UNIT – IV:

Three phase induction motor: Working principle – slip- torque equation- Torque slip
characteristics, Principle of Alternator.
Electrical Power Systems and Utilization: Hydro Power Plant: Lay out -Efficiency
Calculation, Illumination: Definitions-Laws of Illumination- working of Incandescent
Fluorescent lamps.
UNIT – V:
Electronics Devices: Semiconductor materials, Review of P-N junction, Diode
Characteristics, Basic Operation of Half-wave and Full wave Rectifiers, Zener Diode as
Voltage Regulator, BJT, biasing, Characteristics, applications.
UNIT – VI:
Digital Circuits and Transducers: BasLogic gates, Combinational Logic circuits, ic
operation of SR-JK-T and D Flip-Flops, Transducers -Overview - Passive Sensors –
Working
of Strain Gauge, Pressure Gauge, Dial Gauge - Piezoelectric Accelerometer Model
Galvanometer.
WORKING PRINCIPLE OF THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR
Induction machine – the rotor voltage that produces the rotor current and the rotor
magnetic field is induced in the rotor windings rather than being physically connected by
wires. No dc field current is required to run the machine.
The motor which works on the principle of electromagnetic induction is known as the
induction motor. Electromagnetic induction is the phenomenon in which the electromotive
force induces across the electrical conductor when it is placed in a rotating magnetic field.
The stator and rotor are two essential parts of the motor.

The stator is the stationary part, and

it carries the overlapping windings while the
rotor carries the main or field winding. The
windings of the stator are equally
displaced from each other by an angle of
120°.
The induction motor is the single excited
motor, i.e., the supply is applied only to the
one part, i.e., stator. The term excitation
means the process of inducing the magnetic
field on the parts of the motor.
When the three-phase supply is given to the
stator, the rotating magnetic field produced
on it. The figure below shows the rotating
magnetic field set up in the stator:

The conductors of the rotor are stationary. This stationary conductor cut the rotating
magnetic field of the stator, and because of the electromagnetic induction, the EMF induces
in the rotor. This EMF is known as the rotor induced EMF, and it is because of the
electromagnetic induction phenomenon.
▶Alternating flux is produced around the stator winding due to AC supply. This alternating
flux revolves with synchronous speed. The revolving flux is called as "Rotating Magnetic
Field" (RMF).

▶The relative speed between stator RMF and rotor conductors causes an induced emf in
the rotor conductors, according to the Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction. The rotor
conductors are short circuited, and hence rotor current is produced due to induced emf.
That is why such motors are called as induction motors.
(This action is same as that occurs in transformers, hence induction motors can be called
as rotating transformers.)

▶Now, induced current in rotor will also produce alternating flux around it. This rotor flux
lags behind the stator flux. The direction of induced rotor current, according to Lenz's law, is
such that it will tend to oppose the cause of its production.

▶As the cause of production of rotor current is the relative velocity between rotating stator
flux and the rotor, the rotor will try to catch up with the stator RMF. Thus the rotor rotates in
the same direction as that of stator flux to minimize the relative velocity. However, the rotor
never succeeds in catching up the synchronous speed. This is the basic working principle
of induction motor of either type, single phase of 3 phase.
 Synchronous Speed:
The rotational speed of the rotating magnetic field is called as synchronous speed.

where, f = frequency of the supply P = number of poles

Slip:
Rotor tries to catch up the synchronous speed of the stator field, and hence it rotates.
But in practice, rotor never succeeds in catching up. If rotor catches up the stator speed,
there wont be any relative speed between the stator flux and the rotor, hence no induced
rotor current and no torque production to maintain the rotation. However, this won't stop
the motor, the rotor will slow down due to lost of torque, the torque will again be exerted
due to relative speed. That is why the rotor rotates at speed which is always less the
synchronous speed.

The difference between the synchronous speed (Ns) and actual speed (N) of the rotor
is called as slip.
(i) The quantity Ns - N is sometimes called slip speed.
(ii) When the rotor is stationary (i.e., N = 0), slip, s = 1 or 100 %.
(iii) In an induction motor, the change in slip from no-load to full-load is
hardly 0.1% to 3% so that it is essentially a constant-speed motor.
Torque-Slip Characteristics

As shown in fig the motor torque under running conditions is given by;

If a curve is drawn between the torque and slip for a particular value of rotor
resistance R2, the graph thus obtained is called torque-slip characteristic. Fig.
shows a family of torque-slip characteristics for a slip-range from s = 0 to
s = 1 for various values of rotor resistance.
The following points may be noted carefully:
(i) At s = 0, T = 0 so that torque-slip curve starts
from the origin.
(ii) At normal speed, slip is small so that s X2 is
negligible as compared to R2. T ἀ s/R2
Tἀ s ... as R2 is constant
Hence torque slip curve is a straight line from zero
slip to a slip that corresponds to full-load.
(iii) As slip increases beyond full-load slip, the
torque increases and becomes maximum at s =
R2/X2. This maximum torque in an induction motor
is called pull-out torque or break-down torque.
(iv) When slip increases beyond that corresponding to maximum torque, the term s2X2
increases very rapidly so that R2 may be neglected as compared to s2X2 .
T ἀ s/s2 X2 , Tἀ 1/s ... as X2 is constant
Thus the torque is now inversely proportional to slip. Hence torque-slip curve is a
rectangular hyperbola.
(v) The maximum torque remains the same and is independent of the value of rotor
resistance. Therefore, the addition of resistance to the rotor circuit does not change the
value of maximum torque but it only changes the value of slip at which maximum torque
occurs.
ALTERNATOR OR SYNCHRONOUS GENERATOR.
The machine which produces 3-phase power from mechanical power is called an alternator
or synchronous generator. Alternators are the primary source of all the electrical energy we
consume. These machines are the largest energy converters found in the world. They convert
mechanical energy into a.c. energy.

An alternator operates on the same fundamental principle of electromagnetic induction

as a d.c. generator i.e., when the flux linking a conductor changes, an e.m.f. Is induced in
the conductor. Like a d.c. generator, an alternator also has an armature winding and a
field winding.
Working Principle of Alternator
An alternator operates on the same fundamental principle of electromagnetic induction as
a DC generator. The working of an alternator is based on the principle that when the flux
linking a conductor changes, an emf is induced in the conductor.
Like a DC generator, an alternator also has an armature winding and a field winding. But
there is one important difference between the two.
In a DC generator, the armature winding is placed on the rotor in order to provide a way of
converting alternating voltage generated in the winding to a direct voltage at the terminals
through the use of a rotating commutator.

The field poles are placed on the stationary part of the machine. Since no commutator is
required in an alternator, (i.e., rotor) and armature winding on the stationary part (i.e.,
stator).
An alternator has 3,-phase winding on the stator and a DC field winding on the rotor. This
DC source (called exciter) is generally a small DC shunt or compound generator mounted
on the shaft of the alternator.
Rotor construction is of two types, namely;
1. Salient (or projecting) pole type
2. Non-salient (or cylindrical) pole type
•In salient pole type alternator, salient or projecting poles are mounted on a large circular
steel frame which is fixed to the shaft of the alternator.
•In cylindrical pole type alternator, the rotor is made of a smooth solid forged-steel radial
cylinder having a number of slots along the outer periphery.
 Hydro Power Plant Lay out and Efficiency
Types of hydro-power plants Based on head, the hydro power plants are classified as follows:
Pelton T urbi ne : I t is a impul se turbine and
Type Head
used for l ow flow and high head.
Low head plants < 15 m F rancis T urbine : I t i s a reaction turbine and
Medium head plants 15 – 70 m used for l ow and medium head plant.
K apl an T urbine : I t is a reaction turbi ne and
High head plants 71 – 250 m
used for l ow head and l arge flow plants.
Very high head plants More than 250m
Hydroelectric Power Plant is an area where hydraulic energy is converted into electrical
energy by the rise or flow of water which is driven by the turbine.
A dam i s bui l t to trap w ater, usual l y i n a v all ey w here there i s an ex isti ng l ak e.
W ater is al low ed to fl ow through tunnels i n the dam , to turn turbines and thus dri v e
generators. H y dro- el ectri ci ty prov ides 20% of the w orl d’s pow er
M ai n parts: C atchm ent area, R eserv oir, D am, S pil l w ay s, V al v e house, Surge tank , Penstock ,
W ater turbines, D raft tube, T ail race, A l ternator, C ontrol room , Sw i tch y ard.

1.Reservoir and Dam:

The dam is constructed on a large river to ensure sufficient water storage and the dam
forms a large reservoir behind it. The height of the water level (called a water head) in the
reservoir determines the potential energy stored in it.
Control Gate:
The amount of water released in the penstock can be controlled by a control gate.
Surge Tank:
A surge tank is a small reservoir or tank which is open at the top and is fitted between the
reservoir and the powerhouse. The water level in the surge tank rises or falls to reduce the
pressure swings in the penstock.
Penstock:
A penstock is a steel pipe which carries water from the reservoir to the turbine. The
potential energy of the water is converted into kinetic energy as it flows down through the
penstock due to gravity.
Water Turbine:
Water from the penstock is to be traveled to the water turbine and the turbine is coupled to
an electric generator. Kinetic energy (K.E.) of the water drives the turbine and consequently,
the generator gets driven.
Generator:
A generator is placed or mounted in the powerhouse which is coupled to the shaft of the
turbine. The passage of water from the nozzle hits the turbine blades which makes the
shaft of the turbine to rotate. It drives the generator and electricity are produced.
The produced electricity will be Step up or Step down through a transformer and later on it
will supply to the domestic and industrial applications.
Power Estimation
The potential in electric power of the water in terms of flow and head can be calculated
from the following equation.
KW = 9.81 x Q x H x η Where,
kW = electric power in kW
Q = quantity of water flowing through the hydraulic turbine in cubic meters per second.
Discharge (quantity of water) flowing in a stream and available for power generation has
daily and seasonal variation.
H = Net available head in meters (gross head – losses)
η = overall efficiency of the hydro power plant.
For general estimation purposes, η is normally taken as 0.85
Example :A hydropower station has a gross head of 8.2 meter. Head loss in water
conductor system is 0.5 meters. Optimum discharge in cumecs is 267 cubic meter per
second.
KW = 9.81 x 267 x 8.2 x 0.85 KW = 18256.3
According 2 units of 2 x 9000 kW can be installed.
Energy generation E = average power x 24 x 365 in (kWh) units
•S oli d A ngl e
T he angl e subtended by the partial surface area
of a sphere at i ts centre i s call ed as sol id angl e.
It i s m easured i n steradians and equal to the
ratio of area of the surface to the square of
radi us of sphere, ω = area of surface/ square of
radi us = A / r2 steradi ans.

•L um inous I ntensi ty
L um i nous i ntensi ty i n any particul ar di recti on is the l um inous flux em itted by the source per
unit sol i d angl e in that di recti on. I t i s denoted by I and i ts unit i s candel a or candle pow er (C P) .
L um i nous i ntensi ty of source i n a parti cul ar directi on, I = φ / ω .

•Illumination:
W hen l ight fal ls on a surface, i t becomes v i sible, the phenomenon is call ed as
Il lumi nati on. I t is defined as l uminous flux falli ng on a surface per unit area. I t is
denoted by E and measured in l umen per square meter or meter- candle.
E = Ф / A l ux

laws of Illuminations
T here are tw o l aw s of I l l umi nati ons
A ． I nv erse Squares L aw
B ． L am bert’s C osine L aw
EX-1: The illumination at a point on a working plane directly below the lamp is to be 60
lumens/m2. The lamp gives 130 CP uniformly below the horizontal plane. Determine: 1.
The height at which lamp is suspended. 2. The illumination at a point on the working plane
2.8 m away from the vertical axis of the lamp.

Solution: Given data: Candle power of the lamp = 130 CP. The illumination just below the
lamp, E = 60 lumen/m2. 1. From the Fig. P.6.2, the illumination just below the lamp, i.e., at
point A:

1.Incandescent lamps : When the filaments of these lamps are heated to high temperature,
they emit light that falls in the visible region of wavelength. Tungsten-filament lamps are
operating on this principle.
2.Fluorescent lamps: Certain materials like phosphor powders exposed to ultraviolet rays
emits the absorbed energy into visible radiations fall in the visible range of wavelength.
This principle is employed in fluorescent lamps.
Filament or Incandescent Lamp
W ork i ng Pri nci pl e :
A s w e k now w hen a room heater is sw i tched O n, it giv es out red l ight w i th heat at the
w ork ing temperature of 750 degree and at thi s tem perature the radi ati ons are m ostl y i n i nfra
red regions. T hi s w ork ing pri ncipl e is used to dev elop the fil ament lam p.
 W hen an electric current i s passed through a fine metal li c w ire , i t raises the
temperature of w ire. A t l ow temperature onl y heat is produced but at higher
temperature l ight radiati ons goes on i ncreasing. F il ament l amp consists of fi ne
w ire of hi gh resistiv e material placed in an ev acuated glass bulb. T hi s ty pe of
lamps are operated at the temperature of 2500 degree .

A tungsten fil ament is

enclosed in ev acuated glass
bulb but to i mprov e its
performance some chemi cal
li ke argon or ni trogen
gas are fi ll ed.

Properties of Metal for Filament

1.H i gh melti ng point : so that it can be operated at high temperature.
2. H igh specifi c resi stance : so that i t produces more heat.
3. L ow temperature coeffici ent : so that fil ament resistance may not change at
operating temperature.
4. L ow v apor pressure ; so that i t may not v aporize
5. H igh ductile : so that it may w i thstand mechani cal v ibrations.
F l uorescent T ube:
It i s a low pressure mercury v apor l amp. I t consi sts of a gl ass tube 25 mm in
diameter and 0.6 m, 1.2 m and 1.5 m i n l ength. T he tube contai ns argon gas at
low pressure about 2.5 mm of mercury . A t the tw o ends, tw o electrodes coated
w ith some el ectron emissiv e material are placed.
W orki ng :
A choke i s connected i n series w ith the tube w hich act as a blast and prov i de a
high v oltage at starting glow i n the tube. D uri ng running condition the same
choke absorbs some suppl y v ol tage and remai n a v oltage of 110 V across the tube.
A capaci tor is connected to i mprov e the pow er factor.

A dv antages of F l uorescent T ube

1. V ol tage fluctuati on has v ery smal l effect on l ight output.
2. T he lumi nous effi ciency is more as length of rod i s more.
3. I t giv es light close to natural li ght.
4. H eat radiati ons are negl igi bl e.

D i sadv antages of F luorescent T ube

1. I ts bri ghtness i s less.
2. I nitial cost is more
3. O v erall maintenance cost i s hi gh.
 UNIT – V: Electronics Devices
Semiconductor materials
▶Semiconductors are the materials which have a conductivity between
conductors (generally metals) and non-conductors or insulators (such as ceramics).
▶Semiconductors can be compounds such as gallium arsenide or pure elements, such as
germanium or silicon.
▶Examples of Semiconductors: Gallium arsenide, germanium, and silicon are some of the
most commonly used semiconductors. Silicon is used in electronic circuit fabrication and
gallium arsenide is used in solar cells, laser diodes, etc.

Types of Semiconductors
Semiconductors can be
classified as:
•Intrinsic Semiconductor
•Extrinsic Semiconductor
T w o ty pes of i mpuri ties are added to the semi conductor. T hey are pentav al ent and
tri v alent impuri ties.
Pentav al ent i mpurities
Pentav al ent i mpurity atoms hav e 5 v alence electrons. T he v arious ex amples of
pentav alent impuri ty atoms incl ude Phosphorus (P), A rseni c (A s), A ntimony (S b), etc.
T he atomi c structure of pentav al ent atom (phosphorus) and triv al ent atom (boron)

T ri v alent i mpuri ties

T ri v alent i mpuri ty atoms hav e 3 v alence el ectrons. T he v ari ous ex ampl es of triv alent
impurities incl ude B oron (B ), G al li um (G ), I ndi um(In), A l umini um(A l ).

C lassification of ex trinsic semiconductors based on impuri ties added

B ased on the ty pe of impuriti es added, ex tri nsi c semi conductors are cl assi fied in to tw o
ty pes.
N - ty pe semiconductor
P- ty pe semi conductor
PN JUNCTIONDIODE
PN-junction: When P-type semiconductor is suitably joined to N-type semiconductor, the
contact surface is called PN-junction.
Biasing of PN junction diode
1. Forward bias and Reverse bias
Principle
• If the p-region (anode) is connected to the positive terminal of the external DC
source and n-side (cathode) is connected to the negative terminal of the DC
source then the biasing is said to be “forward biasing”.
• Due to the negative terminal of external source connected to the n-region, free
electrons from n-side are pushed towards the p-side. Similarly the positive end
of the supply will push holes from p-side towards the n-side.
With increase in the external supply voltage V, more and more number of holes
(p-side) and electrons (n-side) start travelling towards the junction as shown in
figure.
• The holes will start converting the negative ions into neutral atoms and the
electrons will convert the positive ions into neutral atoms. As a result of this, the
width of depletion region will reduce.
• Due to reduction in the depletion region width, the barrier potential will also
reduce. Eventually at a particular value of V the depletion region will collapse.
Now there is absolutely no opposition to the flow of electrons and holes.
Hence a large number of electrons and holes (majority carriers) can cross the
junction under the influence of externally connected DC voltage.
The formation of depletion layer in PN junction.
• At the instant P-N junction formation, the free electrons near the
junction in the N- region begin to diffuse across the junction in to P-
region where they combine with holes near the junction.
• The result is that N-region loses free electrons this creates a layer of
positive charges (pentavalent ions) near the junction.
• The P-region loses holes and the result that there is a negative
charges (trivalent ions near the junction.
• The shaded region on both sides of the junction in Fig. below
contains only immobile ions and no free charge carriers such as
electrons or holes.
• In other words this region is

• Once P-N junction is formed and depletion layer is created the

diffusion of free electrons stops.
• The positive and negative charges set an electric field.
i)Reverse saturation current: In reverse bias condition
there will be negligible amount of current that will flow
through the device due to minority carrier which is called
as reverse saturation current.
ii. Knee voltage: The applied forward voltage at which
the PN junctions start conducting is called the cut-in
voltage. It is also known as knee voltage (Vk or Vz). The
value of cut-in voltage is 0.7 V for Silicon and 0.3 V for
Germanium PN junction diodes.
iii. Depletion layer: The region in PN junction which
comprises of immobile ions is called depletion region.
iv. Static resistance of diode: The resistance of a diode
at the operating point can be obtained by taking the ratio
of VF and IF. The resistance offered by the diode to the
forward DC operating conditions is called as “DC or
static resistance”.
The forward characteristics of PN junction diode
•The forward characteristic is the graph of the anode to
cathode forward voltage VF versus the forward current
through the diode (IF).

• The forward characteristics is divided into two portions,

AB and BC

•Region A to B of the forward characteristics.

•The forward voltage is small and less than the cut in

voltage. Therefore the forward current flowing through
the diode is small. With further increase in the forward
voltage, it reaches the level of the cut in voltage and the
width the depletion region goes on decreasing
Region B to C:

•As soon as the forward voltage equals the cut in voltage,

current through the diode increase suddenly. The nature
of this current is exponential. The large forward current
in the region B-C of the forward characteristics is limited
by connecting a resistor R in series with the diode.
Forward current is of the order of a few mA.

• The forward current is a conventional current that flows

from anode to cathode. Therefore it is considered to be
a positive current, and the forward characteristics
appears in the first quadrant.
Reverse characteristics of a Diode.
Cut in voltage (Knee voltage):

• The voltage at which the forward diode current starts increasing

rapidly is known as the cut in voltage of a diode. The cut in
voltage is very close to the barrier potential. Cut in voltage is also
called as knee voltage.

• Generally a diode is forward biased above the cut in voltage. The

cut in voltage for a silicon diode is 0.6 V and that for a germanium
diode is 0.2V.
Applications of Diodes include
Following are some of the diode’s application used our daily life:
▶Rectification(AC TO DC)
▶As a Switch
▶As Voltage Reference
▶Frequency Mixer
▶AM Envelope Detector or Demodulator (Diode Detector)
▶As a Light Source
▶As a Temperature Sensor
▶A Solar Cell or Photo-Voltaic Cell
▶As a Clipper
▶As a Clamper
▶Protection against Reverse Current
▶Protection against Reverse Polarity
Zener Diode as Voltage Regulator
Zener Diode: A Zener Diode is a special kind of diode which permits current to flow in
the forward direction as normal, but will also allow it to flow in the reverse direction
when the voltage is above the breakdown voltage or ‘zener’ voltage.
Zener diodes are designed so that their breakdown voltage is much lower - for example
just 2.4 Volts.

•Zener diodes are a special kind of diode which permits current to flow in the forward
direction.
•Zener diodes will also allow current to flow in the reverse direction when the voltage is
above a certain value. This breakdown voltage is known as the Zener voltage. In a
standard diode, the Zener voltage is high, and the diode is permanently damaged if a
reverse current above that value is allowed to pass through it.
•In the reverse bias direction, there is practically no reverse current flow until the
breakdown voltage is reached. When this occurs there is a sharp increase in reverse
current. Varying amount of reverse current can pass through the diode without damaging it.
The breakdown voltage or zener voltage (VZ) across the diode remains relatively
constant.
▶There is a series resistor connected to the circuit in order to limit the current into the
diode. It is connected to the positive terminal of the d.c.
▶ It works in such a way the reverse-biased can also work in breakdown conditions.
▶We do not use ordinary junction diode because the low power rating diode can get
damaged when we apply reverse bias above its breakdown voltage.
▶When the minimum input voltage and the maximum load current is applied, the Zener
diode current should always be minimum.
▶Since the input voltage and the required output voltage is known, it is easier to choose a
Zener diode with a voltage approximately equal to the load voltage, i.e. = .
Line Regulation: In this type of regulation, series resistance and load resistance are fixed,
only input voltage is changing. Output voltage remains the same as long as the input
voltage is maintained above a minimum value.
Load Regulation: In this type of regulation, input voltage is fixed and the load resistance is
varying. Output volt remains same, as long as the load resistance is maintained above a
minimum value.
What is a Half Wave Rectifier?
A half wave rectifier is defined as a type of rectifier that only allows one half-cycle of an
AC voltage waveform to pass, blocking the other half-cycle. Half-wave rectifiers are used
to convert AC voltage to DC voltage, and only require a single diode to construct.

A rectifier is a device that converts alternating current (AC) to direct current (DC).

It is done by using a diode or a group of diodes. Half wave rectifiers use one diode, while
a full wave rectifier uses multiple diodes.

The working of a half wave rectifier takes advantage of the fact that diodes only allow
current to flow in one direction.

What is Half Wave Rectifier?

In a half-wave rectifier, one half of each a.c input cycle is rectified. When the p-n junction
diode is forward biased, it gives little resistance and when it is reversing biased it provides
high resistance.
During one-half cycles, the diode is forward biased when the input voltage is applied and in
the opposite half cycle, it is reverse biased. During alternate half-cycles, the optimum result
can be obtained.
Working of Half Wave Rectifier
The half-wave rectifier has both positive and negative cycles. During the positive half of the
input, the current will flow from positive to negative which will generate only a positive half
cycle of the a.c supply.

When a.c supply is applied to the transformer, the voltage will be decreasing at the
secondary winding of the diode. All the variations in the a.c supply will reduce, and we will
get the pulsating d.c voltage to the load resistor.

In the second half cycle, the current will flow from negative to positive and the diode will be
reverse biased. Thus, at the output side, there will be no current generated, and we cannot
get power at the load resistance. A small amount of reverse current will flow during reverse
bias due to minority carriers.
Ripple factor: Ripple factor is a measure of effectiveness of a rectifier circuit. It is
defined as the ratio of RMS value of the AC component (ripple component) Irrms in the
output
waveform to the DC component VDC in the output waveform.
Advantages of Half Wave Rectifier
•Affordable
•Simple connections
•Easy to use as the connections are simple
•Number of components used are less
Disadvantages of Half Wave Rectifier
•Ripple production is more
•Harmonics are generated
•Utilization of the transformer is very low
•The efficiency of rectification is low
•Applications of Half Wave Rectifier
Following are the uses of half-wave rectification:
Power rectification: Half wave rectifier is used along with a transformer for power
rectification as powering equipment.
Signal demodulation: Half wave rectifiers are used for demodulating the AM signals.
Signal peak detector: Half wave rectifier is used for detecting the peak of the incoming
waveform.
Types of Full Wave Rectifier
There are two main types of full-wave rectifiers, and they are:
Two diodes full-wave rectifier circuit (requires a centre-tapped transformer and is used in
vacuum tubes)
Bridge rectifier circuit (doesn’t require a centre-tapped transformer and is used along with
transformers for efficient usage)

What is Full Wave Rectifier?

Full-wave rectifier circuits are used for producing an output voltage or output current which
is purely DC. The main advantage of a full-wave rectifier over half-wave rectifier is that
such as the average output voltage is higher in full-wave rectifier, there is less ripple
produced in full-wave rectifier when compared to the half-wave rectifier.
Working of Full Wave Rectifier
The full-wave rectifier utilizes both halves of each a.c input. When the p-n junction is
forward biased, the diode offers low resistance and when it is reversing biased it gives high
resistance. The circuit is designed in such a manner that in the first half cycle if the diode
is forward biased then in the second half cycle it is reverse biased and so on.
Two diode full wave rectifier circuit
The basic full wave rectifier circuit can be
seen to use two diodes and a centre tapped
transformer. This circuit is very easy to
implement, although it does need a centre
tapped transformer. There are only two
electronic components, i.e. the diodes and
these are easily wired up.
The current flow within the circuit can be
seen from the diagram below. This is useful
in seeing how the circuit operates and how it
is not as efficient in terms of usage of the
transformer as circuits such as the bridge
full wave rectifier.
Looking at the circuit it can be seen that on
one half of the cycle, current passes in one
half of the transformer and passes through
the diode. The other diode is reverse biased
and does not conductor. Then for the other
half of the cycle, the other side of the circuit
comes in to play.

Taking the case where the diode D1 is conducting, as the voltage from its half of the
secondary starts to rise, so does the voltage in the other half. One diode, in this case will
conduct, and the other diode, D2 will be reverse biassed.
Bridge rectifier circuits
The bridge rectifier is an electronic component
that is widely used to provide full wave
rectification and it is possibly the most widely
used circuit for this application.
Using four diodes the bridge rectifier the circuit
has a distinctive format with the circuit diagram
based on a square with one diode on each leg.
A diagram of the basic bridge rectifier circuit has
a bridge rectifier block at the centre. This
consists of a bridge circuit which includes four
diodes. These can be individual diodes, or it is
also easy to obtain bridge rectifiers as a single
electronic component.

The bridge rectifier provides full wave

rectification and has the advantage over
the full wave rectifier using two diodes
that no centre tap is required in the
transformer. This means that a single
winding is used for both halves of the
cycle.
over one half cycle the diodes D1 and D3
are conducting and the diodes D2 and D4
are reverse biassed.
Advantages of Full Wave Rectifier
•The rectifier efficiency of a full-wave rectifier is high
•The power loss is very low
•Number of ripples generated are less

Disadvantages of Full Wave Rectifier

•Very expensive

Applications of Full Wave Rectifier

Following are the uses of full-wave rectifier:
Full-wave rectifiers are used for supplying polarized voltage in welding and for this bridge
rectifiers are used.
Full-wave rectifiers are used for detecting the amplitude of modulated radio signals.
 Difference between Half Wave Rectifier and Full Wave Rectifier

Parameter Half Wave Rectifier Full Wave Rectifier

The half-wave rectifier is a rectifier A full-wave rectifier is a rectifier which is

Definition which is used for converting the used for converting both the half cycles of
one-half cycle of AC input to DC output AC input into DC output

No. of diodes used 1 2 or 4 depending on the type of circuit

Form factor 1.57 1.11

Rectifier efficiency 40.6% 81.2%

Ripple factor of a half-wave rectifier is

Ripple factor Ripple factor of a full-wave rectifier is less
more
What is a BJT?
Transistor is a 3 Terminal electronic semiconductor component/device.
It has three terminals named a BASE, Emitter, And Collector.
Transistor name meaning lies in its own working.
Trans + istor = Transistor
The prefix trans tells about signal transfer from low resistance to high resistance part and
istor means solid physical structure having the property of resistance.
A transistor has 3 sandwich layers of doped semiconductors.
Basically, Transistors are two types. 1 . NPN Transistor 2. PNP Transistor
The transistor is the very important components in an electronics system. This is the basic
electronic component that uses vastly in the making of the electronic circuits.
Mainly transistors are used for the switching purpose. another use of a transistor is as
amplifier. Transistor is made by using of 2 pn junction diode.
NPN= negative -positive-negative.
NPN transistor has both side material is n-type and between of both a positive (Hole) type
material. Electrons are the majority carriers and holes are minority carriers.
The base of the NPN transistor is P-type and the Emitter is N-type and should be connected
with the negative supply.
In PNP type transistor we need a Negative voltage at the base terminal for turning on the
transistor. In case of pnp the only difference is due to the p-type emitter and n-type base,
holes are the majority carriers and electrons are minority carriers.
When we apply a small negative supply at the base of PNP then the current between collector
and emitter will conduct.
PNP= Positive-negative-Positive.
There are two types of bipolar junction transistors – NPN transistors and PNP
transistors. A diagram of these two types of bipolar junction transistors is given
below.

From the above figure, we can see that every BJT has three parts named emitter, base
and collector. JE and JC represent the junction of emitter and junction of collector
respectively. Now initially it is sufficient for us to know that emitter based junction is
forward biased and collector-base junctions are reverse biased. The next topic will
describe the two types of these transistors.
Transistor Biasing
The supply of suitable external dc voltage is called as biasing. Either forward or reverse
biasing is done to the emitter and collector junctions of the transistor.
These biasing methods make the transistor circuit to work in four kinds of regions such
as Active region, Saturation region, Cutoff region and Inverse active region (seldom used).
This is understood by having a look at the following table.

Emitter Junction Collector Junction Region of Operation

Forward biased Forward biased Saturation region

Forward biased Reverse biased Active region

Reverse biased Forward biased Inverse active region

Reverse biased Reverse biased Cut off region

Among these regions, Inverse active region, which is just the inverse of active region, is
not suitable for any applications and hence not used.
Active Region
This is the region in which transistors have many applications. This is also called as linear
region. A transistor while in this region, acts better as an Amplifier.
The following circuit diagram shows a transistor working in active region.
This region lies between saturation and cutoff. The transistor operates in active region
when the emitter junction is forward biased and collector junction is reverse biased.
Saturation Region
This is the region in which transistor tends to behave as a closed switch. The transistor
has the effect of its collector and emitter being shorted. The collector and emitter currents
are maximum in this mode of operation. The transistor operates in saturation region when
both the emitter and collector junctions are forward biased.

Cut off Region

This is the region in which transistor tends to behave as an open switch. The transistor has
the effect of its collector and base being opened. The collector, emitter and base currents
are all zero in this mode of operation.
Transistor Biasing
As we know that a transistor is a combination of two diodes, we have two junctions here.
As one junction is between the emitter and base, that is called as Emitter-Base junction and
likewise, the other is Collector-Base junction.
Biasing is controlling the operation of the circuit by providing power supply. The function of
both the PN junctions is controlled by providing bias to the circuit through some dc supply.
The figure below shows how a transistor is biased.
The N-type material is provided negative supply and P-type material is given positive
supply to make the circuit Forward bias.
The N-type material is provided positive supply and P-type material is given negative
supply to make the circuit Reverse bias.
Operation of PNP Transistor: The operation of a PNP transistor can be explained by having
a look at the following figure, in which emitter-base junction is forward biased and
collector-base junction is reverse biased.

The voltage VEE provides a positive potential at the emitter which repels the holes in the
P-type material and these holes cross the emitter-base junction, to reach the base region.
There a very low percent of holes re-combine with free electrons of N-region. This provides
very low current which constitutes the base current IB. The remaining holes cross the
collector-base junction, to constitute collector current IC, which is the hole current.
As a hole reaches the collector terminal, an electron from the battery negative terminal fills
the space in the collector. This flow slowly increases and the electron minority current flows
through the emitter, where each electron entering the positive terminal of VEE, is replaced by a
hole by moving towards the emitter junction. This constitutes emitter current IE.
Operation of NPN Transistor
The operation of an NPN transistor can be explained by having a look at the following figure,
in which emitter-base junction is forward biased and collector-base junction is reverse
biased.

The voltage VEE provides a negative potential at the emitter which repels the electrons in
the N-type material and these electrons cross the emitter-base junction, to reach the base
region. There, a very low percent of electrons re-combine with free holes of P-region. This
provides very low current which constitutes the base current IB. The remaining holes cross
the collector-base junction, to constitute the collector current IC.

As an electron reaches out of the collector terminal, and enters the positive terminal of the
battery, an electron from the negative terminal of the battery VEE enters the emitter region.
This flow slowly increases and the electron current flows through the transistor.

▶The conduction in a NPN transistor takes place through electrons.

▶The collector current is higher than the emitter current.
▶The increase or decrease in the emitter current affects the collector current.
Bipolar junction transistor characteristics: The three parts of a BJT are collector,
emitter and base. Before knowing about the bipolar junction transistor characteristics,
we have to know about the modes of operation for this type of transistors. The modes
are
Common Base (CB) mode
Common Emitter (CE) mode
Common Collector (CC) mode All three types of modes are shown below

Now coming to the characteristics of BJT there are different characteristics for different
modes of operation. Characteristics is nothing but the graphical forms of relationships
among different current and voltage variables of the transistor. The characteristics for p-n-p
transistors are given for different modes and different parameters.

Among these, the junction transistor is most widely used in the Common Emitter
configuration. Also, the n-p-n Silicon transistors are used more commonly than the p-n-p
transistors. Hence, we will look at the characteristics and configurations of an n-p-n Silicon
Junction Transistor in a CE configuration.
Common Emitter Connection (or CE Configuration)
Definition: The configuration in which the emitter is connected between the collector and
base is known as a common emitter configuration.
The input circuit is connected between emitter and base, and the output circuit is taken
from the collector and emitter. Thus, the emitter is common to both the input and the output
circuit, and hence the name is the common emitter configuration. The common emitter
arrangement for NPN and PNP transistor is shown in the figure below.VCE = VCB + VBE

Input characteristic –
the variation of the base current
(IB) with the base-emitter voltage
(VBE)
Output characteristic – the
variation of the collector current
(IC) with the collector-emitter
voltage (VCE)
Characteristics of Common emitter (CE) Configuration
The characteristic of the common emitter transistor circuit is shown in the figure below.
The base to emitter voltage varies by adjusting the potentiometer R1. And the collector to
emitter voltage varied by adjusting the potentiometer R2. For the various setting, the current
and voltage are taken from the milli ammeters and voltmeter. On the basis of these
readings, the input and output curve plotted on the curve.
•First, draw a vertical line and a
horizontal line. The vertical line
represents y-axis and horizontal line
represents x-axis. The input current or
base current (IB) is taken along y-axis
(vertical line) and the input
voltage (VBE)is taken along x-axis
(horizontal line).

•To determine the input

characteristics, the output
voltage VCE is kept constant at zero
volts and the input voltage (VBE)is
increased from zero volts to different
voltage levels. For each voltage level
of input voltage (VBE), the
corresponding input current (IB) is
recorded.
•Next, the output voltage VCE is increased from zero volts to certain voltage level (10 volts) and the
output voltage (VCE) is kept constant at 10 volts. While increasing the output voltage (VCE), the
input voltage (VBE) is kept constant at zero volts. - After we kept the output voltage (VCE constant
at 10 volts, the input voltage (VBE) is increased from zero volts to different voltage levels. For each
voltage level of input voltage (VBE), the corresponding input current (IB) is recorded.
Dynamic input resistance (ri)
Dynamic input resistance is defined as the ratio of change in input voltage or base voltage
(VBE) to the corresponding change in input current or base current (IB), with the output
voltage or collector voltage (VCE) kept at constant.

In CE configuration, the input resistance is very low.

Now let us see the relationship between these two current gains.
Current gain (α) = IC/IE
Current gain (β) = IC/IB
Collector current IC =α IE = βIB

Current Amplification Factor (β)

Current Amplification Factor (β) is the ratio of change in the collector current (IC) to the
change in base current (IB) when the collector-emitter voltage (VCE) is kept constant. Also,
the transistor is in an active state. Now, the small signal current gain is βac = (ΔIC/ ΔIB)VCE
This has a large value. On the other hand, if we take a simple ratio of IC and IB, we get
βdc of the junction transistor. βdc = IC/IB
It is important to note that IC and IB increase almost linearly. In simple words, if IB=0, then
IC=0. Hence, the values of βac and βdc are nearly equal.
Output Characteristic
The output characteristics describe the relationship between output current (IC) and output
voltage (VCE).
First, draw a vertical line and a horizontal line. The vertical line represents y-axis and
horizontal line represents x-axis. The output current or collector current (IC) is taken along y-
axis (vertical line) and the output voltage (VCE) is taken along x-axis (horizontal line).
To determine the output characteristics, the input current or base current IB is kept
constant at 0 μA and the output voltage VCE is increased from zero volts to different
voltage levels. For each level of output voltage, the corresponding output current (IC) is
recorded.
Now, if the base-emitter current (VBE)
is increased by a small amount, you
can observe an increase in hole
current from the emitter and electron
current from the base regions. Hence,
IB and IC increase proportionally. Or, if
IB increases, IC increases too. So,
keeping IB constant and plotting IC
against VCE, you can make the
following observations:
In the active region, the collector current increases slightly as collector-emitter VCE current
increases. The slope of the curve is quite more than the output characteristic of CB
configuration.
The output resistance of the common base connection is more than that of CE connection.
The value of the collector current IC increases with the increase in VCE at constant voltage
IB, the value β of also increases.
When the VCE falls, the IC also decreases rapidly. The collector-base junction of the
transistor always in forward bias and work saturate. In the saturation region, the collector
current becomes independent and free from the input current IB
In the active region IC = βIB, a small current IC is not zero, and it is equal to reverse leakage
current ICEO.

Dynamic output resistance (ro)

Dynamic output resistance is defined as the ratio of change in output voltage or
collector voltage (VCE) to the corresponding change in output current or collector
current (IC), with the input current or base current (IB) kept at constant.

In CE configuration, the output resistance is high.

What are logic gates?
• In the binary lesson, we discussed the switches inside a computer
• Logic gates are the switches that turn ON or OFF depending on what the user is doing!
• They are the building blocks for how computers work
• Logic gates turn ON when a certain condition is true, and OFF when the condition is false
– They check whether or not the information they get follows a certain rule
• They either spit out the answer true (ON) or false (OFF)
• Remember: – True= ON = 1
– False = OFF=0

Types of Basic Logic Gates

There are several basic logic gates used in performing operations in digital systems. The
common ones are;
NOT Gate
AND Gate
OR Gate
Additionally, these gates can also be found in a combination of one or two. Therefore we
get other gates such as NAND Gate, NOR Gate, EXOR Gate, EXNOR Gate.
Major logic gates: AND,OR, NOT
The Logic NAND Gate is a combination of a digital logic AND gate and a NOT gate
connected together in series The NAND (Not – AND) gate has an output that is normally
at logic level “1” and only goes “LOW” to logic level “0” when ALL of its inputs are at logic
level “1”.
The Logic NAND Gate is the reverse or “ ” form of the AND gate we have
seen previously.
▶The Logic NOR Gate gate is a combination of the digital logic OR gate and an
inverter or NOT gate connected together in series .
▶Universal Gate.
▶Exclusive-OR gate ONLY goes
“HIGH” when both of its two input
terminals are at “DIFFERENT” logic
levels with respect to each other.
▶ If these two inputs, A and B are
both at logic level “1” or both at
logic level “0” the output is a “0”

Q = (A ⊕ B) = A.B’ + A’.B
The Exclusive-NOR Gate function is a digital logic gate that is the reverse or
complementary form of the Exclusive-OR function
Q = A’B’ + AB
Combinational Logic circuits
As combinational logic circuits are made up from individual logic gates only, they can also
be considered as “decision making circuits” and combinational logic is about combining
logic gates together to process two or more signals in order to produce at least one
output signal according to the logical function of each logic gate. Common combinational
circuits made up from individual logic gates that carry out a desired application
include , , , , and etc.
 Multiplexer
The multiplexer is a combinational logic circuit designed to switch one of several input
lines to a single common output line .
The multiplexer, shortened to “MUX” or “MPX”, is a combinational logic circuit designed to
switch one of several input lines through to a single common output line by the application
of a control signal
FLIP FLOPS
A flip flop is an electronic circuit with two stable states that can be used to store binary
data. The stored data can be changed by applying varying inputs. Flip-flops and latches are
fundamental building blocks of digital electronics systems used in computers,
communications, and many other types of systems. Both are used as data storage
elements.
Applications of Flip-Flops
These are the various types of flip-flops being used in digital electronic circuits and the
applications of Flip-flops are as specified below.
•Counters
•Frequency Dividers
•Shift Registers
•Storage Registers
The basic difference between a latch and a flip-flop is a gating or clocking mechanism.
In Simple words. Flip Flop is edge-triggered and a latch is level triggered.
Read the full comparison of Flip-Flops v/s latch here For example, let us talk about SR latch
and SR flip-flops. In this circuit when you Set S as active the output Q would be high and Q’
will be Low. This is irrespective of anything else. (This is an active-low circuit so active
here means low, but for an active high circuit active would mean high)
1. SR Flip-Flop
2. D Flip-Flop
3. JK Flip-Flop
4. T Flip-Flop

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dnfXXpW7tIw&list=RDCMUCQYMhOMi_Cdj1CEAU-fv8
0A&index=6
SR Flip Flop
There are majorly 4 types of flip-flops, with the most common one being SR
flip-flop. This simple flip-flop circuit has a set input (S) and a reset input (R). In this
system, when you Set “S” as active the output “Q” would be high and “Q‘” will be
low. Once the outputs are established, the wiring of the circuit is maintained until
“S” or “R” go high, or power is turned off. The truth table of SR Flip-Flop is
highlighted below. In this circuit diagram, the output is changed only when you give
an active clock signal
JK Flip-flop
Due to the undefined state in the SR flip-flop, another flip-flop is required in electronics. The
JK flip-flop is an improvement on the SR flip-flop where S=R=1 is not a problem. The input
condition of J=K=1, gives an output inverting the output state. However, the outputs are the
same when one tests the circuit practically.

In simple words, If J and K data input are different (i.e. high and low) then the output Q
takes the value of J at the next clock edge. If J and K are both low then no change occurs. If
J and K are both high at the clock edge then the output will toggle from one state to the
other. JK Flip-Flops can function as Set or Reset Flip-flops.
D Flip Flop
D flip-flop is a better alternative that is very popular with digital electronics. They are
commonly used for counters and shift-registers and input synchronisation. In this, the output
can be only changed at the clock edge, and if the input changes at other times, the output will
be unaffected. These flip-flops are called T flip-flops because of their ability to complement
its state (i.e.) Toggle, hence the name Toggle flip-flop.

T Flip Flop
A T flip-flop is like a JK flip-flop. These are basically a single input version of JK flip-flops.
This modified form of JK flip-flop is obtained by connecting both inputs J and K together. It
has only one input along with the clock input. These flip-flops are called T flip-flops because
of their ability to complement its state (i.e.) Toggle, hence the name Toggle flip-flop.
Transducers
• A transducer is an electrical device that is used to convert one form of energy into
another form. energies such as mechanical, electrical energy, light energy, chemical energy,
thermal energy, acoustic energy, electromagnetic energy, and so on.
• A transducer is an electronic device that converts energy from one form to another. The process of
converting energy from one form to another is known as transduction.
• Examples of the transducer are mic, fluorescent bulb and speaker can be considered as
a transducer
• Some common examples of transducers include loudspeakers, microphones, thermometers and
LEDs.
• A mic we use in daily life in telephones, mobile phones, that converts the sound into
electrical signals and then amplifies it into the preferred range. Then, alters the electrical
signals into audio signals at the o/p of the loudspeaker.
• Nowadays, fluorescent bulbs are used for lighting, changes the electrical energy into light energy
• Any device that converts energy from one form to another is known as a transducer. A
loudspeaker is one of the common examples of a transducer. A speaker converts an electrical
signal to sound waves.
An input transducer or a sensor takes in
physical energy and converts it into an
electrical signal that can be read. A
microphone, for example,
converts physical sound waves into an
electrical signal that can be transferred
through wires.

Electrical transducers can be broadly classified into two major categories

▶ Active
▶ Passive
Active transducers: Active transducer doesn’t require any power source for their
operations. These transducers work on the principle of energy conversion. They generate
an electrical signal that is proportional to the i/p.
Example: from pressure to charge or temperature to electrical potential.
• Piezo electric sensors / piezoelectric accelerometers. (for generation of charge
corresponding to pressure)
• Photovoltaic cells ( for generation of voltage in response to illumination)
• Thermocouples
Passive Transducer: requires an external power source for their operation. They generate
an o/p in the form of capacitance, resistance. Then that has to be converted to an
equivalent voltage or current signal.
Example: passive transducer is a photocell
1.Strain gauges :(for resistance change in response to pressure)

▶ The strain guage is an example of a passive transducer that uses the variation in
electrical resistance in wires to sense the strain produced by a force on the wires.
▶ If a metal is stretched or compressed, its resistance changes on account of the fact
that both length and diameter of conductor changes. Also there is change in
resistivity of the conductor when subjected to strain, a property called the
piezo-resistive effect.
▶ When a gauge is subjected to a positive stress, its length increases while its area of
cross section decreases, so the resistance of the gauge increases with positive
strain.
What is a Strain Gauge and How Do They Work?
Strain is a dimensionless measurement that is a ratio of the change in length to the
original length of an object. Therefore, a positive strain is the result of stretching a
material and negative strain is the result of compression. Stress is a measurement of the
force applied divided by the initial cross-sectional area of an object, or the internal
resisting capacity of an object.

The two leads pass a current through the gauge, and as the surface of the object being
measured stretches or contracts, the change in resistance is measured. This change in
resistance is proportional to the change in length on the surface of the object being tested,
as shown in the equation below. Strain gauges work by measuring the change in electrical
resistance across a thin conductive foil. The gauge factor (or “gage factor”) is the
sensitivity of the strain gauge (usually 2). It converts the change in resistance to the
change in length.
Pressure gauge
• Is a instrument which measures pressure by means of mechanical
movements.
• Mechanical movements gets converted into the rotary motion of pointer.
• Pressurized air/water enters in the Bourdon tube (BT) and tends to expand
the tube.
• The end of the BT is connected to the mechanical movement which is
converted into the Rotary motion of pinion.
Dial Gauge
Dial gauge is a measuring instrument employed to measure linear displacement. Dial
gauge bases its operation principle on the displacement reading of a mobile cylindrical rod
that slides inside a tubular guide. The end of the rod, called probe, is in contact with the
surface of the measured object.
The working principle of the Dial Indicators is that the movement of the spindle multiplied
with the reading of the main scale due to the indication of the needle. In addition to this, at
the main scale rotation of pinions and gears is indicated.
The plunger which meshes with P1 and G1. G1 will mesh with gears and pinions to
enhance accuracy. P3 will be connected with the needle and thus it will show the
deflection.
APPLICATIONS OF DIAL GAUGE:
• Comparing two heights or distances.
• Errors in geometrical form such as roundness, run out and taper.
• Measurement of deformation such as in tension and compression.
• To determine positional errors of surfaces such as parallelism and
alignment.
• To alignment of job in lathe centers.
Working Principle of Piezoelectric Accelerometer
A piezoelectric accelerometer consists of a mass attached to a piezoelectric crystal
which is mounted on a case. When the accelerometer body is subjected to vibration, the
mass on the crystal remains undisturbed in space due to inertia. As a result, the mass
compresses and stretches the piezoelectric crystal. This force is proportional to
acceleration in accordance with Newton’s second law, F = ma, and generates a charge.

The Piezoelectric Accelerometer is more-or-less universally used for vibration

measurements. It exhibits better all-round characteristics than any other type of vibration
transducer. It has a very wide frequency and dynamic ranges with good linearity
throughout the ranges. It is relatively robust and reliable so that its characteristics remain
stable over a long period of time.