9 Dist. No. 17
similar to the one you will take for the FCC to get your license. 1600 Customhouse 5636 Federal Bldg. 1703 Federal Bldg.
If you did well on our sample test, then chances are you won't India & State Streets 515 Rusk Ave. 601 E. 12th St.
have trouble with the FCC test. Boston, Mass. 02109 Houston, Tex. 77002 Kansas, City, Mo. 64106
Dist. No. 10 Dist. No. 18
The procedure for applying for a Novice Class license and for Dist. No. 2
1872 U. S. Courthouse
Rm. 13E7; Fed. Bldg.
obtaining the necessary test is as follows: 748 Federal Bldg.
219 S. Dearborn
641 Washington St. 1100 Commerce St.
1. Obtain a copy of Form No. 610 from the nearest District FCC Dallas, Tex. 75202 Chicago, Ill. 60604
New York, N.Y. 10014
office. (See the list of district offices & addresses shown in Dist. No. 19
columns and 3) Dist No. 3 Dist. No. 11
2 1054 New Federal Bldg.
1005 Customhouse Rm. 1754
Washington Blvd. & Lafayette St.
Find volunteer examiner who meets the following requirements: Second & Chestnut Sts. 312 N. Spring St.
2. a Detroit, Mich. 48226
a. Is holder of an unexpired FCC amateur license of General, Philadelphia, Pa. 19106 Los Angeles, Calif. 90012
Dist. No. 20
Advanced, or Extra Class level, Dist. No. 4 Dist. No. 12
905 Fed. Bldg.
819 Geo. M. Fallon Fed. Bld g 323 A Customhouse
111 W. Huron St.
holder of an unexpired FCC commercial RADIO -TELE-
b. or, Is 31 Hopkins Plaza 555 Battery St.
Buffalo, N.Y. 14202
GRAPH, license, Baltimore, Md. 21201 San Francisco, Calif. 94111
c. or, Is currently the operator of a manually -operated radio- Dist. No. 21
Dist. No. 13 502 Federal Bldg.
telegraph station in the service of the United States. Dist No. 5
314 Multnomah Bldg.
Military Circle P.O. Box 1021
When your volunteer gets the necessary papers, he will administer 870 Military Highway
319 S.W. Pine St. Honolulu, Hawaii 96808
the Code tests first which will consist of five minutes of
. . .
Norfolk, Va. 23502
Portland, Ore. 97204
Dist. No. 22
text at 5 words (25 characters) per minute. One minute of copying Dist. No. 14 P.O. Box 2987
without error is required to pass and, likewise, one flawless
. . . Dist. No. 6 8012 Federal Office Bldg. 322 U.S.P.O. & Courthouse
minute of sending is required at 5 WPM to pass. 1602 Gas Light Tower 900 1st Ave. San Juan, P.R. 00903
235 Peachtree St., N.E.
After passing the code test, the examiner will give you the written Atlanta, Ga. 30303
Seattle, Wash. 98104 Dist. No. 23
test. Dist. No. 15 Room G-63
Dist. No. 7 504 New Customhouse U.S.P.O.
Within ten days after passing the code tests, the applicant must
51 S.W. First Ave. 19th St. btwn Calif. & Stout 4th & G Streets
send the Form No. 610 to the FCC Licensing Unit ... Gettysburg,
Miami, Fla. 33130 Denver, Colo. 80202 P.O. Box 644
Pa. 17325. Be sure the examiner completes the proper certification
on the reverse side of Form No. 610 before mailing it in. Dist. No. 16 Anchorage, Alaska 99501
Dist. No. 8 691 New Federal Bldg. Dist. No. 24
Good luck! 600 South St. 4th and Robert Sts. Room 216
New Orleans, La. 70130 St. Paul, Minn. 55101 1919 M Street N.W.
Washipgtop. n 20554
.
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 CHAPTER 3
THE TECHNICIAN CLASS LICENSE
Again, congratulations on coming this far! You are now beginning to personally experience
some of the excitement of "ham" radio, if you have gotten on the air with your Novice
license. The ground work that has been laid by your diligent work in learning code and
some basic electronic theory will pay great dividends as you continue to work toward the
General Class License. In this chapter, however, we simply wish to give you an overview
of the Technician Class license privileges, requirements and the like. May we repeat our-
selves once more here and say that even though the Technician Class license does not
require any more code proficiency than the Novice class . .we strongly urge you to
.

"continuously continue" your code practice . . working toward the General Class 13
.

WPM requirement. The reason we keep telling you to practice, practice, practice is because
in order to learn code it takes practice, practice, practice! Now, let's take a quick look at
some of the features of the Technician Class license.

INFORMATION REFERENCE & DATA

The basic reason the FCC opened this class of license was to en-
courage radio amateurs to experiment in the "higher frequency"
ranges. Radio amateurs, over the years, have made great contri-
butions to technology by being first to perform meaningful experi-
mentation and operation in much of the radio spectrum.
The requirements for acquiring a Technician License boil down to
the following:
... ....
,

1. Must be a U.S. citizen, or a resident alien who has filed "first

papers" for citizenship.
2. Pass a sending and receiving code test at 5 words per minute
(same as Novice).
3. Pass a written test on theory and regulations. This is the same
as the General class.
TL t c _ = S

The Technician tests are generally taken by mail under the direct Code Reminder .
. . Hope you have a
supervision of a General Class or higher licensee. The reason we receiver now and are getting daily "on
used the word "generally", is that there is an exception to this. the air code practice". Keep up the good
The exception is-if you go to an FCC office to try for a General work. Stop by your local Radio Shack
Class license and you should fail the 13 WPM test for code, but store to select a receiver, antenna and
you get 25 characters in a row (equivalent of copying 5 consecutive other helpful accessories.
words at the 13 WPM rate), you may take the written test and have
the code credited toward the Technician Class license. If you pass
the written theory test, and have met the above 25 character require-
ment, you will be issued a Technician Class license. This successful
passing of the written test at the FCC office can be credited
toward your General license, so that to get the General, all that's
left for you to do is to pass the 13 WPM code tests at the FCC
office. (Sending and receiving).
62
 E9
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 CHAPTER 4
THE GENERAL CLASS LICENSE
Well, this is it! This is the chapter you've been working toward. When you have mastered
the information in this chapter, you should be well prepared for the Technician and General
Class written examination. In order to get that coveted General Class license, it will
require continued diligence, on your own, to reach that 13 WPM code proficiency .. .

but, we have confidence in you ... you can do it!

In early pages of this book, we tried to "spoon feed" you. Now that you have some back-
ground, we will begin to treat you like an electronic technician in this chapter. By this,
we simply mean that there will be less "spoon feeding". We will expect you to "recycle"
yourself when required, without having to be told. We will want you to carefully study
any figures, charts or drawings associated with the text in order to get the full signif-
icance-and we won't spell out every single detail in words. In other words ... we're
going to force you to do some reasoning on your own ... just like you will have to do on
the General test.
Also, in this chapter, there will be a number of "schematic" diagrams given in which you
can either use a "pencil and paper" method of analyzing the parameters, and/or, you
can connect the circuits, if you have the parts, and make actual measurements to verify
your "theory" calculations. Virtually all the parts and supplies can be purchased at your
Radio Shack Store.
Generally, we will try to give the theory in this chapter by topic, so if you need more
study in a particular area of theory you can easily find the segment of the chapter devoted
to that area for restudy (since information on a particular topic, for the most part,
will not be scattered throughout the chapter.) Of course, there will be some cases of
"overlapping" information.
Some of the basic topics include: Privileges and requirements of General Class; DC
and AC circuit theory; Active and passive electronic components; Various electronic sys-
tems; Applications of various electronics components and circuits; Significant electronic
terms definitions; Antennas and feedlines; Rules and regulations; and various operating
procedures.
Bon voyage through this interesting and challenging chapter!

R4
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 INFORMATION REFERENCE & DATA CHECKPOINTS
7. For 10 meters:
a. CW is from to
MHz.

b. Phone is from to
MHz.

8. For 6 meters:
a. CW is from to
MHz.

b. Phone is from to
MHz.

9. For 2 meters:
a. CW is from to
MHz.

b. Phone is from to
MHz.
ANSWERS:
1. 3.525 to 3.775 MHz and 3.890 to 4.0 MHz.
2. 3.89 to 4.0 MHz.
3. 7.025 to 7.150 MHz and 7.225 to 7.3 MHz.
4. 7.225 to 7.3 MHz.
5. 14.025 to 14.2 MHz, and 14.275 to 14.350
MHz.
6. 21.025 to 21.250 MHz and 21.350 to 21.450
MHz.
7. 28.0 to 29.7 MHz. 28.5 to 29.7 MHz.
8. a. 50.1 to 54 MHz.
b. 50.1 to 54 MHz.
9. a. 144 to 148 MHz
b. 144.1 to 148 MHz.

Hope you did all right on that checkpoint! Knowing these frequency
limits is not only important for the test, but later for operating on
the air. Knowing these limits and abiding by them will help prevent
you from getting any "pink tickets" (notices of violation) from the
FCC. Study them until you know them!

As a holder of a General Class license, you will also have the privilege
or right to conduct and or supervise code tests and written exam-
inations (if you are over 21 years old) for Novice, Technician and
Conditional class licenses which are available via the "mail method".
66
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 INFORMATION REFERENCE & DATA CHECKPOINTS

CHECKPOINT:
WITHOUT LOOKING BACK AT THE COLOR
SIGNIFICANCE CHART ... fill in the blanks
below with either the appropriate number,
or color as required.
1. Green =

2. The number 2 is represented by the color

3. Brown =

4. 3 = what color?
5. Black =

6. 9 = what color?
7. Blue =

8. Gray =

9. 4 = what color?

10. 7 = what color?

ANSWERS:
1. 5 6. White
2. Red 7. 6
3. 1 8. 8
4. Orange 9. Yellow
5. 0 10. Violet

Now that you know the main colors used in color coding ... you
must learn the meaning of the various bands and their placement.
Carefully study the "BAND SIGNIFICANCE CHART" shown in the
next column.
Now let's mention the Gold and Silver colors again. You will only
find them used as either the third band (decimal multiplier band),
or in the fourth band (tolerance band). Look at the description for
these colors in the next column.
68
C
BAND SIGNIFICANCE
Band A-lst significant figure of resistance value in ohms.
Band B -2nd significant figure of resistance value in ohms.
Band C-Decimal multiplier
Band D-Tolerance in percentage (If no fourth band, tolerance is 20 per cent.
Gold = 5% tolerance, when used as fourth band (band D)
Gold = 0.1 multiplier, when used as third band (band C)
SILVER = 10% tolerance, when used as fourth band (band D)
SILVER = 0.01 multiplier, when used as third band (band C)
 69
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 INFORMATION REFERENCE & DATA CHECKPOINTS
Did you catch that tricky one with Black as the third band? When-
ever black is used as a multiplier (third band), it means to add "zero"
zeroes . . and simply read the first two significant digits
. in . . .

our sample the value is 10 ohms. Remember this one, for it appears
quite often in real life. Also, we could have tricked you by putting
gold or silver in the third band position. All you have to do is move the
decimal in accordance with the color. Example: if the first two
numbers were decoded as 15, and the third band was Gold (a 0.1
multiplier) .then the resistor would be a 1.5 ohm resistor. If
Silver were the 3rd band the value would be 0.15 ohms.
. . .

THE ONLY WAY TO LEARN THE COLOR CODE IS TO USE IT!

We realize that we don't have room enough in this book to give you all
the practice you need so it's up to you! Every time
. . .

you see a resistor . "decode it". It's a lot of fun to see how
. .

quickly and accurately you can decode it. You'll be amazed at how
quickly those colors will almost look like numbers to you, if you will
practice. EA RI 10K CHECKPOINT:
Look at the diagram in column 2 and fill in the appropriate blanks in If the current meter is reading 2 mA . .

the checkpoint in column 3. HINT: Start by writing the OHM'S LAW What is the value of the "applied voltage"?
formula for voltage then substitute the appropriate values of
. . .

current and resistance into the formula. Use the blank space on these EA = volts.
pages for your calculations, etc.
ANSWER:
EA = 20 volts
Here's the procedure:
Ohm's Law formula for voltage is:
E=IxR
Substituting, we get:
E = 0.002 A. x 10,000 ohms = 20
volts.
That wasn't bad was it? Here's another little hint ... whenever you
multiply milli -units times kilo -units the answer is in units. The ...
reason is that a milli -unit is "one -thousandth" of a unit and the kilo -
unit is "one thousand" units ... so when you multiply one -thousandth
by one thousand you "end up" with 1.

Let's see if you remember the power formula.

For the same circuit .. .

how much power does R dissipate? Don't forget, in order to prevent

simple errors .. CHECKPOINT:
1. Write down the appropriate formula, then . . .

2. Substitute the appropriate values ... keeping track of the

The power dissipated by Ri (PR1) =
decimals. mw. (milliwatts)
Work out the answer and fill in the Checkpoint blank.
ANSWER:

40 mw.

70
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 INFORMATION REFERENCE & DATA CHECKPOINTS
Let's take a closer look at our three -element series circuit and "pick-
up" some other very important facts regarding series circuits.
Fact: THE TOTAL RESISTANCE OF A SERIES CIRCUIT IS EQUAL
TO THE SUM OF ALL THE INDIVIDUAL RESISTANCES IN SERIES!
For our sample circuit then: RT (total res.) = R1 + R2 + R3 Thus: RT =
18K + 12K + 10K = 40,000 ohms (40K).

Another way we could have solved for R total is by using Ohm's Law
as follows:

RT = ET/IT which simply means total resistance = total voltage divided

by total current ...
so for our sample circuit:

RT = 40v/ImA = 40K ohms. EA

40V
Many, many times in working on electronics calculations you will
be using this version of Ohm's Law so here's another quickie
. . .

hint at no extra charge! Whenever you divide units by milli -units

. .the answer is in K units. Most of the time when you are
.

solving for resistance in electronic circuits you will be working

with volts and milliamps so remember this statement
. . . . . .

volts divided by milliamps = Kilohms.

Let's look at our sample circuit again and make another important
observation. FOR SERIES CIRCUITS: THE APPLIED VOLTAGE (EA
OR ET) IS EQUAL TO THE SUM OF THE INDIVIDUAL VOLTAGE
DROPS!

For our sample circuit then, EA (E applied) must equal ER1 + ER2 + ER3,
or in other words: 18v + 12v + 10v ... hence E applied or ET = 40 volts. I= 2 mA
Putting these three important facts together (regarding series cir-
cuits) ...
you have tremendous flexibility in solving series circuits. CHECKPOINT:
Those 3 key facts again are:
1. Current is the same through all parts of a series circuit. 10K For the circuit shown in column 2 find the
following:
2. Total resistance is equal to the sum of all the resistances.
EA ER1 = volts
Total voltage is equal to the sum of each of the individual volts
3.
voltage drops.
60V ER3 =
ER2 = volts

O.K. Here's a "brain twister" problem to see if you can begin to apply 10K R2 = K ohms
these facts to a practical problem. Give it your best effort! Try not to IR, = mA.
look ahead to the answer until you've really given it "a college try".

72
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 INFORMATION REFERENCE & DATA CHECKPOINTS
O.K. Let's make mention of a couple more facts that are very
practical even though you may not be called upon to analyze
. . .

a circuit with these conditions on an FCC exam.

Fact number one relates to the effect of an "OPEN" in a series

circuit. By an "open" we mean that for some reason or another,
the current path is broken through a given part of the circuit. For
example ...
if a resistor were to physically break in half, it would
create an open. If ANY PART OF A SERIES CIRCUIT IS OPEN ...
THE ONLY CURRENT PATH THROUGH THE CIRCUIT IS BROKEN
... HENCE CURRENT WILL DECREASE TO ZERO THROUGHOUT
THE SERIES PATH. Of course, an open can be caused by a wire
becoming disconnected from a terminal or component, etc. When
current is zero, then the IxR drop across all other components,
except the open one, is zero. Across the open portion of the circuit,
one would measure E applied, since there are no "IxR" drops to sub-
tract from EA THE POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE ACROSS THE
. . .

OPEN WILL BE EA.

Fact number two relates to the effect of a "SHORT" in a series

circuit. If any resistance is shorted out (becomes close to zero ohms),
then R total will decrease ... causing I total to increase. If the current
through the circuit increases then the IxR (voltage) drops across ...
the "unshorted" components will increase proportionately
the voltage drop across the shorted part of the circuit will decrease
and ...
to zero .since E = IxR, and R (for the shorted portion) has
. .

become virtually zero anything times zero is still zero, hence

. . .

E = zero.

Of course there are many adverse effects from a "shorted" part,

or all, of a circuit. Everything from blown fuses to destroyed circuit
elements can (and often do) happen when shorts occur. How much
damage is done usually depends on how much "unshorted" resis-
tance is left in the circuit to limit current.
Here's a summary of key facts regarding series circuits ... remember
these and understand them, and you will be able to "think your
way" through almost any problem involving series circuits.
Facts: (for series circuits)
1. Total resistance (RT) equals the sum of the individual resistances
...or:
RT = R,+R2+...and so on.
2. Total voltage equals the sum of the individual voltage drops
or:
ET = ER1 + ER2 + . . . and so on.
3. Total power equals the sum of the individual power dissipations,or:
Pr = PR, + PR2 + ... and so on.

74
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 INFORMATION REFERENCE & DATA CHECKPOINTS
Let's see if you can "put it all together" and solve an interesting CHECKPOINT:
series -circuit problem. Get the "info" from the circuit in column 2, FROM
and determine the answers asked for in the checkpoint. Calculate VOLTAGE Rl 4.7K Find the Following:
...
as required in the blank portions of these pages if possible when SOURCE +
through . . .verify by actual circuit hookup and measurements. RT =
Good luck! EA R2 2.2K IT =
ET =
PT =
ER, =
=1.5V PR2 =

What fractional part of EA is ER,?

ANSWERS:
As a form of review let's "logic" you . Now that we know the current through all
through this problem step-by-step. the components, and we were given each
component's resistance value we have . . .

RT, or total resistance, was the first electri-
cal parameter asked for. By remembering
that in a series circuit the total resistance
simply equals the sum of the individual re-
sistances ...
you should have simply added
4.7K + 2.2K + 1.0K and arrived at 7.9K as
your answer.
Next parameter asked for was total current.
Here's a key step in solving a series circuit.
Once you know the current through any part
of a series circuit you automatically
. .
know the current through all the components
in series, since the current is the same
through all parts of a series circuit. Just
TWO KNOWNS about each component and
the rest is easy.
To solve for total voltage (ET) we simply
use "good ole Ohm's Law" again: ET = IT
x RT, OR, ET = 1.5 mA. x 7.9K = 11.85 volts.
Next on the agenda was total power calcula-
tion. You should have written down the for-
mula: PT = ET x IT and substituted: PT =
11.85v x 1.5 mA to get the answer: 17.77
. mW. (milliwatts). Incidentally, you could
have used: IT2 x RT, OR ET2/RT and gotten
the same results. Usually it's easier though
. .if you know both E and I, to use the
.

about everytime you have a circuit problem version of the power formula that doesn't
the first thing to look for is any part require any "squaring" because then
...
. . . . . .

of that circuit or any component about
which you know or are given TWO
. .
KNOWNS (or parameters). In this case we
have such a condition for R3. We know its
resistance value, AND we know the voltage
dropped across it ... so we can easily solve for
the current through it by: la. = ER3/R3. From
this we get: IR3 = 1.5v divided by 1.0K ... and
thus IR3 = 1.5 mA. Since the current is the
same through all parts of a series circuit
you have to perform two mathematical func-
. tions ...
"squaring" and then either multipli-
cation or division (depending on which for-
mula you used).
O.K. To solve for ER,, just multiply the cur-
rent through it by its resistance value to get
its "IR" drop. Answer is: 7.05 volts.
To get PR2 requires two operations no matter
... what approach you use . so let's use IR22
. .

this is also the value for I total ... therefore, x R2 here, and get: PR2 = 1.5 mA2. x 2.2K
IT = 1.5 mA. = 4.95 mW. (Watch out for those decimals
whenever you square with them.)

76
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 INFORMATION REFERENCE & DATA CHECKPOINTS
THE PARALLEL CIRCUIT

The reason we took so much time looking at principles and concepts

in series circuits was because you will be using the same general
approach in solving all types of circuit problems, and we wanted
to give you a good foundation to work from.

Remember that a series circuit could be defined as a circuit where

all the components were connected "in tandem", and there was
only one path for current flow ...
well, a parallel circuit differs in
these two basic points. First, a parallel circuit is one in which there CELL
are TWO OR MORE CURRENT PATHS. Second, the components
ARE NOT connected "in tandem". Study the pictorial and schematic Pictorial of a
diagrams in column 2 illustrating these facts. Parallel Circuit

Notice that when total current leaves the negative side of the source,
there is one path . . but soon it arrives at a "junction" where
.

R, and R2 join ... and the current divides into TWO paths (I, and 12).
I, passes through Ri .. 12 passes through R2
. ...
then the two cur-
rents JOIN again at the top of R, and R2 at the junction of those two
resistors, and we now have total current (II + 12) traveling from the
junction back to the source through the single -wire path. As you
see ... the parallel circuit offers more than one current path. Also,
the components are not connected "in tandem", but rather "in a
parallel configuration" with "ends common."

Since their ends are connected together, another valuable fact to Schematic of same
remember about components "in parallel" is that the VOLTAGE Parallel Circuit
ACROSS ALL PARALLEL COMPONENTS IS THE SAME! In the
case of a "simple" parallel circuit, the voltage across all "branches"
is equal to E applied since they are each in parallel with
. . .

the source as well as being in parallel with each other.

Notice, we used the term "branch" to indicate one path.

In our earlier illustration then, I, represents the "branch current"

through R, and 12 is the symbol we used to indicate the "branch
current" through R2.
This brings us to a third important fact to remember about parallel
circuits. Each branch current is INVERSE to its branch resistance.
This simply means that the higher the branch resistance the . . .

lower the branch current. Makes sense doesn't it!

Ohm's Law told us that current is inverse to resistance when it

says that I = E/R. This means that if branch No. ] has twice
the resistance of branch No. 2 then the current through
. . .

branch No. 1 will be half that of branch No. 2's current . . .

since both R's have the same voltage across them.

78
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 INFORMATION REFERENCE & DATA CHECKPOINTS
OK ... here's another practice problem for parallel circuits. CHECKPOINT
IT
Solve the circuit shown in column 2 for the
following:

1. EA = V.

R3 2. R2 = K ohms.
10K
3. 13 = mA.

4. IT = mA.

IT 5. PR, = mW.

6. PR2 = mW.

7. PR3 = mW.

8. PT = mW.

ANSWERS:

1. 30 volts. 5. 90 mW.
2. 20K ohms 6. 45 mW,
3. 3 mA. 7. 90 mW.
é
4. 7.5 mA.. 8. 225 mW.

Hope you did well on this. We'll think through it here so you
can check your method of solution.

First ...
we know that EA is going to be the same as the voltage
across any of the branches. Since we have "2 knowns" about branch
No. 1, we can solve for ER1 easily. 3mA. x 10K = 30v. Hence,
we know that EA is 30 volts.

We can that branch No. 2's current is half that of branch

see
No. 1 . know that branch No. 2's resistance must be
. . so we
TWICE that of branch No. 1. This means that R2 = 20 K ohms.

We know that branch No. 3's current must be the same as branch
No. l's . . . since it has the same E and R . . . thus, 13 = 3 mA.

Total current for a parallel circuit must equal THE SUM OF THE
BRANCH CURRENTS! This gives us 7.5 mA. for the total current.

The power dissipated by each branch resistance can be calculated

simply by using the product of the branch E and the branch I.
This gave us 90 mW. for branches No. 1 and No. 3, and 45 mW.
for branch No. 2.
80
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 INFORMATION REFERENCE & DATA CHECKPOINTS

Let's show you how to use this to advantage even in a . . .

circuit where NOT ALL the branches are the same value
but some of them are.
Look at the circuit in column 2, and follow our reasoning below. R3
10K
If R2 were not present the total resistance of the circuit would
. . .

be 5K correct? Sure, two 10Ks in parallel equal an equivalent

. . .

resistance of 5K even when you work it out by the "product

. . .

over the sum" formula. Now here's a nifty trick. We CAN

. . .

say that the equivalent total resistance of R, and R in parallel IS

5K. Let's use the Re (R equivalent) of R, & R3 and combine it with
R2's resistance to get R total. HOW ABOUT THAT! We now can
easily see the equivalent total resistance of R2's 5K in parallel with
R, & R3's 5K will yield a circuit total resistance of 2.5K.

All we've said is this. You can combine equal resistance branches
. using this technique, and then apply the product over the
.

sum formula, or any other means, to solve for RT. If R2 had not been R4
5K (for convenience sake); then, you would have had to apply the
R2
product over the sum formula to find the final results (R total for 10K 10K CHECKPOINT
circuit). In fact, let's try a problem where you must use your "tricky Solve for RT for the circuit shown:
technique" of combining equal branches plus the product over . . .

the sum formula to get the answer. Solve the problem at right for RT = K ohms.
total resistance.
ANSWER:

RT = 0.45K ohms

Here's the pattern of thinking you should have used:

1. R, and R3 are equal resistance branches whose equivalent resis-
tance would equal 0.5K.

2. R2 and R4 are equal resistance branches whose equivalent resis- R3

tance would equal 5K. Son
3. Total resistance will equal:
0.5K x 5K divided by 0.5K + 51(
Giving: 2.5/5.5 = 0.45K
SOLUTION
Now, let's suppose Nou had a circuit where none of the branches
were equal now what? All right one approach that R,xR2 10x20 6.662
. . . . . .
Step 1:
will always work is to use the product over the sum formula RI + R2 10 + 20 =
to solve any two of the branches then take that equivalent . . .

resistance (called Re) of the two branches just solved and work Re x R3 6.66 x 30 199.8
Step 2:
36.66 -
5.452
it with the next branch using the same formula. Look at the example Re + R3 6.66 + 30
in column 2.
RT = 5.4552

82
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 INFORMATION REFERENCE & DATA
It's about time that we summarize the key things we've told you
about parallel circuits. These are things you should remember for COMPARISON CHART FOR SERIES & PARALLEL CIRCUITS
sure!
Item being considered Series Ckt. Parallel Ckt.
1. Voltage across all parallel components is the same.
Circuit connection Components connected Components connected
2. Current through any given branch is inverse to that branch's "end -to -end". "side -by -side".
resistance. (This means the smallest R branch has the most current
...the highest branch R the least, etc.) Total Resistance Sum of all resistances Less than least branch
resistance
3. Total current equals the sum of the branch currents.
Voltage Distribution ET = sum of all individual Voltage is the same across
4. Total resistance is always LESS THAN THE LEAST BRANCH R. voltage drops; and largest all parallel components.
R drops most voltage. (= EA)
5. The smallest resistance branch dissipates the most power. (And, the
highest R branch, the least, etc.) Current Distribution Same current through all Current splits or divides at
components in series (_ IT) "branching points"; inverse
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sipations, and/or equals EA x IT. equals SUM OF ALL
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enough knowns to use it. power. Total P equals sum power. Total power = sum
of individual P dissipations of all individual power dis-
8. Several methods for solving for RT are: Ohm's Law; Product over or EA X IT. sipations, or, EA X IT.
the Sum formula; Equal branches trick; and the Assumed Voltage
technique. CIRCUIT COMMON Current Voltage
FACTOR
To bring into focus all the things that we've said about SERIES
circuits and PARALLEL circuits . . look at the COMPARISON
.

CHART. If you will study AND UNDERSTAND NOT MEM-

. . .

ORIZE these facts ...

you will be "money ahead" for the FCC exam.

THE SERIES-PARALLEL CIRCUIT

The final circuit configuration we want to discuss is the Series -Parallel

circuit. As the name implies . parts of this circuit have series
. .

elements and other parts of the circuit have parallel elements.

Sometimes you hear this type circuit called a "combination" circuit.
We'll use the term series -parallel circuit most of the time .. and.

for convenience, we'll sometimes abbreviate it an "S -P" circuit.

You have already learned the most important concepts needed

to analyze S -P circuits. The key here is to use the rules for series
circuits in analyzing the portions of the circuit where elements
are in series . .and use the rules for parallel circuits for the
.

parts of the circuit for which that is appropriate. To get the final
results .. . you merely combine the results, as you will see in
our next example.
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 INFORMATION REFERENCE & DATA CHECKPOINTS
ANSWERS:
1. RT = 15K ohms
2. I, = 0.5 mA.
3. 13 = 0.5 mA.
4. IT = 1.0 mA.
5. ER3 = 5 volts
6. ER1 = 15 volts
7. PR, = 7.5 mW.
8. PR3 = 2.5 mW.
9. PT = 15.0 mW.

If you had any trouble with that problem, go back and review
the pertinent information regarding series, parallel and S -P circuits
until you understand the answers.

AC VOLTAGES AND CURRENTS

Now that you've had quite a bit of practice using "glorified Ohm's
Law" circuit analysis of DC circuits ...
it's time to begin learning
how this same approach can be used for AC circuit analysis.
Let's quickly review the difference between DC and AC. Look at
the illustrations of DC voltage and AC voltage.
Observe that the DC voltage is at one level and of one. . . +10V
polarity (in this case +). The AC voltage is continuously changing 0
level (amplitude), and alternately is going in a positive direction
... then a negative direction (polarity). - DC VOLTAGE
As a radio amateur ...
you will be working with both DC voltages
and currents from DC sources and with AC voltages and currents
from AC sources. A car battery is an example of a DC source.
)

The outlet in your home is an example of a 60 Hz, AC source.

Probably the first thing we should do is to familiarize you with
the important values of a "sine -wave" AC voltage since this . . .

can appear on your FCC test . and besides, it will make you a
. .

better technician if you learn it. AC VOLTAGE

Study the sketch of the various sine -wave values then we'll . . .

discuss some of the meanings.

The sketch shows one "cycle" (Hertz) of a sine -wave AC voltage. "PEAK VALUE"(=1.414 X EFF VALUE)
The reason it is sometimes called a sine -wave is that its value EFF.VALUE"(=0.707 X PK)
or amplitude at any given instant of time during the cycle can -"AVERAGE VALUE" (=0.637 X PK; OR
be computed from the mathematical function called the "sine". 0 0.9 X E F F. VALUE)
For example, if we consider the cycle starting at 0, at 0 degrees
.the sine of an angle of 0 degrees is equal to zero. Since
the complete cycle takes 360 degrees then you can see from
. . . "PEAK TO PEAK" VALUE
the diagram that after 90 degrees (1/4th cycle), the amplitude
is at peak value . . and sure enough . the sine of 90 degrees
. . .

equals 1 (maximum value) ... and so on.

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 INFORMATION REFERENCE & DATA CHECKPOINTS
How did you do? If you missed any of these ... better review ... .

I= 1mA
As you may have gathered from the discussion we just finished
probably the most important value with reference to sine -wave
AC voltages and currents is the EFFECTIVE value. Be aware that
virtually all AC measurement instruments, such as voltmeters and 10K 10V
EA
current meters are designed so that they measure effective value. 20V
Some do have provision for measuring peak or peak -to -peak . . .
DC
however, these are special scales on the instrument. When you SORCE
use an AC voltmeter or current meter what you read is
. . . 10K 10V
rms, or effective value, unless otherwise stipulated.

Now, you may be wondering can I use Ohm's Law to analyze

. . .

AC circuits, the same way I do for analyzing DC circuits. In a (AC SOURCE IrrA=EFFECTIVE AC
broad sense, the answer is YES! For purely resistive circuits . . .
SYMBOL) CURRENT
you use the same exact procedures when using the EFFECTIVE
VALUES of voltage or current. In other words for all those . . .

problems we had you solve for series circuits, parallel circuits,

and S -P circuits if the values of voltage and/or current were 10V (RMS OR
. . .
EA
given as effective values your answers would be exactly the EFFECTIVE)
. . .
20V
same as for DC. If the values were stated as peak values . .
EFFECTIVE
you would have simply had to convert them to effective values by AC
multiplying by 0.707 ...
and then plug the effective values into the 10V (RMS OR
formulas. The same rules apply to a resistive circuit with AC applied, EFFECTIVE)
as with DC applied. That simply means that the rules for current
distribution, voltage distribution, etc. hold.
EFFECTIVE I = 1 mA
Rather than waste your time working more problems with purely
resistive circuits . let's move on now and begin to consider
. .

some components and circuits that operate a little differently with

AC applied than does the simple resistor element. EFFECTIVE E=10V
EA
Remember our old friend Frequency? Well, the elements we are 28.28V
about to discuss show different oppositions to current flow for PEAK
different frequencies of AC applied to them. Because of this VALUE AC
. . .
EFFECTIVE E=10V
these components open up a whole new "vista" of controlling
electron flow in electronic circuits.

88
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 INFORMATION REFERENCE & DATA CHECKPOINTS
Now for the formula for XL. XL = 2nfL
When you think about it that formula makes a lot of sense.
. . . Where:
As you recall we said that the faster the rate of change
. . . XL = inductive reactance in ohms
f=
of current the higher the opposition, or XL That obviously
. . . 2 = 6.28 L=
relates directly to the frequency. Look at the diagram of two fre- f = frequency in Hertz 100 Hz 10Hy
quencies . .as you can see, the higher the frequency
. the . . . L = inductance in Henrys
faster the rate of change of voltage and/or current so "sure . . .
+10Vr-
enough" if frequency is doubled XL will double. ... 11 =1f
I

The same DIRECT relationship is true regarding inductance and InPF

-10VI-----t-
inductive reactance. If we double the inductance of a coil . . .

it will give double the XL for any given frequency.

I

+10Vr- CHECKPOINT

Try the little XL problem at this checkpoint.

f 2=2Xf
1
TIME -1>
Refer to the diagram above and solve for
the inductive reactance of the coil.

XL = ohms.
ANSWER:
XL = 6,280 ohms

CHECKPOINT
1. Solve for XL for the circuit shown in col-
umn 2.
Did you use the XL formula correctly? In this case the way you XL = ohms.
should have done it is:
1. Write down the formula: 2. If the frequency were doubled and the
XL = 2 77f inductance were the same value, what
would be the XL? ohms.
2. Then substitute the values:
XL = 6.28 x 100 x 10 = 6,280 ohms. 3. If the frequency were cut to 1/2 and the
inductance were doubled, what would be
To see if you understand the concept of how inductive reactance f= the resultant XL?
changes with frequency and inductance values try the next . . . 1000 Hz XL = ohms.
checkpoint.
4. If the frequency were doubled and the
inductance tripled . the resultant XL
. .

would be times as great

as the original circuit shown.
ANSWERS:
1. 9,420 ohms
2. 18,840 ohms
3. 9,420 ohms
4. 6 times
As you can see from the results on the checkpoint Inductive . . .

Reactance is DIRECTLY PROPORTIONAL TO FREQUENCY AND

TO INDUCTANCE.
90
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 INFORMATION REFERENCE & DATA CHECKPOINTS

So far we've talked about inductances combined with other induc-

tances . and discussed how to find total inductance and how
. .

to find total inductive reactance. Let's move ahead now into a

"generalized" understanding of what happens when you combine
resistors and inductors in one circuit. We do not need to go into
"deep AC theory" and mathematics to give you the concepts you
need ... so we won't!
The fact that an inductor "opposes a change in current" causes
the current through an inductor to LAG BEHIND THE VOLTAGE
ACROSS THE INDUCTOR by 1/4th cycle which is 90 degrees. ...
A whole cycle represent 360 degrees, as you already know. Now
a crutch to help you remember the fact that current LAGS voltage
in an inductor remember the man's name "ELI". The E in
. . .

the name stands for the voltage the L stands for the inductance ...
... and the I stands for current. So to use this "crutch" think: ...
E comes before I in an inductor (L). As you can see with the name
ELI ... the E is before the I!

Because maximum current does not occur at the same time maximum
voltage does we say that the two are out of phase. In this
. . .

case . they are out of phase by approximately 90 degrees.

. .

If the inductor were perfect and only had inductance with . . .

no resistance it would be 90 degrees

. . but since there
. . . .
E
is some resistance in the wire of the coil the phase difference . . .

ís really less than 90 degrees for a practical coil. I

Look at one way this 90 degree out of phase condition can be
represented (showing the phase difference between E and I in
an inductor). Notice that when one parameter is at maximum
amplitude ... the other is at zero ... and vice versa. VOLTAGE AND CURRENT RELATIONSHIP
IN AN INDUCTOR
THE RL CIRCUIT

Now let's think about what will happen when we put a resistor
and an inductor together in a single circuit. Look at the schematic
in column 2, and follow our reasoning below:

We haven't really said it before, but in a purely resistive circuit,

the voltage and current are in phase. This means that when E
across a resistor is maximum the current through it is also . . .
E IS MAX. WHEN
at maximum. We have just finished telling you that in an inductor, I IS MAX.
there is approximately 90 degrees phase difference between the AND
Et, and the IL. When we combine the two elements logic . .
E IS MIN. WHEN
.

tells us that the resultant total circuit voltage (ET or EA) will
I IS MIN.
NOT be perfectly in phase with total circuit current (IT) since
the circuit is not purely resistive nor will they be 90 degrees . . .

out of phase since the circuit is not purely inductive. The

. . .

result will be the ET and IT are out of phase by some angle between
0 degrees and 90 degrees. Does that make sense? Sure it does
... and that is actually what takes place.
-2
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 INFORMATION REFERENCE & DATA CHECKPOINTS

Vectorially is a big word. You don't need to worry about it because

we are not going to go into a lot of vector math but simply o
want you to get a concept.
. . .

/ NET
FORCE
If two fellows were tugging on two ropes that are tied at the
other ends to a common "load" and the two fellows are
. . .
J, (

tugging with 10 pounds force each but the ropes were aimed. . .

in directions that were 90 degrees apart, the resultant force on

the "common load" point would not be 20 pounds nor 10 . . . o
pounds . . but 14.14 pounds
. similar in concept to our
. . .
LOAD(
example of the voltage drops. You get the idea the resultant . . .

is not as large as the sum of the two individual vectors . . .

but is greater than the largest one of the vectors. So for a series
RL circuit, the applied voltage does not equal the simple sum
of the two voltage drops ... but the vector sum.
Time to consider some facts about a parallel RI, circuit. As we
have already hinted the component in an RL circuit that
. . .

has the most control over the circuit current is the one which
has the greatest effect on the resultant phase angle between E
applied and circuit total current. Look at our simple parallel RL
circuit diagram-which element do you think is having the greatest
effect on the circuit phase angle? If you said the resistor in this
case, you were correct. Why? Because there is more "resistive
branch current", than there is "inductive branch current". What
this says to us is that in PARALLEL RL CIRCUITS, THE BRANCH
WITH THE SMALLEST OHMIC VALUE HAS THE MOST EFFECT!
Notice this is just the opposite from the series RL circuit, where,
the largest ohmic value component has the greatest effect on the
circuit.
In parallel RL circuits, the voltage is the same across all parallel
branches . and, of course is equal to E applied
. . so . . .

the voltages across all the branches are in phase BUT THE . . .

CURRENTS THROUGH THE RESISTIVE AND INDUCTIVE CHECKPOINT:

BRANCHES ARE OUT OF PHASE. This means that the total circuit
current, (IT) must not be equal to the simple sum of all the branch 1. For a series RL circuit with a resistor of
currents, like they were for DC circuits or purely resistive . . .
20K and an inductor whose reactance is
AC circuits but total current is the vector sum of the branch
. . .
30K, the phase angle between EA and IT
currents. would be (more than 45 degrees; less
If the XL branch = 10K ohms, and the R branch = 10K ohms, IR
than 45 degrees)?
then the circuit phase -angle will be 45 degrees. (Each branch current EA
has an equal influence on IT). If Xi. is smaller than R then . . .
2. For a parallel RL circuit with a resistor of
the circuit will tend to act "more inductive" since Ii. will . . .
20K an an inductor whose reactance is
be greater than la. Of course, if R is smaller than Xt., the opposite IT 30K, thé phase angle between EA and IT
is true. IL would be (more than 45 degrees: less
than 45 degrees?
Let's see if you have the general idea of series and parallel
RL circuits. Try the Checkpoint!
ANSWERS:
1. More than 45 degrees.
2. Less than 45 degrees.

94
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 INFORMATION REFERENCE & DATA CHECKPOINTS
A very interesting point regarding the charging and discharging
of the capacitor is that the "charge or discharge" current must
flow in order to change the potential between the plates . . .
Ec "LAGS" I
that is ...
current "leads" voltage changes on a capacitor. Remember BY 90°
our old friend "ELI" for inductors. Now we want to complete
the "crutch" for you. REMEMBER THE SENTENCE "ELI THE . . .

ICE MAN". Interpreting the "crutch" sentence .E Leads I

. .

for an inductor and I Leads E for a capacitor. In other words . . .

E is before I in our crutch word ELI (where L stands for inductance);

and I is before E in our crutch word ICE (where C stands for
capacitance).
In our charge and discharge discussion, we showed a fixed DC
voltage source. Once the capacitor charged to the source voltage,
there was no more charging current in the circuit. (No more current
flow). Now ...
if we were to continuously vary the source voltage
there would
.guess what would happen. You're right
. . . .

be a constant flow of charging and discharging current as the

capacitor attempted to charge to the source voltage and discharge,
as appropriate. In effect, that is what happens when AC is applied
to a circuit with capacitance in it. Look at the diagram at the right.

Note two things from the diagram.

1. Current continues to flow as long as the source voltage is chang-
ing thus even though a capacitor BLOCKS DC ... it effectively
...
PASSES AC!
2. The current and voltage are 90 degrees out of phase for the
capacitor . with current LEADING voltage. (Our old crutch
. .

..."ICE", before E.)

I

Before we move on to look at series and parallel RC circuits

in the same manner as we studied series and parallel RI, circuits,
let's discuss total capacitance of capacitors in series and parallel. ER "IN PHASE"
And the resultant total capacitive reactances, in series and parallel. WITH I
To help you understand this, we'd better tell you what PHYSICAL
factors of a capacitor determine its capacitance value. You recall
that one farad of capacitance was that amount of capacitance
which would store one coulomb (6.28 x 10'" electrons) of charge
with one volt applied. The THREE physical factors which determine
the amount of capacitance for any given capacitor are:
1. Total area of plates facing each other.
2. Spacing between the plates (dielectric thickness).
3. Characteristic of the material, or dielectric between the plates.
Some examples of dielectric materials commonly used are: air,
mica, waxed paper and other non-conductive materials.
. . .

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 INFORMATION REFERENCE & DATA CHECKPOINTS
As a reminder, let's mention that because a farad is a huge amount
of capacitance . (a capacitor with this value might be the
. .

physical size of a small room) capacitors generally come

. . .

in values of micro farads (millionths of a farad); and micro -micro

farads (trillionths of a farad). A more modern term for the later
is "pico farads" . meaning the same thing. A 10 microfarad
. .

capacitor is normally written as 10 uf or 10 mfd. A 10 micro -micro

farad (sometimes written uuf) can he found frequently written
as 10 pf (for pico farad). PLATE
O.K. We've seen that capacitors in series add like resistors in parallel. - N0. 2
C1
PLATE NO.2
C2
As you might already have anticipated capacitors in parallel, . T PLATE PLATE NO.1
add like resistances in series. This means that if I have a 10 Il NO. 1

uf capacitor in parallel with another 10 uf capacitor the . . .

total capacitance of the circuit is 20 uf. Look at the circuit in

column 2, and let's play our little game of pretending we are
the source again. Now, the source sees the following;
1. The negative side of the source sees CI's plate No. 1 plate area
AND C2's plate No. 1 plate area.

2. The positive side of the source sees Ci's No. 2 plate area PLUS
C2'splate No. 2 area.

3. The spacing between all these plate areas is effectively ONLY

ONE DIELECTRIC THICKNESS. CHECKPOINT:
What is the total capacitance in the circuit
Therefore, following the concept mentioned earlier that the capaci- shown?
tance is directly related to plate area and inversely related to
the thickness of the dielectric it is obvious that C total will
. . .

be the sum of the capacitances. (We have twice the plate area
and the other two factors are the same: namely, spacing between
plates and dielectric constant.)

Try the checkpoint! Cl

IC2 C35f
-plow 5}tf

ANSWER:
CT = 20uf(10+5+5)

As you can see you simply add up the values of all the
. . .

capacitances in parallel to get the total capacitance. So, summarizing:

CAPACITANCES IN SERIES ADD LIKE RESISTORS IN PARALLEL
. CAPACITANCES IN PARALLEL ADD LIKE RESISTORS IN
.

SERIES! (Just the opposite from the way finding total inductance
works ... right? Right!)

98
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 INFORMATION REFERENCE & DATA CHECKPOINTS
Now then let's relate the Xc and total capacitance concepts
. . . CHECKPOINT:
into one package.

Remember that capacitors in series added like resistors in parallel,

and, capacitances in parallel added like resistors in series. This
means when we put capacitors in series the total capacitance de- Xc1 =30011
creases ...
when we put capacitors in parallel, the total capacitance
increases. Since the reactance (or opposition to current) that a
capacitor shows is inverse to its capacitance value it follows . . .

that when we series capacitors, we will increase the total reactance, Xc2=1001l
since CT decreases. THIS SIMPLY MEANS REACTANCES IN SERIES
ADD LIKE RESISTANCES IN SERIES. This is true for any type TOTAL c = 5yt
reactance either capacitive, or inductive. It is also true that
. . .
TOTAL Xc = 200 I1
REACTANCES IN PARALLEL ADD LIKE RESISTANCES IN PARAL- 1. What is the total capacitance of the circuit
LEL. (In other words the total reactance of parallel capacitive
. . . SERIES C CIRCUIT shown above? uf.
reactances will be less than the least branch reactance).
2. What is Xc total? ohms.
Try the checkpoint!
3. What is the total capacitance of the circuit
shown below? uf.
Xc2=10011

If you didn't get the answers, here's a hint, so you can try again
until you understand. You should have used a form of the "product C2
over the sum" formula to find the total capacitance in question TOTAL c = 20 Pf 15 pf
1. (CT = CI x C2/Ci + C2) ...
and total reactance in problem 4. You
TOTAL Xc = 5011
should have simply added the series reactances in question 2 ... and
added the capacitance values to find CT for question 3. If you missed
these recycle yourself through the reading material which is
. . .

pertinent. PARALLEL C CIRCUIT

300f1
Xc1=
Now we've talked about factors that influence capacitance Xc2=100II
factors that influence capacitive reactance and we have seen . . .

how total capacitance and total Xc can be solved for series and 4. What is the total Xc of this circuit?
ohms.
parallel circuits.
ANSWERS:

1. 3.75 uf
2. 400 ohms
3. 20 uf
4. 75 ohms

THE RC CIRCUIT
Let's move on now to a quick analysis of how current and/or
voltage distributes itself in circuits that have both resistance and
capacitance. We'll confine ourselves to AC voltage and current
. since you already understand that in DC, once the capacitor
. .

is charged to EA, current ceases (since the capacitor "blocks DC").

Let's look at the simple RC series circuit first.

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 INFORMATION REFERENCE & DATA CHECKPOINTS
Ic IT
We can conclude then that if R = Xc in a parallel RC circuit
. .the circuit phase angle will be 45 degrees. If R is greater
. CHECKPOINT:
than Xc then more current will flow through the capacitive
. . . 1. Refer to the circuit below and determine
branch and the circuit will act more capacitively .. hence,
. . .
.
if the circuit current leads or lags Ea.
phase', angle will be between 45 and 90 degrees. If Xc is greater IT Ea.
than R then the opposite is true and the circuit phase angle
. . .
or EA
will be less than 45 degrees and be somewhere between . . .
IR
0 degrees (a pure resistive circuit) and 45 degrees (a circuit where Ic IT
R= Xc. )
Y,c=20K
To see if you understand these principles . . . try the next
checkpoint.

li EA 2. Will the phase angle be less than 45 de-

IR grees . more than 45 degrees
. . . or. .

exactly 45 degrees?
Ic
3. Ifthe value of capacitance were decreased
would the phase angle increase, de-
. .

crease or remain the same?

1.1 EA
IR
4. In order to achieve a phase angle of 45
degrees for this circuit, would the applied
FREQUENCY have to be increased, de-
creased or kept the same?

Trust you got those answers correct. If not .. here's the thinking . ANSWERS:
you should have used.
1. Leads
For question 1 we can make a general statement which . . . 2. Less than 45 degrees
is true in virtually all cases If there is any "net" capacitive . . . 3. Decrease
reactance in the circuit ... the resultant circuit total current will lead 4. Increased
E applied by some amount. THIS IS TRUE FOR BOTH SERIES
AND PARALLEL RC CIRCUITS. (By the way if there is a . . .

net "inductive reactance" in the circuit the voltage will lead . . .

the current by some amount). It may help you to remember the

concept that inductors oppose changes in current thus voltage . . .

leads capacitors oppose a change in voltage

. . .
thus current . . .

leads.
For question 2 since Xc was greater than R .
then there. .
. . .

will be more current through the R branch (since E is the same

across both components in a parallel circuit) .. hence, the resistive .

branch has more effect on total current therefore, the total . . .

current will lead Ea by less than 45 degrees.

The thinking on question 3 is: if capacitance were decreased . . .

then Xc would increase (remember the inverse relationship?). If

Xc increased then the current through the capacitor branch
. . .

would decrease and the resistive branch current is even more

. . .

in control of IT ... hence the phase angle would decrease.

102
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 INFORMATION REFERENCE & DATA CHECKPOINTS
Impedance then, is the total opposition the source "sees" to current
flow. Another way of stating this is to say that the ratio of Er ZT = ÍT IN ALL CASES
to IT is the impedance or opposition to current. Ohm's Law
. . .

states that ohms of opposition equals E/I. Because the presence

of any reactive component (I. or C) in an AC circuit causes circuit
current/s to be out of phase with circuit voltage/s ...
it is logical
to expect that we cannot just simply add up the reactances and
resistances to find total circuit opposition (impedance).
RI x R2
R2 RT =
For our purposes it is only necessary that you realize that
. . . R1+R2
the circuit impedance (commonly represented by the symbol Z)
equals the circuit voltage divided by the circuit total current. The
only difference between Z and R is that Z is made up of a combination CHECKPOINT:
of R and X (reactance). For PURELY resistive AC circuits you . . .
1. What is the Z (impedance) of the circuit
can deal with R -total as always. For PURELY REACTIVE circuits
(All C's or All L's) you can deal with the reactances just like shown below?
you do resistances to find total opposition. When both resistive
ohms.
and reactive components are present in the same circuit . .
I=10mA
it takes vector type analysis, or other math to analyze but . . .

in ALL cases . .the total opposition equals E applied divided

.

by I total.

Try the checkpoint!

EA=
100 V
ZT DOES NOT EQUAL
R x Xc
RATHERIT
R + Xc BUT 2. Would the circuit impedance increase, de-
crease, or remain the same if frequency
were increased?

ANSWERS:

1. 10K ohms.
2. Decrease

How'd we get those answers? Well, Z = h/I ... thus. 100v/ 10 mA = OK

ohms. If frequency is increased ... then Xc will decrease (look at the
formula). If Xc decreases and R stays the same then it is
. . .

logical that the total opposition must go down. This brings about a
very "nifty" general statement regarding circuit total resistance
and/or total impedance.

NO MATTER WHAT KIND OF CIRCUIT .. SERIES, PARALLEL .

OR SERIES -PARALLEL IF ANY ONE OR MORE OF THE

. .

...
.

ELEMENTS CHANGES VALUE OF OPPOSITION THE TOTAL

CIRCUIT OPPOSITION WILL BE CHANGED.
104
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 INFORMATION REFERENCE & DATA CHECKPOINTS

THE RESONANT CIRCUIT

Since we have now studied inductance, inductive reactance and

RL circuits capacitance, capacitive reactance and RC circuits
. . .

. let's put all these components together and study a very

.

interesting phenomonon called Resonance.

We'll start with a series RLC circuit and the phenomenon of series
resonance.

Look at the circuit in column 2 and note the values of reactances

and the resistance value.

Because XL (inductive reactance) and Xc (capacitive reactance) affect

circuit current and voltages in "opposite ways" some interesting ...
things happen in this circuit. In effect the XL and the Xc
. . .

cancel each other out so the source sees a circuit where

. . .

the only effective limitation on current is the R value within the

circuit. (This is assuming a perfect coil with no resistance and
a perfect capacitor, with no resistance in which case they
. . .

would perfectly cancel.) Assume the theoretically "perfect" condition

... what would be the current in this circuit?
Well, using common sense and Ohm's Law if the reactances . .

cancel each other, the circuit impedance is equal to the R value

of 1K ohm. Current = voltage divided by resistance (or impedance)
... thus 10v/1K = 10 mA of circuit current.
That was easy wasn't it? Nov, here is where the fun begins.
Since the current is the same through all parts of a series circuit
. . then the 10 mA of current must be passing through the
.
1K
Xc and the XL as well as the R. Using Ohm's Law to solve for ER=IxR=10mAx1K=10V
voltage drops we find that 10 mA times XL of 10K = 100 volts . . .

AND, 10 mA times Xc of 10K = 100 volts. Wow! With only 10 volts EA= XC=10K
of E applied, we're getting 100 volts across the coil, and 100 volts 10V Ix XC=10mAx10K=100V
the capacitor ...
THAT'S RIGHT! The secret is that these reactive
thus, as
EC=
voltages are equal. BUT OPPOSITE IN PHASE . . .
. .
XL= 10K
far as the total circuit is concerned EA is dropped across the
R, and the reactive voltages cancel each other. Nevertheless, there
EL= Ix Xt_=10mA x 10K=100V
REALLY IS 100 volts across each reactance, individually. If we
were able to have a meter (voltmeter) which did not "load" down I=10mA
the circuit ...
we could actually measure that voltage. This unusual
circumstance occurs in series resonant circuits. In fact, one way
of judging the "Quality" of the reactive components is to note
how many times greater their voltage drops are than E applied.
This is called the Q of the circuit. It's obvious then that this
ratio is directly related to how many times greater the XL or Xc:
is, than the R.

106
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 INFORMATION REFERENCE & DATA CHECKPOINTS
For question 1 I = ...
E/Z. In this case Z=R because the reactances
cancel each other, since they are equal in value and opposite
in type. I = 10v/1K = 10 mA.

2.-EL = I x XL = 10 mA x 20K = 200v

3.-ER = I x R = 10 mA x 1K = 10v.

4.-Q = XL/R (or EL/EA) = 20

5.-XL is directly related to frequency and/or inductance. In this

case L stayed the same and frequency was doubled then . . .

XL would double. (Remember Xi. = 2 ft. formula?) Since the 2

pi and the L were constant, but f doubled the product, or . . .

answer is twice as great.

6.-Explanation given in answers column.

7.-Since the circuit impedance would now be made up of 1K
of Rand 30K of "left -over" XL rather than just the R, . . .

as at resonance obviously the circuit Z would increase.

. . .

8.-Since circuit current is inverse to circuit impedance, and

impedance increased ... then I must decrease.

In column 2 we have put a little "Summary Chart" for series

resonance. Try to learn these key facts!
CIRCUIT CHARACTERISTICS AT
SERIES RESONANCE

1. XL = Xc (net reactance = 0)
2. Z = R (thus Z is minimum)
3. I =maximum
4. Circuit Phase Angle = 0°
5. EL or Ec = Q times E applied
6. Q = XL orXcp EL Ec

Moving on ... let's talk for a few minutes about Parallel Resonance.

Again resonance (for our purposes) occurs when Xt. = Xc. We

. . .

will only consider the theoretical "perfect" coil and capacitor (no
internal resistance). In a practical sense, all these components are
not perfect but the characteristics we mention are true in a
. . .

general sense for parallel resonant circuits and you need to

EA=
. . .

know these "generalizations" for your FCC test. XL=10K

10V
Look at the circuit in column 2. If XL really does equal Xc . . .

then both "branches" should have equal currents because . . .

in parallel circuits E is the same across all branches. Each branch

current = E/opposition in ohms. In our example I = 10 volts/10K
= 1 mA for each branch.

108

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uw!eldxa Inoyi!M aaueuosaa waal agI pauo!{uaw aM 'rilieivap!oui
aanaiegM
ao p!nbii saaois nuel e se qanw riSaaua leo!alaala aaols
sluauodwoo an!Ioeaa asaqi imp 13eJ aqi woaJ pan!aap s! Ii s!naa!o
J'I !alluded ol auuaaaJaa u!paso rflluanbaaJ s! l!naa!a nuel mat
3 ay,i, laeya riaetuwng ayi u! noA aoJ waai Mau e pauolluaw aM
(l!na.no u l Ol Jo ap!slno)
aaanos woaJ luaaano = au!li
Isa{ aqi aoJ sioeJ rian asaqi meal aoueuosaa Ial¡eaed aoJ
suo!I!puou I!noa!o pazuewwns an,aM aoueuosaa le wnwtu!w aq
aut¡I aut¡I pinoM luaaano ay1 lug Iuaaano jo uo!Iellaoueo papad aq lou
9 pp-tom aaay{ aouay papad loll ale sluauodwoo aqi 'aJ!I leaa
I!noa!ai
Iao
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wnw!u!w = ¡ g pinoM (an!loeaa riiaand aaaM Inq aoueis!saa ou peg sluauodwoo J!)
wnw!xew = Z Z Iuaaano I!noa!a {au atu, iaoueo riayl ailsoddo pue ¡enba aae
DX =1X i sluaaano asaqi aou!g (uo!loaa!p allsoddo alp u! JO) ti gI!M aseqd
Jo 'no saaaSap 091 s! youeag aol!oedeu ag{ gSnoagl Iuaaano ay1
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 INFORMATION REFERENCE & DATA CHECKPOINTS
Another way of looking at the resonant frequency is to imagine
that you are pushing a swing with someone in it. If you push
"at just the right moment", the person will continue to swing
at the same level. If you push at the wrong moment you . . .

will change the level of the swing . or may even slop it.
. .

The "frequency" at which you push, is the natural, or resonant

frequency of the swing. In the electrical circuit the resonant
. . .

frequency is the frequency at which new energy "injected" into

the circuit will sustain the level of voltage and current and overcome
:he losses. It's not too important that you know any deep theoretical
knowledge here . but if you have the concept that there is
. .

one natural frequency the resonant frequency

. . . for any . . .

given LC combination.

Try using the "resonant frequency formula" on the problem. HINT:

fr = 0.159/ C L
Where fr= the resonant frequency in Hertz.
CHECKPOINT:
L = inductance in Henrys
9Hy Solve for the resonant frequency of the cir-
C = capacitance in farads. cuit shown in column /.

Watch out for your decimal places. Good luck with the checkpoint! fr Hertz.

ANSWER:

fr = 53 Hertz.

By the way, you can find the resonant frequency of a series I.C.
or RLC circuit using the same formula.

THE ELECTROLYTIC CAPACITOR

Time now to move ahead from the DC and AC circuit theory

portion of study to look at several components you will need to
have a basic knowledge of for the FCC test. These components
include some information about Electrolytic capacitors, semicon-
ductor diodes (including Zener diodes), basic vacuum tube infor-
mation and transistors.

You have already learned that a capacitor is composed of conductive

plates separated by a non-conductor material, called the "dielectric".
There is one particular type of capacitor that is unique; you need
to know some of its characteristics. This is the Electrolytic capacitor. "Photo Courtesy of Centraleb,
the Electronics Division of Globe -Union, Inc."

110
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 INFORMATION REFERENCE & DATA CHECKPOINTS
Let's see if you have picked up the most important points regarding CHECKPOINT:
the Electrolytic capacitor and the Zener diode. Try the checkpoint!
1. Two key characteristics of electrolytic ca-
pacitors are: they have (high. low) capac-
ity for their size?
they (can, cannot) be connected into AC
circuits?
2. True or False? Probably the most common
usage of electrolytic capacitors is as power
supply "filter elements".

3. The most important characteristic of the

Zener diode is (hat in operation it has a
relatively constant (voltage drop across
it; current through it)?

4. This characteristic becomes evident for

the Zener diode when the voltage applied
to it reaches a level to cause "breakdown",
"avalanche", or, its "zener" point. True
or False?

ANSWERS:

1. High capacity for size; and Cannot be

connected into AC circuit.
2. True
3. Voltage drop across it
4. True

VACUUM TUBES
Moving on now . .let's give you a quick refresher regarding
.

vacuum tubes. You remember that in the Novice chapter we

talked about the diode and triode tubes. Here, we'll briefly review
and then we'll add basic knowledge regarding the tetrode and
pentode tubes.

At this point, it may be good to "flat out" state a law of electricity

that we have implied over and over again in our discussions . . .

but have never really said in so many words. The "law of electric
charges" is that LIKE CHARGES REPEL . .UNLIKE CHARGES
.

ATTRACT.
112
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 INFORMATION REFERENCE & DATA CHECKPOINTS
To reduce this plate -to -grid capacitance, so that higher frequencies
could be amplified, someone got the idea of introducing a fourth PLATE
key element into the tube, called a screen grid. The screen grid
is located between the plate and the control grid. This in effect
put two capacitors in series .. thus reducing the total capacitance
.
CONTROL SCREEN GRID
between plate and control grid. (Output circuit and input circuit.) GRID
note the schematic symbol for the TETRODE. TETRODE TUBE
CATHODE

To make a long story short this idea of /the extra grid, the
. . .

screen grid, worked! It was now possible to amplify higher frequen-

cies. By the way . . the screen grid
. normally operated
at a DC positive potential with respect to the cathode. Because
the screen grid is positive, it was found that under certain conditions,
the screen might "drag away" some of the plate current. This
was generally undesirable, for the plate circuit is the output circuit.
The electrons that were being drained from the plate circuit, were
electrons which "bounced off" the plate due to high impact electrons PENTODE TUBE
coming from the cathode. These secondary emission electrons tended
to be attracted to the positive screen. To reduce this undesired CHECKPOINT:
effect, a third grid was added to the tube, called the suppressor
grid. It suppressed this undesired effect. Because the suppressor 1. A "tetrode" is a tube with four main ele-
grid is electrically at the same potential as the cathode ...
negative ments. True or False?
with respect to the plate electrons bounced off the plate
. . .

are "repelled" back to it by the negative suppressor grid.

2. Name the five elements in a pentode tube
Note the "cutaway view" of a typical tube; it shows the internal ...not counting the heater.
construction of these elements we've been talking about (plus
others). 3. The screen grid of a tube is normally op-
erated at a (+, -) potential with respect to
This' really completes the BASIC family of vacuum tubes. The diode. the cathode?
triode, tetrode and pentode are really the key types of vacuum potential.
tubes. There are some special-purpose tubes which have been in-
vented for particular jobs but generally, all tubes are derived
. . . 4. The suppressor grid in a pentode is phys-
from the basic types just mentioned. The advantages of the tetrode ically located between the
and pentode over the triode are that they can amplify at higher grid and the
frequencies . .and there is good isolation between the input
.

circuit (control grid) and output circuit (plate circuit). We look 5. Which can amplify higher frequencies .

Courtesy of RCA
a little more deeply at how these tubes are used to amplify later a triode or a pentode?
in the book. Try the checkpoint to see if you picked up the needed
terms and idea.
ANSWERS:

1. True
2. Cathode, Control Grid, Screen Grid, Sup-
pressor Grid & Plate.
3. Positive
4. Screen grid and Plate
5. A Pentode

114
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 INFORMATION REFERENCE & DATA CHECKPOINTS

Up to this point, we have generally gone into quite a bit of detail on

each subject covered ...mainly because we felt the subjects were
significant and foundational. If a person learns his "fundamentals"
well ... he can learn the rest far more easily. We felt that you, as a
hobbyist or student, would find the understanding of Ohm's Law,
basic circuits, and the fundamental components of which all elec-
tronics circuits are made up, to be well worth learning. After all, ít's
from these components (resistors, inductors, capacitors, tubes and
transistors) that single function stages, such as amplifiers and oscil-
lators, are made up .. and from these stages, systems are built (con-
.

taining combinations of these stages and components to perform a

useful task).

Obviously, it is beyond the scope of this book to delve deeply into

each and every one of the myriad topics associated with Amateur
Radio.

Our approach from here on out will be to try to organize the many
topics into general categories. We will not attempt too detailed a study
of any given item, but will endeavor to give you the information you
need to know to procure that coveted General Class License.

Good Luck! Stick with it

APPLICATIONS OF COMPONENTS
. . . you're closing in on your goal!
(Vt]
RECTIFIERS

Remember us mentioning the term rectification (changing AC to pul-

rA)-1 PULSATING
sating DC) back in the Novice chapter? There are three basic rectifier
DC OUT
circuits that you should he able to recognize, or draw, in schematic
form, for the FCC test.
H.W. (Half -wave) RECTIFIERS
These are: the Half-wave rectifier, the Full -wave rectifier and the
Bridge rectifier. In the next column you will see a diagram of each
of these types ... both in vacuum -tube type, and semiconductor diode
type. Learn to recognize these circuits ... or, better yet, learn to draw
them yourself without looking (use the 3rd Column).

The reason the half -wave rectifier is called that is during only one half
cycle (one alternation) is the plate positive with respect to the cath-
ode (or anode positive with respect to cathode for the semiconductor). qA)]
As you know, the only time these diodes will conduct is when the plate, PULSATING
or anode is positive with respect to the cathode ... therefore, no cur- AC IN DC OUT
rent flows during the other alternation of the AC signal ...and there is o
no output for that half cycle ... hence, a half -wave rectifier.

qA)]II[- 1
Y
F.W. (Full -wave) RECTIFIERS

"16
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 INFORMATION REFERENCE & DATA

RF FILTERS L

While on the subject of filters, we might as well mention a couple of C 1,--

names, or types, that may appear on the FCC test. These are not low j o T` o
frequency filters such as the power supply filters we just looked at. o C o
This, you can tell by the fact that the coils are not iron -core, such as "PI-TYPE" LOW-PASS FILTER "T -TYPE" LOW-PASS FILTER
those used at power frequencies, or audio frequencies, but rather are (or Pi -section) (or "T -section")
air -core inductors.
So you won't be caught off -guard, these filters are sometimes referred
to as the Constant -K type.
The most important thing to remember about these filters Is that the
reactive elements layout identifies whether its pi- section, or T-
section ...
and whether it's a high-pass, or a low-pass filter. As you
"PI -TYPE" HIGH-PASS FILTER "T -TYPE" HIGH-PASS FILTER
can see if the reactive elements form the shape of the term pi
. . .

it's called a pi -section filter ...

íf they form the shape of a T (or "Pi -section") (or "T -section")
...
. . .

it's called a T -section filter. Now, for the "high-pass" and "low-
pass" terms ...
let's quickly explain. High-pass means that it passes C2
the high frequencies along ...
Low pass means that it passes the
low frequencies along. With your knowledge that inductor's oppo-
R3
sition increases with frequency, while capacitor's opposition to AC 47K AMPLIFIED
decreases as frequency increases, you can reason why the circuits SOUTPUT
are as shown. In the low-pass filters the inductors are "in series with INPUT SIGNAL
the signal path", and offer low opposition to low frequencies SIGNAL . .

=200V
but high opposition to high frequencies therefore, the low fre-
. . .

quencies are passed along.

TRIODE AMPLIFIER
In the high-pass filters, the capacitor/s are in series with the signal
path, and offer high opposition to low frequencies but low . . .

opposition to high frequencies therefore, high frequencies are

. . .

passed along.

THE AMPLIFIER

The next application of components we'd like to talk about is the

"tying together" of resistors, capacitors and the vacuum tube to create
an amplifier. Really, what you're going to study here is just a "hot DC EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT
rod" application of Ohm's Law, which you've already learned. (Now,
you can see why we worked you over so thoroughly back there ..
it makes this easier.)

Look at the diagram of a typical triode amplifier stage.

First let's
analyze the DC voltages and currents. As you can see by looking at
the Equivalent DC circuit diagram R2 and tube and R3 form a
. . .

simple series circuit. We've shown the tube as a variable resistance,

since that is the way it acts. When the grid is made more
negative
it's resistance increases. When the grid is made less negative
... resistance
. . .

(with respect the cathode), the tube conducts more so it's

is effectively lower.
118
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 INFORMATION REFERENCE & DATA CHECKPOINTS

Without going into great detail, we'd like to mention that the
amount of bias (negative voltage on the grid with respect to the
cathode) used for any given amplifier tube stage determines . . .

its general operating characteristics. This is termed its class of

operation. There are three main classes of operation for amplifiers
and you should know these for our friend "Frank Charlie Charlie"
(FCC). We've implied that these classes of operation only refer to
vacuum tube operation . Let's clear that up
. .
these classifica-
. . .

tions apply to BOTH TUBE AND TRANSISTOR AMPLIFIERS!

First, there is class A operation, in which plate (or collector) current

flows all the time. (During.100% of the input signal cycle). This class
operation produces the "highest fidelity" output or, the most
. . .

faithful reproduction in the output of the input signal. Because DC

power is being used at all times, with, or without signal, Class A
operation is the least efficient when comparing the DC power sup-
plied to the circuit with the AC signal output power.

Class B is amplifier operation where the tube plate current (or

transistor collector current) flows only during 1/2 the input cycle
. because the tube or transistor are biased at cutoff. In other
.

words, only the half cycle (or alternation) of the signal which
"reduces bias" will cause conduction. For audio circuits, it takes a
special arrangement of two tubes (or transistors) in a "push-pull"
circuit to amplify without distortion. However, the class B amplifier Key things to remember here are:
because with 1. Class A = conduction for 100% of input
has higher efficiency than the Class A type . . .

no signal, there is very little conduction, thus little power required cycle
from the power supply. For RF circuitry, class B operation can be 2. Class A = least efficient
used where there is a tuned circuit to "fill in the other half cycle" 3. Class B = conduction for 50% of input
... even with one tube or transistor. cycle
4. Class B = more efficient than class A
Class C operation is the most efficient . but is only used in RF
. .
5. Class C = most efficient-conducts less
circuits where the "tank circuit flywheel effect" can complete the than 50% of time
6. Class C = used in RF circuits with tuned
output waveform and prevent distortion of the input signal.
circuits (to prevent distortion)
While on the subject of amplifiers, we'd better mention one "special"
type that has an application in electronic circuitry. The cathode
follower is a circuit often used for "impedance matching". The
input impedance of this amplifier is high ...
the output impedance
is low. So, when it is desired to transfer a signal from a high impe-
dance circuit, such as the conventional amplifier stage, to a low
impedance load (speaker, cable, etc.,) this circuit is useful. You
won't be required to recognize or draw this stage but should be ...
familiar with the name cathode follower, and its principle charac-
teristic of high input impedance, and low output impedance.

190
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 REFERENCE & DATA CHECKPOINTS
INFORMATION
B+
we
If we distilled the theory down into the barest minimum . . .

could say that an oscillator is a "hot -rod" amplifier. All we mean

here is that we take a little chunk of the output signal ...
and pur-
posely feed it back to the input circuit ... in proper phase (positive
SHUNT HARTLEY
or regenerative feedback) to sustain oscillations.

To make an oscillator work there are four basic requirements:

1. DC power supply or source.
2. Amplification
3. Frequency determining system
4. Feedback in proper phase (to overcome circuit losses)

The important things to watch for ín our discussions

of several
determines frequency" and "how is SERIES HARTLEY
types of oscillators is "what
feedback obtained". Watch for these as we point out the features
to
of the common types of oscillators and you'll probably be able
recognize the various types.

Two very popular oscillator circuits are the Hartley oscillator and
the Colpitts oscillator ... so, we'll discuss them first. Emitter and Collector
Circuit of Transistor Hartley
Look at the vacuum -tube and transistor versions of the Hartley. Oscillator
NOTE: Tapped coil L, in each case.
The key identifying feature of the. Hartley is the tapped coil in
the
frequency -determining "tank" circuit. The DC voltage and current
VCC
for this circuit are provided by the B+ supply. The frequency -
determining device is the tank circuit composed of I., and C.
Feedback is accomplished by the tapped coil in the tank circuit ..
and of course amplification is produced by the tube or transistor.
We have the four ingredients for an oscillator and it works!
. . .

B+
The Colpitts oscillator is quite similar in circuit configuration ...
but instead of a tapped coil to control feedback the Co!piIts
. . .

uses a capacitive voltage divider (2 capacitors in series). Look

at
the diagrams of the standard Colpitts oscillator and look for the
capacitor voltage divider in the frequency -determining tank circuit
and feedback path.

Again, we meet the four requirements for oscillation in the Colpitis

circuit. DC comes from B+ or Vcc source. The l.0 "tank" circuit
C:
(L, and C1 & n) determines frequency. Relative values of C, and
determine the amount of feedback and
. .amplification
.
is pro- Lr
Vcc
vided by the tube or transistor.
Colpitts Oscillator
Two other types of oscillators that might appear on the FCC test Emitter and
are the Pierce crystal oscillator and the Electron -coupled oscillator Collector Circuit
(generally an adaptation of the Hartley or Colpills but using a . . .
NOTE: Capacitive voltage divider C, -C2 in
pentode tube). COLPITTS OSCILLATOR tank circuit (coil NOTE tapped).

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 INFORMATION REFERENCE & DATA CHECKPOINTS

THE SYSTEM APPROACH

We've spent a great deal of time so far teaching you about single
components, such as: resistors, capacitors, inductors, tubes and
transistors. We have brought some of these components together to
form basic stages or circuits, such as amplifiers, and oscillators. OUTPUT
Now it's time we give you an overview of some systems that com-
INPUT
PROCESSOR
bine the components and stages into a total functional system.
The two most important systems to radio communications, of course,
are the transmitter and receiver.

As you already know, the transmitter has the job of producing a A SYSTEM
radio wave, which is in turn radiated into space by an antenna
system and then it's the job of the receiving antenna to pick up
...
. . .

this transmission and feed it to a receiver which processes the

incoming signal and retrieves the "intelligence" contained in it INPUT- SOUND
(code, music, speech or teletype). RECORD PROCESSOR WAVES)
(PICKUP, AMP, )
Every system ... your phonograph, an automobile, a transmitter or a
SPEAKER)
receiver, etc. . . . has three basic elements . . . at least. These
elements are:
1. An input A PHONOGRAPH "SYSTEM"
2. A processor
3. An output.

MOTION
FUEL IN ENGINE AND OF WHEELS

In the case of the phonograph the input might be the grooves

. . .
POWER TRAIN
in the record ...
the processor includes the pickup, the audio ampli-
fier and the speaker system the output is the sound waves, or
. . .

disturbances of the air in front of the speaker/s. AN AUTOMOBILE "SYSTEM"

The automobile takes fuel as its input .. processes it through its .

engine and power train and creates the output of motion of

. . .

the wheels. Are you beginning to get the idea of what is meant by
a "system"?
CHECKPOINT:
Every system has at least 3 impertant parts.
These are:
1. The
2. The
3. And the

ANSWERS:
1. Input
2. Processor
3. Output

124
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IN31SJlS lJ311IWSNVIjl 3H1
 INFORMATION REFERENCE & DATA CHECKPOINTS

Now, to add audio intelligence directly, via microphone, tape deck vANTENNA
or whatever ...
a couple more blocks are added to our basic trans- OSC --*BUFFER --« AMP
RF

mitter block diagram.

f
Note in the diagram that we have added a speech amplifier and a
modulator block. The speech amplifier obviously amplifies or builds
up the level of the audio signal. The modulator stage builds the POWER SUPPLY

audio signal up further, to a level that can he fed to the modulated

RF stage. The modulated RF stage, in addition to building up the
RF signal level, as in the CW transmitter also, combines the
. . .

audio information with the RF to produce a modulated RF output SPEECH MODULATOR

AMP
which is fed to the antenna system to be transmitted.
I

signal . . . MICROPHONE
The inputs to this system are: the power line AC plus the audio
speech, music, or whatever. The transmitter processes this and A.M. (amplitude modulated)
generates an output of modulated RF wave or signal. TRANSMITTER
There are several systems of generating an F.M. (frequency modu-
lated signal). The most direct method: the transmitter's oscillator
is directly caused to change frequency by the audio signal. This ANTENNA
method is called the "Direct" method of F.M. A simplified diagram
is shown in column 2.

A quick "tour" through the transmitter yields the following:

-OSC. -- FRED.
MULT.
RF
P. A

I
The oscillator generates an RF signal. The frequency multiplier POWER SUPPLY
stage amplifies and multiplies the frequency of the oscillator sig-
nal. The final RF power amplifier (P.A.) builds up the signal to an
appropriate level for transmission by the antenna. The modulator
1
AC POWER IN
takes the audio signal as input and processes it so that the output
of the modulator changes the frequency of the oscillator in accord- MO DULATOR
AF INPUT
ance with the audio intelligence thus directly an F.M. signal.
. . .

The power supply does its usual job of providing appropriate DC

voltages and currents for all the stages ... having processed the AC SIMPLIFIED FM TRANSMITTER
input from the power mains.
Now, our special type of A.M. transmitter the SSB (single-. . . OSC BUFFER
sideband) transmitter. Look at its functional diagram.

Incidentally, this is known as the filter -type sideband transmitter.

There is another way of creating a single sideband signal the . . .
BAND BAND LINEAR OUTPUT
BALANCED
phasing method but we won't discuss it here. as the more
. . .
MODULATOR PASS MIXER PASS RF AMP
FILTER FILTER
popular method by far is the filter method.
"Walking our thoughts" through this transmitter, we see that there 1

are several new blocks not shown in our other A.M. transmitter. AF
DON'T GET WORRIED YOU DON'T HAVE TO MEMORIZE
. . . ) SPEECH OSC.
THIS! Just get the concepts in mind ... and you've done well.
I
AMP
MICROPHONE
SIMPLIFIED SSB TRANSMITTER

126
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 INFORMATION REFERENCE & DATA CHECKPOINTS
CHECKPOINT:
1. If a transmitter's carrier frequency is 3.5
MHz, at what frequencies do the upper
and lower sidebands appear if the modu-
lated RF stage is being modulated by a
10 kHz. sine -wave audio signal?

USB freq. = MHz.

LSB freq. = MHz.

ANSWER:
USB freq. = 3.51 MHz.
LSB freq. = 3.49 MHz.

How did you do on that? Do you know how to find the upper and
lower sideband frequencies now? I hope so! Since we are on the "ENVELOPE"
subject of the modulated wave and transmitters here's some- . . .

thing that might be on the test you're preparing for. For an A.M. Eo
AVERAGE POWER HERE=
POWER OF CARRIER
signal (single -frequency modulated), what are the relative powers t
of the carrier, sidebands, etc? UNMODULATED RF
(CARRIER)
Look at the illustrations in column 2 . . . then come back to this PEAK OF ENVELOPE
column and we'll discuss the important facts. INSTANTANEOUS PEAK
ENVELOPE POWER
Without modulation, the power out of the transmitter is the carrier
power ... whatever that might be. When we 100% modulate the RF BECAUSE EP .2 x Eo AND
IPK 2 x 10
with a sine -wave, single -frequency audio signal the amplitude P=E x I, THUS PEAK POWER=
...
. . .
MODULATED RF
of the RF wave changes at the audio rate. As we said before we 4 x CARRIER POWER

create sidebands. Note from the sketch that the peak amplitude of AVERAGE POWER OVER COMPLETE
the modulated wave is 2 times the amplitude of the unmodulated °CYCLE'' 1.5 x CARRIER POWER DUE
TO ADDITION OF SIDEBANDS
carrier. Assuming that the RF is fed to a constant impedance load
(50 ohms for example) ...
if we double the E across the load, the
current through it must double. Since E is double and I is double,
and power equals E x I .. then we have 2E x 21 ... thus 4 times the
.

power . . at the "instant" of peak amplitude of the modulated

.

wave. This business of calculating power at a given instant of

time gives us an instantaneous power answer. If you were to find
the average power in a 100% sine -wave modulated RF wave you
would find that there is the carrier power + the power in the side -
bands coming from the audio signal . the result is 1.5 times the
. .

power of the unmodulated carrier. So, briefly listing the important

numbers for you to remember ...
1. Average power of unmodulated RF = carrier power
2. Average power of 100% modulated RF = 1.5 times carrier power.
3. Instantaneous peak power for 100% modulation = 4 times carrier
power.
By the way ...
it is possible to see this "graphical" representation
of an A.M. signal by looking at the output of an A.M. transmitter
using an oscilloscope. The oscilloscope is an instrument that you
will probably want to put high on your list of test equipment you
should obtain.
128
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 INFORMATION REFERENCE & DATA CHECKPOINTS
Another area of information we want to mention before leaving
the broad subject of transmitters and that is the topic of
. . .

neutralization of RF amplifiers.
If you will think back a little, you will remember that we said an
oscillator was simply a "hot rod amplifier". As you can recall .. .

it really boils down to the fact that any amplifier that has some
feedback "in proper phase" can become an oscillator.

It's undesirable for an amplifier to function as an oscillator when

the circuit is to be used as an amplifier. In a transmitter if an ...
amplifier goes "into oscillation" ... it will generate spurious radia-
tions that can interfere on the radio bands not to mention it
. . .

causes loss of efficiency and other unwanted side effects.

The method that is used to minimize the effects of unwanted
feedback in an RF amplifier is called neutralization.
Generally, this unwanted feedback from output circuit back into
input circuit is due to the "interelectrode capacitance" between
plate and grid of a tube.
To neutralize the EFFECTS of this Cgp there are several
. . .

methods of "balancing out" this undesired feedback. The main

thought here is that a signal path must be provided which will PLATE (Hazeltine) NEUTRALIZATION
ALSO feedback a signal from output to input ...
but will cancel the (CN = from bottom of plate tank directly to
effects of the undesired feedback signal. The most common way grid)
of achieving this is with a NEUTRALIZING CAPACITOR. The two
basic methods . .from which other methods are derived, are
.

shown.
Plate (sometimes called Hazeltine) neutralization is characterized
by the Cn being connected from the "bottom" of the plate tank CHECKPOINT:
(LC) circuit and the grid. Grid (sometimes called Rice) neutraliza-
tion is identified by the C being connected directly at the plate ... 1. For plate neutralization of an RF ampli-
and going to the bottom of -thegrid inductor. fier, the neutralizing capacitor is con-
nected between

You are not required to be able to "draw these circuits from scratch".
You should be able to recognize them ...
or be able to draw in the 2. For grid neutralization of an RF amplifier,
neutralizing capacitor between the two correct points if you are GRIDE (Rice) NEUTRALIZATION the neutralizing capacitor is connected
provided a drawing with everything but Cn. (CN = directly from plate to bottom of grid between the
circuit inductor)

ANSWERS:
1. Between "bottom" of the plate tank and
the grid of the tube.
2. Between the plate of the tube and the
bottom of the grid inductor.
130
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 INFORMATION REFERENCE & DATA CHECKPOINTS
The superheterodyne receiver takes the incoming signal mixes ...
it with a signal developed by an oscillator stage in the receiver .. .

and produces new frequencies from which ONE band of fre-

. . .

quencies is selected by tuned circuits to be passed along to the rest

of the receiver circuits for further "processing".

This "new" frequency (really band of frequencies in which there is

CHECKPOINT:
the "carrier" and the "sidebands" in which the intelligence is 1. The term heterodyne means
contained) is generally chosen to be much lower in frequency
than the transmitted signal . but much higher than the audio a. To mix two signals together to produce
...
. .

range or "super" audible .. hence the term "superheterodyne"

.
new signals.
receiver. The reason for Mixing and producing this new frequency b. To separate two signals in order to
(called the Intermediate Frequency) is it is much easier to build isolate them.
stable, high -gain amplifiers at lower frequencies. Also, if we design c. Neither of the above.
our receiver oscillator so that we tune (change) its frequency at
the same time we are tuning to different stations we can make ... 2. The new frequency (or band of frequen-
it so that the Difference Frequency between the local oscillator cies) produced by mixing action in a
signal and the incoming RF signal is always the same. This means superheterodyne receiver is called the
our intermediate frequency (I.F.) amplifier stage(s) can be "fixed frequency.
tuned" . . and we don't have to "track" several stages' tuning
.

mechanisms to make the receiver work. Do the Checkpoint. 3. This new frequency is usually (lower?
higher?)
than the "incoming" RF from the radio
station ... but is higher than the
range.
ANSWERS:
1. A
2. Intermediate frequency
3. Lower than RF incoming
. higher than audio

ANTENNA "CONVERTER"
r 1
RF I.F. 2ND AUDIO
AMP MIXER AMP. DETECTOR AMP

All right! turn on your "biological computer" (your brain) and f

let's take a mental walk through a typical superheterodyne receiver LOCAL

B.F.o.
and follow the signal as it travels from the receiver antenna . . . OSC.

through the various stages of "processing" on out to the

. . .

speaker and of course, you know what happens from there on.
BLOCK DIAGRAM OF
Let's think our way through the "block diagram" of a receiver at SUPERHETERODYNE RECEIVER
the right. We'll try to mention the key job (or processing) each
block performs in this functional "system" the receiver. ...
First, the RF amplifier does just what its name implies ... it builds WEAK MODULATED
RF SIGNAL
up the RF signal coming from the antenna.
AMPLIFIED
FF SIGNAL

RF AMPLIFIER -BUILDS UP WERK SIGNALS

132
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 INFORMATION REFERENCE & DATA CHECKPOINTS
Out of the 2nd detector circuit comes our long-awaited audio signal.
This signal is then amplified by the audio amplifier stage(s) and
AF CHECKPOINT:
built up to drive the speaker. 1. What stage in a receiver demodulates the
nnAF
modulated I.F. signal?
There ... that trip through the receiver wasn't so bad after all, was 2ND
DET.
AF
AMP 2. What stage(s) in a receiver changes the
it? Try the checkpoint to see if you picked up the most important
incoming signal(s) to a new frequency
facts.
range?
3. Which stage or stages in a receiver build
up the I.F. signals to a higher level?

4. Which stage in a communications receiver

is needed in order to produce an audio
tone for C.W. reception?
5. Which stage in a receiver builds up the
incoming RF signal to a larger amplitude
signal?
6. What is the job of the audio amplifier?

7. What stage(s) in a superheterodyne re-

ceiver is sometimes referred to as "fixed -
tuned" stages?

ANSWERS:
1. 2nd Detector (or detector)
2. Converter (or mixer & local oscillator)
3. I.F. amplifier
4. B.F.O. (beat -frequency -oscillator)
5. R.F. amplifier
6. Builds up audio to level needed to drive
speaker.
7. I.F. amplifier stage(s)

How did you make out? Learning the block diagram of ANY system
will help you understand it. It sort of gives you "pegs to hang your
thoughts on". Makes it easier for you to "think" your way through
a system. It gives you what someone has jokingly called the "GO-
ZINTA-GOZOUTA" theory. Meaning: it helps you to learn what
signal or input "goes into" a stage, or functional block . .and.

what signal "goes out of" that stage or block. Once you have
learned a system's block diagram and what type signal should go
into each block and come out of each block ... you've gone a long
way toward understanding how the system works. It also helps in
practical troubleshooting of electronic systems. For example, if you
know that all the appropriate signals are arriving at the input/s of
a stage ... but the output is missing or abnormal ... you are pretty
sure that the trouble is in that stage ...

134
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 INFORMATION REFERENCE & DATA CHECKPOINTS
IF you'll take your "memory banks" back quite a few pages into ... CHECKPOINT:
the Novice chapter, you will remember we talked about radio
energy and electrical energy traveling at the speed of light . . .
By what means does radio energy "get
which is approximately 186,000 miles per second ...
or, 300,000,000
1.
transferred" from a transmitter into
meters per second. This is how fast radio energy travels in "free
space?
space". We also mentioned that a wavelength is the distance that
a given frequency of energy would travel during the time of one
cycle (1 Hertz) of that frequency. You will recall that the formula
2. What is the wavelength in meters of a
for wavelength (symbolized by the greek letter lambda A was Á = 300
- 10 meters frequency of 15 MHz.?
the velocity of the energy divided by the frequency. 30 MHz.
;

ñ = meters
Try the checkpoint! 3. The higher the frequency ... the (shorter?
longer?) the wavelength?

ANSWERS:
1. antenna & its transmission line
2. 20 meters
3. shorter
HERTZ ANTENNA LENGTH
IN FEET

I'll bet you are ahead of me already regarding why the half -wave (t- 468/F(MHZ)+(
and quarter -wave antennas are so -named. Yep! It's because their
physical length is about 1/2, or 1/4 wavelength, respectively.

Because antennas are normally reasonably close to the ground,

surrounding buildings, trees and objects . . there is a "fudge -
.

factor" involved when coming up with a useable and practical Antenna Leng h =
492
formula for determining the length of these antennas. It has been F (Mhz)
found that this "fudge -factor" is about 5% .. that is, the antenna
.

will end up being about 5% shorter than it would be if we used

"free space" numbers for determining its length.

For example: the "free -space" formula for a Hertz (1/2 wave)
antenna is:

The number that we'll call the "magic number" for a practical
situation is:

In words, that says that the length of a half -wave Hertz antenna
CHECKPOINT:
Hertz antenna length 468
equals the "magic number" 468, divided by the frequency in MHz. =
What is the proper length, in feet, for a
The answer will be in FEET. See, we did all the converting from F (Mhz) Hertz antenna which is to operated at approx-
meters to feet for you. MEMORIZE THIS FORMULA! Try the prob- imately 14.3 MHz.
lem in the checkpoint. FEET.

ANSWER:
Approximately 32.72 feet.

Naturally, the Marconi 1/4th wavelength antenna would be approxi-

mately half the length of a Hertz.
136
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 INFORMATION REFERENCE & DATA CHECKPOINTS
Each of the above -mentioned types have certain characteristics
...but let's just mention the main ones to remember.

Each has its own impedance characterisitc. This is called its char- o SPACER

acteristic impedance and is symbolized by: Zo. This is also some-

times referred to as its surge impedance. Don't get frightened by all
these terms ...
just be able to recognize them if you see them again.
--
The things that effect the Zo of a transmission line really boil down END -VIEW
e

to just a couple of items. Namely, the spacing between conductors OPEN -WIRE LINE
. .and the characteristic of the insulating or dielectric spacing
.

material.
Zo = 276 log b/a
One formula that you should at least be able to recognize if you
see it again relating to the impedance of an air -insulated parallel
conductor transmission line. The formula is: where: Zo is the characteristic
impedance
Without going into a deep discussion of this formula you can . . . b = the center -to -center distance
see that if the spacing between conductors for the "open -wire" between conductors
transmission line is increased the Zo will increase. Also, the
. . . a = radius of conductor
smaller the radius of the conductors ... the higher the Zo. log = logarithm (base 10)

You, as a radio amateur, may want to construct an "open -wire"

transmission line ...
but chances are pretty good that most of the
time you will buy ready-made transmission line in the form of
"coaxial cable". Cables are designed with various values of Zo . .

so normally, you would simply buy coax (as it is called for short)
that is approximately the Zo you need ...
and which can handle
the amount of power used.

While we are on the subject of impedances in transmission lines

and antennas ...
let's talk about a very important subject to radio
amateurs. The subject is standing -wave ratio, abbrieviated SWR.
If you listen on the amateur bands much at all you will hear
. . .

hams using this term frequently.

If we terminate a transmission line (no matter which type) whose

characteristic impedance (Zo) is 73 ohms, with a dipole whose
feed -point impedance is 73 ohms ...
we would say that there is an
impedance match between the two. In real life, if we did this .. .

virtually all the electrical (radio) energy traveling along the trans-
mission line would be transferred to the "load" ...
in this case the
antenna. When the impedances are matched as in our example .. .

the SWR (standing -wave -ratio) would be considered "1". You'll

see why in a moment.

When is an impedance "mismatch" between "source and

there
load" . we cause a situation where some portion of the energy
. .

is not absorbed by the load but is "reflected".

138
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 INFORMATION REFERENCE & DATA CHECKPOINTS

CHECKPOINT:
1. If an antenna feed -point impedance is
100 ohms and we are feeding the antenna
with a transmission line whose Z0 = 25
ohms ...
what is the SWR along the line?

2. Transmission lines may come in several

forms. Among them are: the open -
line twin- and
cable.
3. If we double the spacing between the
conductors of an open -wire transmission
line . what will happen to its charac-
. .

teristic impedance? will it increase,

. . .

decrease or remain the same?

4. One other name that is sometimes used
for the term "characteristic impedance"
is? " impedance".
The symbol used to represent charac-
teristic impedance is
5. If the minimum current value points along
a transmission line where there is an SWR
of 3, is 1 ampere ...
what would be the
maximum current value points along the
line? A.

ANSWERS:
1. 4
2. open -wire; twin -lead; coxial cable
3. increase
4. surge -impedance; Zo
5. 3 amperes

One other term we will mention so you won't be "shaken" if it

appears on a test is the term feedline. This term is sometimes used
instead of the word transmission line. It means the same thing. Its
the line that "feeds" the energy to the antenna.

140
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 INFORMATION REFERENCE & DATA CHECKPOINTS

SMORGASBORD!

O.K. Fasten your seathelts! We've come to the portion of the book
where we will expose you to a big variety of facts ...some related Designations for Types of Transmissions
... some not for you to glean for test preparation purposes. It
...
. . .

would be impossible to go into detail on all these but we want 0 = absence of modulation (just RF carrier)
you to al least get a glimpse of these facts so you'll recognize them 1 = Telegraphy without using a modulating tone (unmodulated C.W.)
if they appear on the FCC exam. 2 = Telegraphy in which an audio tone is keyed on and off with the carrier (tone -modulated
Our first course in the Smorgasbord deals in the general area of C.W.)
significant terms and definitions. 3 = Telephony (including broadcasting)
4 = Facsimile (sending pictures, etc., by radio)
The FCC has certain designations for the various types of emissions, 5 = Television (visual portion of transmission only)
or transmissions. Two broad categories of classification are . .
6 = Four frequency diplex-telegraphy
the type of modulation used (amplitude, frequency or phase and 7 = Multichannel voice -frequency telegraphy
pulse), and the type of transmission (CW, phone. TV, etc.) 9 = Cases not covered by 0-7
The type of modulation is indicated by the letter at the beginning
of the FCC designation and the number denotes transmission mode Other special designations regarding transmissions are:
... for instance A3 transmission is amplitude modulated phone ... single-sideband, reduced carrier
F3 is frequency modulated phone . and pulse modulated trans-
. .
Suffix A =

missions use the prefix P. H = single-sideband, full carrier

J = single-sideband, suppressed carrier
We don't expect you to memorize the whole chart at the right . . .

but you should look at it until you think you could recognize the B = two independent sidebands
definitions if you saw them. We'll point out in a couple of minutes C = "vestigial" sideband (one sideband partially suppressed as in a TV transmission)
which designations you will see most often as a radio amateur.
For Pulse type transmissions, the following:
Wow! Looks like a lot of info! It is ... but the main ones to be aware
of are A0, Al, A3, A3J and F3. AO is simply unmodulated and un - D amplitude modulated pulse transmission
=
keyed carrier. Al = keying of an unmodulated carrier to send code. E width (duration) modulated pulse transmission
=
A3 = standard A.M. phone; A31 = single-sideband phone (which is F = phase (or position) modulated pulse transmission
SSB-suppressed carrier AM). F3 is F.M. phone operation. That's G = code -modulated pulse transmission
not so bad, is it? You'll get a chance to see if you can recognize
some of these designations when you take the sample "multiple- Note: these designations are used as "suffixes", for example A3J = amplitude modulated phone
choice" FCC type test we'll give you at the end of this chapter. using single-sideband, suppressed carrier transmission.
Next on our "variety show" is the term TVI. This means television
interference. This can be in many forms ...
but basically is disrup-
tion of the picture and/or sound on a TV receiver due to electrical
radiation from outside sources. Some sources of TVI can be: machin-
ery (such as diathermy machines), electric ovens, amateur trans- ANTENNA ANTENNA

mitters and so on. If the transmitter has good shielding, and uses
good engineering practice in design (by-passing, shielding and
filtering), then the problem probably lies with the receiver. Two
good methods of at least decreasing the possibility of TVI are: TRANSMITTER TV
RECEIVER
make sure the transmitter has a good "low-pass" filter in its output
circuit (to eliminate frequencies which might appear in the TV
channels ... and, on the receiver that is being troubled ... properly
install a "high-pass" filter (which will reduce the strength of any
signal from a nearby amateur transmitter).

Checkpoint.

142
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 INFORMATION REFERENCE & DATA CHECKPOINTS
When dealing with radio frequencies, you sometimes hear someone
talk about skin effect. This refers to the fact that high frequency
electrical energy traveling along a wire or conductor tends to con-
centrate its current flow on the outside surface of the conductor
. .or on its "skin". This is due to the way the "induced counter-
.

emf" is distributed throughout the cross section of the wire . . .

so there is less opposition to RF currents on the outside of the con-

ductors. This phenomenon of the current traveling along the outside
surface of the conductor is called skin effect.

Another rather important term we'll mention in our "smorgasborg"

of terms is the decibel, abbreviated dB. This has to do with the

is:
comparative power levels of two signals. The mathematical formulas
that you should recognize for this are: dB (gain, or loss in decibels) =

P2
10 10g10
P,

where:
logro means logarithm to the base 10.
P2/Pr means the ratio of the higher power
level to the lower power level.

The dB gain or loss can also be found by

comparing voltage levels. Here the formula

dB = 20 logia V2/V,
O.K. Let's try a checkpoint on our variety of important terms.
CHECKPOINT:
1. What is the third harmonic of a frequency
of 2.5 MHz? MHz.
2. Skin effect has to do with the way low
frequency currents travel along a conduc-
tor. True or False?

3. When calculating for the number of deci-

bels gain, or loss . . the term 10 logo
.

is used in conjunction with the power

ratios . . or, the voltage ratios of the
.

signals being compared?

ANSWERS:
1. 7.5 MHz
2. False (high frequency currents)
3. Power ratios

144
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 INFORMATION REFERENCE & DATA CHECKPOINTS
RULES & REGULATIONS OPERATING PROCEDURES
. . . .

& MISCELLANEOUS INFORMATION

Key fact to learn! What is the maximum permissible plate power
input to the final stage of a transmitter as stated by the FCC?
The basic answer to this is 1000 watts. This means that the DC
plate voltage times the DC plate current must not exceed 1000 watts.
There is one exception to this rule ...and that is on the 1.8 - 2.0
MHz. band the power is restricted to lower levels ... and is dictated
by where you live. If your transmitter does not have accurate
meters for measuring these parameters ... the maximum permissible
power is 900 W. The FCC likes amateur stations to use the MINIMUM
power necessary to carry out the desired communications . . so .

there's less possiblity of interference with other operators.

One other time we mentioned the regulation that the FCC says that
the maximum permissible percentage of modulation is 100% ... but
it bears repeating here. Remember that fact! It should be mentioned
too, that you cannot modulate even 100% if your transmitter is not
capable of producing a "clean" signal with 100% modulation. If a
transmitter is well -designed, however, the standard is 100%.
You may be asked why crystal control of transmitters is sometimes
used. The basic answer to this is that crystals (used as frequency - CHECKPOINT:
determining devices) are capable of much higher Q's than coils and
capacitors ... and hence are more accurate and stable. 1. What is the maximum permissible DC
plate power input to the final stage of an
The FCC may ask you to know what precautions can be taken to
avoid danger from shock from high -voltage electrical circuits. Sev- amateur radio transmitter? watts.
eral of the preventative measures include:
2. What is the maximum percentage of mod-
Don't allow high -voltage (including AC line voltage) circuits to
ulation that can be used with a well -
be exposed where people can touch them.
designed amateur transmitter?
Never work on a "live" electronic piece of equipment. This means
be sure power is removed when working on equipment which
3. Which type tuned circuit gives better fre-
has power supplies, etc., that contain high voltage circuits.
BLEED THE CHARGE OFF all power supply capacitors by
quency stability and accuracy ... an LC
tank circuit, or a piezoelectric crystal?
shorting from the B+ side to chassis or ground with a "shorting
bar". The shorting bar consists of a conductor connected to ground
.. with an insulated handle that you can use to position the other Name three precautions that can be used
end of the conductor on the "hot" side of B+ ... thus, discharging
4.
(on transmitters for example) to avoid
any charge on the power supply capacitor(s).
shock
All metal cabinets, chassis, etc., should be permanently connected
to a good ground in addition to the normal AC power mains ground.
Time for a Checkup!
ANSWERS:
1. 1000 Watts
2. 100%
3. crystal
4. Be sure things are enclosed and no high -
voltage circuitry is exposed so someone
could touch it.
Discharge capacitors by means of a short-
ing bar.
Be sure all equipment is well-grounded.

146
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 INFORMATION REFERENCE & DATA CHECKPOINTS
In an SSB transmitter, if the final amplifier stages are improperly CHECKPOINT:
loaded and/or there is excessive driving signal voltage (input signal),
the stage(s) can be driven into a condition of "saturation". This 1. Which type transmission takes up the least
simply means that further increases in driving voltage do not bandwidth in the radio spectrum . . .

cause appropriate increased power output from the stage .in . .

Al, or A3?
other words . the stage is not operating "linearly" and produces
2. Which occupies less spectrum or band-
. .

distorted output signals. If you were to look at the output of width ...
A3 or A3)?
the SSB transmitter on an oscilloscope . this condition would be
What is the approximate comparison in
seen as flat -topping of the waveform. This shows that the peaks of bandwidths of these two types of trans-
the signal are being "clipped" due to the non-linear operation of missions?
the amplifier.
We've talked about the Class A amplifier and the "linear" amplifier(s) 3. To help prevent interference on the bands
used in SSB transmitter output stages. Now let's get in one last ... a "dummy load", or "dummy antenna"
"tidbit" on amplifiers and mention something about the Class C can be used during what part of the oper-
amplifier. ating procedure?
It is possible to have too much plate current flowing in a Class C 4. Should a class A amplifier stage normally
amplifier if it is operated incorrectly. Some of the main causes for draw "grid current"?
excessive plate current: incorrect load (too heavy a current drain
from the circuit); too little negative bias (improper biasing); the 5. When observing the output of a SSB trans-
mitter with an oscilloscope is "flat -
plate circuit tank circuit not tuned to resonance (plate current dip
. . .

or minimum plate current is present when tuned to resonace); topping" a sign of good operation?
. . .

too small an input signal (driving power too small) ... particularly 6. Excessive plate current in a class C RF
if grid -leak bias is being used to develop some of the operating bias. amplifier can be caused by too much bias.
Let's have another little checkup on these miscellaneous facts just True or False?
before we move on to give you the final bits of information we 7. When a class C RF amplifier plate tank
want to convey before you try your SAMPLE FCC TEST at the end circuit is tuned to resonance ...
is plate
of this chapter. current minimum or maximum? -
ANSWERS:
1.'A1. '
2. A3J"(about 1/2 as much as A3)
3. Tune up of 'the transmitter "

4. No
5. No ,
6: False -

7. Minimum

As a radio amateur, you must always be alert to the "edges of the

band" you are working, or transmitting on at the time. YOU ARE
RESPONSIBLE to make sure that NONE of your signal "slops"
over the edge of the band. One thing that is very important to keep
in mind is that all the equipment you operate has "tolerance" ratings.
For example, if you are using crystal control of your transmitter
frequency . the crystal has a tolerance rating
. . . and you
. .

must be sure not to get closer to the edge of the band than
the amount of frequency which the crystal can he "off" (and still
be within its tolerance rating). This is true of variable frequency
oscillators, frequency meters for measuring frequency, etc. NEVER
operate closer to the band edge than the tolerance of your equipment
would dictate as being safe!
148
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 SAMPLE FCC -TYPE GENERAL CLASS LICENSE EXAM
0------1K o
1. The maximum input power to the final stage of 7. When XL = Xc in a parallel LC circuit the D.
.
INPUT OUTPUT
an amateur transmitter should not exceed: circuit:
a. current will bemaximum o o
a. 5 watts b. impedance will be minimum
b. 10 watts. c. phase angle will equal 90 degrees
c. 100 watts d. will not be at resonance
E. None of these.
d. 1KW e. current will be minimum
e. 1000 KW
8. Ifa series resistive circuit has a 10K and a 20K

2. A series resonant circuit is characterized at reson-

resistor in series ...
what is its total resistance? 12. The main elements in a triode tube are:
ance as having: a. 10K
b. 20K a. emitter, base and collector
a. Minimum current c. 15K b. cathode, control -grid, screen -grid, plate
b. Maximum impedance d. 30K c. plate, control -grid, cathode
c. High resistance 6.66K
e. d. heater, plate
d. Maximum current e. cathode, grid, screen supressor, plate
9. What is the inductive reactance of a 10 Henry
e. None of the above inductor at a frequency of 1000 Hz?
13. Between what two points is Cn appropriately con-
3. The main characteristic of an Electrolytic capaci- a. 628 ohms nected to obtain the proper schematic for "plate
tor is: b. 6280 ohms neutralization".
c. 62.8K
a. A high capacitance -to -size ratio d. 10K
a. A & B
b. Not polarity conscious e. None of the above
b. B & D II
c. A low opposition to DC current
d. Economical
10. Using the same transformer in each case what ... c. A & D
would be the average DC output of a bridge recti- d. A & E
e. None of the above
fier (unfiltered) compared to a conventional FW e. None of these
rectifier (unfiltered)? CN
4. The inductance of two 5 Henry inductors in series
is: a. The same output voltage 14. If the maximum voltage along a transmission line
is 4.5 volts, and the minimum is 2 volts ... what
b. Twice the output voltage
a. 5 Henries c. one half the output voltage
is the SWR of the line?
b. 2.5 Henries d. three times the output voltage
c. 10 Henries e. None of the above a. 2
d. 25 Henries b. 4.5
11. Which of the circuits below represent a "capacitor -
e. None of the above c. 2.25
input" pi type filter?
d. 1
5. A of capacitor is connected in series with
1 a 2 of A. e. None of the above
capacitor. The total capacitance will be:
INPUT OUTPUT 15. Which of the trapezoidal waveforms shown below
a. 0.66 of
b. 3 of o T o represents "overmodulation"
c. 3/4 of
d. 1/2 of B.
e. None of the above

6. The formula for finding the resonant frequency

of an LC circuit is: IIIIIIIIIIIII

a. fr = 2 ft. C.
b. f r = XL Xc
+
0.159/ CT or
1
c. fr = A B C D
d. fr=ZxQ 2 A CLC
e. None of the above E . None of these

150
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31. What is the power in the sidebands of a 100% 37. Equalizing resistors are often used across series 44. Which of the items listed below can help reduce
single -tone modulated A.M. signal if the carrier capacitors, or rectifier diodes to: interference to others on the band?
power is 200 watts? a. Use maximum power for transmitting
a. Equalize the voltage across each element b. Use a directional antenna
b. Equalize the current through each element c. Use 100% modulation
a. 200 watts
c. Equalize the power dissipated by the circuit d. Tune up using your regular antenna
b. 65 watts
d. To increase the circuit impedance e. None of the above
c. 265 watts e. None of the above
d. 100 watts 45. To help avoid shock from electrical equipment
e. 33.3 watts 38. How much power is being dissipated by a 10K in your station, you should:
resistor which has 0.2 amperes passing through it? a. Leave power supplies uncovered so you can
32. SWR is caused by: see them.
a. 20 watts
h. 40 watts b. Only work on equipment with power on, so
a. Too high an antenna
c. 400 watts pilot lights illuminate your work area.
b. An impedance mismatch
d. 4000 watts c. Open all "bleeder" resistors
c. Transmitter out of alignment
e. 200 watts d. Ground metal cabinet and enclosures.
d. A "matched" load
None of the above
e.
e. None of the above Is it safe to operate crystal -controlled trans-
39. a 46. Which symbol below represents an NPN transistor?
mitter within 10 kHz of the 7.0 MHz "bandedge"
33. If final RF amplifier tube in a transmitter has
a
if the crystal tolerance rating indicates a frequency
a maximum plate dissipation rating of 100 watts; A. B.
accuracy of plus or minus 1%?
could it safely be used if the DC input power were
200 watts and the plate efficiency 60%? a. Yes
b. No
a. Yes 47. Some causes of grid current flow in a Class A
b. No 40. Is a Zener diode "forward", or "reverse" biased amplifier might be:
for normal operation? a. Too much bias and too much input signal
34. Which circuit below represents a "constant K Pi
a. Forward b. Too little bias and too little input signal
section high-pass" filter? c. Too much signal input, and too little bias
b. Reverse
A. d. Bad grid in tube
41. What frequency can a General Class licensee use e. None of the above
INPUT OUTPUT
for phone operation on the 40 meter band? 48. One cause of excess plate current in a Class C RF
amplifier might be:
B.

INPUT
o
¡ V--\----0
OUTPUT

o
a. 7.2-7.3 MHz
b. 7.225 - 7.3 MHz
c. 7.025 - 7.150 MHz
d. 7.150 - 7.225 MHz
e. None of these
a.
b.
c.
Too "light" loading of final amplifier
Plate lank tuned to resonance
Too little plate voltage
d. Too little bias
e. None of the above
35. What is the Beta of a transistor whose base current
is 10 microamperes, emitter current is 1 mA, and 42. A class B amplifier conducts: 49. Which circuit shown below represents the conven-
collector current is 0.97 mA? tional FW rectifier system?
a. About 50% of the time during each input cycle.
a. 1 b. about 100% of the time during the input cycle B.
b. 100 c. less than 50% of the time of the input cucle RI_
c. 97 d. 10% of the time during each input cycle
d. 10 e. None of these
e. 9.7 50. What might be done to protect the amateur station
43. Are there countries in the world with which the equipment from lightning?
36. Which type antenna is noted for having a "low U.S. does NOT have "3rd party agreements" hut a. Use a lower antenna
angle of radiation"? yet amateur operators can talk to other amateur b. Be sure equipment is properly plugged -in
operators from that country? c. Use an antenna "grounding switch" when sta-
a. The Hertz tion is not in use.
b. The Marconi a. Yes d. Paint the antenna
c. None of these b. No e. None of the above

152
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1. C 13. C
26. B 2. I) 19. D 36. B
2. D 14. B
27. B 3. A 20. C 37. A
3. C 15. A
28. C 4. C 21. C 38. C
4. E 16. B
29. B 5. A 22. D 39. B
5. C 17. E
30. B 6. C 23. A 40. B
6. B 18. D
31. C 7. E 24. B 41. B
7. C 19. B
42. A
20. D 32. D 8. D 25. C
8. B
43. A
21. E 33. C 9. C 26. B
9. A 44. B
22. C 34. B 10. B 27. C
10. E 45. D
23. B 35. D 11. B 28. C
11. D
46. B
24. B 12. C 29. B
12. B
47. C
13. B 30. C
14. C 31. D 48. D
15. C 32. B 49. B
16. D 33. A 50. C
17. E 34. A

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