Physics 504,

Spring 2010 Are Maxwell’s? Physics 504,

Spring 2010
Electricity Electricity
and and
Magnetism The wave equation is not invariant: Magnetism
Galileo: if O uses ~x, t, and O0 , moving at constant 
 X ∂x0j  ∂  
velocity ~v w.r.t. O, uses ~x 0 , t0 , where the coordinates of ∂  ∂ 
Shapiro Shapiro

=   +
any event are related by Special ∂t ~x ∂t ~x ∂x0j  0 ∂t ~x 0 Special
Relativity j xk ,t0 Relativity
~x 0 = ~x − ~v t, t0 = t,
or  
then the laws of physics are the same for both observers. ∂  
~ 0+ ∂ ,
= −~
v · ∇
Physics is about forces and their effect on motion. ∂t ~x ∂t ~x 0
 
~  = ∇
~  . Thus
Ancient Greeks and Medieval philosophers would not
agree with Galileo. They thought velocities required V while ∇ 0
V
t t
force. Newton said no, Forces give accelerations, and with
1 ∂2 1 ∂2 2 ∂ ~ 0 − 1 (~v · ∇
d~x d~u d~x 0 ∇2 − = ∇0 2 − 2 0 2 + 2 ~v · ∇ ~ 0 )2 .
~u(t) := , ~a(t) := , and ~u 0 (t) := = ~u(t) − ~v , c2 ∂t2 c ∂t c ∂t c2
dt dt dt
d~v 0 Wave in sound not invariant, because the air is at rest in
so ~a 0 (t) :=
= ~a(t). one frame, not others. Does Maxwell hold only in rest
dt
frame of ether? Michelson and Morley (reluctantly) say
The observers agree on the acceleration and the forces!
no.
So Newton’s laws are consistent with Galilean relativity.

But E&M obeys relativity Physics 504,

Spring 2010 Postulates of Relativity Physics 504,
Spring 2010
Electricity Electricity
Einstein says E&M obeys relativity. Consider a loop of and
Magnetism
and
Magnetism
wire and a bar magnet.
I Shapiro I All the laws of physics are the same, whether Shapiro
If loop at rest and magnet ap-
proaching, B and flux increas- described by either of two systems in uniform relative
Special Special

ing with time, EMF generates v N S Relativity motion. Included here is the notion that space is Relativity

current in loop. homogeneous and isotropic.

I The speed of light in vacuum is a specific finite c,
If magnet at rest and loop independent of the motion of its source.
moving towards it, charges I
V V
in wire are moving right in No to Fitzgerald Contraction to explain M-M.
a magnetic field with a com- N S
ponent away from the loop But these have strange consequences:
center, so the Lorentz force B v I Relativity of Simultaneity
causes current as shown. I Length contraction
Same current in either case — two different causes, but I Time dilation
same effect. Einstein says: must be one theory good in
either reference frame.

Relativity of Simultaneity Physics 504,

Spring 2010 The Lorentz Transformation Physics 504,
Spring 2010

A and B are at rest wrt O, and are one light-hour apart.

Electricity Electricity
and What gives O0 ’s
coordinates in terms of O ’s? and
Magnetism Magnetism
A sends a light signal to B at noon, B reflects it as his Homogeneity implies a linear relation, as displacements
clock strikes 1, and it returns to A at 2PM. (of course A’s Shapiro
can’t depend on the origin. As all observers agree light Shapiro

clock and B’s clock are synchronized). Special travels at the same speed c (in vacuum), we should Special
But O0 is watching all O’s clocks,
A
B
Relativity
measure distances in light-seconds, or time in meters/c, so Relativity
2:00
this, and has his own 1 light−hour
apart 1:00 x0 := ct has the same units as ~x.
synchronized clocks. As Let xi = (~x)i , and use Greek index α
X x , α = 0, 1, 2, 3.
12:00
A
B is travelling left as 1 c hr 0 0α
A 80 c min
α β
Then x is linear in x , x = Aαβ xβ , where the
the light beam travels O’s clocks, 2:00 B β
as seen by O’,
right, it takes less time 1:00 V
4 × 4 matrix A depends only on ~v . V

to reach B, which it does A Two events along the history of a ray of light satisfy
2:05 45 c min
at 12:45 on O0 ’s clock. and O’ s time
measurements 12:00
12:45 |∆~x| = c∆t, or
As A is travelling away from the return beam, it takes 80
minutes to reach him, at 2:05. Not only does O0 claim A’s (∆s)2 := c2 (∆t)2 − (∆~x)2 = 0.
clock is running slow, but also that his clock striking 1 (at
1:02 12 ) and B’s clock striking 1 (at 12:45) are not This quadratic form plays a fundamental role, and is
simultaneous, although O claims they are. called the invariant length, though it is not always
They disagree on the time an event takes place, t0 6= t. positive.
More elegantly:1 Physics 504,
Determining Aµν Physics 504,
Spring 2010 Spring 2010
X Electricity Electricity

(∆s)2 =
and and
ηαβ (∆xα )(∆xβ ),   Magnetism Magnetism

αβ
1 0 0 0 We now turn to finding the requirements for Aµν so that
0 −1 0 0
Shapiro Shapiro

η= 
0 0 −1 0 
it represents a correct relationship between O’s
Minkowski metric: η00 = 1, Special
coordinates and O0 ’s. This is best done by considering a Special

ηij = −δij and η0i = ηi0 = 0 0 0 0 −1 Relativity

number of clever gedanken experiments,
Relativity

for i and j from 1 to 3.

I Clock made of parallel mirrors: =⇒ time dilation
What’s up with superscripts? xα is called a
I Light pulse from center of railroad car hits ends: =⇒
contra-variant vector. Never sum over two contravariant
non-simultaneity
indices! But always sum over a repeated covariant V V
I Rods perpendicular to relative motion crossing: =⇒
(subscript) and contravariant index. In fact, Einstein
suggests you leave out the summation sign, so for example no transverse contraction
I Michelson-Morley: =⇒ Fitzgerald length contraction.
(∆s)2 = ηαβ (∆xα )(∆xβ ).
But you have seen these often in undergrad courses.
If not, you must read Smith.
According to Einstein, the suggestion that you can leave
We will present an abstract, mathematical treatment.
out the summation sign was his greatest contribution to
human knowledge.
1
Jackson uses gαβ where I use ηαβ .

Physics 504, So the condition for relating coordinates, for A being a Physics 504,
(∆s0 )2 must be zero whenever (∆s)2 is, as both agree on Spring 2010
Lorentz transformation, is
Spring 2010
Electricity Electricity
light travel speed. As (∆s0 )2 = ηαβ Aαµ Aβ ν ∆xµ ∆xν , the and
Magnetism
and
Magnetism
matrix Mµν := ηαβ Aαµ Aβ ν must satisfy Mµν xµ xν = 0 for ηαβ Aαµ Aβ ν = ηµν . (1)
Shapiro Shapiro
any lightlike xµ = (x0 , ±~ 0
Px) with x P= |~x|. This tells us
2
first that M00 |~x| ± x0 M0i xi + Mij xi xj = 0 for any Special As an example, suppose ~v is in the x direction. Special
Relativity Relativity
vector ~x. O0 ’s origin: x0Oµ0 = (ct0 , 0, 0, 0) corresponds2 to
P
Difference =⇒ M0i = Mi0 = 0, and then Mij xi xj xµO0 =p(ct, vt, 0, 0). From ηµν x0 µ x0 ν = ηµν xµ xν we have
depends only on the length and not the direction of ~x, so t0 = t 1 − v 2 /c2 .
Mij is a multiple λ(~v ) of the identity. The sum tells us
1 1
M00 = λ(~v ) as well, so ηαβ Aαµ Aβ ν = λ(v)ηµν , and V Notation: β = v/c, γ=p =p V

(∆s0 )2 = λ(v)(∆s)2 for arbitrary ∆xµ . 1 − v 2 /c2 1 − β2

Isotropy: λ depends only on |~v |, and Lorentz transforming
Now look at O’s origin, with xµO = (ct, 0, 0, 0) and
O → O0 → O tells us (λ(v))2 = 1, so λ(v) = 1 (not −1 by
x0Oµ = (ct0 , −vt0 , 0, 0), where this t and t0 are not the same
continuity in v), and
as above (indeed, t0 = γt here, while t0 = t/γ for O’s
origin). As x0Oµ = Aµν xµO = Aµ0 t, we see that the first
ηαβ Aαµ Aβ ν = ηµν .
column, A00 = γ, A10 = −βγ, A20 = 0, A30 = 0, is
determined.
2
We assume (0, 0, 0, 0) → (0, 0, 0, 0). See lecture notes for why.

Physics 504,
The remaining four elements satisfy the requirements for Physics 504,
Spring 2010 Spring 2010
a rotation about the x axis, but any nonzero rotation
So we have the first (µ = 0) column of Aµν . Looking Electricity Electricity
and
Magnetism
would violate parity, so we have determined and
Magnetism
again at  
 0  0  2  Shapiro γ −βγ 0 0 Shapiro
ct cγt γ + A01 βγ  −βγ γ 0 0
0 βγt    A µν =  0
 (2)
0 2 1
0 −βγ + A 1 βγ 
Special
0 1 0 Special
x0Oµ0 =    
 0  = A  0  = ct  
Relativity Relativity
A21 βγ 0 0 0 1
0 0 A31 βγ
where the top row and left column are the µ = 0 and
ν = 0 elements. respectively.
we find A11 = γ, A21 = A31 = 0, and
β and γ are convenient parameters to use for relativistic
A01 = (1 − γ 2 )/βγ = γ(γ −2 − 1)/β = −βγ. We now have V V
transformations, but another parameter used is the
the first two columns, and from
rapidity ζ = tanh−1 β, with γ = cosh ζ, βγ = sinh ζ, and
0 = η0i = ηµν Aµ0 Aν i = γA0i + βγA1i the matrix A looks much like a hyperbolized rotation. For
a rotation O is an orthogonal matrix,
0 = η1i = ηµν Aµ1 Aν i = −βγA0i − γA1i
δij Oik Oj ` = δk`
(for i = 2, 3) we see that A0i = A1i = 0.
Lorentz transformations are a kind of rotation modified to
account for the relative minus sign for (∆x0 )2 in the
invariant length.
Vectors Physics 504,
Spring 2010 To make a contravariant vector from a covariant one,
Physics 504,
Spring 2010
Electricity Electricity
The matrix which describes how xµ transforms, and V µ := η µν Vν , where η µν is the inverse of ηµν . and
Magnetism Magnetism
∂x0 α α That is, η µν ηνρ = δρµ , where we now need to write the
A β= , (3) Shapiro Shapiro
∂xβ Kronecker delta with one upper and one lower index, but
is also how any other contravariant vector transforms, so Special it is still 1 if µ = ρ and 0 otherwise. Note that the actual Special
Relativity Relativity
if O describes something with a vector B µ , O0 will use matrices η µν and ηµν are the same.
A covariant vector transforms by
B 0 µ = A µν B ν .
The invariant product of two vectors is therefore Vµ0 = ηµν V 0 ν = ηµν Aν ρ V ρ = ηµν Aν ρ η ρσ Vσ ,
X
B · C = ηµν B µ C ν , and not BµC µ. V so a covariant vector transforms by V

µ
Vµ0 ν
= Aµ V ν , ν
where Aµ := ηµρ A σ η . ρ σν
We can define, for every contravariant vector V µ , a
covariant vector Vµ := ηµν V ν , V0 = V 0 , Vi = −V i , with This is consistent with the general rule, that any index
the same physical content3 . can be raised with η µρ or lowered with ηµρ .
3
In the curved space of general relativity, the metric tensor is not Note it is important to keep the order of indices
trivial the way η is, so the relation of a covariant and its unchanged.
contravariant tensor is more complicated, though it is still true that
they represent the same physical quantity in a sense.

If L is the abstract transformation from O’s description of

physics to O0 ’s, given by the matrix A(L), the inverse
Physics 504,
Spring 2010 Infinitesimal Generators Physics 504,
Spring 2010
Electricity Electricity
transformation L−1 from O0 ’s coordinates
!
to O’s is also a and
Magnetism
and
Magnetism
Lorentz transformation with A L−1 = A−1 (L), or The matrices for rotations are orthogonal, with
Shapiro P Shapiro

γ ! −1

β R = ei j θj Lj , with Lj imaginary antisymmetric matrices
A β L A ν (L) = δνγ . Special Special
Relativity (angular momentum operators). In 3D j = 1, 2, 3 but in Relativity

But if we multiply (1) by η µγ we get general D dimensions there are D(D − 1)/2 generators.
That Lj is antisymmetric can be seen for infinitesimal θj ,
β
ηαβ Aαµ (L) η µγ A ν (L) = Aβ (L) Aβ ν (L) = ηµν η µγ = δνγ ,
γ with
!

so as Aβ ν (L) is invertible, we have 1Ikm = (R)k` RT `m = Rk` Rm`
V
 X  X  V

!
= δk` + i θj (Lj )k` δm` + i θj (Lj )m`

Aβ γ (L) = Aγ β L−1 . X  
= δkm + i θj (Lj )km + (Lj )mk ,
It is in this sense that A is pseudo-orthogonal. j
Note that as L−1 is the transformation from O0 to O,
so Lj is antisymmetric.
!
∂xγ ∂xγ
Aγ β L−1 = , so Aβ γ (L) = .
∂x0 β ∂x0 β

Physics 504,
Spring 2010 Tensors Physics 504,
Spring 2010
For our Lorentz transformations, if an infinitesimal one is Electricity
and
Electricity
and
Magnetism Magnetism

Aαµ = δµα + Lαµ , Shapiro Shapiro

the requirement (1) to first order in  gives Special

Tensors have several Lorentz indices, each tranforms with Special
Relativity Aµν or Aµν . Relativity
!
 
ηαβ δµα + Lαµ δνβ + Lβ ν = ηµν
  M 0 µν ρ = Aµα Aν β Aρσ M αβ σ .
=⇒  ηαν Lαµ + ηµβ Lβ ν = 0,
If M is a tensor field, depending on xµ , we have
which tells us Lνµ + Lµν = 0 or Lνµ is antisymmetric, and V V
M 0 µν ρ (~x 0 ) = Aµα Aν β Aρσ M αβ σ (~x),
there are 6 independent generators.
where ~x 0 now means the four-position (x0 0 , x0 1 , x0 2 , x0 3 ).
Three of these generators can be taken to be
Isn’t it time to discuss some physics?
(Ki )0i = (Ki )i0 = 1, all other elements zero, which are the
Lorentz boosts, and (Si )jk = ijk , (Si )0i = (Si )i0 = 0,
which represent the generators of spatial rotations.
 Physics 504, Physics 504,
So far just general transformation properties, but no Spring 2010 An example: Suppose O has purchased a gun which Spring 2010
physical quantities other than xµ , spatial and temporal Electricity Electricity
and shoots bullets at velocity vb , and he mounts this pointing and
positions. Nonrelativistically motion is ~x(t), but why not Magnetism Magnetism
forward on his spaceship which is moving in the +x
consider the path in space-time, xµ (λ), λ parameterizing Shapiro Shapiro
direction with velocity vs with respect to the Earth, upon
the path, but not significant. Convenient choice is proper
Special which O0 sits. How fast does the bullet travel, according Special
time τ√, defined by
p to O0 ?
Relativity Relativity

dτ = ds2 /c = (dt)2 − |d~x|2 /c2 =p dt/γ(t). Here we

Note the ~v for Eq. (2) is −vs in the x direction, so
have β(t) = |d~x/dt|/c and γ(t) = 1/ 1 − β 2 (t) apply to
A00 = A11 = γvs , A01 = A10 = βvs γvs and
the (time-dependent) speed of the particle and not some
uµ = (cγvb , γvb vb , 0, 0), so
other inertial observer.
Newton: Forces d~ p
a = d~
dt relate to acceleration ~
u
dt , but time V
u0 0 = γvs cγvb + βvs γvs γvb vb V

is not a relativistic invariant. Instead of ~u = d~

x
dt , consider u0 1 = cβvs γvs cγvb + γvs γvb vb
the 4-velocity
so the 3-velocity according to O0 is
dxµ
uµ := = (cγ(u), γ(u)~u)
dτ vs γvs γvb + γvs γvb vb vs + vb
p ~u 0 = cu0 1 /u0 0 = c = .
γvs cγvb + βvs γvs γvb vb 1 + vs vb /c2
where γ(u) = 1/ 1 − ~u 2 /c2 . τ is invariant, so uµ
transforms properly as a contravariant vector.

Physics 504,
Many particles have a mass m. Never let anyone tell you Spring 2010
Electricity
the mass of a particle depends on its velocity! Define and
Magnetism
pµ = m uµ , which is clearly a contravariant 4-vector. This
Shapiro
is the momentum of the particle. Its spatial components,
p~ = mγu ~u should be recognized as the relativistic form of Special
the 3-momentum. Its zeroth component p0 = mcγu , Relativity

which you will recognize as 1/c times the relativistic form

of the energy, including rest energy. so pµ = (E/c, p~).
Note if any inertial observer finds that the total energy
and momentum of a system is conserved, all observers will
agree. V

As pµ and uµ are 4-vectors, their (Minkowsky) squares

are invariant.

p2 = ηµν pµ pν = E 2 /c2 − p~ 2 = (mc)2 γ 2 (u) + (mu)2 γ 2 (u)

= m2 c2 (1 − β 2 (u))γ 2 (u) = m2 c2 .

and u2 = c2 γu2 − ~u 2 γu2 = c2 (1 − βu2 )γu2 = c2 .