Chapter 7:

Deformation & Strengthening

Mechanisms
ISSUES TO ADDRESS...
• Why are the number of dislocations present
greatest in metals?

• How are strength and dislocation motion related?

• Why does heating alter strength and other properties?

Chapter 7 - 1
 Dislocations & Materials Classes
• ___________ (Cu, Al):
+ + + + + + + +
Dislocation motion easiest + + + + + + + +
- non-directional bonding + + + + + + + +
- close-packed directions ion cores
electron cloud
for slip
• ____________________
(Si, diamond): Motion difficult
- directional (angular) bonding

• _________________ (NaCl):
+ - + - + - +
Motion difficult
- + - + - + -
- need to avoid nearest
_______ of like sign (- and +) + - + - + - +

Chapter 7 - 2
 Dislocation Motion
Dislocation motion & plastic ______________
• Metals - plastic __________ occurs by slip – an edge
dislocation (extra half-plane of atoms) slides over
adjacent plane half-planes of atoms.

Fig. 7.1, Callister & Rethwisch 9e. (Adapted from A. G.

• If dislocations can't move, Guy, Essentials of Materials Science, McGraw-Hill Book
Company, New York, 1976, p. 153.)

plastic _______doesn't occur! Chapter 7 - 3

 Dislocation Motion
• A dislocation moves along a slip plane in a slip __________
perpendicular to the dislocation line
• The slip direction is the same as the ___________ direction

Edge _________

Fig. 7.2, Callister & Rethwisch 9e.

(Adapted from H. W. Hayden, W. G. Moffatt,
and J. Wulff, The Structure and Properties of
Materials, Vol. III, Mechanical Behavior, p.
70. Copyright © 1965 by John Wiley & Sons,
New York. Reprinted by permission of John
Wiley & Sons, Inc.)

_____ dislocation

Chapter 7 - 4
 Deformation Mechanisms
Slip System
– ____________ - plane on which easiest __________ occurs
• Highest planar ______________ (and large interplanar spacings)
– Slip ____________ - directions of movement
• Highest __________ densities

Fig. 7.6, Callister &

Rethwisch 9e.

– FCC Slip occurs on {111} _____ (close-packed) in <110>

directions (close-packed)
=> total of 12 slip systems in FCC
– For BCC & HCP there are other slip __________.
Chapter 7 - 5
 Stress and Dislocation Motion
• Resolved ________________
– results from applied _________________
Applied _______ Resolved _______ Relation between
stress: σ = F/A stress: τR = Fs /A s σ and τR
F slip plane τR = FS /AS
A τR
normal, ns
AS F cos λ A /cos ϕ
FS
F nS ϕ
λ
A
τR FS AS
F

Chapter 7 - 6
 Critical Resolved Shear Stress
• Condition for _________ motion:

• Ease of _________ motion depends typically

on _________________ orientation
10-4 GPa to 10-2 GPa

σ σ σ

τR = 0 τR = σ/2 τR = 0
λ = 90° λ = 45° ϕ = 90°
ϕ = 45°

 maximum at  =  = 45º
Chapter 7 - 7
Single Crystal Slip

Fig. 7.9, Callister &

Rethwisch 9e.
(From C. F. Elam, The
Distortion of Metal Crystals,
Oxford University Press,
London, 1935.)

Fig. 7.8, Callister &

Rethwisch 9e.
Chapter 7 - 8
 Ex: Deformation of single crystal
a) Will the single crystal yield?
b) If not, what stress is needed?
 = 60°
τcrss = _________
 = 35°

Adapted from
Fig. 7.7,
Callister &
Rethwisch 9e.

σ = __________
So the ________________________ will not cause the
crystal to yield.
Chapter 7 - 9
 Ex: Deformation of single crystal
What stress is necessary (i.e., what is the
_______________, σy)?

So for deformation to occur the ____________ must

be greater than or equal to the _______________

Chapter 7 - 10
 Slip Motion in Polycrystals
• __________ stronger than
single crystals – grain
boundaries are barriers
to dislocation motion.
• Slip planes & directions
(λ, ϕ) change from one
grain to another.
• ____________ from one
grain to another.
σ
Adapted from Fig.
7.10, Callister &
Rethwisch 9e.
(Photomicrograph
courtesy of C. Brady,
National Bureau of
Standards [now the
National Institute of
Standards and
Technology,
Gaithersburg, MD].)

• The grain with the

largest τR yields first.

• Other (less favorably

oriented) grains 300 μm
yield later.
Chapter 7 - 11
 Anisotropy in σy
• Can be induced by rolling a ______________ metal
- _____ rolling - _______ rolling
Adapted from Fig. 7.11,
Callister & Rethwisch 9e.
(from W.G. Moffatt, G.W. Pearsall,
and J. Wulff, The Structure and
Properties of Materials, Vol. I,
Structure, p. 140, John Wiley and
Sons, New York, 1964.)

rolling direction
235 μm
- ___________ - _____________
since grains are since rolling affects grain
equiaxed & __________ and shape.
_______ oriented.

Chapter 7 - 12
 Anisotropy in Deformation
1. Cylinder of 2. Fire cylinder 3. Deformed
_________ at a target. cylinder
machined
from a Photos courtesy of
G.T. Gray III, Los
rolled plate: side view Alamos National Labs.
Used with
permission.
rolling direction

end plate
thickness
view direction
• The noncircular end view shows
_____________ deformation of rolled material.
Chapter 7 - 13
 Four Strategies for Strengthening:
1: Reduce Grain Size

• Grain boundaries are

barriers to slip.
• Barrier "strength"
_____________ with
Increasing angle of
misorientation. Fig. 7.14, Callister & Rethwisch 9e.
(From L. H. Van Vlack, A Textbook of Materials
• _________ grain size: Technology, Addison-Wesley Publishing Co., 1973.
Reproduced with the permission of the Estate of
Lawrence H. Van Vlack.)
more barriers to slip.

• Hall-Petch Equation:

Chapter 7 - 14
 Four Strategies for Strengthening:
2: Form Solid Solutions

• Impurity atoms distort the ____ & generate lattice strains.

• These strains can act as barriers to ___________ motion.
• Smaller substitutional • Larger substitutional
impurity impurity

A C

B D

Impurity generates local stress at A Impurity generates local stress at C

and B that opposes dislocation and D that opposes dislocation
motion to the right. motion to the right.

Chapter 7 - 15
Lattice Strains Around Dislocations

Fig. 7.4, Callister & Rethwisch 9e.

(Adapted from W.G. Moffatt, G.W. Pearsall, and J. Wulff,
The Structure and Properties of Materials, Vol. I, Structure,
p. 140, John Wiley and Sons, New York, 1964.)

Chapter 7 - 16
 Strengthening by Solid
Solution Alloying
• Small ____________ tend to concentrate at dislocations
(regions of _______ strains) - partial cancellation of dislocation
compressive strains and impurity atom tensile strains
• Reduce mobility of ____________ and increase strength

Fig. 7.17, Callister &

Rethwisch 9e.

Chapter 7 - 17
 Strengthening by Solid
Solution Alloying
• Large _____________ tend to concentrate at
____________ (regions of tensile strains)

Fig. 7.18, Callister &

Rethwisch 9e.

Chapter 7 - 18
VMSE Solid-Solution Strengthening Tutorial

Chapter 7 - 19
 Ex: Solid Solution
Strengthening in Copper
• Tensile strength & yield strength increase with wt% Ni.
Tensile strength (MPa)

180

Yield strength (MPa)

Adapted from Fig.
400 7.16 (a) and (b),
Callister &
120 Rethwisch 9e.
300

200 60
0 10 20 30 40 50 0 10 20 30 40 50
wt.% Ni, (Concentration C) wt.%Ni, (Concentration C)

• ________ relation:
• __________ increases σy and TS.

Chapter 7 - 20
 Four Strategies for Strengthening:
3: ______________ Strengthening
• Hard _______________ are difficult to shear.
Ex: __________ in metals (SiC in Iron or ______________).
precipitate
Large shear stress needed
Side View to move dislocation toward
precipitate and shear it.

Unslipped part of slip plane Dislocation

Top View
“advances” but
precipitates act as
S “pinning” sites with
spacing S.
Slipped part of slip plane

• Result:

Chapter 7 - 21
 Application:
Precipitation ________________
• Internal wing structure on Boeing 767
Chapter-opening photograph,
Chapter 11, Callister &
Rethwisch 3e.
(Courtesy of G.H. Narayanan and
A.G. Miller, Boeing Commercial
Airplane Company.)

• Aluminum is strengthened with ______________ formed

by alloying.
Adapted from Fig. 11.27,
Callister & Rethwisch 9e.
(Courtesy of G.H. Narayanan
and A.G. Miller, Boeing
Commercial Airplane
Company.)

1.5μm
Chapter 7 - 22
 Four Strategies for Strengthening:
4: Cold Work (Strain ____________)
• Deformation at room temperature (for most metals).
• Common ________________ reduce the cross-sectional
area:
-Forging force -Rolling
roll
die Ad
A o blank Ad Ao
Adapted from Fig.
11.9, Callister & roll
Rethwisch 9e.
-Drawing force -Extrusion
Ao
die Ad container die holder
Ao tensile force
force ram billet extrusion Ad
die container die

Chapter 7 - 23
 Dislocation Structures Change
During Cold Working
• ___________ structure in Ti after cold ___________.
• Dislocations entangle
with one another
during ____________.
• ______________ motion
becomes more difficult.

Fig. 4.7, Callister &

Rethwisch 9e.
(Courtesy of M.R. Plichta,
Michigan Technological
University.)

Chapter 7 - 24
 Dislocation Density Increases
During Cold Working
total dislocation length
Dislocation density =
unit volume
– Carefully grown _______________
 ca. 103 mm-2
– Deforming sample ____________ density
 109-1010 mm-2
– Heat treatment ______________ density
 105-106 mm-2

• Yield stress _________ as ρd increases:

Chapter 7 - 25
 Lattice Strain Interactions
Between Dislocations

Fig. 7.5, Callister &

Rethwisch 9e.

Chapter 7 - 26
 Impact of Cold Work
As cold work is increased
• _______ strength (σy) increases.
• Tensile strength (TS) ____________.
• Ductility (%EL or %AR) decreases.

Adapted from Fig. 7.20,

Callister & Rethwisch 9e.

low carbon steel

Chapter 7 - 27
 Mechanical Property Alterations
Due to ____________________
• What are the values of yield strength, tensile strength &
__________ after cold working Cu?

Copper
Cold
Work

Do = 15.2 mm Dd = 12.2 mm

Chapter 7 - 28
 Mechanical Property Alterations
Due to Cold Working
• What are the values of yield strength, _______________ &
ductility for Cu for %CW = 35.6%?

60

tensile strength (MPa)

yield strength (MPa)

700 800

ductility (%EL)
40
500 600
300 MPa Cu
300 Cu 400 340 MPa 20
Cu 7%
100 200 00
0 20 40 60 0 20 40 60 20 40 60
% Cold Work % Cold Work % Cold Work

σy = ________ TS = _______ %EL = ____

Fig. 7.19, Callister & Rethwisch 9e. [Adapted from Metals Handbook: Properties and Selection: Irons
and Steels, Vol. 1, 9th edition, B. Bardes (Editor), 1978; and Metals Handbook: Properties and Selection: Nonferrous
Alloys and Pure Metals, Vol. 2, 9th edition, H. Baker (Managing Editor), 1979. Reproduced by permission of ASM
International, Materials Park, OH.]
Chapter 7 - 29
 Effect of Heat Treating After Cold Working
• 1 hour treatment at Tanneal...
decreases TS and increases %EL.
• Effects of cold work are nullified!
annealing temperature (°C)
100 200 300 400 500 600 700 • Three Annealing stages:
tensile strength (MPa)

600 60
tensile strength 1. ________________

ductility (%EL)
50 2. ________________
500
40 3. Grain Growth

400 30
Fig. 7.22, Callister & Rethwisch 9e.
ductility 20 (Adapted from G. Sachs and K. R. Van Horn,
Practical Metallurgy, Applied Metallurgy
300 and the Industrial Processing of Ferrous and
Nonferrous Metals and Alloys, 1940.
Reproduced by permission of ASM
International, Materials Park, OH.)

Chapter 7 - 30
 Three Stages During Heat Treatment:
1. Recovery
Reduction of _____________ density by annihilation.
• Scenario 1 extra half-plane
of atoms Dislocations
Results from annihilate
___________ atoms
and form
diffuse
to regions a perfect
atomic
of tension
plane.
extra half-plane
of atoms
• Scenario 2
3 . “Climbed” disl. can now τR
move on new slip plane
2 . grey atoms leave by
4. opposite dislocations
vacancy diffusion
meet and annihilate
allowing disl. to “climb”
1. dislocation blocked; Obstacle dislocation
can’t move to the right

Chapter 7 - 31
 Three Stages During Heat Treatment:
2. ____________________
• New grains are formed that:
-- have low ___________ densities
-- are small in ________
-- consume and replace parent cold-worked grains.
0.6 mm 0.6 mm

Adapted from Fig.

7.21 (a),(b),
Callister &
Rethwisch 9e.
(Photomicrographs
courtesy of J.E.
Burke, General
Electric Company.)

33% cold New crystals

worked nucleate after
brass 3 sec. at 580°C.

Chapter 7 - 32
 As Recrystallization Continues…
• All __________________ are eventually consumed/replaced.

0.6 mm 0.6 mm

Adapted from Fig.

7.21 (c),(d),
Callister &
Rethwisch 9e.
(Photomicrographs
courtesy of J.E. Burke,
General Electric
Company.)

After 4 After 8
seconds seconds

Chapter 7 - 33
 Three Stages During Heat Treatment:
3. Grain Growth
• At longer times, average grain size increases.
-- Small ______________ (and ultimately disappear)
-- Large __________ continue to grow
0.6 mm 0.6 mm
Adapted from Fig.
9.21 (d),(e), Callister
& Rethwisch 9e.
(Photomicrographs
courtesy of J.E. Burke,
General Electric
Company.)

After 8 s, After 15 min,

580°C 580°C
coefficient __________
• Empirical Relation:
on ________________
exponent typ. ~ 2
grain diam. elapsed time
at time t.
Chapter 7 - 34
 TR = recrystallization
temperature

TR

Fig. 7.22, Callister & Rethwisch 9e.

(Adapted from G. Sachs and K. R. Van Horn,
Practical Metallurgy, Applied Metallurgy
and the Industrial Processing of Ferrous and
Nonferrous Metals and Alloys, 1940.
Reproduced by permission of ASM
International, Materials Park, OH.)

º
Chapter 7 - 35
 Recrystallization Temperature
TR = ____________ temperature = temperature
at which _______________________
completion in 1 h.
0.3Tm < TR < 0.6Tm

For a specific metal/alloy, TR depends on:

• %CW -- TR decreases with increasing %CW
• Purity of __________ -- TR decreases with
increasing purity

Chapter 7 - 36
Diameter Reduction Procedure -
Problem
A cylindrical rod of _________________________ in
diameter is to be cold worked by drawing. The
circular cross section will be maintained during
deformation. A cold-worked tensile strength in excess
of _________________ and a ductility of at least 15
%EL are desired. Furthermore, the final diameter
must be 7.5 mm (0.30 in). Explain how this may be
accomplished.

Chapter 7 - 37
 Diameter Reduction Procedure -
Solution
What are the consequences of directly drawing
to the final diameter?
Brass
Cold
Work

Do = 10 mm Df = 7.5 mm

Chapter 7 - 38
 Diameter Reduction Procedure –
Solution (Cont.)

420 540

• For %CW = 43.8% Fig. 7.19, Callister & Rethwisch 9e.

– y = __________ [Adapted from Metals Handbook: Properties and Selection:
Irons and Steels, Vol. 1, 9th edition, B. Bardes (Editor), 1978;
and Metals Handbook: Properties and Selection: Nonferrous
– TS = ___________ __ 380 MPa Alloys and Pure Metals, Vol. 2, 9th edition, H. Baker
(Managing Editor), 1979. Reproduced by permission of ASM
– %EL = __ __ 15 International, Materials Park, OH.]

• This doesn’t satisfy criteria… what other options are possible?

Chapter 7 - 39
 Diameter Reduction Procedure –
Solution (cont.)

380 15

12 27

Fig. 7.19, Callister & Rethwisch 9e.

[Adapted from Metals Handbook: Properties and

For TS __ ________ > 12 %CW Selection: Irons and Steels, Vol. 1, 9th edition, B.
Bardes (Editor), 1978; and Metals Handbook:
Properties and Selection: Nonferrous Alloys and

For %EL > 15 _ ________ Pure Metals, Vol. 2, 9th edition, H. Baker
(Managing Editor), 1979. Reproduced by
permission of ASM International, Materials Park,
OH.]

 our working range is limited to 12 < %CW < ___

Chapter 7 - 40
 Diameter Reduction Procedure –
Solution (cont.)
Cold work, then _______, then ________ again
• For objective we need a cold work of 12 < %CW < 27
– We’ll use 20 %CW
• Diameter after first cold work stage (but before 2nd
cold work stage) is calculated as follows:

Intermediate diameter =

Chapter 7 - 41
 Diameter Reduction Procedure –
Summary
Stage 1: ____________ – reduce diameter from 10 mm to 8.39 mm

Stage 2: ____________ (allow recrystallization)

Stage 3: ___________ – reduce diameter from 8.39 mm to 7.5 mm

Fig 7.19


Therefore, all criteria satisfied

Chapter 7 - 42
 Cold Working vs. Hot Working

• Hot working  deformation above TR

• Cold working  deformation below TR

Chapter 7 - 43
 Grain Size Influences Properties

• Metals having ____ grains – relatively strong

and tough at low temperatures

• Metals having _____ grains – good creep

resistance at relatively ______ temperatures

Chapter 7 - 44
 Summary

• Dislocations are observed primarily in metals

and alloys.
• Strength is increased by making dislocation
motion difficult.
• Strength of metals may be increased by:
-- decreasing grain size
-- solid solution strengthening
-- precipitate hardening
-- cold working
• A cold-worked metal that is heat treated may experience
recovery, recrystallization, and grain growth – its properties
will be altered.

Chapter 7 - 45