MODULE 1 DEC 103 PHYSICS ELECTRONICS

INTRODUCTION

ELECTRONIC MATERIALS

1.1 ELECTRONICS

The term electronics is derived from the name of an electron, which is a small, invisible particle of
electricity present in all materials. It is defined as the science and technology that involves the motion of
electrons and ions in vacuum gas or solid semiconductors. Electronics can also be defined as applications
involving the control of electrons in a vacuum (vacuum tubes), gas or vapour and also in solid-state
semiconductor materials used for the fabrication of transistors and integrated circuits employed in the
general application of electricity.

Furthermore, electronics can also be defined as the study of information and energy processing. By
information processing, it means the use of electronic devices (computers, bridges, routers, hubs,
switches, multiplexer, spliters, repeaters, radio, television, etc.) for communication purposes. By energy
processing, it means converting electrical energy into another form of energy such as light, heat and
sound. The same electrical energy produced by a battery for flash light can be used in various ways,
including running motor or production of light and heat for electric power applications.

All applications in electronics are centered around the fundamental laws of electricity and magnetism
(electromagnetism). The main factors in the operation of electronic devices are the ability to produce
and control the flow of electrons to obtain the desired effect.

1.1.1 Charge Particles and Atomic Structure of Matter

There are basically two types of charges; positive and negative charges.An atom is the most
fundamental unit of matter having three fundamental particles; neutron, proton and electron and exists
independently in three basic states (gas, liquid and solid).The first two particles (neutron and proton)
form the center of the atom called nucleus, where the total mass of the atom is concentrated.The third
particle (electron) revolves in an approximately elliptical orbit round the nucleus.
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An electron carries a negative charge with a magnitude of about 1. 6∗10 columbs.Proton has the
same magnitude as that of electron but with opposite positive polarity, while a neutron is electrically
neutral. Thus, the net charge on the central nucleus is positive.

These three particles are called fundamental particles of the universe because they are the same in
atoms of all elements. But, atoms of different elements behave differently because in them, they differ
in the arrangement of these particles. Electrons in an atom do not move in the same orbit. They are
arranged in different orbits or shells.

The shell closest to the nucleus can accommodate a maximum of two electrons (Duplex Rule). The
second orbit can accommodate eight electrons, third not more than eighteen, and so-on. Generally, the
2
maximum number of electrons that can be accommodated in a shell or orbit is given by 2∗n electrons,
where n is the number of shells or orbits. However, the number of electrons that any orbit other than

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the innermost one can contain is limited to eight by “Octate Rule”, which state that an orbit other than
the one nearest to the nucleus can contain a maximum of eight electrons for any atom in a stable state.

1.1.2 Energy Levels in an Atom

By using a spectrometer, it is observed that a number of gases (neon, etc) when excited by high voltage
produce a spectrum of well defined lines, each having a particular wavelength or frequency as shown in
Fig. 1.1. These lines are strong evidence of the existence of separate or quantized energy levels in an

atom. It is assumed that a given atom has a series of defined and discrete (separated) energy levels
E0 ,
E1 , … En and that no other intermediate energy level is possible. The lowest energy level E0 is called
the “ground state energy”. All physical systems are in stable equilibrium in the lowest energy state.

Energy
Outer E = n (Highest)
n=n
E=3
n=3
E=2
n=2 Inner
n=1 + nucleus E=1
n=0
E = 0 (Ground)
(a) Electrons orbits (b) Electron energy levels
Fig. 1.1: An isolated atom

According to quantum physics, only discrete values of electron energy levels are possible which are
separated and widely spaced in a certain number of orbits in any isolated atom. These orbits represent
energy levels for electrons. Electrons can only move in the permitted orbits and not in any intermediate
orbit. Each orbit has a particular amount of energy associated with it and the electron moving in it
acquires that amount of energy of the orbit. The innermost orbit has the lowest energy, while the
outmost one has the highest.

1.2 ENERGY BAND THEORY OF SOLIDS

Energy bands are the closely placed energy levels which differ slightly in energies or are the range of
energies possessed by electrons in different orbits in a solid. X-ray results show that most metals and
semiconductors have crystalline structures because most atoms are in close proximity and each atom in
space contributes to the formation of the crystalline structure. This is not the case in gas because their
atoms are far apart.

In a crystalline structure, the energy levels of the inner-shell electrons are not affected significantly by
the presence of the neighbouring atoms. The levels of the outer-shell electrons change considerably
because electrons change significantly due to the sharing of electrons with other atoms in the crystal as
a result of the strong influence of the assembly of the nuclei.

However, the interaction between the electrons of the atoms in the crystal results in a band of closely
spaced energy states, instead of the widely separated energy levels of a single atom or isolated atoms
(insignificant interactions between atoms). The gap between the energy bands is known as energy gap

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(forbidden band). This gap decreases with the decrease in interatomic spacing which results in stronger
inter-reaction between atoms, according to crystal x-ray study. These energy bands overlap at a certain
interatomic distance and some electrons now belong to the crystal as a whole and not an individual
atom.

Below the forbidden band is the band containing strong bounded electrons called the valence band.
The energy band structure at this point is dependent upon the orientation of the atoms relative to one
another, the number of atoms and how much external electric field must be applied before its electrons
contribute to the flow of electricity. Above the forbidden band is also the conduction band with free
electrons needing small amount of external electric field to contribute to electricity conduction.

Therefore, in crystalline solids, there exists the valence band which is the energy band where the
valence electrons of an atom are contained. The electrons in this band cannot gain electric energy from
the external electric field and hence do not contribute to the flow of current. The conduction band in
those solids has electrons which can acquire energy from external electric field source to allow it
contribute to the flow of current in materials. The forbidden band in such crystalline solids is basically a
region in which no electron can stay because there is no allowed energy state.

Energy gap stands for the energy gap between the valence and conduction bands. It is the amount of
energy needed by the electrons to jump from the valence band to the conduction band of the material.
The magnitude of this energy depends on whether the material is a conductor, insulator or
semiconductor. Hence, for a given material, the forbidden gap energy may be large (insulators), small
(semiconductors) or non-existence (conductors). This relative width of the forbidden energy gap dictates
conductivity in solids.

1.2.1 Conductor

EG  0eV
In conductors (metals), the valence electrons are mobile, which is because they are delocalized and can
move freely in the whole material from one atom to another. For this reason, the valence electrons are
always in the conduction band because no energy is required to break them from their atoms. Base on
this fact, it is clear that the forbidden band does not exist in conductors. Therefore, the conduction band
and valence band of conductors overlap each other as shown in Fig. 1.2.

1.2.2 Insulator

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 EG  5eV
Conduction band
(No electrons)

Forbidden band
(Required energy)

Valence band
(Full of electrons)

Fig. 1.3: Energy bands (levels) of an insulator

In insulators, the valence band of the material is completely filled with electrons and the conduction
band is completely empty. However, the forbidden band is very large in such a way that very large
amount of energy is needed before an electron could move from the valence band to the conduction
band. The energy gap in this case is in the range of 6eV and above. This means that insulators have high
resistivity and very low conductivity at room temperature. It will only conduct at very high temperature
or if a very high voltage is applied across its terminals (insulation breakdown).

1.2.3 Semi-conductor

Conduction band

Electrons at room temperature

Forbidden band

Holes at room temperature

Valence band

Fig. 1.4: Energy bands (levels) of a semiconductor

In semiconductors, the valence electrons under normal condition are in the valence band, while the
conduction band is empty. This means that there is a forbidden band in between them.4 In this case, the
size of the forbidden band is small compared to that of the insulator because the energy needed for
electrons to cross from the valence band to the conduction band is around 1eV or less depending on the
type of material. For example, in silicon the energy gap is 1.1eV and 0.67eV for germanium.

At normal temperature the thermal energy of some valence electrons is sufficient for them to move to
the conduction band where they become conduction electrons and electric current. If temperature is
raised above room temperature, more valence electrons acquire energy to cross the energy gap to
reach the conduction band. Hence, electrical resistivity of pure semiconductors decrease with
temperature increase, implying that semiconductor materials have negative temperature coefficient of
resistance.

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 Energy

C = Carbon

Si = Silicon

Ge = Germanium

Sn = Tin

Group C Si Ge Sn
(Insulator) (Semiconductors) (Conductor)
Fig. 1.5: Group forbidden energy gap

Semiconductor materials are group of elements whose forbidden energy gap decreases down the group
as shown in Fig. 1.5. In this case, carbon is an insulator, tin is approximated to a conductor, while silicon
and germanium are semiconductors.

1.3 CONDUCTIVITY IN CRYSTALLINE SOLIDS

The outermost electrons revolving around the nucleus are the valence electrons as shown in Fig. 1.6.
Depending on the bonding type of the substance, these electrons of an atom may be delocalized and
free to move around or tightly held firm by attraction from the positive charges in the nucleus.

Metallic materials have metallic bonding where the valence electrons are free to move from one atom
to another. These mobile electrons serve as charge carriers that make metals good conductors of
electricity and heat as well. All metallic substances are good conductors of electric charges and heat,
with silver, copper and aluminum being exceptionally better conductors.


e
In non-metallic materials, the valence electrons of the atoms are fixed (not free to move) to the outmost
shell of the atom. Insulators are materials that have very high ionization energy before the valence
electrons could be removed from their shells. On the one hand, there are non-metallic materials that
require a relatively low energy to remove their valence electrons from their shells. Such materials are
called semiconductors. Silicon, germanium and other metallic alloys fall into this category.

The flow of electricity through a particular solid is a function of the electronic structure of the solid. In
this respect, the materials are classified as either conductors or insulators.

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 Conductors are materials that allow the flow of electric charges when voltage source of limited
magnitude is applied across their terminals. Hence, conductors are metallic materials with free electrons
due to the nature of their bonding. Insulators however, are materials that hardly allow any flow of
electricity under pressure from the applied voltage source. This property of insulators is due to their
electronic structure.

Between the extremes of the conductors and insulators are materials called semiconductors. These are
materials which allow some conductivity when external energy is applied to them. Such materials do not
have free electrons, but instead when energy is applied to their atoms valence electrons break and
move freely on their surfaces. These electrons and excess positive charges (called holes) left in the atom
when it breaks are the charge carriers in semiconductors.

1.4 CONDUCTIVITY IN SEMICONDUCTORS

The basic semiconductor materials are group four elements whose electricity conductivity lies between
those of insulators and good conductors. These elements have covalent bonds where the electrons are
shared among the atoms for them to have complete shells as shown in Fig. 1.7.


e
At absolute zero temperature, all electrons are held strongly together in their covalent bond since no
any externally induced vibration is introduced either from thermal source or otherwise. In this condition,
the semiconductor acts as an insulator. But when a source of energy like heat is applied to the
semiconductor the valence band electrons break their covalent bonds and moves freely in the
conduction band. As shown in Fig. 1.8, this electron that breaks from the bond leaves excess positive
charge which is called “hole”.

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 CB

FB

VB

Fig. 1.8: Electron breaks from the bond

One important property of semiconductor materials is that a considerable change in the electrical
conductivity and resistivity are observed when a very small amount of certain other material (impurity)
is added to them.

There are basically two types of semiconductors, namely, elemental and compound semiconductors.
Elemental semiconductors are germanium (Ge) and silicon (Si). Majority of earlier solid state devices
(transistors, diodes) used germanium. Thermal stability, availability and advances in the technology
enabled the replacement of germanium with silicon in many applications. Semiconductors are generally
classified into two categories; intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors depending on whether the material
is pure or not.

In pure (intrinsic) semiconductors, the number (concentration) of holes is always equal to the number of
electrons. Also, the motion of holes is in the opposite direction to that of the electrons and this motion
is referred to as “hole current”. In impure (extrinsic) semiconductors holes are not equal to electrons.

When thermal agitation or other mechanism causes accumulation of electrons at one end of the
semiconductor, the electrons will diffuse to the other end and this gives rise to a net charge flow, called
‘diffusion current’. When electric field is applied to the semiconductor, free electrons and holes are
accelerated in such a field. The average velocity of this movement is called drift velocity and the current
caused by this motion is known as “drift current”. The simultaneous generation of electrons and holes
due to temperature is known as thermal generation. The energy required to break the covalent bond of
silicon is 1.12eV and germanium is 0.72eV.

However, it is possible for electric current to flow in a semiconductor even in the absence of applied
voltage. The flow is due to the nonuniform distribution of charge carriers which gives rise to a
concentration gradient. When a concentration gradient exists in a semiconductor, carriers tend to move
from the region of higher concentration to that of lower concentration (diffusion) which constitutes the
flow of current (diffusion current) directly proportional to the mobility.

I Dp α μp and
I Dn α μn

I Dp μp I Dp I Dn ID
I Dn = μn and
μp V
= μn = T = μ

V T is the volt-equivalent of temperature and is given as:

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 KT
VT = q
where K = Boltzmann constant

q = Charge on electron

T = Temperature in Kelvin

1.4.1 Intrinsic Semiconductors

Silicon and germanium are the most commonly used semiconductors for transistors and diodes and
carbon for resistors. They are called intrinsic because in their pure state no impurity is introduced. At
o
0 K all electrons are held to their covalent bond, hence no free electrons for conduction. But at room
temperature, some bonds will be broken as a result of random thermal vibration of the atoms. The
11 3 23 3
number of broken bonds is as low a 10 / ( cm ) compared to about 10 atoms/ ( cm ) . This means that
only one out of every trillion atoms has broken bond. The broken bond will attempt to restore its normal
state by capturing electrons. In such a case, electrons from nearby the atom can move to fill the existing
hole and this creates another hole in the next atom. This therefore causes movement of holes opposite
to the electrons.

In intrinsic semiconductor, the number of holes is equal to the number of free electrons. It should be
noted that the hole-electron pair can disappear. Also, when an electron moves closer to a hole and is
recaptured by the broken bond, the process is called “recombination”. Hence, energy is released as a
quantum of heat or light. This energy is again absorbed by another electron to break away from its
covalent bond and creates another new electron-hole pair. At a particular temperature, the rate of
generation of electron-hole pair will be equal to the rate of recombination. Either the electron or hole
will exist for some seconds before recombination. The average existence of an electron or hole before
3
recombination is called mean life time (life time) and it is in the range of 1μs−10 μs . This life time is
very important because it presents the time taken by electron or hole concentrations to return to their
equilibrium states which can be adjusted to a reasonable value by the introduction of impurity (gold) as
recombination agent into pure semiconductor material under controlled conditions. The graph in Fig.
1.9 shows the concentration of hole-electron pair in intrinsic semiconductor as a function of
temperature.

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 6
10
If p = hole concentration and n = electron concentration, then their relationship is given as:

np=n 2
i 1.1

n
where i = Intrinsic concentration

The temperature dependence of the concentration is given by the equation:

n 2 = AT 3 exp
i ( ) −ΕG
KT 1.2

Where A = constant of proportionality

T = Absolute temperature
−23
K= 1. 38∗10 (J / K ) = boltzmann’s constant

ΕG = Band gap energy

1.4.2 Doped (Extrinsic) Semiconductors

The number of bonds that are broken at room temperature is negligible compared to the atomic
concentration of the intrinsic semiconductors. For this reason, the induced current is very small
−9
(typically less than 10 A). In order to increase the conductivity of semiconductors, small amount of
impurities are introduced into the crystal by a process called “doping”.

Doping is the careful introduction of impurity atom into a pure (intrinsic) semiconductor under control
condition. Conductivity of a semiconductor increases by the doping process. When impurities are added
to a pure semiconductor, an impure (extrinsic) semiconductor is formed. Hence, the concentration of
electrons or holes is increased depending on the doping material (dopant) used.

When doping material has more valence electrons than the original, it is called “donor”. But when it has
less valence electrons, it is known as “acceptor”. The group five elements are used as donors, while

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group three elements are used as acceptors. A semiconductor doped with donors has excess electrons
and is hence called n-type (negative) semiconductor and the one doped with acceptors has excess holes
and is called p-type (positive) semiconductor.

The n-type has more electrons than holes, so electrons are the majority carriers and holes are the
minority carriers. But in the p-type, holes are the majority carriers and electrons are the minority
carriers.

N-type Semiconductor
Group five elements like phosphorus, arsenic, bismuth and antimony are the ones mostly used as donor
impurities for doping. They fit exactly into the silicon structure without upsetting the lattice structure.
These pentavalent atoms when bonded into the silicon lattice, they share four of the valence electrons
with the nearby atoms, while the fifth electron is free at room temperature. That is, this electron needs
very small energy to detach it into the conduction band. On the average, electrons concentration is
much higher than holes. This is shown in Fig. 1.10(a).


e
P-type Semiconductor
Group three elements like boron, aluminum, gallium and indium are the most common acceptor
impurities used for creating p-type extrinsic semiconductors. When this atom goes into the lattice
structure of silicon, it shares its three valence electrons with three out of the four nearby silicon atoms,
leaving a vacancy of hole in the structure. This free hole that exists at room temperature is the charge
carrier in excess. This is illustrated in the Fig. 1.10(b).

1.5 MASS-ACTION LAW AND CARRIER CONCENTRATIONS

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The addition of n-type impurities to a pure semiconductor increases the number of electrons and
decreases that of holes and vice versa for p-type impurities used instead. However, under thermal
equilibrium for any semiconductor, the product of the number of electrons and the number of holes is
constant and is independent of the amount of impurity (donor or acceptor) introduced.

N N
Consider p, n, D and A as holes, mobile electrons, as well as immobile donors and immobile
acceptors concentrations, respectively, each having a charge, q. Hence, the local charge density, ρ is
given by:
ρ=q ( p−n+ N D −N A )
1.3

But under equilibrium condition, the charge density is zero ( ρ = 0),

⇒ n− p = N D−N A 1.4

Also, when the semiconductor is pure without any doping

N D=N A =0 ,

np=n 2
⇒ n=p ∴ i

For n-type doped semiconductor,

N D is very large compared to N A which is just zero. Therefore, from

equation (1.4) with

N A ≃0 , we have:

n-p=
ND

Since the material is n-type (more electrons), it means n >> p i.e. p≃0 ⇒ n≃N D

n2
i
np=n 2 p=
Therefore, from i ⇒ n or

n2
i
p=
ND 1.5

Similarly, for a p-type semiconductor (more holes), where p >> n:

n2
i
n=
NA 1.6

These two expressions (E1.5 and E1.6) give the concentrations of minority carriers in both n-type and p-
type semiconductors, respectively and show that the minority carrier concentration depends on the
doping level of either the donor or acceptor.

Small amount of doping affects only the electrical properties but not chemical and mechanical
properties of the semiconductor.

n
The intrinsic concentration at room temperature is n = p = i = 1. 5∗10 /m
16 3

1.6 TRANSPORTATION OF ELECTRIC CURRENT

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However, drift and diffusion are two ways of current flow in semiconductors. At any temperature above
zero, the atoms have kinetic energy that causes their vibration. This leads to random movement of
electrons which in turn gives rise to current flow. The thermal speed of the carrier is:

V th =
√ 3 KT
¿
m m/s 1.7
−23
where K = Boltzmann’s constant = 1. 38∗10 J/k

T = Absolute temperature
¿
m = effective mass of the carrier
5
At room temperature, V th =10 m/s for holes and electrons.

1.6.1 Drift in an Electric Field

As electric field is applied across a substance, the equilibrium of the lattice structure is disturbed. This
brings about accelerated movement in the carriers with increased velocity, which compliments the
thermal movement that resulted from the rise in temperature. The resultant effect of these two
processes is called “drift”. Electrons loose energy when they collide but a steady condition is reached
when the velocity becomes uniform. This uniform velocity is called a drift velocity which is directly
proportional to the electric field and has a direction opposite to that of electric field. The drift velocity is
given by:

v h =μ h Ε 1.8

v e =μe Ε 1.9

μ μ
where h and e = Hole and electron (constants) mobilities in m /V . s
2

Ε = Electric field intensity

For silicon
μh ≃0 . 045 m2 /V . s and
μe≃0. 135 m2 /V . s

These values are not constant but vary with temperature and doping densities.

To calculate the electric current associated with the drift, consider a conductor (wire) of length, L and
cross sectional area, A as shown in Fig. 1.11.

N Electrons A
L
Fig. 1.11: Conductor (wire)

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 N
If q is the charge of the electron and t is the total electrons passing through the cross section in a unit
time, t, then current is given by:

Nq
I = t 1.10

But the electric current density is given by:

I Nqv
J= J=
A ⇒ AL where AL is equal to the volume.

N
n=
If electrons per unit volume is defined as AL

⇒ J =nqv A /m2 1.11

But since v=μΕ

⇒ J =nq μΕ 1.12

where conductivity in ( Ωm )−1 is σ =nq μ 1.13

⇒ J =σΕ 1.14

I=σΕA

( R=V I ) is resistance, ( ρ =1 R ) is resistivity and

( σ= )
1
ρ is conductivity.

Using E1.12, we have drift current density for holes and electrons in silicon:

J h =qp μh Ε and
J e=qp μ e Ε 1.15

So the total drift current density is:

J T =qΕ ( pμh + nμe )

1.16

Using relation of E1.13, the total conductivity is given by:

σ= q ( pμ h +nμ e )
1.17

For an intrinsic semiconductor, the number of electrons is equal to the number of holes, hence the
concentration of electrons is the same as that of holes. That is,

n= p=ni

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⇒ σ i = ( μh + μe ) qni 1.19

For an extrinsic semiconductor, electrons concentration is not equal to that of holes.

σ e= ( nμ h + pμe ) q 1.20

For n-type semiconductor, n >> p

σn =
qn μn 1.21

For p-type semiconductor, p >> n

σp =
qn μ p 1.22

1.7 TEMPERATURE EFFECT

The difference between pure metal and pure semiconductor are: electrical resistance in a pure
semiconductor decreases with an increase in temperature because as temperature increases, more
electrons break their covalent bonds and become free for conduction. An increase of temperature in
pure metal with free electrons, increases the vibration atoms which results in more collisions by the
drifting of electrons, thus increasing the resistance of the metal. As for extrinsic (impure) semiconductor,
its conductivity increases with increase in temperature. At critical temperature the number of holes is
almost equal to the number of electrons. At this point, the extrinsic semiconductor behaves like an
o
intrinsic semiconductor with very high conductivity. This temperature is 200 C for silicon with energy
o
requirement of 0.05eV and 80 C for germanium needing 0.01eV energy.

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 MODULE 2 DECE 103 PHYSICS ELECTRONICS

PN JUNCTION (DIODES) DEVICES

2.1 FORMATION OF PN JUNCTION

PN junction is a two-part extrinsic semiconductor of either pure silicon or germanium doped with
impurities of group five elements to form the n-type part and another introduced with impurities of
group three elements to give a p-type part. These n-type and the p-type semiconductors are placed
together to form a junction called PN-junction as shown in Fig. 2.1.

p-type material n-type material

+ -
Anode Cathode
P n
Fig. 2.1: PN-junction

When p-type and n-type materials are connected together to form a single crystal, then charge
redistribution takes place in the material. Some of the free electrons in the n-type material move to the
p-type material across the junction and meet the holes and combine with them. Similarly, free holes in
the p-type material migrate across the junction to the n-type material and combine with its electrons.
Due to this charge redistribution by migration of holes and electrons to the opposite side of the material
across the junction, the n-type material gets net negative charge and the p-type material acquires net
positive charge.

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These charges create an electric field (potential difference) between these two materials which opposes
any further movement of charges between them. This effect reduces the number of charge carriers near
the junction and this area is called ‘depletion region”.

Depletion
Region

Potential Pn

Position

Fig. 2.2: Electric potential difference opposing charge flow across junction

This electric potential difference that creates a barrier to the flow of charges across the junction is
shown in Fig. 2.2. In order to allow current flow (movement of charges) across the junction, the level of
the potential barrier must be reduced by applying a voltage of proper polarity and enough magnitude
across the two materials.

2.2 CONSTRUCTION OF DIODE

A PN-junction diode is formed on a single piece of semiconductor material with one side doped with p-
type material and the other side with the n-type material. Silicon, germanium, and gallinium arsenide
are the commonly used pure semiconductors. The distance where p and n material are doped in the
crystal depends on the design method. When the doping of p and n materials is done, the depletion
region exists at the junction due to the combination of charge carriers. In the depletion region, there are
few carriers due to electrons as the minority carriers in the p-side and holes as the minority carriers in
the n-side. These minority carriers will migrate across the junction and give rise to a current flow known
as “diffusion current,
I D ”, which moves from p-side to n-side.

 
V
-ve P n +ve P +ve -ve n +ve P n -ve
minority minority majority majority majority majority

IS
There is an additional current, due to drift of the minority carrier across the junction. In open-circuit
equilibrium conditions, the diode diffusion current is equal to its drift current but in opposite direction

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as shown in Fig. 2.3(a).Another characteristic of a PN junction diode is the ability to allow the flow of
current in one direction and blocks its flow in the opposite direction.

If positive potential is applied to p and negative to n, the diode is forward-biased. In this condition,
majority carriers (holes) are repelled from the applied positive terminal and attracted to the opposite
side and vice versa for the majority carriers (electrons). Hence, electrons move toward the p-type
material and holes diffuse to the n-type material. The movement of charge carriers results in the
IS ID
reduction of the depletion region greatly.This disturbs the equilibrium between and across the
junction and brings about the flow of current in the same direction as holes movement due to the
reduction of the potential barrier, as illustrated in Fig. 2.3(b). The external electric field flows in the
opposite direction of the current. The magnitude of this current depends on the magnitude of the
applied voltage and is given by:

I =I D−I S
2.1

But if negative potential is applied to p-side and positive potential applied to n-side, the diode is said to
be reverse-biased. In this case, electrons are drawn from n material toward the right to the positive
applied terminal and holes are drawn to the left as shown in Fig. 2.3(c). The depletion region becomes
wider with high potential difference and in this case the diode is like an insulator due to its high
resistance. Similarly, the equilibrium is disturbed and a small current, known as leakage or reverse
current flows across the junction from n-side to p-side. This is opposite to the forward bias current flow.
It is not affected by the magnitude of the barrier voltage but it is dependent on the temperature, type of
material and construction of the junction.

2.2.2 DIODE CHARACTERISTICS

VC
VC
Fig. 2.4 shows this current and voltage relationship of the diode. is the amount of voltage needed for
ID
the diode to start conducting fully,while is a function of the doping geometry of the diode as well as
the temperature.

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 ID
To find the slope of the exponential curve at any fixed point on the curve is differentiated with
VD
respect to .

2.2.3 Operation of Diode

The graph of Fig. 2.5 illustrates the basic operation of silicon and germanium diodes. As the forward
VC
voltage increases beyond zero, current does not start to flow until it reaches minimum value (0.2V
for Ge and 0.7V for Si). At these values, noticeable currents are obtained in both diodes. As the voltage
VC
goes beyond the conduction voltage, of each diode, current increases sharply along its exponential
path.

VD
If the diode is reverse biased, there is very small leakage current that flows in that direction. This leakage
current is more in Ge than in Si and GaAs (Gallinium Arsenite). When the reverse voltage continues to
increase, it reaches a breakdown voltage which can destroy the diode by breaking the junction.This
maximum breakdown voltage is called “peak inverse voltage (PIV)”. This voltage is specified by the
manufacturers in data sheets.

The damage of the diode in this way is due to avalanche of electrons that flow across the junction as a
result of overheating the diode.The abrupt increase in reverse current can be limited by connecting a
series resistor to reduce excessive power dissipation at the junction. At breakdown point the junction
offers almost zero resistance and breakdown voltage is dependent on the width of the depletion region,
material and doping level.Breakdown can occur by two processes, namely, avalanche (multiplication)
and zener breakdown.

 Avalanche Breakdown

The flow of minority carriers through the junction increases with the increase in reverse voltage when
they acquire kinetic energy. They collide with crystal ions disrupting their covalent bonds and creating

18 | P a g e
more mobile carriers. More carriers result in very large current which breaks down the crystal structure
¿5 V
itself. The process is called avalanche multiplication and occurs at knee voltage ( ).

 Zener Breakdown
Under reverse biased condition, depletion region increases and so too is the potential barrier which
leads to very high electric field across the junction. The field is strong enough to tear electrons out of
their covalent bands resulting in the generation of more minority carriers which suddenly increase the
reverse current (zener effect). The reverse voltage at which point the junction is destroyed is the zener
7
2∗10 V /m ¿5 V
breakdown voltage. It found to occur at electric field of about and at about ( ) for
heavily doped junction.

For a highly doped junction, the breakdown voltage is higher and the avanlanche multiplication is the
predominant effect. The two effects may occur independently or otherwise. Junctions that breakdown
below 5V is caused by zener breakdown effect and those above 5V are caused by avalanche effect.
Hence, those which are destroyed at 5V are caused by a combination of the two effects.

2.2.4 Definition of some Terms

Diode Breakdown Voltage is the value of the applied reverse biased voltage at which the junction of the
diode is destroyed because it can no long contain the reverse bias current.

 Knee (Cut-in) Voltage is the forward voltage at which the current through the junction starts to
increase rapidly.

 Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV) is the maximum reverse voltage that can be applied to the PN
junction without causing damage to the diode.

 Maximum Forward Current is the maximum instantaneous forward current that a PN-junction
can withstand without destroying the junction.

 Maximum Power Rating is the maximum power that the PN-junction can dissipate without
getting destroyed.

2.3 Applications of Diodes

The diode as a passivenon-linear electronic component plays many roles in different areas of electronics
engineering. Diode is basically used in circuits for waveform shaping,switching and logic circuits. It is
used in TV sets and FM receivers. It is also used for amplifiers and different types of op-amps through
which it is possible to perform mathematical operations. Diode clipper can be used for the protection of
different types of circuit. For example, a digital circuit against transients which may cause considerable
damage. Some of the applications of the diode are discussed in the following subsections.
2.3.1 Voltage Rectification
The diode is the basic component used for changing alternating current (AC) into unidirectional current
(DC). Since from Ohm’s law (V = IR), that is, with resistance remaining constant, voltage is directly
proportional to current, implying that the diode can also make voltage to flow in one direction only.
There are two forms of rectification which can be done by diodes, the half wave rectification and full
wave rectification.

 Half Wave Rectification

19 | P a g e
This is the rectification process where the diode allows only positive path of the AC signal to pass and
blocks the negative path. This is because the diode is forward biased and reserve biased by these two
waveforms. This type of rectification process is a achieved using one diode as shown in Fig. 2.7(a).

RL
 Full Wave Rectification
In full wave rectification, both positive and negative waveforms are passed in one direction since a
bridge rectifier or two diodes are used in the rectification process as shown in Fig. 2.8.

VO
2.3.2 Voltage Doubling
Diode is also used for doubling the level of a given voltage as shown in Fig. 2.9.

20 | P a g e
 C1
2.3.3 Diode as Clipper
Clippers are diode circuits used to eliminate part of the waveform that is above or below a certain
reference (predetermined) level without distorting the remaining part of the applied waveform by
selecting only that portion of the signal for the purpose of transmission of message. The circuit is
sometimes called limiters or amplitude selectors. The clipper is made using a diode and a battery in
series connected across the source. Hence, this clipping circuit consists of linear elements like resistors
and non-linear elements like junction diodes or transistors, but it does not contain energy-storage
elements like capacitors. Clipping circuits are used to select for purposes of transmission, that part of a
signal waveform which lies above or below a certain reference voltage le

2.3.4 Diode as Clamper

The clampers on the other hand are the circuits used for shifting the waveform of voltage by adding a
voltage source of either a constant nature time-varying function. The clamping network is the one that
will "clamp" a signal to a different dc level. The network must have a capacitor, a diode and a resistive
element, but it also employs an independent dc supply to introduce an additional shift.

Vo
2.4 SCHOTTKY DIODE

21 | P a g e
 1 2

Si0 2 1
Anode Cathode

(b) Circuit diagram

2

(a) Schematic diagram

Fig. 2.12: Schottky diode

This is the type of diode that is constructed by bonding a metal like platinium or aluminium to n-type or
p-type silicon as illustrated in Fig. 2.12.

This diode is mainly used in integrated circuit technology because it is easy to be fabricated with other
components on the chip. This diode is used in high frequency switching applications and power
monitoring of low-level radio frequencies as well as detecting high frequencies.

2. 5 LIGHT EMITTING DIODE (LED)

This is the type of diode that changes electric current into light energy. This is achieved when an
electron from the conduction band falls into a hole and this results in the release of a photon (light
energy). The arrangement of such system is illustrated in Fig. 2.13.

P N

(a) Schematic diagram (b) Circuit diagram

Fig. 2.13: Light emitting diode

Light output
(mW)

Forward current (mA)

Fig. 2.14: Emitted light and current relationship

The LED conducts and emits light only when it is forward biased. But in reverse biased mode it does not
conduct and the LED can withstand a very low peak inverse voltage (PIV) before been broken. The
intensity of the emitted light is proportional to the magnitude of the forward current flowing as shown

22 | P a g e
in Fig. 2

a
a a Common

c f b
Supply to b Dot
each d
separate
anode e

f c g Dot

e c
d g
(a) Anode and cathode connections

e d f
(b) Pins arrangement
Fig. 2.15: Seven segment display

The light emitting diode has many applications, namely; Systems displays, optical fibre communications,
infrered remote control, security alarm systems and many more.

For instance, a number of LEDs are also connected together to form a seven segment display of Fig.
2.15. This is used for displaying numerical value of data from 0 – 9. The seven –segment display is
constructed by connecting seven LEDs with their cathodes connected together to the ground and the
anodes separately supplied with voltage to put on the desired LEDs that will display a particular number
as shown in Fig. 2.15(a). In practice, seven segment display is a dual-in-line package with five pins on
either side a shown in Fig. 2.15(b).

2.5.1 Two colours LED emitter

B A C
Fig. 2.16: Two colours LED emitter

23 | P a g e
A diode can emit more than two colours in its operation. An example of diode that emits two colours is
shown with three pins is shown in Fig. 2.16. Pins A and B are the anodes, while C is the cathode which is
longer than the others. When the LED is biased by powering pins B and C, red light is emitted but when
pins A and C are powered the LED gives out green light. There are also LEDs that emits many colour, that
is, more than two in their operation.

2.6 PHOTO-DIODE
The photodiode is an electronic component that accepts light energy as an input and changes it into
electric current. This diode performs the inverse operation of light emitting diode (LED).

H n
To operate this diode, a reverse bias supply is applied to the to the photodiode where reverse saturation
current is controlled by the intensity of light that falls on the diode as shown in Fig. 2.17(a). This light
creates electron-hole pair that causes flow of current. This current (photo current) is proportional to the
light intensity. The photodiode acts as a constant current generator, once the breakdown voltage is not
exceeded.

However, the sensitivity of the diode to light is increased by making the junction area larger for the
collection of more photons. The characteristic curve of the photodiode is shown in Fig. 2.17(b), which
gives current as a function of light intensity.

2.7 ZENER DIODE

Zener diode is type of diode that has the characteristic of maintaining a fixed voltage level despite the
variations in the source voltage and the load current. Zener diode is a PN junction diode made specially
by doping the material so as to produce very steep breakdown (avalanche) voltage feature. This is to
prevent the diode from being damaged even when the breakdown voltage is exceeded. This condition
holds only if the maximum rated current is not exceeded. Zener diode symbol representation in a circuit
diagram is the same as that of schottky diode of Fig. 2.12.

24 | P a g e
 I Z max 
When a strong electric field is applied at the junction, the bonds are broken creating the electron-hole
pair which in turn generates current that can produce other electron-hole combinations continuously.
This multiplicity is called zener breakdown. The value of the reverse voltage at which this breakdown
occurs is controlled by the nature of doping in the diode. A lightly doped diode has higher zener
breakdown voltage than the heavily doped one. At zener breakdown voltage, the current keeps
changing while voltage is almost constant. The sener diode is therefore used as voltage reference for
regulating the voltage at predetermined maximum level. The characteristic curve of the zener diode is
given as Fig. 2.18.

2.7.1 Zener Regulator

In the voltage regulation application, the zener diode is operated at its breakdown region as shown in
the circuit diagram of Fig. 2.19.

RL
VS
The circuit is connected to a variable load resistance and in practical application, the voltage source,
IL Ri
varies as well as the load current, . The task of the design is to obtain the value of so as to
VS IL
maintain a constant voltage output even when and change. The value of this input resistance is
given by:

V S −V Z
Ri =
I Z+ I L
2.14

25 | P a g e
 V S −V Z
I Z= −I L
Ri
2.15

VS IL IZ IZ
From E2.15, and are the two variable parameters which determine the value of . is
VS IL VS IL
maximum when is maximum and is minimum, but it is minimum when is minimum and is
maximum. Considering these two conditions in E2.14, input resistance is obtained as:

V S ( max ) −V Z V S ( min) −V Z
Ri = Ri =
I Z ( max ) + I L ( min ) I Z ( min )+ I L ( max )
and 2.16

Ri
Hence, equating the two equations of :

V S ( max )−V Z V S ( min )−V Z

I Z ( max )+ I L ( min ) I Z ( min )+ I L ( max )
= 2.17

I Z (min )≃0. 1 I Z ( max )

To find the value of the maximum current of the zener diode, the assumption is
applied to obtain:

[ V Z −V S ( min ) ] I L ( min )+ [ V S ( max )−V Z ] I L ( max )

I Z (max ) V S ( min )−0 . 9 V Z −0 . 1V S ( max )
= 2.18

V Z V S ( min ) V S ( max ) I L ( min ) I L ( max )

In any practical design, the values of , , , , are specified to enable the
I Z (max ) Ri VZ
valuation of from E2.18. Also, the value of which gives constant can be calculated from
E2.16.

26 | P a g e
MODULE 3 DCE 103 PHYSICs ELECTRONICS

PHOTO AND BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTORS

3.1 PHOTO TRANSISTOR

The transistor is a three-terminal device made up of three elements; namely base, collector and emitter
as the terminals. The transistor is set into operation when a proper base current is applied. Unlike
normal transistor, a photo-transistor has only collector and emitter as the physical terminals with
connections. As shown in Fig. 3.1, the base junction exists without any connected terminal.

Collector

Light
Base

Emitter
Fig.3.1: Photo-transistor terminals

The base is the junction that collects photon energy which creates the charge carriers that generate the
base current for the transistor to operate. The magnitude of the generated base current is proportional
to the intensity of the incident light. The photo diodes and transistors are mainly used in optical
switches and optical communications.

3.2 BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTOR

The bipolar junction transistor (BJT) is a three-terminal device. These three terminals are made up of
either two n-type materials separated by a p-type material (npn transistor) or two p-type materials
separated by an n-type material (pnp transistor) as shown in Fig. 3.2. These transistors are called BJTs
because they operate by the movement of both electrons and holes into oppositely polarized materials.

27 | P a g e
 n p n P n p
Emitter Collector Emitter Collector
(a) npn transistor (b) pnp transistor
Fig. 3.2: Schematic diagrams of BJTs

Collector (C) Collector

Base (B) Base

Emitter (E) Emitter (E)

(a) npn transistor (b) pnp transistor
Fig. 3.3: Circuit symbols of BJTs

The BJT transistors are constructed on a single pure semiconductor crystal (e.g., silicon), where one end
(emitter) is heavily doped, the middle (base) is medium doped and the other end (collector) is lightly
doped. The emitter is designed to emit electrons, the base ejects electrons, while the collector passes
electrons. The circuit symbols of such BJT transistors are shown in Fig. 3.3.

3.2.2 Transistor Circuit

Transistor circuits are operated in three basic configurations, namely, common collector, common
emitter, and common base configurations.

Common-Emitter (CE) Configuration

The common-emitter configuration shown in Fig. 3.6 is called so because the emitter is common to both
the input (base) and output (collector) terminals. The current gain is the ratio of ( α ) of the output to
the input currents.

28 | P a g e
 IE
n P

P n

n p

IC V CE
The output characteristics are a plot of the output current ( ) versus the output voltage ( ) for the
IB IB
range of values of base current ( ). The input characteristics are a plot of the input current ( )
V BE V CE
against the input voltage ( ) for the range of values of output voltage ( ). However, the general
characteristic curve plot is given in Fig. 3.7.

29 | P a g e
 VCE
The plot of Fig. 3.7 gives the parametric curves for different base currents against the output voltage (
V CE
). Also, it illustrates the three different regions of the npn transistor with respect to the biasing
conditions.

The cut-off region indicates that the applied base current is not sufficient to turn-on the transistor, so it
V CE IC
remains off. The saturation region is the situation where is near zero and is maximum. This
region, the operation of the transistor is not linear. The active region lies between the cut-off and
saturation regions where the operation of the transistor has much linearity. That is, there exists a
IC V CE
straight line relationship (linear) between and , which is given by:

V CC −V CE
IC =
RC +R E
3.2

IC
This straight line is known as the “load line”. Using E3.2, this line is plotted on characteristic curve at
V CC
IC =
V CE V CC V CE RC + R E
= 0 (or = ) on the horizontal axis and on the vertical axis when = 0 (or ).

30 | P a g e
The operating (Quiescent) point is selected on the load lines at point Q. At this point, the values of both
I CQ V CEQ
the operating point current ( ) and voltage ( ) are located as shown in the Fig. 3.7.

Common-Base (CB) Configuration

IB
p n p n p n

The diagram of Fig. 3.8 shows the common-base configurations of pnp and npn transistors with respect
to the biasing voltages and the directions of current flows. The characteristic curve for this configuration
IC V CB
is a plot of the output current ( ) versus the output voltage ( ) for different values of input current
IE
( ).

31 | P a g e
 VCB
The characteristic curve of Fig. 3.9 gives cut-off, active and saturation regions where various operations
of the transistor occur. These as well as the analysis of the load line and quiescent point locations follow
the same fashion as that of CE configuration discussed earlier.

Common-Collector (CC) Configuration

The common-collector configurations for pnp and npn transistors are illustrated in Fig. 3.10.

IC
p n

n p

p n

32 | P a g e
 IE V CE
Its characteristic curve is a plot of output current ( ) versus collector-emitter voltage ( ) for
IB
different ranges of base current ( ). It also follows the same techniques employed in the two previous
configurations in plotting its load line and quiescent point location.

3.3 TRANSISTOR OPERATION PARAMETERS

For the transistor to operate properly in any given system, it must be biased within the specified
maximum ratings and in the range of the safe temperature region. Parameters of the different ratings
are specified in the manufacturers data sheets. Some of these parameters for commonly used
transistors are given in Table 3.1.

33 | P a g e
 Table 3.1: Common transistor parameters specified in manufacturers data sheets

R
3.4 APPLICATIONS OF TRANSISTOR
The transistor is an active electronic component with many applications in different aspects of electronic
engineering field. Some areas of applications are in signal amplification, as well as in oscillation and
switching techniques and power regulation too.

3.4.1 Transistor as an Amplifier

An amplifier is a circuit that is capable of increasing the input signal level to a higher magnitude by using
a transistor as the active component in the circuit. This transistor used for the amplification process is in
the common-emitter configuration. Such transistor amplifier circuits are of different classes of power
output levels, number of stages and type of signal amplified. However, a simple transistor amplifier as
the basic common-emitter power amplifier is shown in Fig. 3.11.

34 | P a g e
 Vo
This transistor amplifier is first set to quiescent point by biasing it using dc source. This is done by finding
IB
the base current ( ) required from E3.3.

V CC −V BE
IB RB
= 3.3

V CC V BE
where = Supply voltage, = 0.7V (for silicon turn-on voltage) and

RB
= Base resistance

β
Using the amplification factor ( ), collector current (quiescent current) can be calculated as:

IC β∗I B
= 3.4

V CE
The quiescent voltage ( ) is evaluated using E3.5.

V CE V CC −I C RC
= 3.5

When the transistor is biased with these voltages and currents, it would be in quiescent point. In the
active region where any sinusoidal input signal passes through, the base is amplified and a similar output

35 | P a g e
with amplified magnitude is produced through the output. The power output produced by the amplifier
is given by:

V ( rms )
C2
PO ( ac ) I 2 ( rms ) RC RC
C
= = 3.6

3.4.2 Transistor as an Oscillator

An oscillator is a circuit capable of providing alternating output from a dc source. The oscillator circuit is
maintained in operation by supplying fixed feedback from the output. The fundamental condition for
the oscillator to operate properly is that the loop gain must be unity (1). Transistors are used to make
different types of oscillators like the phase-shift, colpitt, Hartley and crystal oscillators. Fig. 3.12
illustrates a practical example of a phase-shift oscillator.

'
The resistors ,
R1 R2
and
RE
R
are the biasing setting components of the transistor while the network of
capacitors (C) and resistors (R) are the frequency setting components of the oscillator. The oscillating
frequency is calculated using the relation:

36 | P a g e
 1 1
f= ∗

√
2 π RC
6+ 4 ( R)
RC

Hz 3.7

3.4.3 Transistor as a Switch

In its switching operation, this type of electronic switch is used to operate other appliances mostly
through electromagnetic relays. When it is used in switching operation, the transistor is operated in
either the saturation region which sets the circuit in “ON” state or in cut-off region which sets the switch
“OFF”.

R1
Relay

Relay

Fig. 3.13(a) and (b) are circuit diagrams of simple pnp and npn transistor switches. In both cases, when a
R1 R2
switch is closed the resistors and supply enough base current to set the transistor into action
where the output current will be produced to drive the relay.

37 | P a g e
MODULE 4 DEC 103 PHYSICS ELECTRONICS

JUNCTION FIELD-EFFECT TRANSISTOR (JFET) & METAL-OXIDE SEMICONDUCTOR FET (MOSFET)

4.1 INTRODUCTION
This type of transistor is constructed using only one type of doped semiconductor material, that is,
either p-type or n-type material. Therefore, its operation is base on the flow of majority carriers only.
The flow of current from one end of the material to the other is controlled by means of applied voltage
which creates an electric field. The two ends of the material are called source and drain while the point
where the control voltage is applied between them is called the gate. There are different types JFETs
and MOSFETs.

4.2 JUNCTION FET (JFET)

The junction field effect transistor is a three terminal device made with either n-type material or p-type
material as the main channel of the current flow while the gate is made up of the opposite type of
material diffused into a strip, one on each side. Fig. 4.1(a) and (b) show n-channel and p-channel JFETs.

38 | P a g e
 ID
p n

n-channel p-channel

p n

The JFET is operated by applying external voltage sources of proper polarities to the three terminals with
respect to the function it should serve.

4.2.1 N-Channel JFET Operation

V
Consider an n-channel JFET supplied with small voltage DS with gate to source voltage GS
V =0V as
shown in Fig. 4.2(a).The potential of the gate and the source are the same. In this condition, the only
effect of this gate is the depletion region created due to recombination of holes from the gate and the
neighbouring electrons in the n-channel.

39 | P a g e
 V DS
e

p p

e
e

V GS =0V . The characteristic curve of JFET is therefore a plot of

I D versus V DS at various values of
V GS as shown in Fig. 4.5.

V DS
As shown on the graph, the pinch-offvoltage decreases along a parabolic path as
V GS becomes more
V I =0 mA ) and
negative. As GS becomes more negative, the saturation current will be actually zero ( DS
at this condition the transistor is turned off.

4.2.3 P-Channel JFET Operation

40 | P a g e
The p-channel JFET is constructed and operated just like the n-channel discussed earlier. The only

difference is in biasing the JFET as shown in Fig. 4.6(a). The voltage

V GS that controls the operation is
positive unlike the negative one in the n-channel.

V DS
+

n n
p

+
+

In this p-channel JFET, at high levels of

V DS the curves suddenly rise up unbounded. This point is called

breakdown region. It exist in n-channel also but at higher voltage

V DS .

4.2.4 Transfer Characteristics of JFET

I
The relationship between the output current D of JFET and the control parameter (voltage GS ) is
V
commonly known as the transfer characteristics of the JFET. The expression connecting these variables
is a non linear relationship given by:

( )
2
V GS
I DS 1−
ID = VP
4.2

I V
The saturation current DS and the pinch-offvoltage P are constant for a given transistor. The
graphical representation of this equation for n-channeland p-channelJFETs are as follows.

41 | P a g e
 VGS
This transfer characteristics given by E4.2 is not affected by the network in which the JFET is used.

4.2.5 JFET Specification Sheet

The manufacturers of JFETs as in BJTs specified some parameters and the range of their values for safe
operation. Table 4.1 gives the basic parameters normally given in the data sheets.

TJ
42 | P a g e
4.3 METAL-OXIDE SEMICONDUCTOR FET (MOSFET)
Unlike the JFET already discussed, this type of field effect transistor (FET) called MOSFET is different in
make. Its n-channel type is made by using a slab of p-type silicon material as the base on which the n-
channel is formed. This base is called “substrate”.The source (S) and drain (D) terminals are connected
through metallic contacts to the n-doped regions and the two are linked together by the n-channel. The
gate is also connected to the similar metal contact which is insulated from the n-channel.

SiO
A very thin silicon dioxide ( 2 ) layer is used as a special type of insulator known as dielectric. This

dielectric material sets up opposing electric field when external electric field is applied to it.

nd
nd
p
(substate)
n

nd

43 | P a g e
4.3.1 N-Channel MOSFET
The n-channel MOSFET is biased by applying voltage
V GS =0V between gate and source while a
V
positive voltage DS is applied between drain and source as shown in Fig. 4.8(a). This makes more free
electrons move freely along the n-channel (conduction) from source to drain producing the drain
current
I D similar to JFET.

VGS  0
nd
p
e n
n
e p
e

nd

V DS
44 | P a g e
 V
The application of this positive voltage GS that causes increase in the current
I D is called
‘enhancement mode’ operation of the n-channel MOSFET.

Also, in this case, the relationship between the voltage

V GS and the current
I D remains the same
as that of JFET, implying.

( )
2
V GS
I DS 1−
ID = VP
4.3

4.3.2 P-Channel MOSFET

The p-channel MOSFET is constructed in the same way as the n-channel. In this type, then-type material
is used to form the substrate as shown in Fig. 4.10(a). In a p-channel MOSFET application, the positive
V V
gate voltage GS sets it in depletion mode while negative voltage GS sets MOSFET in enchaneement
mode operation. This phenomena is illustrated by the characteristic curve of Fig. 4.10(b).

V DS
pd
p n
(substate)

pd

These two MOSFET (n-channel and p-channel) are basically known as n-channel and p-
channeldepletion-type MOSFET, respectively. Their common symbols are given in Fig. 4.11.

45 | P a g e
 D D

SS SS
G G

S S
OR OR
D D

G G

S
S
(a) N-cahnnel (b) P-channel
Fig. 4.11: Common depletion-type MOSFET symbols

4.3.3 Enhancement Type of N-Channel MOSFET

nd
nd
p-type
substate

nd

46 | P a g e
 VGS
The characteristic curve of the enhancement type MOSFET is given in Fig. 4.13(b). This transfer

characteristic curve shows that the current

I D remains zero for any applied voltage V GS ≤V T .

However, from
V GS =V T upwards the drain current increases in accordance with equation (4.4).
2
I D=k ( V GS −V T )
(4.4)

4.3.4 Enhancement Type of P-Channel MOSFET

The construction of p-channel enhancement type MOSFET is exactly the reverse of the n-channel
discussed earlier as illustrated in Fig. 4.14(a) and its characteristic curves, Fig. 4.14(b).

V DS
pd
n-type
substate

pd

47 | P a g e
 MODULE 5 DCE 103 PHYSICS ELECTRONICS

APPLICATIONS OF ELECTRONIC DEVICES

5.1 FET BIASING
To use FET in any application it is necessary to bias it by supplying appropriate dc inputs of different
parameters to put the FET in the required operating state. In biasing FETs, it should always be
remembered that the relationship between the input and output quantities arenon-linear. Also, it is
known that the input controlling variable is voltage and not current. To achieve biasing, some basic
relationships are generally used for dc analysis of the FET which includes the following:

( )
2
V
I DS 1− GS
I G ≃0 A ,
I D=I S and
ID = VP
for JFETs and depletion-type MOSFETs;
2
I D=k ( V GS −V T )
and for the enhanced-type MOSFETs.

5.2 METHODS OF BIASING

 Fixed Bias Configuration

 Self Bias Configuration
 Voltage-Divider Biasing Configuration

5.3 APPLICATION OF FETs

The common applications of the field effect transistors depend on some basic features of the FETs that
make them suitable for such applications. These features include high input impedance, isolation
between the drain and gate circuits and the presence of linear region in JFETs.

 FET as a Voltage Controlled Variable Resistor

48 | P a g e
  JFET as a Voltmeter
The fact that a JFET can be used as a variable resistor controlled by voltage as discussed in section 5.5.1,
makes it possible to use the JFET for voltage measurement.

10k
 JFET as a Timer Network
M

The high (large/great) isolation between gate and drain of a FET is the property used to design a
simple timer using a JFET.

VP
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  MOSFET AS RELAY DRIVER
Due to the high input impedance of the FET it is also possible to use MOSFET to drive relays which
control devices that need high current for their operation. Fig. 5.9 illustrates the circuit diagram for such
applications. This type of circuit can be used to control electrical devices (bulbs, fans, etc) in a room.

R1
Device
e.g.
Bulb

5.4 SILICON CONTROL RECTIFIER (SCR)

This is a three-junction semiconductor device that is used to control conduction in electron devices and
also used in timing applications. An SCR consists of four layers of p- and n-type materials as shown in Fig.
5.10(a). The SCR has three PN junctions formed by the four layers and each SCR has three terminals,
namely, anode, cathode and gate as shown in Fig 5.10(b).

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 J1 P
PNP

N2 2 NPN

5.4.1Applications of SCR
There are numerous applications of SCR in power electrons. Some of these applications are discussed in
the following subsections. For example, it can be used to control an automatic battery charging system
as well as controlling a full-wave bridge rectifier system and many more.

 SCR as Automatic Battery Charging Control

In this application, the SCR is used together with a full-wave dc power supply as shown in Fig. 5.12. The
battery voltage is applied to the gate control circuit. When voltage is low, SCR conduction is maximum
and this increases battery potential (charge). As the battery voltage increases, the gate circuit limits
conduction until at full charge where the SCR stops to conduct.

D2 Control

 SCR Control of Full-wave Bridge Rectifier

Fig. 5.13 illustrates the function of SCR in controlling the operation of rectifier and the load current.
During the first half-cycle, current flows from terminal A through diode 1, SCR, load and diode 3 to B.
During the reverse half-cycle, current flows from terminal B through diode 2, SCR, load and diode 4 to
terminal A.

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 D3
Load

Control

The amount of direct current through the load during in half cycle of the supply voltage depends on the
setting of the SCR gate control circuit.

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