Electrical Machines

Unit – 3 Electrical Machines

1. Generation of Rotating Magnetic Field:
When we apply a three-phase supply to a three-phase distributed winding of a rotating machine,
a rotating magnetic field is produced which rotates in synchronous speed.
First imagine one stator of an electric motor where three-phase winding is physically distributed in the stator
core in such a manner that winding of each phase is separated from other by 120° in space.

Although the vector sum of three currents in a balanced three-phase system is zero at any instant, but the
resultant of the magnetic fields produced by the currents is not zero rather it will have a constant non-zero
value rotating in space in respect to time.
The magnetic flux produced by the current in each phase can be represented by the equations given below.
This is a similar representation of current is a three-phase system as the flux is cophasial with the current.

Where, φR, φY and φB are the instantaneous flux of corresponding Red, Yellow and Blue phase winding, φm

amplitude of the flux wave. The flux wave in the space can be represented as shown below.

Now, on the above graphical representation of flux waves, we will first consider the point 0.

Here, the value of φR is

 Electrical Machines

The value of φY is

The value of φB is

The resultant of these fluxes at that instant (φr) is 1.5φm which is shown in the figure below.

Now, on the above graphical representation of flux waves, we will consider the point 1, where ωt = π / 6 or

30°.

Here, the value of φR is

The value of φY is

The value of φB is
 Electrical Machines
The resultant of these fluxes at that instant (φr) is 1.5φm which is shown in the figure below. Here it is clear

that the resultant flux vector is rotated 30o further clockwise without changing its value.

Now, on the graphical representation of flux waves, we will consider the point 2, where ωt = π / 3 or 60o.
Here, the value of φR is

The value of φY is

The value of φB is

The resultant of these fluxes at that instant (φr) is 1.5φm which is shown in the figure below. Here it is clear

that the resultant flux vector is rotated 30° further clockwise without changing its value.

Now, on the graphical representation of flux waves, we will consider the point 3, where ωt = π / 2 or 90o.

Here, the value of φR is

 Electrical Machines

The value of φY is

The value of φB is

The resultant of these fluxes at that instant (φr) is 1.5φm which is shown in the figure below. Here it is clear

that the resultant flux vector is rotated 30o further clockwise without changing its value.

In this way we can prove that the due to balanced supply applied to the three phase stator winding a rotating
or revolving magnetic field is established in three space.

2. Induction Motor:
What is an Induction Motor?
An induction motor or asynchronous motor is an AC motor in which the electric current in the rotor needed
to produce torque is obtained by electromagnetic induction from the magnetic field of the stator winding.
There are basically two types of an induction motor:

A. 3 Phase Induction Motor:

The three-phase induction motor is a rotating electric machine that is designed to operate on three-phase
supply. It is also called as an asynchronous motor. The three-phase induction motor is of two types: squirrel
and slip ring type induction motor. The principle of operation of this motor is based on rotating magnetic field.

Construction:
 Electrical Machines
The three-phase induction motor consist of stator and rotor between which no electrical connection exists.
Stator and rotor are constructed using high magnetic core materials in order to reduce hysteresis and eddy
current losses.

Fig. Construction of three-phase induction motor.

Stator frame can be constructed using cast iron, aluminium or rolled steel. Stator frame provides necessary
mechanical protection and support for stator laminated core, windings and other arrangements for ventilation.
Stator is wounded with three-phase windings which are overlapped with one another at 120 degree phase shift
fitted into slotted laminations. The six ends of the three windings are brought out and connected to the terminal
box so that these windings are excited by three-phase main supply.
These windings are of copper wire insulated with varnish fitted into insulated slotted laminations. At all
working temperatures, this impregnated varnish remains rigid. These windings have high-insulation resistance
and high resistance to saline atmosphere, moisture, alkaline fumes, oil and grease, etc. Whichever suits the
voltage level, these windings are connected in either star or delta connections.
The rotor of three phase AC induction motor is different for the slip-ring and squirrel-cage induction motors.
Rotor in squirrel-cage type consists of heavy aluminium or copper bars shorted on both ends of the cylindrical
rotor. The shaft of the induction motor is supported on two bearings at each ends to ensure free rotating within
the stator and to reduce the friction. It consists of stack of steel laminations evenly spaced slots that are
punched around of its circumference into which un-insulated heavy aluminium or copper bars are placed. To
provide mechanical strength, these rotor conductors are braced to the end ring and hence form a complete
closed circuit resembling a cage and hence got its name as squirrel cage induction motor.
A slip-ring-type rotor consists of three-phase windings are internally starred at one end, and the other ends are
brought outside and connected to the slip rings mounted on the rotor shaft. And for developing a high-starting
torque these windings are connected to rheostat with the help of carbon brushes. This external resistors or
rheostat is used at the starting period only. Once the motor attains the normal speed, the brushes are short
circuited, and the wound rotor works as squirrel cage rotor.

Principle of Operation:
 Electrical Machines

Fig. Principle of Operation

 When the motor is excited with three-phase supply, three-phase stator winding produce a rotating magnetic
field with 120 displacements at constant magnitude which rotates at synchronous speed. This changing
magnetic field cuts the rotor conductors and induces a current in them according to the principle of
Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic induction. As these rotor conductors are shorted, the current starts to
flow through these conductors.
 In the presence of magnetic field of stator, rotor conductors are placed, and therefore, according to the
Lorenz force principle, a mechanical force acts on the rotor conductor. Thus, all the rotor conductors force,
i.e., the sum of the mechanical forces produces torque in the rotor which tends to move it in the same
direction of rotating magnetic field.
 This rotor conductor’s rotation can also be explained by Lenz’s law which tells that the induced currents
in the rotor oppose the cause for its production, here this opposition is rotating magnetic field. This result
the rotor starts rotating in the same direction of the stator rotating magnetic field. If the rotor speed more
than stator speed, then no current will induce in the rotor because the reason for rotor rotation is the relative
speed of the rotor and stator magnetic fields. This stator and the rotor fields difference is called as slip.
This how 3-phase motor is called as asynchronous machine due to this relative speed difference between
the stator and the rotors.
 As we discussed above, the relative speed between the stator field and the rotor conductors causes to rotate
the rotor in a particular direction. Hence, for producing the rotation, the rotor speed Nr must always be less
than the stator field speed Ns, and the difference between these two parameters depends on the load on the
motor.
The difference of speed or the slip of the AC induction motor is given as
 Electrical Machines

 When the stator is stationary, Nr=0; so the slip becomes 1 or 100%.

 When Nr is at synchronous speed, the slip becomes zero; so the motor never runs at synchronous speed.
 The slip in the 3 phase induction motor from no load to full load is about 0.1% to 3%; that’s why the
induction motors are called as constant-speed motors.

B. Single Phase Induction Motor or Asynchronous Motor:

As the name suggests, this type of motor is supplied with single phase power supply. AC current is carried in
the main winding of the motor. The type of single phase induction motor used depends on the starting
arrangement they use as an auxiliary as they are not self-starting.
Single phase induction motors are mostly used in low power applications, some of those are mentioned below:
 Small pumps
 Small portable compressors
 Small fans and Drilling machines
Construction:
Stator of Single Phase Induction Motor
The stator of the single-phase induction motor has laminated stamping to reduce eddy current losses on its
periphery. The slots are provided on its stamping to carry stator or main winding. Stampings are made up of
silicon steel to reduce the hysteresis losses. When we apply a single phase AC supply to the stator winding,
the magnetic field gets produced, and the motor rotates at speed slightly less than the synchronous speed Ns.
Synchronous speed Ns is given by
Ns = 120f/P
Where,
f = supply voltage frequency,
P = No. of poles of the motor.
The construction of the stator of the single-phase induction motor is similar to that of three phase induction
motor except there are two dissimilarities in the winding part of the single phase induction motor.
1. Firstly, the single-phase induction motors are mostly provided with concentric coils. We can easily
adjust the number of turns per coil can with the help of concentric coils. The mmf distribution is almost
sinusoidal.
2. Except for shaded pole motor, the asynchronous motor has two stator windings namely the main
winding and the auxiliary winding. These two windings are placed in space quadrature to each other.
Rotor of Single Phase Induction Motor
 Electrical Machines
The construction of the rotor of the single-phase induction motor is similar to the squirrel cage three-phase
induction motor. The rotor is cylindrical and has slots all over its periphery. The slots are not made parallel to
each other but are a little bit skewed as the skewing prevents magnetic locking of stator and rotor teeth and
makes the working of induction motor more smooth and quieter (i.e. less noisy).
The squirrel cage rotor consists of aluminium, brass or copper bars. These aluminium or copper bars are called
rotor conductors and placed in the slots on the periphery of the rotor. The copper or aluminium rings
permanently short the rotor conductors called the end rings.
To provide mechanical strength, these rotor conductors are braced to the end ring and hence form a complete
closed circuit resembling a cage and hence got its name as squirrel cage induction motor. As end rings
permanently short the bars, the rotor electrical resistance is very small and it is not possible to add external
resistance as the bars get permanently shorted. The absence of slip ring and brushes make the construction
of single phase induction motor very simple and robust.

Working Principle:
When we apply a single phase AC supply to the stator winding of single phase induction motor, the alternating
current starts flowing through the stator or main winding. This alternating current produces an alternating flux
called main flux. This main flux also links with the rotor conductors and hence cut the rotor conductors.
According to the Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction, emf gets induced in the rotor. As the rotor circuit
is closed one so, the current starts flowing in the rotor. This current is called the rotor current. This rotor
current produces its flux called rotor flux. Since this flux is produced due to the induction principle so, the
motor working on this principle got its name as an induction motor. Now there are two fluxes one is main
flux, and another is called rotor flux. These two fluxes produce the desired torque which is required by the
motor to rotate.

Why Single Phase Induction Motor is not Self Starting?

According to double field revolving theory, we can resolve any alternating quantity into two components.
Each component has a magnitude equal to the half of the maximum magnitude of the alternating quantity, and
both these components rotate in the opposite direction to each other. For example – a flux, ∅ can be resolved
into two components

Each of these components rotates in the opposite direction i. e if one φm/2 is rotating in a clockwise direction

then the other φm / 2 rotates in an anticlockwise direction.

When we apply a single phase AC supply to the stator winding of single phase induction motor, it produces

its flux of magnitude, φm. According to the double field revolving theory, this alternating flux, φm is divided
 Electrical Machines
into two components of magnitude φm/2. Each of these components will rotate in the opposite direction, with

the synchronous speed, Ns.

Let us call these two components of flux as forwarding component of flux, φf and the backward component

of flux, φb. The resultant of these two components of flux at any instant of time gives the value of

instantaneous stator flux at that particular instant.

Now at starting condition, both the forward and backward components of flux are exactly opposite to each
other. Also, both of these components of flux are equal in magnitude. So, they cancel each other and hence
the net torque experienced by the rotor at the starting condition is zero. So, the single phase induction motors
are not self-starting motors.

3. Separately Excited DC Motor:

DC motor is a machine that converts electrical energy into mechanical energy and they works on DC supply.
Construction:
Like other DC motors, separately excited DC motors also have both stator and rotor. Stator refers to the static
part of motor, which consists of the field windings. And the rotor is the moving armature which contains
armature windings or coils.
The name suggests the construction of this type of motor. Usually, in other DC motors, the field coil and the
armature coil both are energized from a single source. The field of them does not need any separate excitation.
But, in separately excited DC motor, separate supply provided for excitation of both field coil and armature
coil. Figure below shows the separately excited dc motor.

Here, the field coil is energized from a separate DC voltage source and the armature coil is also energized
from another source. Armature voltage source may be variable but, independent constant DC voltage is used
for energizing the field coil. So, those coils are electrically isolated from each other, and this connection is the
specialty of this type of DC motor.
 Electrical Machines
Basic Principle:
Energy Conversion
If electrical energy is supplied to a conductor lying perpendicular to a magnetic field, the interaction of current
flowing in the conductor and the magnetic field will produce mechanical force (and therefore, mechanical
energy).
Value of Mechanical Force
There are two conditions which are necessary to produce a force on the conductor. The conductor must be
carrying current, and must be within a magnetic field. When these two conditions exist, a force will be applied
to the conductor, which will attempt to move the conductor in a direction perpendicular to the magnetic field.
This is the basic theory by which all DC motors operate.

Equations of Voltage, Current and Power for DC Motors

In a separately excited motor, armature and field windings are excited form two different dc supply voltages.
In this motor,
• Armature current
Ia = Line current = IL = I
• Back emf developed,
Eb = V – I Ra
Where V is the supply voltage and Ra is the armature resistance.
• Power drawn from main supply,
P = VI
• Mechanical power developed,
Pm = Power input to armature – power loss in armature