Chapter 7: Dislocations & Strengthening Mechanisms

Chapter 7: Dislocations & Strengthening

Mechanisms

ISSUES TO ADDRESS...
• How are ___________ involved in the plastic deformation
of ________________?
• Does the _______________ of a metal affect its mechanical
characteristics? If so, how and why?
• How are mechanical properties affected by
dislocation __________ ?
• What __________ are used to increase the
strength/hardness of metals/alloys?
• How are mechanical characteristics of deformed
metal specimens altered by heat treatments?

Chapter 7 - 1

Plastic Deformation by Dislocation

Motion
• Plastic ______________ occurs by motion of dislocations
(edge, screw, mixed) – process called slip
• Applied shear stress can cause extra half-plane of atoms
[and edge dislocation line ( )] to move as follows: Fig. 7.1, Callister &
Rethwisch 10e.

• ___________ broken and reformed along slip plane as

dislocation (extra half plane) moves.
Chapter 7 - 2

Analogy Between Dislocation

Motion and Caterpillar Locomotion
• Caterpillar __________ – hump formed and propelled by
lifting and shifting of leg pairs
• Dislocation motion – movement of extra half-plane of
atoms by breaking and reforming of ____________ bonds

Fig. 7.3, Callister & Rethwisch 10e.

Chapter 7 - 3

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Chapter 7: Dislocations & Strengthening Mechanisms

Motion of Edge and Screw Dislocations

• Direction of edge disl. line ( ) motion—in ____________ of
applied shear stress τ.

Edge __________

• Direction of screw disl. line ( ) motion—_____________ to

direction of applied shear stress.

_______ dislocation

Fig. 7.2, Callister & Rethwisch 10e.

Chapter 7 - 4

Dislocation Characteristics
Metals

+ + + + + + + +
+ + + + + + + +
+ + + + + + + +
electron cloud ion cores

• Metals:
- Examples: copper, aluminum, iron
- Dislocation _______ —relatively easy
- Metallic __________ —non-directional
- Close-packed planes and _________ for slip

Chapter 7 - 5

Dislocation Characteristics
Ceramics

• ___________________________
- Examples: silicon, diamond
- Dislocation motion—relatively
difficult
- Covalent bonding—directional

• ___________________________
+ - + - + - +
- Examples: NaCl, MgO
- Dislocation motion—relatively - + - + - + -
difficult - - -
+ + + +
- Few slip systems
§ ______ of nearby ions of like
charge (+ and -) restricted by
electrostatic repulsive forces

Chapter 7 - 6

2
Chapter 7: Dislocations & Strengthening Mechanisms

Slip Systems
Slip System—Combination of ______________________
– Slip ________
• Crystallographic plane on which _____ occurs most
easily
• Plane with high planar density
– Slip _________
• Crystallographic direction along which slip occurs
most easily
• _________ with high linear density

Chapter 7 - 7

Slip Systems (cont.)

• For FCC crystal structure – slip system is {111} 110
– Dislocation ______ on {111} ________
– Dislocation motion in 110 directions
– A total of 12 independent slip systems for FCC
110
direction
Fig. 7.6, Callister &
Rethwisch 10e.

{111}
plane

• For BCC and HCP— other slip ________

Chapter 7 - 8

Slip in Single Crystals

___________ Shear Stress
• Applied _______ stress—shear stress component
when slip plane oriented neither perpendicular nor
parallel to stress direction ϕ
-- From figure, __________ shear stress, τR λ

Fʹ
τ R
=
Aʹ

• τR depends on _______ of normal to slip

plane and slip direction with direction of
_________ force F:

A
F ʹ = F cos λ Aʹ =
cos φ

Chapter 7 - 9

3
Chapter 7: Dislocations & Strengthening Mechanisms

Slip in Single Crystals

Resolved Shear Stress (cont.)

• Relationship between ________ stress, σ,

and τR: ϕ
λ
F ʹ F cos λ F
τR = = = cos λ cos φ
Aʹ A A
cos φ

= σ cos λ cos φ

Chapter 7 - 10

Slip in Single Crystals:

Critical Resolved Shear Stress
• Dislocation ______—on specific slip system—when τR reaches
critical value:
-- “______________________”, τCRSS
-- Slip occurs when τR > τCRSS
-- Typically 0.1 MPa < τCRSS < 10 MPa
• In a single crystal there are
-- _______________________
-- a variety of orientations
• One slip ______ for which τR is highest: τR(max) > σ (cosλ cosϕ )max
-- Most favorably oriented slip system
• Yield strength of single crystal, σy, when
τ CRSS
σy =
(cos λ cos φ ) max
Chapter 7 - 11

Single Crystals
Slip—Macroscopic Scale
• Parallel slip steps form on
surface of single crystal

• Steps result from motion of

large numbers of
dislocations on same slip
plane

• Sometimes on single
crystals appear as "slip
lines" (see photograph) Fig. 7.8, Callister &
Rethwisch 10e.

Chapter 7 - 12

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Chapter 7: Dislocations & Strengthening Mechanisms

Deformation of Single Crystals

Example Problem
A single crystal of some metal has a τcrss of ________ and is
exposed to a tensile stress of _______.
(a) Will yielding occur when ϕ = 60° and λ = 35° ?
(b) If not, what stress is necessary?
Solution:
(a) First calculate τR τ R = σ cos λ cos φ
τ R = (45 MPa) ⎡⎣cos(35°)cos(60°)⎤⎦
= _______________

Since τ R (18.4 MPa) < τ crss (20.7 MPa) -- no yielding

Chapter 7 - 13

Deformation of Single Crystals

Example Problem (cont.)
(b) To calculate the _____________________ to
cause yielding use the equation:
τ CRSS
σy =
cos λ cos φ
With specified values
20.7 MPa
σy =
cos(35°)cos(60°)
= 50.5 MPa
Therefore, to cause yielding, σ ≥ 50.5 MPa

Chapter 7 - 14

Slip in Polycrystalline Materials

σ
• ______________ materials—
many grains, often random
crystallographic orientations

• Orientation of ___________, slip Adapted from Fig.

directions (ϕ, λ)—vary from 7.10, Callister &
Rethwisch 10e.
grain to grain. (Photomicrograph
courtesy of C. Brady,
National Bureau of
• On application of ________—slip Standards [now the
National Institute of
in each grain on most favorable Standards and
Technology,
slip ___________. Gaithersburg, MD].)

- with largest τR
- when τR > τcrss

• In photomicrograph—note slip
lines in grains have different
orientations. 300 µm

σ Chapter 7 - 15

5
Chapter 7: Dislocations & Strengthening Mechanisms

Slip in Polycrystalline Materials (cont.)

• Grains change shape (become distorted)—during plastic
________________—due to slip
• Manner of grain _______ similar to gross plastic deformation
- Grain structures before and after deformation (from rolling)
- _____ rolling—grains equiaxed & randomly oriented
Ø Properties isotropic
- _____ rolling (deformation)—grains elongated in rolling direction
Ø Also preferred crystallographic orientation of grains
Ø Properties become somewhat anisotropic
- before rolling
- after rolling Adapted from Fig. 7.11,
Callister & Rethwisch 10e.
(from W.G. Moffatt, G.W. Pearsall,
and J. Wulff, The Structure and
Properties of Materials, Vol. I,
Structure, p. 140, John Wiley and
Sons, New York, 1964.)

235 µm rolling direction

Chapter 7 - 16

Strengthening Mechanisms for Metals

• For a metal to _________ deform—dislocations must move
• _________________—related to mobility of dislocations
-- Reduce disl. mobility—metal strengthens/hardens
-- Greater forces necessary to cause disl. motion
-- Increase disl. mobility—metal becomes weaker/softer

• Mechanisms for ________________________ metals—

decrease disl. mobility

• 3 mechanisms discussed
-- Grain size reduction
-- Solid solution strengthening
-- Strain hardening (cold working)

Chapter 7 - 17

Strengthening Mechanisms for Metals

Mechanism I – Reduce Grain Size
• Grain boundaries act as barriers
to dislocation motion
• At boundary
— _______________________
(note in illustration)
— ___________ of slip planes
• ___________ grain size
— __________ grain boundary area Fig. 7.14, Callister & Rethwisch 10e.
(From L. H. Van Vlack, A Textbook of Materials
— more barriers to dislocation motion Technology, Addison-Wesley Publishing Co., 1973.
Reproduced with the permission of the Estate of
— increase yield strength, tensile Lawrence H. Van Vlack.)

strength & hardness

• Dependence of σy on average grain diameter, d:
σ yield = σ 0 + k y d −1/2
—σ0, ky = material constants
Chapter 7 - 18

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Chapter 7: Dislocations & Strengthening Mechanisms

Strengthening Mechanisms for Metals

Mechanism II – Solid-Solution Strengthening
• Lattice strains around dislocations
– Illustration notes locations of tensile, compressive
strains around an edge dislocation

Fig. 7.4, Callister

& Rethwisch 10e.
(Adapted from W.G.
Moffatt, G.W. Pearsall,
and J. Wulff, The
Structure and
Properties of
Materials, Vol. I,
Structure, p. 140,
John Wiley and Sons,
New York, 1964.)

Chapter 7 - 19

Solid Solution Strengthening (cont.)

• Lattice _______________ with strains introduced by impurity atoms
• __________ substitutional impurities introduce tensile strains
• When located ________ slip line for edge dislocation as shown:
– partial cancellation of impurity (tensile) and disl. (compressive) strains
– higher shear stress required to cause disl. motion

Fig. 7.17, Callister &

Rethwisch 10e.
Chapter 7 - 20

Solid Solution Strengthening (cont.)

• Large _______________ impurities introduce compressive strains
• When located ________ slip line for edge dislocation as shown:
– partial cancellation of impurity (compressive) and disl. (tensile) strains
– higher shear stress required to cause disl. motion

Fig. 7.18, Callister &

Rethwisch 10e.

Chapter 7 - 21

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Chapter 7: Dislocations & Strengthening Mechanisms

VMSE Solid-Solution Strengthening Tutorial

Chapter 7 - 22

Solid Solution Strengthening (cont.)

• Alloying Cu with Ni _____________ σy and TS.
• Tensile strength & yield strength increase with wt% Ni.

180
Tensile strength (MPa)

Yield strength (MPa)

Adapted from Fig.

400 7.16 (a) and (b),
Callister &
120 Rethwisch 10e.
300

200 60
0 10 20 30 40 50 0 10 20 30 40 50
wt.% Ni, (Concentration C) wt.%Ni, (Concentration C)

• __________,σ y ∝ C1/2

Chapter 7 - 23

Strengthening Mechanisms for Metals

Mechanism III – _____________
• Plastically _________ most metals at room temp. makes
them harder and stronger
• Phenomenon called "______________ (or cold working)”
• Deformation—often _________ in cross-sectional area.
-Rolling
roll
Ad
Ao
roll

• Deformation amt. = percent coldwork (%CW)

Ao − Ad
%CW = x 100
Ao
Chapter 7 - 24

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Chapter 7: Dislocations & Strengthening Mechanisms

Strain Hardening (cont.)

As %CW increases
• ________ strength (σy) increases.
• Tensile strength (TS) ___________.
• Ductility (%EL or %AR) decreases.

Adapted from Fig. 7.20,

Callister & Rethwisch 10e.

low carbon steel

Chapter 7 - 25

Strain Hardening (cont.)

Lattice strain interactions between _____________

Fig. 7.5, Callister &

Rethwisch 10e.

Chapter 7 - 26

Strain Hardening (cont.)

Dislocation Density and Cold Working

total dislocation length

Dislocation density =
unit volume
– Dislocation density in _____________ metal
à 105-106 mm-2
– Dislocation density increases with ________ deformation
– Dislocation density in ____________ (cold-worked) metal
à 109-1010 mm-2

Chapter 7 - 27

9
Chapter 7: Dislocations & Strengthening Mechanisms

Strain Hardening (cont.)

Mechanism of Strain Hardening
• ___________ structure in Ti after cold _________.
• _______________ increases
with deformation (cold work) by
formation of new _____________
• As ______________ density
increases, distance between
dislocations decreases
• On average, disl.-disl. strain
interactions are repulsive
• Dislocation _______ hindered
by presence of other dislocations

Fig. 4.7, Callister & Rethwisch 10e.

(Courtesy of M.R. Plichta, Michigan
Technological University.) Chapter 7 - 28

Affect of Cold Work on Mechanical

Properties
Example Problem:
Compute the ______ and tensile strengths, and ductility for a
cylindrical Cu specimen that has been _____________ by
reducing its diameter from 15.2 mm to 12.2 mm.

Copper
Cold
Work

Do = 15.2 mm Dd = 12.2 mm

Chapter 7 - 29

Example Problem (cont.)

• Solution: ⎛ D ⎞2 ⎛ D ⎞2
π ⎜⎜ o ⎟⎟ − π ⎜⎜ d ⎟⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
%CW = x 100
⎛ D ⎞2
o
π ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠

Do2 − Dd2
= x 100
Do2

(15.2 mm)2 − (12.2 mm)2

%CW = x 100 = 35.6%
(15.2 mm)2
Chapter 7 - 30

10
Chapter 7: Dislocations & Strengthening Mechanisms

Example Problem (cont.)

• Yield and _________________, and ductility (%EL) are
determined graphically as shown below for %CW = 35.6%

60
tensile strength (MPa)
yield strength (MPa)

700 800

ductility (%EL)
40
500 600
300 MPa Cu
300 Cu 400 340 MPa 20
Cu 7%
100 200 00
0 20 40 60 0 20 40 60 20 40 60
% Cold Work % Cold Work % Cold Work

σy = ________ ____________ %EL = _____

Fig. 7.19, Callister & Rethwisch 10e. [Adapted from Metals Handbook: Properties and Selection: Irons
and Steels, Vol. 1, 9th edition, B. Bardes (Editor), 1978; and Metals Handbook: Properties and Selection:
Nonferrous Alloys and Pure Metals, Vol. 2, 9th edition, H. Baker (Managing Editor), 1979. Reproduced by
permission of ASM International, Materials Park, OH.]

Chapter 7 - 31

Heat Treatment of Cold-Worked

Metal Alloys
• Heat treating cold worked metals brings about changes in structure
and properties
• As a result, effects of ___________ are nullified!
• This type of heat treatment sometimes termed “______________”
• 1 hour treatment at Tanneal decreases tensile strength & increases %EL
n
tio
l iza ow
th Three Annealing stages:
ve ry stal Gr
co cry ain 1. _______________________
Re Re Gr
600 60 2. _______________________
tensile strength (MPa)

tensile strength
3. Grain Growth (> 500°C)
ductility (%EL)

50
500
40
Fig. 7.22, Callister & Rethwisch 10e.
(Adapted from G. Sachs and K. R. Van Horn,
400 30 Practical Metallurgy, Applied Metallurgy
and the Industrial Processing of Ferrous and
Nonferrous Metals and Alloys, 1940.
ductility 20 Reproduced by permission of ASM
International, Materials Park, OH.)
300
100 200 300 400 500 600 700
annealing temperature (°C) Chapter 7 - 32

Recovery
During recovery – reduction in __________ – annihilation of disl.
• Scenario 1 extra half-plane
of atoms
Dislocation
atoms annihilation-
diffuse half-planes
to regions come together
of tension
extra half-plane
of atoms
• Scenario 2
3 . “Climbed” disl. can now
move on new slip plane
2 . grey atoms leave by
4. dislocations of opposite
vacancy diffusion
sign meet and annihilate
allowing disl. to “climb”
1. dislocation blocked; Obstacle dislocation
can’t move to the right

Chapter 7 - 33

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Chapter 7: Dislocations & Strengthening Mechanisms

Recrystallization
• New grains form that:
-- have low ____________ densities
-- are small in _______
-- consume and replace parent cold-worked grains.

Recrystallized grains

Adapted from Fig.

7.21 (a),(c),
Callister &
Rethwisch 10e.
(Photomicrographs
courtesy of J.E.
Burke, General
Electric Company.)

33%CW brass before heat treatment After 4 sec. at 580°C

Chapter 7 - 34

Recrystallization (cont.)
• All _____ in cold-worked material have been consumed/replaced.

Adapted from Fig.

7.21 (d), Callister
& Rethwisch 10e.
(Photomicrographs
courtesy of J.E. Burke,
General Electric
Company.)

After 8 sec. at 580°C

Chapter 7 - 35

Recrystallization Temperature
TR = ______________ temperature = temperature
at which _________________ just reaches
completion in 1 h.
0.3Tm < TR < 0.6Tm

For a specific metal/alloy, TR depends on:

• %CW -- TR _________ with increasing %CW
• Purity of metal -- TR _________ with increasing
purity

Chapter 7 - 36

12
Chapter 7: Dislocations & Strengthening Mechanisms

Cold Working vs. Hot Working

• Hot working à deformation above TR

• Cold working à deformation below TR

Chapter 7 - 37

Grain Growth
• Grain growth occurs as heat treatment continues.
-- Average grain size increases
-- Small _____________ (and ultimately disappear)
-- Large __________ continue to grow

Adapted from Fig.

9.21 (d),(e), Callister
& Rethwisch 10e.
(Photomicrographs
courtesy of J.E. Burke,
General Electric
Company.)

After 8 sec. at 580°C After 15 min. at 580°C

Chapter 7 - 38

Grain Size Influences Properties

• Metals having small grains – relatively strong

and tough at low temperatures

• Metals having large grains – good creep

resistance at relatively high temperatures

Chapter 7 - 39

13
Chapter 7: Dislocations & Strengthening Mechanisms

Grain Growth (cont.)

• Empirical relationship—dependence of _________ grain
size (d) on heat treating time (t):

material constant
exponent typ. ~ 2 —depends on T
—_____________

d n − don = Kt

Initial average grain

diam. before heat
treatment

Chapter 7 - 40

Recovery, Recrystallization, & Grain Growth

Summary

TR = recrystallization
temperature
TR annealing time = 1 h

Fig. 7.22, Callister & Rethwisch 10e.

(Adapted from G. Sachs and K. R. Van Horn,
Practical Metallurgy, Applied Metallurgy
and the Industrial Processing of Ferrous and
Nonferrous Metals and Alloys, 1940.
Reproduced by permission of ASM
International, Materials Park, OH.)

º
Chapter 7 - 41

Design Problem
Description of Diameter Reduction
Procedure
A cylindrical rod of b__________________ in diameter
is to be cold worked by drawing. The circular cross
section will be maintained during deformation. A cold-
worked tensile strength in excess of ________ and a
ductility of at least 15 %EL are desired. Furthermore,
the final diameter must be 7.5 mm. Explain how this
may be accomplished.

Chapter 7 - 42

14
Chapter 7: Dislocations & Strengthening Mechanisms

Design Problem (cont.)

Solution:
Brass
First compute the %CW. Cold
Work

D o = 10 mm D d = 7.5 mm

⎛A −A ⎞ ⎛ A ⎞
%CW = ⎜⎜ o d ⎟ d
⎟ x 100 = ⎜⎜1− A ⎟⎟ x 100
⎝ Ao ⎠ ⎝ o⎠
⎡ π (D 2)2 ⎤ ⎡ ⎛ 2⎤
7.5 mm ⎞ ⎥
= ⎢1− d ⎥ x 100 = ⎢1− ⎜ ⎟ x 100 = 43.8%
2
⎢⎣ π (Do 2) ⎥⎦ ⎢ ⎝ 10 mm ⎠ ⎥
⎣ ⎦

Chapter 7 - 43

Design Problem Solution (cont.)

60
800

40
600
540

400 20

6
200 0
0 20 40 60 0 20 40 60
% Cold Work % Cold Work Fig. 7.19, Callister
& Rethwisch 10e.

• For %CW = 43.8%

– TS = ___________ > 380 MPa
– %EL = __ < 15
• This doesn’t satisfy criteria… what other options are
possible?
Chapter 7 - 44

Design Problem Solution (cont.)

60
800

40
600

400 20
380 15

200 0
0 1220 40 60 0 20 27 40 60
% Cold Work % Cold Work Fig. 7.19, Callister
& Rethwisch 10e.

For TS _ ________ > 12 %CW

For %EL > 15 _ ________

To meet criteria
—deformation requirement 12 < %CW < 27
Chapter 7 - 45

15
Chapter 7: Dislocations & Strengthening Mechanisms

Design Problem Solution (cont.)

Procedure: Cold work, ________, then ________ again.
• To meet criteria, for 2nd deformation step: 12 < %CW < 27
– We will deform to 20%CW
• Diameter after first cold work stage (but before 2nd cold work
stage), Di, calculated as follows:
⎛ D2 ⎞ Dd2 %CW
%CW = ⎜⎜1− d2 ⎟⎟ x 100 ⇒ 1− =
⎝ Di ⎠ Di2 100
0.5
Dd ⎛ %CW ⎞ Dd
= ⎜1− ⎟ ⇒ Di =
Di ⎝ 100 ⎠ ⎛ %CW ⎞0.5
⎜1− ⎟
⎝ 100 ⎠
7.5 mm
Intermediate diameter = Di = = 8.39 mm
⎛ 20%CW ⎞0.5
⎜1− ⎟
⎝ 100 ⎠ Chapter 7 - 46

Design Problem Summary

Stage 1: ___________ – reduce diameter from 10 mm to 8.39 mm

⎡ ⎛ 2⎤
8.39 mm ⎞ ⎥
%CW1 = ⎢1− ⎜ ⎟ x 100 = 29.6
⎢ ⎝ 10 mm ⎠ ⎥
⎣ ⎦
Stage 2: ____________ (allow recrystallization)
Stage 3: ___________ – reduce diameter from 8.39 mm to 7.5 mm

⎡ ⎛ 2⎤
7.5 mm ⎞ ⎥
%CW2 = ⎢1− ⎜ ⎟ x 100 = 20
⎢ ⎝ 8.39 mm ⎠ ⎥
⎣ ⎦

Therefore, all criteria satisfied

Chapter 7 - 47

Summary
• Plastic deformation occurs by motion of dislocations
• Crystallographic considerations:
-- Minimum atomic distortion from dislocation motion
- in slip planes
- along slip directions

• Deformation of polycrystals—change of grain shapes

• Strength is increased by decreasing dislocation
mobility.

• Strengthening techniques for metals:

-- grain size reduction
-- solid solution strengthening
-- strain hardening (cold working)

Chapter 7 - 48

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Chapter 7: Dislocations & Strengthening Mechanisms

Summary (cont.)

• Heat treatment of deformed metal specimens:

-- Processes
- Recovery
- Recrystallization
- Grain growth
-- Consequences—property alterations
- Softer and weaker
- More ductile

Chapter 7 - 49

17