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CHAPTER III - REPRODUCTION

One important factor that contributes to the success of any pig farm is the number of piglets produced by
each sow in a year. This is largely dependent on the services or mating made which is, in turn, affected by
heat detection and timing of insemination. Reproduction is the total process by which pigs produce
offspring.

THE DRY PERIOD

The time interval from weaning to service is known as the dry period. This is the time when the sow is
unproductive. The length of the dry period varies depending on the sow’s body condition.

On some farms where weaning is at 4-6 weeks (28-42 days), the sows in good condition return to heat during
the week following weaning. However, if the sow is thin due to large litters or was fed badly during lactation,
the dry period could be longer.

The local practice of weaning pigs at 4 weeks gives the advantage of allowing the sow to be re-bred earlier,
even without flushing her. The sow has a fertile heat period after weaning the pigs. The effects of weaning at
4 weeks on the number of eggs shed based on reports from studies conducted in Wisconsin, USA, concluded
that if weaning is done earlier, then the interval to subsequent estrus may be longer, even up to 2 weeks.
Normally, sows will come in heat 3 – 10 days, with an average of about 7 days, after weaning.

PUBERTY

Puberty – is the beginning of reproductive capability or sexual maturity, it ranges from 4 – 8 months old.

Puberty in Boars

In boars, puberty is the age at which sperm cells or spermatozoa appear in the ejaculate. Spermatogenesis
is the process in which sperm cells are formed in the testes. The whole process takes place in 35 days. It is
a continuous process normally producing about 10 -15 billion sperm cells each day. It cannot be altered by
the frequency of ejaculation. Spermiogenesis is the process of sperm cell maturation.

When is a boar ready for breeding?

• At least 9 months old

• Large enough to cover a normal-sized gilt
• Sufficient libido to complete ejaculation
• Semen is of sufficient quality and quantity to ensure high conception rates

Factors affecting puberty in boars

• Genotype
• Age
• Nutrition
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• Environment
• Health
• Frequency of use

Puberty in Gilts

In gilts, puberty is signaled by the occurrence of the first ovulation or estrus period which is characterized by
receptivity to the male pig or acceptance of the male pig.

When is a gilt ready for breeding?

• At least 8 months old

• About 100 – 120 kg in weight
• Has cycled at least twice

Factors affecting puberty in gilts

• Genetics
• Age
• Nutrition
• Climatic environment
• Male effect
• Social environment
• Exogenous hormones

ESTRUS

Estrus Period – also known as heat period, time during which the sow will accept the boar, lasts from
1 t o 5 days with an average of 2 – 3 days.

Older sows generally remain in heat longer than gilts due to stability of hormonal activities. Some sows,
although physiologically in heat, do not show outward signs of being so. These animals are called “Silent
Heaters”, and the phenomenon is known as “Silent Heat”.

The Estrus Cycle

It is the period intervening between 2 successive heat periods in the absence of pregnancy. It usually
ranges from 18 – 24 days with an average of 21 days. The cycle is usually characteristic of the individual,
that is, a sow which has a 21 – day cycle comes in heat every 21 days unless interrupted by pregnancy. The
estrus cycle is affected by many environmental factors. It can be altered with the use of exogenous hormones
which are available in the market.

Phases of Estrus Period

1. Boar Phase 1 – the animal will stand for the boar but not for the caretaker.
2. Insemination Phase – the animal will stand for both the boar and the caretaker.
3. Boar Phase 2 – the animal is towards the post-heat stage (going back to normal).
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Regulation of Estrus

To help you understand the process of controlling estrus, you need to identify and understand the anatomy
of the reproductive tract of the female pig.

Ovary (ovaries) – the primary sex organ of the female animal. 10 – 20 mm.

Oviducts – is a structure that transmits the ovum from the ovary to the uterus and the site for fertilization. 40
– 80 mm long.

Uterine horns – is a part of the uterus that acts as a passageway for the sperm to the oviduct and for fetal
development. 1 – 1.8 meters long during pregnancy (1 – 2 feet not pregnant).

Cervix – cervix produces cervical mucus that changes in consistency during estrus cycles to promote or
prevent pregnancy. During pregnancy this mucus becomes denser and acts as a seal that protects the
developing embryo in the uterus from foreign substances and pathogens. 100 – 200 mm.

Vagina – is the primary copulatory organ of the female animal.

Vulva –

The regulation of the estrus cycle is a complex process mainly under the control of hormones released by
the hypothalamic-pituitary-ovarian axis. Hormones are substances produced by the cells of the body
(endocrine glands) and passed in the bloodstream to influence other cells elsewhere in the body. At
a certain moment, the pig’s biological clock is activated by a combination of stimulus to the brain such as
light, smell and touch. These external stimuli signal the hypothalamus (in the brain) to release the
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Gonadotrophin-releasing hormone (GnRH). The GnRH stimulates the anterior pituitary gland to produce
the Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH). The FSH directly affects the ovaries where several of the globes
develop into vesicles or graafian follicles. In turn, the follicle walls produce a hormone, Estrogen. Estrogen
is the substance responsible for the manifestation of heat or estrus. When enough estrogen is carried by the
blood to the brain, it signals the pituitary gland to stop the production of FSH because the follicles are already
there and are mature. The pituitary gland then produces the Luteinizing hormone (LH) which causes the
ovum within the follicular wall to emerge. This process is called ovulation. One ovum is released from each
ripe follicle within 4-6 hours.

During ovulation a temporary structure will developed called Corpus luteum. This structure will now produce
another hormone, Progesterone. This hormone stimulates the uterine glands of the uterus to produce
nutrients to maintain the released ova. It also signals the anterior pituitary gland to stop secretions of FSH
and LH. If fertilization takes place and the sow conceives, the corpus luteum is maintained until the
termination of pregnancy. If no conception takes place, the uterus produces a hormone, Prostaglandin (PG),
which causes the disintegration of the corpus luteum. With this, the “brake” on the pituitary gland is released.
The FSH is produced, and the whole cycle begins again.

If the pig conceives, gives birth and nurses the piglets, the suckling stimulates milk letdown causing the
release of Prolactin from the pituitary gland. Prolactin blocks the release of FSH. When the piglets are
weaned, FSH is again released, and the cycle starts again. The animal comes into heat in 5 – 10 days, 7
days on the average.

HEAT DETECTION

Heat detection is the method by which a pig raiser determines whether a sow will accept service by the boar.
It should be done on a routine basis. For best results, this activity should be done twice each day preferably
early in the morning and late in the afternoon.

Signs Pre-Heat Standing Heat Post-Heat

Standing Heat she will not stand still if you Stands still with arched Does not stand still when
try to sit on her back, so she back when ridden by other being pushed
fails the “sit on the back” test sows or farm caretaker
Vulva • Red • Pink • Pale
• Swollen • Less swollen • Almost no
• With little mucus • With clear, sticky swelling
discharge mucus • No mucus
Behavior • Restlessness and • Low appetite • Normal
nervous • Calm
• Mounts other • Allows mounting
animals by other animals
• Mounts other
animals
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• Does not allow • Clear, cocking ears
herself to be • Actively seeks the
mounted boar, stands
• Frequent urination arched back in the
• Less feed intake presence of the
boar
Duration 2 days 1 day 1 day
Service NO YES NO

Important Note – it is important to keep checking for estrus because of the following reasons:

1. The standing still to back pressure is caused by a hormone released in response to a stimulus (the
boar), it is not continuous. This response lasts for 7-10 minutes and is repeated after about 5 minutes
later.
2. Females that are showing any sign of estrus but will not stand if you try to sit on her back should be
checked again 5 minutes later.

Techniques of Heat Detection

To determine the optimum time of mating, it is important to know whether a sow is receptive. The surest
indication of a sow in heat is her acceptance of the boar. In a herd of sows, it is proper to bring the female to
the boar pen.

Several ways or techniques of heat detection may be applied:

1. Back pressure test. This method is done by applying pressure on her sides with both hands. If she
is receptive, she will just stand firm and rigid, ready to be served.
2. Riding the back test. This is done by riding on or pressing the back or loin of the sow. Just like in
the first method, the sow will stand firmly and remain rigid, ready to be served if it is sexually receptive.
3. Semen on snout test. With this technique old semen sample is squeezed from a squirt bottle on the
snout of the sow. With the boar’s smell in the semen, the sow will just stand firm and remain rigid if it
is sexually receptive. A similar preparation, called sex odor aerosol (SOA), is also commercially
available. This involves spraying the sow’s snout with the SOA allowing her to show signs of heat
more readily and to exhibit willingness to stand for the boar.
4. The teaser boar method. A vasectomized boar is the best animal to use in this method. The boar is
allowed to mount the sow. If the sow stands firm, remains rigid with cocked ears and willingly submits
itself to the advances of the boar, it is sexually receptive.
5. External signs of estrus and records. These are less sophisticated methods of detecting heat in
female pigs. In some farms, records are kept correctly by the farm caretakers. Also, certain farm
caretakers have very good experiences in detecting sows in heat. In such cases, detecting estrus
through external signs and records can be comparable in terms of accuracy to the first 4 techniques.
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On the 4 heat detection techniques, the teaser boar method had the highest pregnancy occurrence followed
by the semen on the snout test based on research conducted.

SERVICE

How and when to service sows/gilts?

Breeding may either be done naturally or artificially. Whether it is natural breeding or artificial insemination,
the best time to breed a sow in heat is in the early morning or late afternoon. Furthermore, studies indicate
that they should be bred within 36 hours after the onset of heat.

Ovulation is the process of releasing the ova from each ripe follicle inside the ovary. It occurs 36 to 40 hours
after the start of standing heat when the greatest number of eggs are being shed. Live sperm must be in the
female reproductive tract a few hours before the occurrence of ovulation; otherwise, the litter size will be
reduced.

Studies have been conducted on how many times sow should be served. Results indicate that an advantage
in litter size and conception rate has been obtained when sows are bred twice. However, a relatively good
litter size was also obtained when sows are bred only once, in which the sow was bred during the proper time
of estrus.

Based on the physiology of the female reproductive system and signs of reactions of the animal during the
heat period, the best time to inseminate the sow is 12 – 24 hours after the onset of standing heat. Optimal
breeding is based on the number of times per day the farm caretaker checks the sows for standing heat. With
once-a-day detection, sow should be served immediately once they accept the boar. With twice a day
detection, sows should be bred 12 – 24 hours after they are first detected in heat.

FREQUENCY OF BOAR SERVICE OR COLLECTION

Whether the boar is used for artificial insemination or natural breeding, it is recommended that a young boar
(8-12 months old) will be collected once a week. For older boars (13 months and up), a 4 consecutive day
rest is advisable that means collection can be done 2 times a week.

The frequency of collection will affect the volume and concentration of semen to a certain extent. Over-used
boars have low semen concentration and volume. On the other hand, under-used of boars will deteriorate
semen quality such as semen becoming stale and presence of dead sperm cells.

FERTILIZATION

It is important to appreciate that the mating process in the pig is a prolonged one, sometimes up to 15 minutes,
during which the time up to 400 ml of fluid will be inseminated. The penis spirals towards the vagina and into
the cervix where it screws into the folds to become locked. This is vital because to establish an optimum
pregnancy, sperm must be placed directly into the womb.
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Sperm is transported from the cervix to the top of the womb by the contractions of the muscles. It takes up
to 2 hours for them to arrive at the bottom of the fallopian tubes, the utero-tubal junctions. At this junction,
before the sperm cells can fertilize the ova, they must undergo a second phase of maturation process known
as capacitation. This process will take about 4-6 hours. Once the junction is filled with sperm few more enter
before ovulation. It is important to appreciate this because at the first mating the quality of the semen and
timing probably decide the quality and success of fertilization and subsequent survival.

THE PREGNANCY PERIOD

Pregnancy or gestation is the period from fertilization to farrowing time. It ranges from 110 to 120 days for
normal birth, and the average is 114 days (3 months, 3 weeks and 3 days).

Conception rate should be between 80 and 90% if mating has been carried out under good conditions. If
figures fall towards 60% it is important to question semen quality and the physiological state of the sow.
Successful conception is characterized by a failure to return to estrus 3 weeks following mating. Pregnancy
lasts for 110-120 days or and average of 114 days.

Sows are non-seasonal breeders which can be bred continuously without the interruption of seasonal factors.
The sow will continue to come in heat regularly unless she is pregnant, lactating or has some physiological
malfunctions. During summer, however, a major breeding handicap is the sow herd is the relatively low fertility
or conception rate.

Pregnancy Cycle

Pregnancy of sows starts on day 12 of gestation period. If there are fewer than 5 embryos in the womb, the
pregnancy will not continue. The embryos will be resorbed, and the sow will return to heat after 9 days. If
there are 5 or more live embryos in the womb, the pregnancy will continue. The embryos will attach to the
walls of the womb. This attachment is completed on day 23 where each embryo occupies an individual space.
This period before day 35 is called the Embryonic Period.

• Death during this period is called early embryonic death (EED).

• If some of the embryos die, pregnancy can still progress. Dead embryos are reabsorbed, and the live
ones continue to develop.
• If all the embryos die, it will result to either abortion or complete resorption. Then the sow would return
to heat 9 or possibly more days depending on the cause of EED.

After day 35, the skeletal development and calcification begins, hence the start of the fetal period. Resorption
during this period is no longer possible.

Death of the fetuses may result in the following:

• Abortion. If the corpura lutea are destroyed.

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• Maceration and mummification. The body fluids of the dead fetuses are resorbed, and maceration
occurs. This process may continue, and a dry, shriveled (mummified) fetus comes out during
farrowing.

Litter born before the 109th day of gestation are usually not capable of surviving. On the other hand, if the
gestation period is over 119 days, this usually results in many forms of abnormalities such as dead and
partially decomposed fetuses, abnormally large pigs, and extremely small litter size.

Causes of Regular Repeat Breeders

• Hormonal deficiencies – FSH, LH

• Nutritional deficiencies – poor body condition, obesity
• Insemination failure
• Boar failure
• Stress

Causes of Irregular Repeat Breeders

• Hormonal problems
• Silent heat
• Metritis
• Management failures

Pregnancy Diagnosis

Economic importance

• It affects the number of lost days

• It minimizes the risk of under/over occupancy
• It serves as a guide in judging sows for culling
• It determines the fertility of both the boar and the sow
• It controls the amount of feed to be given to the sow

Methods of Pregnancy Diagnosis

Records

If the services are recorded, the dates for the first (18-24 days) and second heat control (38-42 days) can be
determined. If the sow doesn’t come in heat during this period, then it is assumed that the sow is pregnant.
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Ultrasound – Amplitude Depth Ultrasound Machines

With ultrasonic detectors, pregnancy diagnosis is a reality. The principle of ultrasonic pregnancy detectors is
an ultrasonic echo from fluid in the uterus. Uterine fluid increases rapidly following conception and reaches
detectable levels 25 to 30 days after breeding. For some equipment, it remains detectable for 80 to 90 days
after breeding. After this period the mass of fetuses in the uterus exceeds the fluid content and the machine
losses its sensitivity. Also, false positives can often be detected if the bladder is full, and scanning misses the
womb.

• Ultrasound – Doppler tests

Doppler ultrasound machines are more accurate and can be used over the whole range of the pregnancy
period from 26 days to term. They are the most popular method in the developed countries with a 90%
plus accuracy. The sounds detected in early pregnancy arise from the changes is blood flow that take
place in the large arteries supplying blood to the womb. Movement of the fetus and placenta can also be
detected together with the fetal heartbeat. Womb infection, embryo absorption or early can give false
positives and of course wrong interpretations of the sounds. Inexperience can also give rise to wrong
interpretations. Demonstration audio tapes are available with the equipment.

External signs

By looking at the external parts of the body, it can be determined if the sow is pregnant or not. Example:
udder, abdomen.

Hormone analysis (blood and urine)

The progesterone level in the blood or in urine is analyzed to determine whether the sow is pregnant or not.

Serum analysis is carried out after day 22 (from the day of service) by using a small stylette to puncture the
ear vein. A thin capillary tube collects a spot of blood which is then tested for pregnancy hormones. This
technique is time consuming, expensive and of little used. Tests are being developed to examine the feces
to detect pregnancy but are not perfected for commercial used.

• Vaginal Biopsy – this technique involves the removal of a small piece of the vaginal mucous
membrane using a special instrument. The instrument is inserted into the vagina 150-300 mm pressed
into the membrane, and the end manipulated to cut-off a small piece. The sample is placed in a small
container and a special preservative and posted to a laboratory for histological examinations. It is time
consuming, expensive and little used.

Palpation

A very useful and valuable method of diagnosis pregnancy in mature sow after 30 days of gestation. Rectal
examination, although not commonly a practiced, has the added advantage of being very simple and rapid
test not requiring expensive instruments or laboratory facilities.
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Scanner

Scanning equipment is now available like that used in humans for detecting pregnancy. It is expensive but
very accurate. With the use of the scanner, one can determine the pregnancy stage.

Advantages of early pregnancy detection

1. Identification of sows for culling or rebreed, non-pregnant, feed-wasting sows

2. It gives early warning of breeding troubles, due to infertile boars and cystic ovaries
3. It enables the producer to make effective use of his breeding facilities and to plan more adequately
for farrowing, nursing and finishing.
4. Avoids selling of pregnant sows.